Utah Archaeology 1991

Burial In East-Central Utah

REPORTS 23 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank the Museum of Northern Arizona for access to the Sand Dune Cave collections and field notes and Betsy Tipps for helpful comments on this paper. REFERENCES CITED Ambler, J. Richard 1984 A Synopsis of the Archaeology and Stratigraphy of Dust Devil Cave. Paper presented at the 19th Biennial Great Basin Anthropological Conference, Boise. Geib, Phil R. 1989a Archaeological Survey of h e r Glen Canyon Benches and a Descriptive Model of General Site Location. Archaeological Report No. 1011. Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff. 1989b A Descriptive Report of the 1988 Bullfrog Archaeological Survey, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area. Archaeological Report No. 1038. Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff. Hurst, C. T. 1943 Preliminary Work in Tabeguache Cave II. Soufhwestern Lore 9( 1): 10- 16. 1944 1943 Excavation in Cave 11, Tabeguache Canyon, Montrose County, Colorado. Southwestern Lore 10( 1): 2- 14. 1945 Completion of Excavation of Tabeguache Cave 11. Southwestern Lore 11( 1): 7- 12. Jennings, Jesse D. 1980 Cowboy Cave. Anthropological Paper No. 104. University of Utah, Salt Lake City. Lindsay, Alexander J., Jr., J. Richard Ambler, Mary Anne Stein, and Phillip M. Hobler 1968 Survey and Excavations North and East of Navajo Mountain, Utah, 1959- 1962. Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin No. 45. Flagstaff. Tipps, Betsy L., Nancy J. Hewitt, and William A. Lucius 1989 Summary of the Artifacts and Features. In Cultural Resource Inventory and Testing in the Salt Creek Pocket and Devils h e Areas, Needles District, Canyonlands National Park, Utah, pp. 81- 22. Selections from the Division of Cultural Resources No. 1. Rocky Mountain Regional Office, Denver. SPLIT- TWIG FIGURINES, EARLY MAIZE, AND A CHILD BURIAL IN EAST- CENTRAL UTAH Stephen C. Jett, Department of Geography, University of California- Davis, Davis, California 95616 INTRODUCTION Archaic Period figurines made of willow and other split twigs, found in caves in the Greater Southwest, have not only received the attention of scholars but have also captured the popular imagination to a significant degree ( see Agenbroad 1990: 27; Jacka and Jacka 1988: 102- 03; Jett 1987; Jones and Euler 1979: 1- 4; Kelsey 1987: 95,97; Smith and Turner 1975: 23; Schwartz [ 1989]: 17- 23, back cover; Thybony and Bean 1988: 6). Split- twig figurines have appeared on postcards, one has become the cover logo of The Journal of Ethnobiology and another the logo of the Museum of Northern Arizona Collector's Club. The effigies have inspired such diverse popular objects as andirons at Grand Canyon National Park and women's earrings ( Plateau Expressions 1989). And at the behest of a Flagstaff, Arizona, crafts dealer, some Havasupai have been making replica split- twig figurines during the last few years. One also may mention pictographs recently discovered on the northern side of the Grand Canyon that look very much like split- twig figurines ( Men n. d.: Figure 8b; Mary Allen, personal communication 1988; Schaafsma 1990). Despite the interest and activity of the archaeological community ( see references in Jett 1987; Pierson 1980; and Schroedl 1988), none of these objects has been reported in any kind of specific archaeological context or associated with other diagnostic artifacts in a way that could reveal much about the cultural aff~ liations or functions of the objects. Some years ago it was proposed that most of the figurines from Arizona, California, and Nevada date from the second and third millennia B. c., and UTAH ARCHAEOLOGY 1991 were used in sympathetic hunting magic, while those from the Utah Canyonlands region were children's toys, dating from around the time of Christ ( Schroedl 1977). However, the evidence for the latter use was circumstantial and the conclusion speculative. THE BURIAL AND ITS APPARENT ASSOCIATIONS In addition to split- twig figurines professionally unearthed, a number have been found by amateurs ( Jett 1968; 1987). In 1988, I learned of figurines in a private collection in Grand County, Utah. Through the efforts of my assistant P. Nugee and the generosity of the possessor ( whose attitudes