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Show 52 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. and in those languages where a verb " to be" has been partially developed it is probably never used to form the passive voice. The most common method of forming the passive voice is to use an indefinite subject signifying " some one" or " something," and to place what in English would be the subject of the verb immediately before the verb in the objective case. Other indirect methods are used. The student will probably find a middle or reflexive voice, i. e., a form of the verb which is used when the subject is represented as acting upon itself; as, I strike - myself; he cuts himself. A reciprocal voice may also be found, i e., a form of the verb which is used to denote that the persons or things of a plural subject act upon each other; as, they kick each other; they cut each other. This form of the verb will often be used in speaking of games and sports, for the purpose of showing that parties strive with each other. Mode in an Indian tongue is a rather difficult subject. Modes anala-gous to those of civilized tongues are found, and many conditions and qualifications appear in the verb which in English and other civilized languages appear as adverbs, and adverbial phrases and clauses. No plane of separation can be drawn between such adverbial qualifications and true modes. Thus there may be a form of the verb which shows that the speaker makes a declaration as certain, i. e., an indicative mode; another which shows that the speaker makes a declaration with doubt; i. e., a dubi-tative mode; another that he makes a declaration on hearsay, i. e. y a quotative mode; another form will be used in making a command, giving an imperative mode; another in imploration, i. 6., an implorative mode; another form to denote permission, i. e., a permissive mode; another in negation, i. e, a negative mode; another form will be used to indicate that the action is simultaneous with some other action, i. e., a stmultative mode; another to denote desire or wish that something be done, i. e., a desidefative mode; another that the action ought to be done, i. e., an obligative mode; another that action is repeated from time to time, i e. y a frequentative mode; another that action is caused, i. en a causative mode; etc. These forms of the verb, which we are compelled to call modes, are of great number. Usually with each of them a particular modal particle or |