A History of Beaver County

The land and its people

CHAPTER 2 THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE N, amed for the abundant beaver that inhabited the Beaver River when settlers first came into the area, Beaver County is located in southwestern Utah. The county seat, Beaver City, is located 210 miles south of Salt Lake City, 520 miles northeast of Los Angeles, California, and halfway between Salt Lake City and Las Vegas, Nevada, on U.S. Highway 91 and Interstate 15.A number of short mountain ranges oriented for the most part on a north-south axis cross the county. The highest is the Tushar Mountains in eastern Beaver County whose peaks are over 12,000 feet in height. The Beaver River originates in the Tushar Mountains and flows in a northwest­erly direction into Millard County at the southern end of the Great Basin drainage area. Beaver Valley reaches an elevation of 5,970 feet, and Milford Valley 4,962 feet. Slightly more than three times longer than wide, Beaver County is rectangular in shape, with the exception of its irregular eastern boundary, formed by the ridgeline of the Tushar Mountains. The 94- mile length of the county runs east-to-west, while its short 30-mile HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY width is its north-south dimension. The county is bounded on the north by Millard County, on the east by Piute County and a small section of Sevier County, on the south by Iron County and a small portion of Garfield County, and on the west by the state of Nevada's Lincoln County. Only the third county north of the Arizona-Utah state line, Beaver County is thus considered part of Utah's south­western geologic region. It is part of "Color Country," a five-county travel region designated by the Utah Travel Council which also includes Iron, Washington, Kane, and Garfield counties. The thirteenth largest of Utah's twenty-nine counties, Beaver County contains an area of 2,587 miles, or 3.15 percent of the area of the state. Roughly half of the county is mountainous, with the other half in valleys. Most of the major mountains are in the east, while the deserts are in the west. Roughly 20 percent of the area is farmed, while another 40 percent is grazed by livestock. Seventy-five percent of the county's area is federally owned, about 9 percent is owned by the state, and only 16 percent of the land is privately owned. These statistics reflect the high percentage of government-owned land statewide. The lowest point in Beaver County, located near the Murdock Siding north of Milford, is 4,700 feet above sea level. The highest point is the peak of Mount Delano at 12,168 feet. The height differ­ence of 7,468 feet is similar to that found between the valley floors and tallest mountains to the east in Weber, Salt Lake, and Utah coun­ties. Tushar Mountains The tallest and most resource rich range in Beaver County is the Tushar Mountain Range, the entire western slope of which falls within the county. True mountains rather than rolling hills or plateaus, the tallest Tushar summit is Mount Delano (12,168). However, because it is steeper and features the intact remains of an old heliograph station on its peak, slightly lower Mount Belknap (12,136) is the more interesting peak to climb. Other major peaks include Mt. Baldy (12,082), City Creek Peak (11,165), Circleville Mountain (11,332) Birch Creek Mountain (10,824) and Mt. Holly (10,029). The latter is the home to Elk Meadows Ski Resort. This THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE Mt. Belknap. (J.D. Osborn) group of peaks forms the third tallest mountain range in Utah, with only the peaks of the Uinta and LaSal mountains higher. By virtue of their size and wealth of natural resources, the Tushars are the dominant range in Beaver County. These mountains are com­posed primarily of volcanic rocks from the Miocene period. Some of the area is classified as Mt. Belknap rhyolite, while in the more south­ern Birch Creek Peak region, rock is from the Muddy Creek forma­tion. In the northern Tushars, several old mines may be found in the intrusive rocks around Bullion, Brigham and Bluebell peaks. Because of their remarkable height, length (thirty miles), and width (twenty miles), the massive Tushars are the source of impor­tant stands of trees, wildlife habitats, canyons, and creeks which allow for the flourishing of the city of Beaver and other communities to the west. Mineral Mountains Situated between Milford and Beaver valleys, the Mineral Mountains extend from just above the Millard County line on the north and the Minersville reservoir on the south. The range is about twenty-eight miles long and averages roughly five miles in width. Its 10 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY major prominences are Granite Peak (9,578) in the center of the range, Bearskin Mountain (9,095) to the north and Bradshaw Mountain (8,011) to the south. Like most of the other ranges in the county, it runs north-south. Geologically, the Mineral Mountains are dominated by Tertiary intrusive rocks on its eastern slopes and older, Quaternary alluvial deposits on its west face. Its tallest peaks are rhy­olite outcroppings, while the southern end of the range is a mixture of at least eight different periods of rock formation. As the name sug­gests, the Mineral Mountains have been a source of metal-bearing ore extracted from such mines as the Blue Star. The range is of sufficient size to produce small, seasonal streams which feed the tributaries running to the Beaver River. Several small springs also emanate from the Mineral Mountains. Black Mountains Across Minersville Canyon