toward unauthorized digging had altered), I was allowed to examine and photograph the figurines reported in this paper. Information as to the circumstances and context of the find was also obtained. Of course, the individuals involved in the excavation were not trained in archaeology; consequently, the information they provided cannot be viewed with the same confidence that professionally obtained data could. I am, however, convinced, on the basis of interviews in May and October 1988 and November 1989, that I have been given a reasonably accurate description, despite the approximately 15 years elapsed since the original finds. Although some workers question the value or the ethics of reporting on illegally and unprofessionally collected archaeological materials, I feel that the significance of this site is such as to justify publication of what information there is. However, it must be emphasized that the associations postulated may simply reflect imperfect observation on the part of the diggers. The excavations were reportedly undertaken in about 1973 at a sandstone cliff shelter in the Island Mesa area to the east of Lisbon Valley, Utah, almost on the Colorado border. The area is administered by the Bureau of Land Management. This is the eastem-most site from which split- twig figurines have been reported, including the figurine alluded to by Pierson ( 1980: 21) found in a branch of the same canyon ( Black et al. 1982: 101). According to one of the excavators, the top of the head of a burial was encountered about a meter down, in deep, stratified fill. Further excavation revealed the desiccated corpse of a child- a girl, the diggers supposed, although the cadaver was not sexed- sitting upright. The body had originally been flexed, and wrapped from head ( crown exposed) to ankles ( feet bare) with sewn-deerskin swaddling; no other clothing was noticed. Although the knees and arms had been held against the chest by the wrapping, the right- side limbs appeared to have come loose from the wrapping. The fingernails, some hair, and a full set of baby teeth were present. The body was re- interred after removal of supposedly associated artifacts. Arranged around the lower part of the corpse were six or seven fragments of deep, broken metates. In addition to the swaddling and the rnetate fragments, the following other artifacts were apparently associated with the burial: ( 1) ca. 1.22 m of 2- ply fiber cord, the individual plys being z-twisted, and then s- twisted together ( Figure 1); ( 2) a ca. 7- cm strip of twisted rabbit skin; ( 3) three split-twig figurines ( described below) located behind the cadaver; and ( 4) two juniper- bark- wrapped bundles of maize grains ( see below) positioned to the left of the body. Exact measurements could not be taken by the present author, since at the time of his examination most of the materials were in sealed glass display boxes. In addition to those items found as part of the burial, other cultural materials, of wood, bone, and fiber were present in the fill; however, these were not culturally diagnostic nor had they been in any apparent association with the burial. THE FIGURINES Figurines numbers 1 and 2 ( below) were examined by the author; figurine 3 was described by the principal excavator but was seen by the author only via poor- quality photographs, the object currently being in an out- of- state private collection. The figurines include the following: 1. A split- willow- twig figurine of a quadruped, probably a deer ( Figure la). A single twig splint foms the hind legs, bends to become the back, descends to become one foreleg, doubles back up to form the second foreleg, continues ascending to make part of the neck, bends to form the basis for the head, turns and descends once more to augment the neck, and then wraps five times horizontally from front legs to hind legs and back again, to create the bulk of the body. A separate REPORTS Table 1. Approximate Dimensions of Figurines 1 and 2 Measurement Figurine 1 Figurine 2 Front foot to top of head Rump to nose Back: rump to chest Hind foot to top of rump Head length split- twig half is wrapped vertically nine times, to complete the body. There is also a separate, nine- turn, split- twig neck- and- head wrapping. The dimensions are approximated in Table 1. 