Pristine benchmarks and indigenous conservation? Implications from California zooarchaeology

The superabundance of tame wildlife during the early historic period in California astonished European explorers. And the historic accounts of incredible animal densities, most notably artiodactyls, have influenced a long-held perception that California Indians lived in harmony with nature. However, analyses of archaeological faunal materials from sites covering a wide range of ecological contexts provide evidence for substantial impacts on a variety of large vertebrate taxa as human population densities expanded over the last c. 3000 years. The evidence suggests that many large vertebrate species, including sturgeon (Acipenser spp.), geese (Anser, Chen, Branta), tule elk (Cervus elpahus nannodes). mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and pronghorn (Antilocapra americans), were driven to extremely low numbers by human hunting by late prehistoric times. The early historic accounts of large game superabundances almost surely reflect irruptions of those populations after preceding waves of European-based disease dramatically reduced their chief predators - the California Indians. These results have implications for conservation policies that are founded on early historic period landscape benchmarks and proposals involving the management of wilderness areas through the use of indigenous hunting and harvesting methods.

Proceedingso Jt he 9th Conferenceo f ihe Intenntional Council ,, of Archaeopologv, Durham, August 2002 Ser iesE di torsU: mber toA lbarel laK, ei thD obneya ndP etcrR owley-Conwy The Future from the Past Archaeo zoolog y in wi ldlife co nse rvation and he ritage management Edited by RoelC . G.M . Lauweriera ndI na Plus Oxbow Books Published h1 Oxbow Books. Park End Place. Oxford OXI IHN O Oxbow Books and the individual autbors 200.1 ISBNl 8 4 2 1 71 1 5I A CIP recordlb r thisb ooki s availablclr om Thc BritishL ibrary 'l'his book is atailable direct frorn Oxbou' Books, Park End Placc, Oxford OXI IHN (Phone0: l t t65-2,11249F:a x:0 1865-79:1449) ulal Thc David Brown Book Company PO Box 51I , Oakvi l lc,C T 06779,U SA (Phone: [phone]: Fax: [phone]) t t n d via our website rvww.oxbowbooks.com Printed in Great Britain at Antony Rorve. Chippcnharr 9th 1C,11C ottJ<'rcttceD, urlum 2002 Tltc lrrltre lront tllr I'o\t tcds Ro(l C. O. M. I tuvcr icr anLI ru l ' l r . t) 1t1>.6|E 2. PristineB enchmarkasn dI ndisenousC onservation? Implicationsf rom CaliforniaZ ooarchaeology Jack M. Broughton The .utperaburttlance of tune wildlife during the earlt hist<trit' period in California ostonished European explorers. And the hittorit dccoutlts of ittcredibla qnimal densities, most tretablr artioducm-ls, hat'e inJluenced a tong-held perceptiotr that California lndians lived in harmtnt'with nature. Hotcver, ana\'ses oJ' archaeological faunal nwteriuls frorn .!ite-r c.)x,r'in.g a v ide range oJ ecologitul .ente\ts protide eyidcnce for substantitrl impacts on a varien' oJ large vertebrole lara as human population dcnsities erpanded over the last c. 3000 years. The evidence sugge\tsl llat Dun\ large |ertebrales pecies.in cludin.gs tnrgcr[r (Acipenser. spp)., .qee-rfcA nser,C hen,B ranta).r 41e c"/A (Cervus elpahus nlnnodes), tnountein lheep (C)vis canadensis), mule dcer (Odocoileus hemionus), and prongltorn (Antilocapraa mericana./w, ere tlriven to (xtrcm?l\'lov nLunbersb y'humanh unringb y lote prehistoric times. The earlv historic accounts of large game superahuutlances almost surell- reflect irruptiLtns of those populqli.ttlsa fter prectding waveso f Europeun-hctst'dtli seased rumotitully retlucedt hair chief predotors - the California Indiens. The.se results hare intpli<:ation.s.for (onsL,rvetion pdicies that rtre fouruled on eorly, historic period landscape benchntarks and proposals inu vittg the ndtutgene t ttf x,ilderness areas through tlrc use tf itultgenous hunting and hur,'esting nt?thodr. Introduction The ear ly expl<r reros f Cal i forni r st ruggledt o f ind superlarivetsh at would describeth e spectaculrdr ensitres of largev ertebratesth ey encounteredS. ir FrancisD rake was one of the first who s,as srruck by rhis land ol' 'rnexpressible fenility' (N,largolin1 979,I I ). On )anding north of S-an Francisco Bay in 1579 he described thc reglon as:a goodl! coun(r),and fruitf'ul soil, stored with rnany blessings fit for the use of man: infinite was thc company of very large fat dcer, which there we saw by thr thousands as we supposed in a herd'j(quoted in McCul lough 1969, l8) . In 1601.S cbasr ianV izcaino (1891) also reponeda n abundancco f decr 'lrrrgert han cows' in the Monterey area. Drake's and Vizclino's 'far deer' u'erc undoubtedlv tule clk (CerIus eldyrfirrr nannode).,r whosen umbers't axedt hr'd escriptivep owers' (McCullough1 969)o f colonialp eriodr ravelernsn ds ertlcrs that followed (taxonomic nomenclillure lirr mammals fol lo*s Kaysa ndW i ison1 20021l i:r bi rds.A OU [1998] : for flshes,R obinse t a/. | 199| l). Duringr he 1830sW. ilkes ( I 845,I l3). for instancew. asa stonishebdy thea bundance ol artiodactylsin theC entralV llley: 'The varictyo f gamc in this countrva lnost exceedsb elicf.T hec lk may be said to predominate.' Pronghorn (Anrilocapra ane ricana ) and biack rxifed deer (Odoctileus herionus) we.c thick here as rvcll- As rnother explorer noled, 'At times we saw bandso f elk, deer,a nda ntelopein suchn umbersth att hey actuall)'d arkenedt hc plainsf or niles, and lookedi n the distancel jke greath erdso f cattle' (Bosqui 1904,6 2). In 18.11.J ohn Bidwel l provideda n almost nonchalant characterizatioonf the CentralV alley faunall andscape: 'Thesep lainsa re no\r'l he provinceo f thousands of elk, anteloped, eer,e tc.7 aT hesea ret he hauntso f incalculable thousandso f * ild geescd. ucks,b randtsc, ranesp, elicans, etc. Fish therei s a grert abundilncco f salmoni n every stream' (quotcd in Preston 2002, ll4). The early explorers were equally impressed by thc high clcnsitieso f marrnef aunat hey ohserlcd in coas(Jl settings. Sea otterc (Enh\dra lutris) were particularly abundantI.n the I830s,t he high densitieso f scao ttersi n Prtstin',' Bent hnnrks and ltuligenons Consen'atiort -' San Francisco Bay actually obstructed the vierv of the shore. As Josc Fernandcz noted, lhe shore :rppearcd ctrrcred with biack shcc'tsd ue to the grcat quartity [r1 otters which lvore