south of the Mineral Mountains are the Black Mountains, most of which lie in Iron County. The only east-west oriented range in the county, its highest peaks, Chipman (7,966) and Baboon (7,310), are a short distance south of the Iron County line. The range consists primarily of basalts and Miocene vol­canic rock. Aside from providing some watershed to Minersville reservoir, the uninhabited Black Mountains play a minor role in Beaver County's economy and recreational picture. San Francisco Mountains This small range is located about fifteen miles due west of Milford and features Frisco Peak (9,660), one of the county's most popular hiking mountains. At the southern end of the range are the ruined remains of old Frisco, a nineteenth-century mining town which produced silver, gold, lead, and zinc from its mines. The north-south trending range is roughly twenty miles long and four miles wide. The north half of the range extends into Millard County where it connects with the south extremity of the Cricket Mountains. The rolling San Franciscos are formed mostly of Precambrian rock, except for the southern end of the range which includes Ordovician sedi­mentary stone, Tertiary intrusive rock, and, on the west slope, Cambrian rock. THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 11 Frisco Peak consists mostly of metamorphic and quartzite rock from the Precambrian period. On the peak one finds twisting, weath­ered bristlecone pine and a fine panoramic view of the Great Basin. The range is marked by numerous nineteenth-century mines, kilns, and railroad grades. The Indian Queen and Imperial mines are on the west and south faces, while the King David, Golden Reef, and Horn Silver mines are found on the eastern slopes. A few springs have their sources in the San Francisco Mountains, among them Pitchfork, Horse, Crystal, Morehouse and Tub springs. Small, seasonal creeks run down Morehouse, Sawmill and other numerous canyons. While the undeveloped range contains neither hiking trails nor camp­grounds, good campsites and hikable mining roads exist in many locations. Shauntee Hills These "hills" are a small, relatively low mountainous area sur­rounded by the Wah Wahs on the west, the San Franciscos on the north, the Star Range on the east, and the Escalante Desert on the south. Geologically, the Shauntie Hills are an extension of the San Francisco Mountains' Tertiary volcanic rocks. White Mountain (6,781) is the major peak in this little sub-range. Star Range Only six miles long and not very wide, the Star Range is the smallest of the county's mountain groups to be designated a range. Its highest prominence is 6,088 at the north end, while Topache Peak rises near the south tip of the range, about five miles due west of the Upton Siding. The north end of the range begins six miles due west of Milford. The nominal importance of this little north-south run­ning range may be due to its proximity to Milford, its geological complexity, and the fact that it has attracted mining activity. No one type or period of rock dominates the Star Range, which features rock formations from at least seven major geological periods. Wah Wah Mountains About twenty-four miles east of the Nevada border, the fifty-mile long Wah Wah range runs north-south the entire width of Beaver County. Its highest section, including Wah Wah Peak (9,393) and 12 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY Lamerdorf Peak (8,425), is near its southern end. In the same area are Tasso, Lou, and other mines, some of which have been recently active. Geologically complex, the Wah Wahs have Cambrian quartzite to the west, with middle and upper Cambrian rocks, mostly limestone, in the center and peak areas. Wah Wah Peak is one of the highest sum­mits in this part of the Great Basin. Its height allows for a few streams whose waters are collected in a series of reservoirs along the south foot of the range. Good stands of bristlecone pine are an attraction in the highest climes. Hikers must depend solely on animal trails and exploratory mining tracks for access. Needle Range The first mountains encountered in Beaver County east of the Nevada state line are in the north-south trending Needle Range. What on some maps is identified as a single range is considered on others as two separate ranges-the Mountain Home and Indian Peak mountains. The smaller, two-mile long Mountain Home range is the northernmost of the two. Its principal prominence is a somewhat isolated peak called the Toad (7,543). Across a four-mile wide plain to the south begins the Indian Peak Mountains, a taller, twenty-five-mile long range. Its major summit is Indian Peak (9,790), a popular climb for hikers. Although it appears to be a volcanic cone, it is not. Yet it is composed of rhyolite, basalt, and tuff, various volcanic rocks from the Tertiary period. To the south and northwest of this peak are intrusive formations which have been exploited for their mining potential. The Holt Bluebell and Cougar Spar mines are located south of the Indian Peak State Game Management Area, a four-by-four mile square reserve due east of Indian Peak. The Needle range is a remote, nearly unpopulated area except for a few scattered ranches. Its canyons generate several small, seasonal creeks which drain to washes in the surrounding valleys during the wet periods. Valleys As if the fingers of a giant hand had been drawn across its ancient surface, Beaver County is divided into five north-south run­ning valleys by several small, parallel mountain ranges. Hamblin Valley, the westernmost in the county, is bounded on the west by THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 13 : ; v _ : ; - . - V ^ The "B" on the mountain east of Beaver as seen from the fairgrounds race track. (J.D. Osborn) Nevada's Limestone Hill (to the north) and White Rock Mountains (to the south), and on the east both the Mountain Home Range (to the north) and the Indian Peak Range (to the south). East of these two ranges is Pine Valley, also the drainage area of the Wah Wah Mountains to the east. Wah Wah Valley is bounded on its east by both the San Francisco Mountains (to the north) and the White Mountains (to the south). These ranges in turn form the west moun­tain enclosure of Milford Valley which contains Milford and the rail­road sidings of Upton, Murdock, and Thermo, as well as Minersville. This narrow, east-west-running canyon cuts through the Mineral Mountains, the western boundary of Beaver Valley, in which the county seat, Beaver, Manderfield, Greenville, and Adamsville were established. Beaver Valley Cradled between the looming Tushar Mountains to the east and the less imposing Mineral Mountains to the west, Beaver Valley is one of the county's two most fertile and populated flatland areas. About twelve miles wide and twenty miles long, and very roughly oval- 14 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY shaped, the northern part of the valley begins at the narrow saddle separating the two surrounding mountain ranges. The east and west boundaries of the valley are created by the irregular forms of the mountain foothills. Likewise, the bottom or south edge of the valley runs along the north foothills of the east-west oriented Black Mountains. The City of Beaver, the namesake of the county, valley, and pri­mary river, sits approximately in the center of the valley. More than any other populated locality in the county, Beaver Valley is blessed with streams to feed its agricultural-based economy. The five largest waterways-Beaver River, North and South creeks, Indian Creek, and Wildcat Creek-all originate high in the Tushars. Each of the five set­tlements- Beaver, Adamsville, North Creek, Manderfield, and Greenville-was located along or near one of these streams. Milford Valley Beaver County's largest flatland plain is Milford Valley, the north­ernmost portion of the Escalante Desert. With the city of Milford in its center and Minersville at its southeast corner, the valley is one of only two in the county supporting sizable populations. Eight to six­teen miles in width, Milford Valley runs north-south the entire thirty-mile width of the county. Like Beaver Valley and the desert val­leys to the west, Milford Valley is the result of ancient Quaternary alluvium and colluvium deposits. Watered by the Beaver River and the Minersville Reservoir from the south, and small creeks and washes from the Mineral Mountains to the east and the San Franciscos, Star Range, and Shauntie Hills to the west, Milford Valley is sufficiently fertile and moist to support an agricultural economy. Its relative flatness and proximity to several nineteenth-century min­ing districts made it the valley of choice for the Union Pacific railroad lines which pass north-to-southwest through the area connecting Salt Lake City with southern California. Wah Wah Valley Between the Wah Wah Mountains to the west and the San Francisco Mountains and Shauntie Hills to the east lies the largely unpopulated Wah Wah Valley. It runs north-south through the height THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE ]^_ of the county and into Millard County to the north. The valley is two to ten miles wide. The Quaternary deposits on the valley floor are not fertile and moist enough to support substantial farming, although a few ranches exist at the stream-fed mouths of nearby canyons. During the wet seasons, Wah Wah Wash collects small quantities of water from Willow Creek, Grover Wash, and lesser tributaries. A few small reservoirs and aqueducts north of Highway 21 allow for some limited farming. The northeast edge of the valley once supported Newhouse, a mining town now reduced to ruins. Pine Valley Like its neighboring parallel valleys, Pine Valley runs north-south the thirty-mile width of the county. It lies between the Needle Range to the west and the Wah Wahs to the east. It too consists of Quaternary alluvium and colluvium, with the exception of an area of ancient Lake Bonneville deposits on its north end. Isolated ranches are situated along the seasonal creeks that drain into the valley. The waters of some of these are collected by Chamisa, Woods, and the CCC reservoirs. Pine Valley Wash Road runs nearly the length of the valley, and Highway 21 cuts across the northern end on the way to and from Nevada. Hamlin Valley The southeast portion of Hamlin Valley runs through the south­west corner of Beaver County. Only six miles wide where it passes through the county, Hamlin Valley widens to twenty miles as it moves north into Nevada. Unpopulated and containing few natural resources, the valley carries Hamlin Valley Wash, a waterway of some consequence both north and south of Beaver County. Geological History Geologists divide the more than 4.5 billion years of the earth's geologic history into four eras: Precambrian, Cambrian, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. These last three eras are subdivided into several peri­ods and some of the periods into epochs.1 The longest of the eras-comprising more than 85 percent of the earth's geologic history-is the Precambrian which began with the origin of the earth and ended about 570 million years ago with the 16 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY appearance