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Show many hard-fought battles in the U.S. against discrimination that ultimately were successful in removing institutionalized racism, however, spatial segregation has stubbornly persisted. And while there have been many social and welfare programs, such as urban renewal, the "war on poverty" and the "great society" initiatives, which have attempted to ameliorate urban poverty, they have had little lasting success, leading to the view by many that urban (mainly minority) poverty is an intractable problem that the government cannot (and to some, should not) solve. In turn, this view has led to the attrition or elimination of most government-sponsored programs to aid urban renewal and abate poverty. The result is a cycle of urban abandonment of U.S. cities, where the physical conditions of many urban schools and neighborhoods, and the fiscal conditions of many city governments, now militate against middle class resettlement and toward further urban exodus. However, for many of the people that can't find the financial means to escape the city, there is a simmering bitterness and resentment. What this resentment has led to in the past is a burst of pent up anger in the form of urban riots. In many urban areas, tensions and resentments are still simmering just below the surface, which could mean that if the conditions in these areas spread and worsen, there may be more conflicts and uprisings in the future. Urban crime (or the fear of crime) has been a deterrent to urban revitalization and a force driving the demand for high-security residential living on the urban periphery. Moreover, the 9/11 attacks along with the recent mass-transit bombings in London, have further stigmatized cities as dangerous places. Cities, originally conceived as places of refuge and protection, are now more and more seen as places to seek refuge from. In the meantime, the growth of gated communities in the U.S. has been rapidly increasing. According to author Setha Low, "The number of people estimated to be living in gated communities in the United States increased from four million in 1995, to eight million in 1997 and to sixteen million in 1998." [6] While the Capital District has yet to see the development of gated communities, this form of development is the dominant trend in residential development throughout the growing metropolitan regions of the U.S., so it is reasonable to assume that this region will see the proliferation of gated communities in the near future. What's more, the administrative form of gated communities raises other important issues regarding municipal taxation, secession, and allegiance to place. Gated communities are administered as privately governed "common interest developments" (CIDs). Common interest developments are legal entities formed by contractual agreements between developers and new homeowners. Author Edward Soja, notes that: "By the 1980s, there were more than 80,000 CIDs [in the U.S.], and today they have probably become the principal form of new home ownership in almost every metropolitan area in the country." [7] According to the "CID Network," a nation-wide association of CID's, as of 2005 there were over 40,000,000 Americans living in CIDs. Within common interest developments, residents usually own or control common areas and shared amenities while having certain rights and obligations, which are enforced by a private governing body or "community association." These rights and obligations are spelled out in the "Covenants, Contracts and Restrictions agreements (CC&Rs), which every new homeowner must sign as part of the home sale. The millions of citizens that have joined CIDs have agreed in writing to restrictions such as what colors they can paint their house, what plants they can plant, how long their grass can grow, what size dog they can have, what color blinds and awnings they can hang, what kind of vehicle can be parked in front of their house, how many 1/7/2010 Effects of Alternative Development Sc… cdtcmpo.org/policy/june07/wa-doc.htm 41/60 |