there (quoted in Ogden l9-11, I42). Gecsed, ucks,a nds eabirds..l'eerex tremelya bundanht crc too. as Yount notcd in lll33: The wild gcese, and every specieso f waterfowld arkencdth es urllcc of everyb ayT.rin flocks of millii.rnsW. hen disturbed,t hey arose( r fly, the sound of their wings was like that of distant thunder' (Camp 1 9 2 3 , 5 J ) . Not surprisinglyh, igh densitieso f predatorsin cluding grizzly bears lUrsus arctos), wolves (Canis lupus), an<l mountain lions (Punn concolor) prowled the California landscaped uring theset imcs as well. GeorgeN idcver. for rnstunceb, oastedo lkilling'upuards of 200 grizz-lies' along the central California coast during the early 1800s (quoted in Prcston 2002, I13). At rbout the slme time. GeorgeY ount rnar!eleda t thc iibundancco l bearsi n Ihc San Francisco Bay arca commenting that 'it was nol unusual to sec fifty or sixty in twenty four hours . Similarly, Du Pctit Thouors cautioned about 'the bears, r r ,olveso r l iger -cats$ 'hicha re vcrv plenl i lul i n (hesc woods' (quoted in Preston 2002, I l-1.). Not only was California's carly historic faunal land-scape notcworthy for ils varicty ancl abundance, but numerous chroniclers, lorcign lisit,rrs and settlcrs ob servedp. uzzlcdo ver.o r uerc simply aghasbt y. thed ocile bebavioro f the animalst hey encounteredG. eorgeY ount notcd.f or instancet.h xl nol only weret he decr,a ntelope ande lk of the SanF ranciscrB.ra y area' numerousb eyond all parallel'but that thcy were also 'so tame that they would hardly rnove to open the wa-\ for the trirvclcr to p.rss (Camp 1923, 52t. Edwin Brvant had thr' same rcaction durirlg his 1810s visit to the Cenrral Valley: 'elk, deer, and even antclope, arc comparatively very tame. and rarely run from the tm\r.llcr% (quotcd in Prcston2 002. l l7) . ln the 1320sC. aprainF . Beechey also observcdt his curioLrsla ck of rvrrincss,n {rtingt hat thc 'animals seem to have lost there fear arrd become fami l iarw i th Dr n' (quotedin Margel in1 978,9 ) . Sonrc foreignh untersw cres orelyd isapptrintebdy lhc dispirited quarry and griped about the lack of sport. Willianr Thomes.f or examplew, rs sod isenchantewdi th thc docilc waterfowla rouDdS anF ranciscoB av lhat hc drrived no pleasurein shootings ucht ameg anle (quorcdi n Preston 2002, I l 7 ) . Interestinglym, any ol thesco bservations*e re mrde by reterant ra!ellcrs wbo themselvesh ad rcasonedt hat tlre unwar) game must havc resultcd lrom a virtutl lack of humanh unting prcssureT. hey even wenl so far a\ () fault the Hispanic settlcrs for their lrck of inlerest in hunt ing; rnde ren contenrplutchdo u lhc retunr t 'easoe1 ' hu(ting contributcd 10 the percei\cd irrdolcncc of both sefiler and nativc alike (Preston 2002. I l7). While the r ariousc hroniclcrsc, xplorers.t nppcrs. and settler\. mav harc had l varietj' ol nn)livatioDs1 0 cx-aggeratein diaries,s hipsl ogs.o r scicntifics urveyr eports. it is the ovcrall consistencyo f the accountsth at suggest theyp rovidea generrllva ccuralep ortrayalo fCalifornia's earlyh istoricz oologicacl ontc'xtF. orthc ISll0sand1 840s in par t iculara, l l avai l lblea ccountsr,e gardleses f thc specific source, attest to an extremely rich faunal land scrpc (Preston 1997. 1002). The consistercv in the rep{,rts of vertebrate super-abundancesp rovidcd by thesea nd olher explorersa nd scttlersh asa lmosts urelyi nfluencedt hep erceptionl,o ng-held by anthropologislass w cll asn aturalh istoryw rirers, thatn ativeC alifofllianss truck3 harmoniousb alancew ith the vc ebrate populations with whom they shared the land (Kroeber 1925i Heizer l95U:20; Bean and Lawton l973; Su'ezey and Heizer 1977: Leventhal et al. 1991. Margolin 1978)T. his perceptionc ontinuesto hold srrong, as evidenced by such rccent works as Before the Wilderness (Blackburn and Anderson 1993), a set of essaysth rt c!'lebrateth es ophi-\ticateedx tractivep ractices of California Indians that sirlulraneoush ensured high biodiversitya ndf ood yields' wherea bundanccea mew ith thrift andr cstraint'( Anderson1 993;156s, eca n identical positicrnin Andersone t ul. 1998,). However,t he spectaculadr ensitieso f tamet errestrial and marinc! crtebratesr eportedd uing the early histodc period nlt. in fact. be a verv poor anllog for prev population: during truly prehi:toric timcs. lf Drake. Bidwcll. Younta ndt heo therc arlyc hroniclersa nds etrlers werep reccdedb y waveso f inlectiousd iseasea nd human populat iond ecl incs( Dobynsl 98l : Ramenofsky1 987: RefI 1991:E rlantlsona nd Bartoy 1995:P reston1 996; , pcrhapsi nitiatedf irst by JuanR odriquezC abrillo's 1542 exploration of southem Califbrnia - the hoards of tame uildlife they encounlcred may have resulted from the earlier decirnationo f rheir chief predarors,t hat is, thc Calilbrnia tndiaos (Broughton 1994a; 1995; 1991 1999: 2002a: l(X)2bt Preston 1997: 2002). ln fict, this poinr \ \ ' !s even sug3estcdb y some ol the car ly explorers themscl\es.A s Yount noted, for instance.o n his 1833 visit to the San Francisco Bay area: 'The rivers were literally croudcd with salmon, which, since the pestilence had svt'pt< twuvth e lidtdn-r.n o oned islurbed'( quotedi n Camp 1923,52:e mphrsisa dcled) . Ter t ingt hr r \c ebratep opul t r i , 'nl r rupt iona rgumcnt rcquiresn oi only earlyh istoricp erioda ccountso f faunal superabunriunccins Culifornia.b ut physicale videnceo f game depletion and sciircity in prehistoric times. That evidencec ano nly bc providedt hroughz ooarchaeological rnalyses.I n this pape' rI, revicw sevcralo f the best docuincnteds tudics( hath a!e providcde videncef irr lute Holocene hunran impacts on prehistoric faunas in California. This analvsis shows that by late prehistoric ljmes in Cllitbrnia. rhc faunall andscapeisn a variety of different enlironmcntll settings wcre fundamentally anthropogcnicU. ltirnarelyt.h is analysish asi mplications lor thc reie of benchmarksi n wildernessp olicv issues and lhe rnlolvcment of incli!enous pr'oples in resource ntanagerncncl oDtc\ls. Jatk ll ts r"ughtln '\rchacological Vcrtebrate tr{casureso f Change in Large Prey Densities Reccnta rchaeologicarcl searcho n prchistorich umanp rcy choice io Crlilbrnil has been guided hr- the prey choicc and patch-use models of optimal-fbraging theory (see Stephcnsa nd Krehs 1986 and referencetsh creinj In particular,t hcsem odelsh aveb eenu sedt o derivei ndiccs of changei n the naturala bundanccos