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Show Clark [2002] for a clear statement of theory, and Flenniken [1981] for an excellent application). Because of the mechanical and physical properties of rock, a suite of technological and functional attributes exhibited by debitage and tools can be produced by very specific and replicable techniques. The suite of attributes, for example, produced by bipolar technology is diagnostically different from those produced by direct freehand percussion (Flenniken 1981). Likewise, scraping wood with a flake produces use-wear that is minimally diagnostic of that general activity and perhaps the general type of substance worked (e.g., papers in Hayden 1979; Tringham et al. 1974), with more specific inferences of work substances possible (e.g., Keeley 1980; Vaughan 1985). RESEARCH TOPICS The NMRAP research plan identified six broad and overlapping research issues subsumed under the domains of economic specialization and social differentiation that seem useful in describing and interpreting the processes of culture change in the Kayenta region and beyond. The economy potentially encompasses a wide range of prehistoric activity, and often overlaps with other broad topics such as socio-political organization, technology, and religion. To provide some focus three research issues were emphasized that are closely tied to the economy and particularly to the development of economic specialization through time: (1) agricultural transition-the transition from a hunting-gathering economy to an agriculturally based economy; (2) subsistence specialization-the transition from a generalized to a more specialized subsistence strategy; and (3) craft production and exchange-the maintenance of a technological system, and a vehicle for organizing social relations with neighboring groups. A trend toward differentiation in the social realm-a phenomenon closely linked to economic specialization-is reflected in the material record of the prehistoric Southwest. This trend is evident in the increasingly patterned, but diverse kinds of architectural structures and features, lithic and ceramic artifacts, and settlement types. Identification and analysis of the material correlates of social differentiation provides insights into evolving social organization, social status, and gender roles. Archaeological examination of social issues is notoriously difficult and multifaceted. The NMRAP focus was on issues that seemed important to understanding Kayenta cultural change that were somewhat amenable to examination with the N16 site sample. Burial analyses, especially useful for examining status, were eliminated for consideration but, as it turned out, so few burials were actually found, unlike the southern portion of the N16 ROW (Schroedl 1989), that this did not prove to be a serious limitation. Lithic artifacts were one of several relevant data classes that NMRAP excavations obtained from the N16 sites for analysis to help examine the research issues. The lithic artifacts and analysis results are not uniformly useful for each issue and as is often the case the most informative interpretations are obtained by considering all data sets simultaneously, though this is frequently a difficult task, especially for analytical specialists. These research issues provided a structure of inquiry to focus and organize the investigation of sites in the N16 ROW, and although they have obvious limitations, these were not viewed as a solid barrier that would prevent examination of interesting trends in the data. The research plan was heavily weighted toward research issues pertinent to the cultural sequence of the Kayenta region from Basketmaker II through Pueblo III. Prior to actual data recovery excavations the many aceramic sites were of unknown temporal affiliation; many seemed likely to be Basketmaker II in age based on the nature of their lithic assemblages, an inference supported in virtually all cases. A few sites or components appeared to be Archaic in age; this needed chronometric confirmation. We were not, therefore, in a good position to propose specific research questions for Archaic sites beyond the general themes. Moreover, our understanding of the adoption of agriculture is dependent upon detailed knowledge of the Archaic period. VARIABILITY IN STONE TOOLS AND ASSEMBLAGES Variability in lithic artifacts results from the complex interaction of a host of factors including production technology, raw material constraints, functional requirements, stylistic considerations or historic traditions of tool producers, situational constraints, and settlement and technological organization. Then there is morphological change during artifact life history, as tools are used, rejuvenated, broken, and recycled (e.g., Frison 1968). Morphology provides a fundamental point from which many other kinds of lithic analyses can proceed. Standard measurements-such as length, width, thickness, and weight-are used by most lithic analysts, but specific technological characteristics also contribute to the morphology or shape of debitage and tools. Different technologies give rise to different flake and tool morphologies. Likewise, the intended function of a particular tool may dictate the technological steps necessary for the production of an artifact capable of fulfilling that function. Morphological variability as it reflects technology, function, and style forms the foundation of the lithic analysis. The recognition of this V.5.2 |