2. A split- willow- twig figurine of a quadruped, probably a deer ( Figure lb). The front leg consists of a single whole twig, the end of which is split for about 2.0 cm; this twig splits into unequal halves at the chest, one part rising to form part of the neck and head and descending again to complete the foundation for the neck; the second part bends to form the belly, turns downward to create one hind leg, doubles back and ascends to create the second hid leg and the rump, and wraps six times vertically to finish the body, the basis for which had been established with four horizontal wrappings accomplished with a separate split- twig half. Separate split-twig- half wrapping of the neck ( four turns) and head ( three and one- half turns) is provided; the head is proportionately small. Approximate dimensions are given in Table 1. 3. A tiny figurine of a duck about 4.3 cm in length, consisting of a twig coiled in three turns to form a more- or- less flat oval, at one end of which a split- twig- wrapped neck and head emerge. THE BUNDLES OF MAIZE It is reported that on the left side of the body were two juniper- bark- wrapped bundles, each secured by being bound around in two places with ca. .15- cm-wide strips of yucca leaf in a sort of network, and with a yucca tie at either end ( Figure 24. The bundles were attached to one another with a strip of yucca; one bundle had been very badly damaged by vermin, and only one of the ties was salvaged ( my identification as yucca was confirmed by plant anatomist Thomas L. Rost, University of California, Davis, through maceration and through sectioning and microscopic examination). The other bundle-- some 30.5 to 33.0 cm long ( ca. 24.1 cm bom end tie to end tie) and about 9.5 cm in diameter- was intact. It was x- rayed ( Figure 2b), and this revealed that the bundle contained a large number of maize grains. Ten of these had fallen out ( Figure 3), and were taken for analysis. As shown in Table 2, they average about .74 cm long ( s = .05 cm or 6.7%) by ca. .74 cm wide ( across the row; s = .05 cm or 6.7%) by .61 cm deep ( along the row; s = .065 cm or 10.7%). The grains are yellow- brown in color, show no denting, and are apparently some variety of flint corn. The ten maize grains were submitted to Walton C. Galinat, University of Massachusetts, for examination. Dr. Galinat responded ( Feb. 17, 1989): They [ the grains] have the brown pericarp of Chapalote but they are wider than deep in contrast to Chapalote kernels which are deeper than wide [ cf. Galinat 1985: 26143]. I can only conclude that they are transitional to the evolution of Maiz de Ocho. When the kernel mw number of 12 to 14 in thick cob types of Chapalote is reduced to 8 or 10 by back cmssing to more primitive forms, the kernels may become wider through recombination with the thick cob. I believe the wide kemels are easier to grind and, therefore, make a better food plant than long narrow kernels. . . . If you have enough kernels, you might want to do some grinding experiments to test out my above stated hypothesis. Chapalote is a race of pod corn that is still cultivated in Mexico. The earliest archaeological 26 UTAH ARCHAEOLOGY 1991 Figure 1. Split- twig figurines 1 ( a) and 2 ( b), probably representing deer, plus cord. REPORTS 27 Figure 2. Juniper- bark- wrapped bundle, bound with yucca- leaf strips ( a). X- ray of the bundle, showing maize grains inside ( b). 28 UTAH ARCHAEOLOGY 1991 l~ lll1~ 11ll~ ll11[ 1lil~ llll~ llI1~ 11ll~ llll~ llll~ llll~ llll~ 1 5 6 MEN- . DATE F i r e 3. Ten maize grains from the destroyed bundle. Table 2. Dimensions of Ten Maize Grains Grain Maximum Maximum Number Height Widtha Thicknessb Height Widtha Thicknessb Measurements in Centimeters Deviations from i " Width in cob's axial direction bMaximum thickness in cob's circumferential direction X = Mean * Indicates minimum possible dimension only, owing to damage REPORTS maize at Bat Cave in west- central New Mexico " is definitely related to the Mexican [ popcorn] race Chapalote" ( Mangelsdorf 1974: 149). Bat Cave maize, although its dates have recently been revised upward, is thought to be among the earliest known specimens of maize for the Southwest; and " All early corn north of Mexico belongs to the Chapalote series. . . , a