r densiticro f large \ertebratc prey tara lrom patterns in archacological faunas (see the review in Ilroughton 2002a). Thc'prey nodel, also known as the diu-l brcadth model, *as designedf irst in cvolutionaryb iologyt o prcdictp rey sclection by prcilators foragint within more-or-less homogeneousre sourcep atulresT. he model assunlesth at naturals electionh asd esignedp rcdatorst o naximize (he net rats of caloric rcturn from fLrragjngw ithin a patch. To apply the modei. thc various prcy types potcntially exploiled by a predator arc rankcd according to thcir profitabitity. Prey ranks are defincd as a ratio of the net value gainedb y acquirinBi r prey item, on thc r)neh and, to the lime costs of pursuing and processing the prey once it has heeDe ncounteredo. n the ollrer.T hc nodel predictst hat the most prolitableo r highest-rankedp rey q'ill be takenr vhener,etrh e-va rc encoun(e.edu.' hile prcy of lower rank may or may not he selectedd, epcndingo n the abundanceo f the highcst-rankedp rey. As the en-counter rateso f higher-rankedp rey decreasep, rey are addedt o the diet scquentiallyin ordero f decreasingra nk (see Slephens and Krebs 1986, l7 2.1 and references therein). It follows that thc relative frequency that prehistoric foragers selecled high- and )ow ranked prey within a patchc anp rovidea n indexo f the encountcr ate of high-rankcdp rev. Hence,d ecreasingf requencieso f high-rankedp reys peciesa, sr cpresenteidn dateda rchaco-logical dcposits. should be a measure of declines in the encounlcrr ateo r densityo f the speciesin thes urrounding environment ovcr the time thc fauna accumulated (Bayharn1 979:1 982:B roughtont 994a: 199.1b1: 995: 1999; Broughton and Grayson 1993). Theoret ical arguDrentss uggest (Gr i f f i ths 1975: Bayham 1979; I982; Broughton 1994a;1994b; 1995; I999) and empirical data flom cxperimental and ethno-graphic settingsc learly demonstrate(e .9. Winterhalder 1981;H i l l et al . 198'7S imms1 987;S mi thl 99l : Alvard 1993; Bird 1996) that lor singly handled animal prey, post-encounterre lum ratesa rec loselys caledt o preyb ody mass.A t leasla mongt he sizer angco f vertebrales pecies that occurredi n late Holocenes ettingsi n westernN orth Anrerica, rhe larger lhe size of thc' aninral rhe higher rhe post-cncountl]rre turnr ateo r rank. Indeed,r ecente thno-graphicr esearcho n mcn's huntingg oalsu nderscorctsl re overriding importance of prcy body size to huDter prey choice (...9. Hxwkcs 1990: 1991: 1996: Hawkes and Bliege Bird 2002). So, for a variety oI econonic and social relsons, body size appears 1o be the single most critical derernrinan(tr fh unrerp reyp rele.ence(B roughton and Bayham 2003). Fig L Map of northern Califurnia and the .Jacramento Vallet irulicotirtli the locarion of arcfuteological sitcs. Thus.i f large-sizedp rey were abundanitn an ancient environmentt.h ey shoulda lsob e plentifuli n thed eposits of hurnan foragers that lived there. given the usual taphonomica ndr ccoveryc aveatsI.t alsof ollows thata ny *idespread regional decline in the archaeological rcprescntation of largc prey should signal declining densitieso f large prey in the environment. Zooarchaeological Case Studies .4 I nw-Elevqtion I nterior Floodplain: The Sacramcnto Valle! Evidence for human impacts on prehiskrric venebrate launash asb eenr evcaledf rom a serieso f archaeological sitcs from the northem part of the Great Central Valley: the Si tcramentoV al ley 1Fig. l ) . This region, r ecal l , providedm anyo fthe moref ulsomee arlyh istorica ccounts of large game supcraburdlrces. All of site! in the study sample (N = 9) are located on the valley floodplain near rhc SacramentoR iver or its major tributariesT. heses ites \pan the past4 000 yearsa nd all haveb eeni nterpreteda s rcpresentingp rehistoricr illages( Broullhton 1994a). Thc prehistorici nhabitantso f theses ites$ ould have l:ad access te the vertebrate faunas ctf four prirnary Pristine Benchmtrks antl Intligenou.s Conservutiot'l vcgclat ionazl oncs:l reshwalcrm arsh,g rasslando, ak woodland, and riparian fbrest. In addition. aquatic re sources,c speciallyf ishes.c ould be takcn in both lentic (warm oxbow and floodplain lakes. swamps and sloughs) and riverine habitats (the swifter. cooler u,aters of the main channel of the SacrarnentoR iver and its larger tributaries). Mammals and fishes overwhelmingly doninate all SrcramentoV alley archaeologicafal unasa nd I focus on thesec lassesh ere. SacramentoV alley mammals,a s a group, are considerablyla rger by weight than resident freshwatefri shes.R esidenfti shesa rer cprcsentebdy eight specieso f minnow (Cypr inidae)S, acramentos ucker ( Catostomuso cci denl.r/i.rJS, acramentop erch( Archoplites interruptus),a nd tulc perch( H,rstero(urpusrr as,ti).T he averageb ody sizeo f thesef ishese xploitedb y prehistoric fbragerso f theS acramentVoa lleyt ypicallyd id not exceed 500g,t ojudge from live weighte stimatcsc alculrtcdf rom archaeologicafl ish remains in severals ites. Even the smallcslm ammale xceedsth e averagew eighto f residcnt fishes( l.e.b rushr abbit( S-r'lvilagubsa clrndni)= ca.6l0g). Ar t iodactylss uch as tule elk, black- tai ledd eer , and pronghorna ree normousb y comparison(s ceM adsena nd Schmit[ 997]l Ugane rc 1.[ 20031B; roughtona ndB ayham [20031f or discussionso n the ranking of mass-captured resources.). In order to monitort he densitieso f high rankedp rcy in the local environmenta, simpleq uantitirtivein dex of the relativc abundanceso f freshwaterf ishes and non-fossorial mammals may bc calculrtcd as: L Mamnnls I L (Marnmals + Freshwater Fishes). Valueso f this 'mammal/fishi ndcx which approachL 0 indicatch igh frcqucncieso f mammalsr elativet o fresh-water fishes. whereas values closer to 0.0 indicate lowcr frequencieosf mammalsr elativct o freshwrterf ishes.T his index shouldp rovidca measureo f the encounter atc and hence, the local density of thc lrrger higher-ranked mammals( but seeB roughton2 002o n a possiblev iolation hereo fthe prey model'sf ine-graineds earcha ssumption). Figure2 showst he relationshipb etweent he mammal/ fish index and the mean occupation dates for the nine Sacramento Valley sites analyzed. This relationship is negative, iinear, and highly significant (r = -0.94, P< 0.001) . The ear l iesto ccupat ionsa rc doninr ted by mammals such as deer and elk, whilc luter assentblages arcr eprcsentebdy significantlylo rverf