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Show Hingkley Journal of Politics 2005 tory has been the fact that they had a strongly social vision. America is supposed to be the land of radical individualism, and indeed it is. Both Puritans and Mormons have had profound respect for the God-given autonomy of the individual. But neither the Puritans nor Mormonism ... have ever taken the isolated individual as the final good. (1978, 4-5) Smith had revealed specific aspects of the "Order of Enoch" °r "United Order"-the social and economic structure adhered to by those within the Zion community-in 1831, but his previous attempts at its implementation among church members had failed (Arrington et. al. 1976, 2-7). Young proceeded to take steps toward reintroducing the United Order among the Saints as early as the 1850s, by promoting deeds of consecration among the church membership, but few participated (Arrington et. al. 1976, 63; 78). This Movement, however, set the stage for the creation of Zion's Cooperative Mercantile Institution, and the Brigham City Cooperative, developments that Arrington, Fox, and May refer to as "stepping stones to the United Order" (1976, 111). After experiencing some limited success with the previous two endeavors, Young was finally willing to institute the United Order among groups of Saints assigned to settle new communities expressly for this purpose in the 1870s. Young felt strongly that the ideal United Order was like a "well-regulated family," an organization where all labored fairly, each received according to his needs, and the welfare of the group was paramount (Arrington et al. 1976, 203). In short, and in accordance with revealed scripture, members of the Order would be "of one heart and one mind," "[dwell] in righteousness," and have "no poor among them." The United Order served to localize the community even further. While individuals would have their own sleeping quarters and residences, Young's vision was for all social experiences throughout the day to be shared among the members of the community (Arrington et al. 1976, 203). Common areas like the dining room and the kitchen would be essential to the community and the social interactions of its members. Under Young's ideal, place would become extremely, fundamentally central to the concept of Zion. United Order settlements proliferated across the territory, but the majority of them were soon fraught with problems. Even though some of the United Orders lasted for a decade or more, most collapsed within their first year of existence, and none survived into the twentieth-century (Arrington et al. 1976, 7). Transitional Emphasis The biggest transitions in Mormon Zionism started almost immediately upon Young's death in the late nineteenth-century. By 1890, the Church had begun to find itself under increasing political and social pressure, due to both its practice of "plural marriage" and large-scale emigration from Europe. The United States Supreme Court had delivered a double blow to the Church with its decisions in Reynolds v. U.S. (1879), ruling that the Church's common practice of polygamy was not protected by the First Amendment's guar- antee of free exercise of religion (Fisher 2003, 589); and Davis v. Beason (1890), ruling in favor of an Idaho law that disenfranchised voters who "advocated or practiced plural marriage or belonged to an organization that did" (Hall 1999, 73). These rulings reflected a wider social sentiment that polygamy "constituted the abuse of women..., nurturing] rape, incest, and other crimes against women" (Gordon 2003, 21). Polygamy as a practice was officially discontinued by the Church in 1890 (D&C: Official Declaration-1). Almost as troubling for the Church was the continuing influx into Utah of new converts from abroad. Many would sell their property in their native lands in order to heed the "commandment" to gather to the Salt Lake Zion, and subsequently arrive destitute in Utah. U.S. government emigration officials, as well the Utah Saints whose job it was to care for the newest Mormons in their midst, were fast tiring of the steady stream of bodies and increased work (Millet 1985, 226). In addition to changing their stance on polygamy, in 1890 Mormon leaders also started changing the emphasis of what it meant to "gather to Zion." In that year, Mormon Apostle George Q. Cannon told the New York Times that while Mormon missionaries did indeed make converts abroad, he assured the paper that "instead of inducing them to come to this country, we really urge our missionaries to dissuade them in any way they can" (qtd. in Millet 1985, 226). In the 1898 General Conference of the Church, Cannon again commented on the situation, suggesting that new converts "in the various lands where they embrace the gospel [should] remain quiet for a while; to not be anxious to break up their homes to gather to Zion" (qtd. in Millet 1985, 226). The transition seemed to be complete by the end of the first decade after the turn of the century. In a 1911 statement from the Church's First Presidency, leaders acknowledged that while Zion is to be built on the American continent, gathering to America was not obligatory or even recommended. Rather, in order to assist the church in proselyting efforts, all members were encouraged to help form permanent congregations in their native lands (qtd. in Millet 1985, 227). Millet further points to a shift in doctrinal emphasis regarding Zion around this time as well (1985, 276). He notes sermons from Young's administration which emphasized to Saints the necessity of living worthy to "have Zion within them," and being "pure in heart." This doctrinal shift in emphasis, from the place aspect to the spiritual aspect of Zion, also coincided with the first temples being dedicated outside the U.S., and the purchase of permanent missionary headquarters in foreign countries. As the Church was encouraging its members to turn inward, it was busy turning outward. Modern Emphasis Modern changes in Mormon Zionism have continued along the same path set in motion by Church administrators about a century ago. Notable is the emphasis upon a decentralized church, one with strong "stakes of Zion" (Lee 1973, 2) in 11 |