small cob, popcorn" ( Ford 1981: 1 I), which may date to as early as about 3200 B. C. ( Berry 1985; Minnis 1985; and Wills 1989~ 125- 29, 14849, 151- 52). Maiz ( Harinoso) de Ocho is considerably more recent, its ancestors having generally been believed to be of ultimate South American origin. Mangelsdorf ( 1974: 113- 14) considered Maiz de Ocho to have first appeared in western Mexico about A. D. 700 ( see also, Galinat 1985: 266), whence it spread into the Southwest. More recent thought is, that the influence of Maize de Ocho was being felt in the Southwest by at least 300 B. C. ( Ford 198 1: 12- 13; see also, Galinat et al. 1970). Recent dates of Proto- Maiz de Ocho in southern New Mexico take it back to about 1200 B. c. and Galinat now hypothesizes that Maiz de Ocho evolved in the southern Southwest ( Upham et al. 1987). The implication seems to be that the Utah maize represents a stage between the ancient Chapalote and the later- emerging Maiz de Ocho. DATING One maize grain and one piece of yucca- leaf binding said to have come from the unsalvageable bundle of maize were submitted to Beta Analytic Inc. for accelerator- AMS radiocarbon dating at the Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule in Zurich. The reported dates have been adjusted by CI3 for total isotope effects generated both in nature and during the physical and chemical laboratory procedures. The maize kernel ( Beta- 32290, ETH- 5664)' was dated at 2,110f70 ( 160 B. c.), and the yucca fragment ( Beta- 32291, ETH- 5665) at 2,610f 65 ( 660 B. c.). The 500- year discrepancy between the two dates may be a result of either excavator error in believing the yucca fragment was from the destroyed bundle of maize, or of laboratory error. Although treatment for possible contaminants was performed, if any remained they presumably resulted in radiocarbon dates younger than the true dates. Thus, both true dates are almost certainly from the pre- Christian era. DISCUSSION The presently described site is significant in several ways. Among these is that it extends the known range of occurrence of split- twig figurines to its farthest eastward point, almost to the Colorado border. Secondly, if the excavator's report is accurate, the context of the figurines in a child burial- the first specific cultural/ functional context for such figurines- has relevance for the question of the use of these intriguing objects. Previously reported split-twig figurines from the Canyonlands region havecto the extent that their proveniences have been described- been found scattered through deposits in habitation caves, but not in association with any particular features or diagnostic artifacts. It has been speculated that the objects were toys ( Schroedl 1977: 263), unlike the earlier, ritually cached, Grand Canyon- area figurines which were presumably employed in hunting magic ( Emslie 1987; Reilly 1969; Schroedl1989: 14- 15; Schwartz [ 1989]:% 23). The possible association of a previously reported Canyonlands figurine with a child's sandal ( Jett 1987: 393) gives some small support to the idea of the toy function, but the reality of that association is unverified. However, the interring of the present three figurines with a child burial- if correct- is much more definite and suggestive. The " duck" figurine reported herein is so far unique among split- twig figurines. The probably cervid figurines ( vide the long necks) are typical of those of the Canyonlands region in many ways-- e. g., in that they have vertical body wrapping- but figurine 2 is unusual, particularly in that the main twig does not form the back; this is, however, consistent with the observation ( Euler 1984: 9) that Canyonlands figurines are more variable that those fiom the Grand Canyon region. The apparent occurrence of maize with the burial is of great potential interest. Maize was present at two of the other sites where figurines were found ( Cowboy Cave: Jennings 1980; Mill Creek, near Moab: Pierson 1980: 44), but not in direct association with figurines. Although Schroedl ( 1988: 383; Alan Schroedl, personal communication 1989) now believes that the Cowboy Cave figurines do not correlate with the maize found there, the information presented herein is evidence ( if imperfect) that at least some of the figurine- makers