requcncicso f those taxa and higher liequencics of srnall freshwater fishes. However, since the bones of resident fishes are much smaller,o n averaget,h an thoseo f mammals,a nd screen mesh size used to recover the faunas varicd xmong the sites, il is possible lhlt diflcrential recovery may havc biased these values. Previous work has demonstrated howevert,h atw hens cparataen alyscas rcc onducteda nrong the fauniis collected *ith the same mcrhods (i.e. whcn screcns izc is held constanl )a signi f icantd ecl inci n nramnralsis srill indicated( Broughtonl 99.1ir). -3500 J000 t500 -2000 ,1500 -t000 500 0 Yeas B.P. Fig. 2. The changin.q relotive abundance of metlium and lurge mamnnls and snrallfishes (the MumrnaUJishIn det) through time Jor Sacramento Valley an haeologicol sites. B.P. = ratliocarbon vears before present. Fisheso f the Sacram€ntoV alley canb e separatedin to two broad groups based on pronounced differences in body sizc as well: the largcr anadromousfi shesa nd the smaller resident frcshwater fishcs. Anadromous fishes are representedb y three primary taxa: chinook salmon \Oncorhvn ch us tshaw "-tscha), steelhead(O . m-ltlss),a nd !v'hite sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus).'lhe proportionrl contribulion of large, high-ranked anadro-mous fishesi n an assenblagem ly be calculatedb y the 'lish index': L Anadrornous Fishes I L (Anodrotnous Fishes + Freshwater Fishes). Higher lish index values indicate highcr proportions of anadronroufsis hesr elativet o thes mallerf reshwatetra xa. This ratio shouldp rovidea measureo f the encounter ate with the larger high-ranked taxa. The analysis of temporal pattems in the relative licqucncics of large and small sized fishes is confounded by both the seasond uring which the sitesw ereo ccupied as well as by latitudinal variation in the capturability of large anadromous fishes (Broughton l99,la). For ex-ample. sites occupicd only during thc summer months should not contain anadromousfi shcs since spawning runs of thoscs peciesd o nol occurd uring that season[.n additi{}n,a nadromousfi shesc omprisel esst han 1.07ao f the identified fishes lrom sites locared sourh of 39'N latitude.r egardlcsso f when they were occupied.A s I have discusscdin derail elsewhere( Broughton 199.+a), lhc paucityo l rnadromousf ishesi n southernS acranrento Valley sites is very likely due ro rhe high flow lcvcl of the lnalnc hilnnelo f the SacramentoR ivcr andt he associalcd difficulties in elficiently cxlracting fish in those scrtings. lnsofar ls the an dromous fishery *as far less acccssible lkrng theS rrcramentRoi verb eiow3 c)".s ucha ssembleges 0.8 o c .9 i : 0 . 4 5 o.e l 0 JuL k If . Brou,qhtort 0t ; tr 0 . 1 0 {750 -175{ ,1450 Yea'sB ,P. Fig. .1. Tfu (/rlrgirl rc'l{lirc alttrdattcc of Iorge anadronou.t atd sntoll resident Jislrcs (the Fith ludet) througft 1ip11a; ,, Sa.rane'tt()l /dllcl sil.J ttluJitg the suntrtcr occupied CI,E-105 and sites south of J9' N lqtiludc. B.P. = ratlio<arfutut ears beforep rcstut. providel ittle informationo n changesth rought irnei n rhe densitieso l largea nadromousfi shcs. Figurc 3 displays the reldtionship bctwecn the fish indcx and lirne. ex.luding sites )ocalcd \outh r)f J9. N latitude and those occupied during the summcr only. Though the availablcs anrplci s quite smrll. the relation-ship suggestsa declinei n the rclativc abundanceo f the largc anadromousf ishcs through tirtrc (r = -0.90. P= 0. 102).I ndced.t hed ifferencein the relativca bundancoef anadromousa nd rcsidcntf ishesb et\lccnt he earlie\t( site GI -E- l0l ) and laresr( si reB UT-12)a sscrnblageins rhe northern SrcramcntoV alley is dranraticallys ignificant (X' = 76.595.P < 0.0001.)A. nidromousf ishesa rr heavily over reprsee nte d. and residcntf ishes heavi lv under - representedi,n the carly assemblatc.D iflbrencesi n the relativea bundanceosf thescf ishcsa crosse arly ilnd la{c assenrblageasls or emains ignificanwt henr ecoverym ethod is held constant (Broughton 1994h). ln sum, when spatiil and seasonal \ ariation in the availabilityo fanadromousfi shesi s isolatcda ndr c'moved, thc temporalp altem in thc relati!e abundancco f large and small fishes duplicates the pattcrn found between mamrnalsa nd residentf ishes:t he relativea bundancco f large species decrease throush time. These patteros, uncorreiatedw ith environmenlacl hangesI hat ntay ha!e effected vertebrate densities (e.g. Benson et .r/. 2001: Adams and West 1983: Lloyd and Gruumlich 1997; Ingram et a/. I996), suggesth at the encountcrr atew ith, andh encel he locald ensirieso f, largcv erlebralere sources steadily declined across the Iate Holocenc occupational history of thc SacrameDtoV ulley lis ir r!-sulto f hunran predatioo. A Coastal listuarl': The Son Francisco Bay R. g()tnl Lcrel tli1al\ses lu tht-ir hrtr;rds crle anallsis of thc d_vnanicsrr t ma|ine mamrnalh unting on thc Pacilic C{)ast.H ildebrandta nd Jones (1992; 2002; Jone: and Hildcbrandl 1995) sug8estedr hat telnporalp altemsi D the relative abund-ances of diflcrent rnarinc manlmals provided frotn elcvcn San FranciscoB ay site conrponentisn dicatet hilt hul)an huntingp re:surcl ed to Iocald eclinesin certaine specially attractives peciesA. ssigl]ingth osec onrponenttso lheE arly (,1500to 2500B .P.),M iddle (2500t o 2000B .P.).o r Lale (2{J00 B.P. coDtact) Period, they indicated that lhe frequcncieso f laree-bodiedli nnipcds such as Steller's sca I ion (Dnrnetopiuj.ut bdtus) , Cal i lbrnia sea l ion lZalophus californianus), and northern fur scal iCallrtrhurut ar.rlnl.r) declined through lime relative to the much smaller harbor seal and sea otter. Hildebrandt and Jones( 1991,3 83) argued,' Evcr -Srowingh urnan populationsr esortedt o the exploitationo l more elusive resideont rirrincr )lrnrnalsi n SanF ranciscoB ay...i n order to compensatfco r thed ecreasinygi eldso l'largep innipeds.' In an clrlier lnalysis {Broughton 1994b). I calculirted thc frequencics of artiodactyls relative to thc much smal lcr -sizcds er ot tcr ( i .c. ' the Ar t iod'JctylI odex' , ( tN I S P Art iodo(^' l.t/tN l S P ( Arliodec t\ls + Sea Otte rs ))) from fburtcend atedS anl jranciscoB ay Shellmounds ites. represenlingi ll iaunal samples,d istributedt hroughout the rcgion (Figurc 4). I assigned rhese samples mean datcs bascd on the span of time thc mounds were occupied, asd elcrmincdb y ladiocarbond ating.o bsidianh 1'clration, and rrtiflct typologies. Sincr many of lhe occupation spansw erc quitc long (1.e.> 1.000y ears).t his is a very coarsc-grainedte mporals calea s uell. While regression analysesb ctwecnt he artiodactyli ndex ancln ean occu-pationd atesf or the rcgiona sa wholei ndicaleda Degativc and significantr elationship( r = 0.60, P = 0.01; Figure 5), lims is clearly a poor prediclor of this index of mamrnalianf oragingc fficiencv.T herei s thus ertensive spatial variabilitv in the artiolirct)l index values across the rcgion at any particular point in time. However, as subregionsw ere ext racreda nd analyzcdi ndividuai ly, highly signilicant negativer elationshipsb etweent ime and the artiodactyli ndcx were indicared.F igLrre6 , for instance,s howst he distributiono f the artiodactyli ndcx just lor sites krcated in the Coyotc Hill\ or southcasl portion of the San FranciscoB ay region( includings ites ALA- l '1, ALA-13, ALA-328.A LA- -129r: - 4.94, P = 0.006).T hesed atas uggesth atw hile the cncounterr ates \1,ithh igh-rankeda rtiodactylsw ere generilly declining acrosst hc late Heloceneo ccupationahl islory of the San FranciscoB ay shore.t here was considerables pat ial variatjon in the timing of this trend. ''fh e l,ntc ryt i I I e Shell ntouttd Analysiso f the Eoleryvj l leS hel lmoun(dC A-ALA-309i Figs..l and 71v ertebratefa unaw asc onductedto examine 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.{0 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0 . 1 5 Prisline Benchnorks ontl Iruligenous Consen'ation? l l Fig. 1. Map of San Francisco Bal' (tegetation redrawn from Kiichler area indicating the location of archaeologi<:al sites and histori( period 1977) . 0.{5 0.,m regetation 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.90 0.?3 $ o.ro -E 0.60 .E U.Jf, 8.50 D e . w e -5 30.50 il nan c- - € 0.30 0.20 0 . r 0 0.00 1000 ^3500 30@ -2500 +0m -1500 -1000 s'10 YearsB .P. Fig. 5. The chdnging relatite abundance oJ artiodactyls undsea otters (the Artiodad'^l lnde.\) thtough time.lbr the SanF roncistoB u\ ureea rchaeoLogicosli tes( dlLs ites incLudetl). IJ.P. = rudiocarhon ,-ears before present. -1800 ,l{@ -t000 YeatsB .P. Fig.6. The chongingr elotiveo bundanceo J artiodactyls dnd sed otters (the ArtioduLl)-l lrulet) through time for the Co|oleH ills assemblage(ss itesA L4- I2. AI-4-I 3 [two dtted .omponents I, AL4 328 ln*t dated (omponentsl, ALt\ -129; see Figure I Ior site Locutions). B.P. = rad x urlton vurs be.fbrel tresent. l l .luk lyl. l|rouyl ou Fig. 7. Denrolition o[the Enrcnville Shellnound (ALA-309) b,- steam shovel. ]921. (Photo courtcs\ of the Phoehe A. Heorst Mustutn 1rf A tlw4lologl). these issucs on a finer scale while holding constant regionals patialv ariationi n Iargep rcy abundanccsT. hc Emcrl'villc site uas located on (he eils( shorc oi San FranciscoB ay,C aliforniab, cfbrei t wasd estroycdin 1924. The stratified mourrd. measuring l00rn x 300m in area aDd extendinBt o a deptho f ovcr 10m.,f ormed lhrough the accret ionabl ui ld-upo f c. 1,900y earso l human occupatron and the deposilion of shells. animal bones, and other scdimentsT. he silc was situaledi n a cornplex mosuc ol terrcstriaal nd aquatich abitatt ypcs,i ncluding open cs(uar!, tidxl mudflats, frcshwater marsh, sall marsh,o ak woodland,g rasslanda, nd redu,oodf ir lbresl. Prior to its destruction(. hreed ifttrent excavationsa t thrced il'ferenlro calionsw erec arriedo ut at theE mc'ryville Shellmound-M ost of thcsee xcavationsw erec onductcd stratigraphicallavn dt enp rirnarys trataw ered ocumcntcd. Fourteenr adiocarbona ssaysh aver ecentlyb eenp rovidcd for bone and charcoals pecimensre co\jeredlr on] th€ ten st rut r :t he datesr iDgeb el rvceuc .2600 ud c.700 B. I ' . Therea ren o inconsistencicisn the stratigraphico rdcring of the datesf rom thcsee xcavationstlh e oldcstd atesa re fiom the botloma nd thc youngestd atesa ref rornt he top. These excavations at Emeryville providcd l7 faunal samples (hat could he placed int(r strttigraphic context. Collectively, about:5,000 lish, bird, and manrnal speci-mens. represent ing1 02 di f ferents peciesh. avc becn identified from theses amples.T he Emervlille deposits thus allow a fairly high-resolutiono, rdinal-scalea nalysis of changc in human foraging bchuvior orer much of thc late Holocene. (For a full rcportiDg of tire mammal and fish data summarizedb elow seeB roughton1 995; t999; for the birds scc tsroughton 2003). Among the fishes.f our taxac ornprisco vcr 99% of the ident i f ied specimensa t Emeryvi l le: r cquicnrs harks (Calcharhinidae). bar ray, (MtIiobatis talifomice), salmon( Or.rrli)r.ir.rs spp.).a nd white sturgeonA. ll o1' the identifiedf ishesp resentlyin habitt he opcne stuaryo f San Francisco Bay. directly west of the site. White sturgcon, fornerly rcaching lengths of up lo 6.1 nl and weights up tu 816 kg (Wydoski and Whitncy l9'/9, l'7), areb y far thc largcsts peciesre prcseoteidn theE mcryville fish tauna. Sturgeonp ossessn o defcnsem echanismsth at \tould disproportionatelve levatet heir capturec osts; (hey are Iethargic benthic blrwsers, easily captured by a variety of nrc'thods(K roebera nd Banctt 1960.t l7: Moyle 1976, 95). Sturge'Jna lmosl\ urel\ rcpresentth e highest-ranked fish taxon available 1o the Emeryville foragers. The changingp ropor t ionso f sturgeonr emainsa crosst he Erneryville sltata are shown in Figure 8. While strurgeon bonesd oIllinatct he crrly historyo f site occupationt.h ey are rlre in the upler, later strata of the mound. l f increasingh unan harvestr atesc auseda bsolute reductions in the densities of sturgeon. the exploited populations should exhibit denographic indications of harvestp rcssure.S pecificallyt,h e harvcstr ateso f verte-brate populationsa re systemrticallvr cflectedi n the age composition of individuals in a population. An increase in the harvest rale ol a population can cause reduclions in the mean and maxilDurn 0ges of indi!iduals. Rcductionsin the meana ndn aximunr ageso f individuals in vertebra(ep opulationsa sa resulto f increasingh arvest rates have been docunented cmpirically for a number of modcrn spccies (sec the review in Broughton 2002a). To estimatec hangein sturgeonir gca nds izc,n axinrum widthsw crc nreasurefdo r thes arnpleo f slurgeond entaries collected from Emcryville. Both the mean and maximum age/sizco f lhe cxplojleds turgeond cclineds ignificantly acrosst hc history of moundo ccupation( Figure9 : rnean rvidth hy stratunr:r . = -0.761, P < 0.05). Thesec hangesa le not correlatedw ith lale Holocenc var iat ion in estuar incs al ini t ,vo r f reshwateri nf low ,.1t ' Pristirc lJen:lvnarks dnJ lndigenour Consentui<nr? l 3 EE E ; 16 E {) o q) E ;oq) a q) o G' 13 5 !u 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.?0 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 020 0.10 0.