of the Canyonlands 30 UTAH ARCHAEOLOGY 1991 region were maize- using ( and perhaps corn- growing) people, and not simply hunter- gatherers. Maize was formerly thought to have reached central and northern Utah about A. D. 460 ( Winter 1976: 421)-- although recent radiocarbon dates for the southern Colorado Plateau have exceeded 3000 B. c. in age ( Beny 1982, 1985; Glassow 1980: 34; Leonard 1991: 721; Powers 1989; Simmons 1986; and Wills 1989: 14849) and recent reconsideration of the Cowboy Cave maize- some of which was formerly thought to be B. C. in date- suggests an age of about the second century A. D. ( Geib and Bungart 1989: 41). But the Late Archaic burial near Elsinore in central Utah has since yielded the oldest well dated Utah maize at ca. 175 B. c. ( Wilde and Newman 1989: 714), which is so close to my 160 B. C. date as to be statistically indistinguishable. The maize described herein seems to be not only one of the two very oldest reported occurrences in Utah but also a very early example of influence of Maiz de Ocho in the northern Southwest. Thus, regardless of the validity of the association of the maize with the figurines, the early radiocarbon date for maize in east- central Utah is of considerable interest in its own right. It has been proposed that split- twig figurines correlate with Gatecliff Series Gypsum points of the Middle or Late Archaic, which are thought to date from ca. 3050 B. c. to A. D. 450- although a narrower time span of ca. 1650 to 1350 B. C. has also been suggested ( Schroedl1988: 383- 85). Admittedly, there is much surface evidence of Archaic occupation, including Gypsum points, in Lisbon Valley ( Black et al. 1982: 92, 101, 103- 04). Schroedl ( 1988: 383- 85) has recently made a cogent case that the points and all the figurines date to the period of about 2100 B. C. to 1900 B. C. Yet, if the present figurines were truly in association with maize, they appear to be a thousand years or more younger than Schroedl's dates. Perhaps the fact that the Cowboy Cave figurines were found mostly in an older stratum reflected their having been interred there at a later time. Or, perhaps the Lisbon Valley- area figurines were heirlooms, buried long after they were made; these questions could only be resolved by direct dating of the figurines. In any case, it is indeed unfortunate that the materials discussed in the present article were not excavated under controlled conditions. In summary, the finds reported herein expand the range of known formal variability of split- twig figurines; extend their eastward geographical range and produce one of the two earliest radiocarbon dates for maize in Utah. More equivocally, these items appear to be associated with a child burial, which adds some support to the notions that Canyonlands-area figurines functioned as toys and that their makers engaged in some fanning. Unfortunately, the circumstances of the disinterment preclude certainty on these points, which could be definitively demonstrated only with rigorously controlled excavation. REFERENCES CITED Agenbroad, Larry D. 1990 Before the Anasazi: Early Man on the Colorado Plateau. Plateau 61( 2). Allen, Mary K n. d. New Frontiers in Rock Art: The Grand Canyon. American Indian Rock Art 15, San Miguel, California, in press. Berry, Michael S. 1982 Time, Space, and Transition in Anasazi Prehistory. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. 1985 The Age of Maize in the Greater Southwest: A Critical Review. In Prehistoric Food Production in North America, edited by Richard I. Ford, pp. 279- 307. Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers No. 75. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Black, Kevin D., James M. Copeland, and Steven M. Horvath, Jr. 1982 An Archaeological Survey of the Central Lisbon Valley Study Tract in the Moab District, San Juan County, Utah. In Confributions to the Prehistory of Southeastern Utah, edited by Steven G. Baker, pp. i- xvi, 1- 188. Utah State Office, U. S. Bureau of Land Management, Cultural Resource Series No. 13. Salt Lake City. Emslie, Steven D. 1987 A Desert Culture Shrine in Grand Canyon, Arizona, and the Role of Split- twig Figurines. National Geographic Research 3511- 516. Euler, Robert C. 1984 The Archaeology, Geology, and Paleobiology of Stanton's Cave, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. Grand Canyon Natural History Association, Monograph 6. Grand Canyon. Ford, Richard 1981 Gardening and Farming before A. D. 1000: Patterns of Prehistoric Cultivation North of Mexico. Journal of Ethnobiology 1( 1): 6- 7. REPORTS Galinat, Walton C. 1985 Domestication and Diffusion of Maize. In Prehistoric Food Production in North America, edited by Richard I. Ford, pp. 245- 278. Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers No. 75. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Galinat, Walton C., Theodore R. Reinhart, and Theodore R. Frisbie 1970 Early Eight- Rowed Maize from the Middle Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 223 13- 33 1. Geib, Phil, and Peter W. Bungart 1989 Implications of Early Bow Use in Glen Canyon. Utah Archaeology 1989 2( 1): 32- 47. Glassow, Michael A. 1980 Prehistoric Agricultural Development in the Northern Southwest: A Study in Changing Patterns of Land Use, Ballena Press Anthropological Papers 16. Ramona, California. Jacka, Jerry, and Lois Jacka 1988 Beyond Tradition: Contemporary Indian Art and Its Evolution. Northland Publishing Co., Flagstaff. Jennings, Jesse D. ( editor) 1980 Cowboy Cave. Anthropological Papers No. 104. University of Utah, Salt Lake City. Jett, Stephen C. 1968 Grand Canyon Dams, Split- Twig Figurines, and " Hit- and- Run" Archaeology. American Antiquity 33: 341- 35 1 1987 Additional Information on Split- Twig and Other Willow Figurines from the Greater Southwest. American Antiquity 52392- 396. Jones, Anne Trinkle, and Robert C. Euler 1979 A Sketch of Grand Canyon Prehistory. Grand Canyon Natural History Association, Grand Canyon. Kelsey, Michael R. 1987 Hiking and Exploring Utah's Henry Mountains and Robbers Roost. Kelsey Publishing, Provo. Leonard, Robert D. Jr. 1991 Greater Southwest. American Antiquity 56: 721- 29. Mangelsdorf, Paul C. 1974 Corn: Its Origin, Evolution, and Improvement. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, , Cambridge. Minnis, Paul E. 1985 Domesticating People and Plants in the Greater Southwest. In Prehistoric Food Production in North America, edited by Richard I. Ford, pp. 309- 339. Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers No. 75. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Pierson, Lloyd M. 1980 A Cultural Resource Summary of the East Central Portion of the Moab District, Utah State Office, U. S. Bureau of Land Management, Cultural Resource Series 10. Plateau Expressions 1989 Inspired by the Archaic Desert Culture's Willow Split- Twig Figurines [ advertisement]. High Country News 21( 19): 15. Powers, Margaret A. 1989 Greater Southwest. American Antiquity 54: 85& 861. Schaafsma, Polly 1990 Shaman's Gallery: A Grand Canyon Rock Art Site. Kiva 55( 3): 213- 234. Schroedl, Alan R. 1977 The Grand Canyon Figurine Complex. American Antiquity 42: 254- 265. 1988 Summary and Research Conclusions. In Cultural Resource Investigations on the Kaibab Plateau, Northern Arizona: The Highway 67 Data Recovery Project, edited by Alan R. Schroedl, pp. 367- 392. P- III Associates, Inc., Salt Lake City. 1989 The Power and the Glory: Shamanistic Arts of the Archaic Period. Canyon Legacy 1: 13- 17. Schwartz, Douglas W. [ I9891 On the Edge of Splendor: Exploring Grand Canyon's Human Past. Exploration: Annual Bulletin of the School of American Research. Simmons, Alan H. 1986 New Evidence for the Early Use of Cultigens in the American Southwest. American Antiquity 5 1: 73- 89. Smith, Gerald A., and Wilson G. Turner 1975 Indian Rock Art of Southern California. San Bernardino County Museum Association, Redlands. Thybony, Scott, and Tom Bean 1988 Walnut Canyon National Monument. Southwest Parks and Monuments Association, Globe. Upham, Steadman, Richard S. MacNeish, Walton C. Galinat, and Christopher M. Stevenson 1987 Evidence Concerning the Origin of Maiz de Ocho. American Anthropologist 89: 41& 19. Wilde, James D., and Deborah E. Newman 1989 Late Archaic Corn in the Eastern Great Basin. American Anthropologist 91( 3): 712- 20. Wills, W. H. 1989 Early Prehistoric Agriculture in rhe Southwest. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, Winter, Joseph C. 1976 The Process of Farming Diffusion in the Southwest and Great Basin. American Antiquity 41: 421- 29.