@ {.t0 t6 l5 l 4 l 3 1 ) l l 10 9 ? 5 - 7 6 5 4 St'atjn Fig. 8. The distributhn ol the Stut.ston Index (INISP Sturgeon/ | (NISP( EstuarineF ishes))b ,-s udntma t the Enenville SheLLmoun(rd, - 0.19, P = 0.05).A \easr-squares regr?ssionl ine lrighlightst he direclion of the 045 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.m 0.15 0.l0 0.05 0.00 {.05 -r | -t0 -11 -10 -9 -8 -? -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 SfaUm Stratum Fig.9. Sturgeon denlort widths by stn um at Emenvllr Shellm,'undA. leasts quuret regression hi,qhLightsth e direction ctJt he trend. -t0 t h ( lue o.?0 0.60 0.50 0.40 a.30 o.20 0 . r 0 0.00 + + + + --.-= + + + + + + l'ig. 10. The distrihurltn oJ the Llk Indet (-tr'NlSPI .IUI (NISPT erresrriaMl amn4ls))b \ strdtun ot theE nen-ville Shellmound(r , = -0.658,P < 0.01) . Doesn or incl ude rhe potcntialb intrusi'e rrtdentsa nd lugctmorph.ts\. least stluores tegression line hi,qhlights the dircction of rht' (Benson c/ a/. 2002; Bvrnc ct al. l(X)l: lngrim el rrl. 1996). the most influential variables that currently linit the densityo f sturgconin SanF ranciscoB ay (.Broughton 1997).T he decreosein ther elirtivca hundancco l sturgcon prorides evidcnce for l significant rlecline in rhc densit). and encounter atew ith this taxon.l -hc decreasingn ean ages uggestslh ilt the declinei n sturscona bundDDcersv as due to an incrr'rsing brr\csl ralc of lhis resourcc b1'the inhabitantso f Emeryvillc! s well .r\ ether hunlln groups o c ( u p \ i n Fl h c SJ nI r x n c i . ( oB . r \ n t . r r g t n -11 - 1 0 4 € - 7 6 5 4 Stratim Fig. |1. fhe Ji\tributkl,t o! the Goose Incler (2NISP Mediun + Lurge Ceese/2 (NISP Anatids)) b)- stratunt.!t the Eneny'ille Shellnound (r, - 4.62. P = 0.02 ). A leost- .quares r((ression line highligfus the direction of the Srrnil:rr conclusions were reached lron analyses of the mammal and bird nlaterials from this site. Con-sidoringt errestrialn rammals,e lk are by far the largesr speciesto r)ccurin thcr e,qionF. igurr l0 sho\ts ther elative rbuncianceso f elk. comparcdt o al l other smal ler tcrrestrialm ammalsa crosst he occupationahl istory of Emcr_"-villcA.l though there is considerablen oisc hcre, thcrr:i s Donethelesas signilicantd r'clinet hrough tin)e; tulc elk rirtually vanish from the fauna at Emeryrille after the cicpositiono I stratum. 1. + + f+ + + + ++ + **+ + + Figure 1) shous the rclat ivea bundanceo l .gccse (Artser. Clrcn, Brarlrl) conpared to thc smaller ducks acrosst he occupationahl istory of Emcryville.A gain, a srgnificanrd eclinet hrough timc is documentcd.G cesc overwhelmingly dominate the anatid fauna in rhe early ycars but ducks dominate the waterfowl sample in the upper layers of the dcposit. A variety of othcr data derjved fronr the mamnal and bird mateialsr ecovcreda t Emeryvilles upporlth c geueral hypothesis that Iocal dcnsitics of largc. high_return resourcesd eclineda crosslh e occupationahl istoryo f thc site. For examplc.p atternsi n cut-markf requenciesa nd frag|nentation patterns ol the mamInal bones at Emeryville all stronglys uggestl hal processingin tensity - to extract greasc and marrow from bones incrcased steadilv acrosst hc history of sitc inhabi{arionT. hat is. people u,erew orking hardera nd hardert o squeezct he tnaxlmum yield out of the matnmaljaD resources that w-ereb ecomingin creasinglyd ilficult to obtain( llrought(nr 1999), Pattems in age struclure of birds and marnmals, asw cllas artiodaclyla natomicapl artr cpresentationa,l so supportt his hypothesis( Broughton2 002a;b ut sce also Rogers and Broughron 2001). lish, bird, and marnmal faunas iiom limcryviile providc supportt or theh ypothesitsh ate xpandingfb ragerd cnsities depressedlo cal vertcbratep opulationsH. ardesth it were the largest,m ost attractiver esourcess, uch as sturgcon, tule elk, and gcese. None of thesc trends are correlated with changcs in late Holocene temperature and precipitation,t o judge from detaileda nalyseso l.paleo environmental rccords (Broughton 1999). High-elevation Alpine Tundra: The White Mou,ttlins Strong evidence for declines through time in the abund_ ance-so f largev ertetrratcp rey speciesa lso cxislsa mong lateH olocenea rchaeologicasli tesi n rheW hite Mountains of east-cenrraCl alifbrnia( Grayson1 99J ; 2001: seea lso Broughtona nd Grayson1 993;M adsen 1993) .l n rhis region,a rchaeologicafal unalr cmainsw erec ollectcdf rom thirteen sites located in high elevation (3000 and,1000 m) alpine tundra. Many of these sitcs contained rock rings that served as founclationsf or small structures, storagef aci l i t ies,a bundants eedg r inding stonesa nd arro*points, and dcep accumulationso f human occu pational debris. These sites appear to reflcct thc con-slruction and use of small alpine settlemcntsa nd havc beent er rned'v i l lagcs'( Bct t inger1 991,G ral .sonl9 9l ) . Fivc of these White Ntountaios village sites were, however,p recedcdb y humano ccupationsth atl ackedt he foundationsf or structuress,t oragefa cjlities,a ndg rinding \lone\-. Thcre prcrill:rpc oc.unalton: .rre pr,,h.rhlj reiated to the use of hunting fcaturcs such as hiinds and drivcs that are abundanti n the Whitc Mountains.B aseil on radlocarbon and a variety of other dating flethods, (hep levillageo ccupationds aret o betlveen3 500 and 1.100 Jack M. R r ou,qltton I E Phase Fig. 12. The clunging relutive abundant.e oJ artiodactyls and small nntnmttls through time for high elevation site.r in the White Mountains. B.P. = radiocarbon years before present; phase" re.fer.sto archaeological sitesg roupetl on the basis of the tine stnsitive ltrc.tjectilcp oittt st,-les ther-c ontain,n aned on tha X-dxis( RG = RosegateD; SN = Desert Side notched, CW = Cottotlno.)d). Fron Grayson (2001l. B.P., while rhe villages were occupied fron about 1400 B.P. to earlv historic rimes (Berringer l99l; Grayson I 9 9 1) . Although as many rs 15 different, nrostly small, mammal species are prescnt in any given White Mountains site, yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flavi, leirlris) and mountains heep( Ovi-,c r2taden.liJc)o mprise 89.17oo f the mammal spccimensid entificd fiom rhesc taunas.T he relative abundanceos f thesea nimalsd ocs howcverc hanged ramatical)yth rought ime.I n particular, the abundanceo f large mammals( mountains heep) decline sharply acrossl he occupationalh istory of the area (Figure 12.. r" - -1.0, p = 0.04). Mounrain sheep bonesr epresenat bout 15% of the mammalianm aterials rn the carliesto ccupationsb, ut plummett o lesst han lqo of the specimensb y the end of the sequence. Such a pattcrn could, of course, be driven by any climatic change that would cause mountain shcep popu lalronst o sreadilyd ccline.b ut paleoclimaticr ecordsf or this region, again. rcveal no uni-linear changes in precipitatieno r temperaturea crosst his interval of timc (seeS tine 199.1I:- loyd and GraLrmlich1 997).G rayson l'+ t-L c E E ) - z de 1700,140B0P Pristint' Bentltrnarks un| Indigenous Const rtutiotl l 5 (1991.503:2 001)a rguesth att hei ntensiveu seo f these high'clcvat iona lpines Bt t inssd ur inqv i l l ge t imcsm ay hare l recna re\ponscl o increasingb umanp opulat ion densitiesin thc adl:]certl owlanda lld rhei mprct of thosc increaseosn low elevationr csourcesH. c lurthers uggests thatt hed ccreasingre liltivea bundanceosf mountains heep throught ime in the White Mountainsa ssemblagerse flect the Iocal deplet iono f thosem amnralsb y prehistor ic humanh unters( GraysouJ 993,2 99 300: l00l ) . Conclusions While the particular species and ecological setting! involvedv aryw idely - fron sturgeono f the SanF rancisco estuary to mountain sheep in alpine tundra ot the Whitc lUountains the i r rchaeologicavlc r lcbratee vidence surnmarizeda boved ocumcntss ignificantd cclinesi n the relativea bundrnceos f large-sizevde rtebrattea xat hrough-out lhe late HoloceneS. imi larc onclusionhs aveb een reachcdf ron the rnalysis of archaeologicafla unasi n other regionsc r f Cal i fornia.s uch as coa. \ tasl outhcrn California (Raab rnci Yatsko 1992; Raab er al. 1995: Classow 1996; Porcasi a a/. 2000) and thc Pit River regiilno f thc northeasternp arto f the state( Bryham and Vrlente 1997). This pattern thus appears to be a very generalo ne, albcit one characterizedb .v considerable tcmporaal nds pr t i i r l\ cr iabi l i ty.Y et . in no coseh rs the documcntedd eclinesi n large vcrtebntesb eenf ound ttr correlatew ith lateH Qlocene nvironmentaclh angeG. ivcn the ubiquitous evidence for human population growth over this pcriod. the broad scale pattern of declining abundanceosf largcv crtebrateta xai \ consistenwt ith the hypothesisth at exp0ndingh umanf orrger deDsiticsle d to the nexr-depletiono f large.' high-ranked's peciesI.t hns bccn suggested th:il the foraging strltegies ol native Arnericans'ins omet imesa ndp lacesm aintaineda nimals at levelsw e rnightd eclarew orthy of endangeredsp ecies sl l tus today'( Simms1 992,1 89) ;t he IaleH oloceneo l ' Calilbrnia was almosl surelv one ofthosc trmes and places. Collectiveiy.t hesc datu hare far-reachrngr rnplications concerning not onl) hew wc think about environmcntlrL 'bcnchmarksb' ut the potentialr olc of indigenousp opu-lationsi n conservationm anagemenat s well. One of the fundarnentaglo also f modcrnc onscrvation bi(togv is to promolel hem anlrgemenolf es()svstemsso a s to m! intainorr cstorelhei rnalursltlr uclureanftul nct ion' (Hunter1 996,695) .C onservat iobni ologistsh avc rhos soughtt o establishb enchnrarkfso r wh]t the natural or 'original' conditions of a region are so that management cln be directctlt oward restoringa nd rDaintainingth osc conclilions( Hunter l9c)(,.6 95). This upprouchi s clea|l_"- ' lui rDr -adt a f l icker ingt argel (Mi r r t i ra DdS zutcr1 998. l(r t anclt heC alilirrniae xarnplcp roviclesir ne xcellenct ase ln pornr. In C. r l i l',r n l f , .J . re\r ' r rntct. lr br,r t . eull v hi . lorr r 'r t . .L ,Jr . unanimouslyd escribca land ol incxprcssiblefc rlilitl"' (Margol inl 9?8. I l ) teemingw i tha widev ar ietyo f large, liime vcrtebrrlc\. Howcver. the vast herds of'fat dcc'r' lhatr na-vh aved rrkenedt heC alifornial andscapfeo r miles during thc errlv historic periotl. appear 1() h{ve bcen anythingb ut ahundandt uringl atep rehistoricti mcs.P rior to thc disease-hasende ar decimationo f the Califomia Indians,b eginningp erhapsa s earlv as the 16thc eniury, those peoples had reachcd extremely high densities and appear b have nearly eaten their way through mary populationso f large-sizedli shes, birds, and nrarnmals. The early Europcane xplorers.it now seems,h ad trav-ersed and Edenic blip' on the California landscape (Gra,vson2 001. 13) :t hc region was character izedb y Indian-induccdf aunalp overty onlv decadesb cfore and *ould soon return to that condition with the wave ol human consumcrs thlt came with rhe Goid Rush in the I850s. Ear l ierp er iodsi n Cal i f t r rniap rehistoryw ere characterized by drarnatic faunal changes as well, althought hesc were drilen by climatic-basede nviron-menttl shifts (Broughton 2002b; Broughton and Bayham 3003).T hise xtrenrev ariabilityc ertirinlym akesi t difficulr to rnraginclu sl uhat a 'pr ist ine benchml rk for lhe California fiL nlrl landscapem ight be. Whether or not these very difterent bcnchmarks and the processetsh atc reatedt hem arer ecognizedm ay have more specilic implications fbr how the restoratioo and maintenanceo f wildenressa rcasw ill be moste fl-ectively csrried oul. Recent argument\ concerning the potential effects oi thc nranxgemen<t rf nationalp arks bv native Americans prac(icing'traditional foraging strategies provides an illustration of this point. Basedo n cthnographicd ataf rom California a record dctailing Indian lifeways that pertain primarily lo rhe nr id- l9thc enturv Blackburna ndA nderson( 1993,19- 201 suggest that the han'esting of rcsources bv native pcoples 'was controlled by a complex web of social, political. and idcological regulatory mechanisms (hat cnsuredn at ivc groupso f a sustainedr.e l iabley ield generationa fter generation.W' hile they emphasizet hirt nativc peoplesh ad substantiailn fluene-eosn California ccosystcmst,h osc inllucnccsa re always vieued to hale pronlotedg arrea bundanceasn db iodiversityl;a rgev erte-bralcsw erem aintaincda t high densitiesa sa directr esult of humana ctivities.T hus, the superabundanceosf large vcrtcbratecsh ronicledb y thee arlye xplorersin California arc mistakenlyl oken as char !cter ist ico f prehistor ic conLjitionsa nd are vierveda s havirg resultedf rom the carcful .d cl ihcr r tc,a nd ef f icicnt manipulat iono f the landscapeb y environmentallyl riendly nativc peoples. Finally, lollowrng this intcrpretationi.t has been sug-gestedt hat nati\e exploitations tralegiesb c implemcnted lo managcw ildcrnessa reaso r nalion l parksi n weslern North Amcrica t() duplicatc rhe balance and plentt' rccorded in historic times (Anderson et al. lq98; Anderson 199-i; tJllqlbutt and Andcrson 1993: Lcwis l99l ) . Lcwis ( 1993.3 98) .I i r r instanceh.a s advocared thrt thc nl!tnagemenotf such parksl s Banlf. Yellowstone, l 6 Juck ivl. Brouslttutr rtrcl Yrrseruilc.: hould br-'c;rrried() itl hy nitli\c peopl!'s usi t r ; ' i t tdrger tounrl anJfcr r )enl rl Jct iae, . . . (Jr r l ln!o r l the da) , -10d av subsistencca ct i \ i t ies of hr rvcst ing t radi t ionalli xrds.h unt ingr nd t rappinga nimals'S. imi lar prol tosalsh arc heenn tadet o preser teb iodivcrsi tyin many othcra reaso i the world (sece xatnplesin Andcrson 199- l :I -ewis1 993;A lvar t l 1994) . So, (he bclief or percepriottlh irt jndigenousp eoples maintaincda harmoniousr elationship$ 'ith aojmalst hal was 'sustaincdb y hurnanr especlm. utuala ccontodation, and spiritualc mpalhy'( Prcston2 002. ll J) is sct up as irn inrportantr easonh rhl tradirionahl unting and harvesting methodss houldb c usedt o managew ildernessa reasa nd national parLs today. The California zooarchrcological recordm akesi t clear.h o$'evcr,t hat the degreeo i hulran impaclo n anim3lp opulationsis erlrt'nrelrv ariableW. hen human populatiotrsw erc small.s uch as in elhnographic andh istorict imes.a boriginahl untingm !'lhod!m ayi-n deed ha\e had little. or perhapse venl irriled positivc,i mpacts on vertebratep opulations.A n analogouss ituationm ay evenh avec haracterizetdh ee arlyp arto fthc ltte Holocene (c. 4000-3000 B.P.). as human prrpulationsx ppear to harc bcen sub\ rant ial lvd eprcssedb y thc preceding prolongedd roughto fthe middleH olocenep eriodb etween 8000 to 4000 B.P. ( Broughton and Bavharn 2003). Bur the alfectso f the huBei alc prehistorich umanp opulatioDs werc very diffcrent with the intensc harvest pressure causings ubstant iadl ccl incsi n a hosl of large sized vertebratep rcy from pinnipcdst o geesc. Zooarchaetrioicga l dirta hds nol only shown us thal indigenoush umani mpacto n aninrapl opulationsis highly variable,b ut it gives us guidancei n thinkinga bout$ 'hat denrographic-ecok)gic1ilul c(orsil lflucncet hat variation. For instance,i t may be telling that the California case reprcsentso ne of thc bestd ocumentedm, ost taxon-omically comprehensivea,n tls everec xampleso f hunter galhereri mpactso n ani rnalp opulat ionso, utside 0l ' oceanic island settings. Much of California is also characterizedb 1'c xtremell'r ich environrnentsa, nd it is in such contex(s. hlessed sith a cornucopia ol l(lrver-return resources( acorns.m ol luscs,r odents.s mal lcr fishcs), that may permit human predator densities to cont inur l lye xpandc. \en. r \ rhcm ol t Jnr i lcl j \ep rcvl axa are being severelyd cpressed(s ee Wintcrhaldera Dd Goland 1993,W interhaldcra ndL u 1997).R cgionsw hcre humanp opuJationasr es uhsidizedb y intensivea griculture may provide rnalogous patterns. Becausc the nature oi'human impact on the landscape is fundamentallyd ictatedb v demographica ndc cological processcsn, ot culturala ffiliationo r ideology.w c rnavb c led astrayb y explicil emic-basecdo nser!irrionisirl tritudes and phi )o. ,ophieA. .n J ior t l ' ( .e rer \nn\ .r t i r inJr \ .urJt ( ' to characterizein digcnousC alifornians,o r any pcoples for thatn rattera. st l red typesu ith respcctro thei nflucnceS they rnayh avel rado r, mosri rnportantlyw, ill likc)y havc on launal eoviroDmentsH. owever,a s noted above,t his lallact continues to underlie manl' arguments and assunrPlronasb oul lhe nranirliemenrln d stc\\ardshipo f nalionalp arksa nd wildernr'ssa reasi n Nonh America. This analysis of thc aboriginai human impact on Cal i fornial aunrs should in no way he cons( rucda s pro!idinBs upporta gainstin digcnousIa ndc laimso r other riShts. As Kay (2002, 261; see also Smith and Wishnie 2000, 516) has rccent lyn oted,c onservat iono,r lack ther!'()i,is clearlyn ot a citcrion for land ownershipt hat is used by any nodern statc and it should not play any role in the politicso f landc laim issuesf or nativel eoples todry. Indccd, if native land claims are predicatcd on naivc or lnistakenv rewsa bouti ndigenousc onservation, thcy arev ulnerableto bc undercutb y any documentation of ncgative human impact on the landscape. In thc end. whereveru 'e \et our bcnchmarksa nd whichevcrw ilderncsso r wildcrnessesw c decidea re the nrostd csi rableo nes.a detai lcdu nderstandinogf the proccssesth at cref,tcdt hem is requiredi f we want to successfully restorc and Irtaintain thenr. Because zoo archaeologyp rovidesa critical sourceo f informationo n ktng term dynamicso f pastl aunall andscapcsit, can and should play a more impol(rrr( role in th€ fulure of conser\ ation biol()gy. Acknowledgetnerrs I arlr gralelul to Darid Blers and Michael Cannon for hclpful comments on the nanuscript. Analysis of thc EmeryvilleS hcllrnoundfa unaw asf undedb y theN ational ScienceF oundat io(nI l tsS,9l l84l? andS BR 970799?) . References AdamsD, . P. and\ \'esrG. 1963T emperalua.en dp recrprtalion cslimrles through the lasl glacial cycle liom Clcar I-ake, ( lal i fomia. . t . ier !:.1. 9, I6E 70. Alvard.l \'l S. 1991.A rc\ro l thee cologlcal)n) ,)bles a!agch ypo lhesrsri nterspecrfpjcr evc hoiceb y neotroprcahlu nrersF. /rm.rn Eroloe_2y1 , 155 8?. Alvard.I {. S. i99,1C ,)nservariohny nalivep eoplesp:r eyc hoicein a dcple(edh abr(iL/(/.r 'I('r N.rrrf. 5. 127-51 AmcricrDOmilholoefcalUniol9n9. E Check.li of NorthA nttican 8,,"/r.7 thE dition Washing(oDn .C.:A mencanO rnilhologists Union Ander:onK, 1993.N x!vcCali(omrrn\asancrentandconFt)erra rv cul l r ! r tor slp, . l5l 74 jn BlaeLburnT,. C. andA nder \onK, . (cds). 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'dos k i .R S. . and Whihe! . R R. 1979.t ntand f i sheso f l{trrfiingtdrS. crltle:L lnrvcr\rroy l Wasbinglonp rcss. Jack M. Broughtctn Dcpartment of Anthropology 270 S 1400 E RM 102 Universitv of Utah Srlt Lake City t rT8 .1Ii t . usA. E-mail: jack.brought([e-mail]