of fossils. The best examples of Precambrian exposed rock are in the Grand Canyon; however, examples of outcrops of Precambrian rocks can be found at several Utah locations including the Uinta Mountains, Wasatch Mountains, Tintic Mountains, and along the western base of the Mineral Mountains in Beaver County. With the advent of the Cambrian Era, which lasted for over 325 million years beginning 570 million years ago and ending 245 mil­lion years ago, water covered the western part of North America. Primitive marine life developed in various forms such as invertebrate shellfish, trilobites, corals, and brachiopods whose remains left exten­sive limestone deposits on the ocean floor. These deposits, along with shale and sandstone sediments, accumulated to depths of several thousand feet. During this era Beaver County was covered by warm seas, although some land surface may have emerged from time to time. The Mesozoic Era lasted about 180 million years from 245 mil­lion years ago to 66 million years ago and included three major peri­ods- the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. During the Triassic period, most of Beaver County remained under water. Animal life continued to develop as the evidence of large reptiles and amphib­ians attests. However, the land also began to rise and the sea retreated westward. Volcanos erupted covering large areas with volcanic ash which preserved many trees through fossilization. The Moenkopi Formation followed by the Chinle Formation were laid down during this period, with most of the petrified wood found in the Chinle Formation. At the beginning of the Jurrasic period, most of Utah became a vast desert and blowing sands created the light-colored Navajo Sandstone Formation, which is known as the source of Rainbow Natural Bridge, the great monoliths in Zion and Capitol Reef national parks, and other locations throughout southern Utah. Later the Mesocordilleran Highlands emerged on the western side of Utah-including most of Beaver County-and a series of rivers flowed out of the highlands eastward into seas that had formed. This river action gave rise to the Morrison formation of the late Jurrasic period-the location of dinosaur footprints and bone deposits that are approximately 150 million years old. THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 17 During the Cretaceous period, the last of the Mesozoic Era, the last large sea covered much of Utah-dividing North America into two large islands. The western shoreline of the sea followed the foothills of the Mesocordilleran High. About 100 to 80 million years ago, the mountains were thrust upwards during what geologists call the Sevier Orogeny-named for the Sevier Desert-the area just north of Beaver County where the mountains reached their greatest heights. While the ancient mountains covered what is now Beaver County throughout the Cretaceous period, to the east the sea, rivers, and swamps produced a series of shale, coal, and mudstone deposits between 66 and 144 million years ago. The most recent geologic era, the Cenozoic Era, began about 66 million years ago and continues to the present. It is divided into two major periods, the Tertiary, which includes all but the last two mil­lion years covered by the Quaternary, the most recent period. The Tertiary period is subdivided into five epochs: Paleocene 66 to 58 mil­lion years ago; Eocene, 58 to 37 million years ago; Oligocene, 37 to 24 million years ago; the Miocene, 24 to 5 million years ago and the Pliocene, 5 to 1.6 million years ago. The land in Beaver County during the first two epochs of the Cenozoic Era remained mountainous, although continuous erosion of the mountains commenced. Outcroppings of Paleocene and Eocene rocks are evident in the Tushar Mountains in the northeast­ern corner of the county. Other examples of these two epochs area found in the strata of Cedar Breaks National Monument to the south and Bryce Canyon National Park to the southeast. As erosion of the Mesocordilleran High continued during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs, the area became very active for a period of twenty-five million years. Igneous rocks pushed up caus­ing bulges in the earth's surface and broke out in numerous places to spew the black lava rock that can be found in Beaver County and throughout much of the western half of southern Utah. This activity produced three major mineral belts in Utah which have been the location for most of copper, gold, silver and other metal mining in the state: the Oquirrh-Uintah Belt, the Deep Creek-Tintic Belt, and the southern most belt the Wah Wah-Tushar Belt, which runs from west to east through Beaver County into Piute County. The dean of HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY Beaver Canyon. (Don O. Thorpe) Utah geologists, William Lee Stokes writes of the Tushar Mountains, "Here is the most concentrated and varied assemblage of igneous rocks known in the state and a record of volcanic action longer than that of any other center."2 The largest exposure of intrusive igneous rocks in Utah, according to Stokes, is found in Beaver County's Mineral Mountains.3 The rocks of the Oligocene and Miocene epochs were especially important to Beaver County in the nineteenth cen­tury for the extensive metal mining that occurred and the use of the black basalt rock for the construction of many of the substantial buildings and pioneer homes that remain in Beaver. Volcanic activity continued until the end of the Cenozoic Epoch, leaving the most recent evidence of volcanic activity in two major fields-one near St. George and the other known as the Sevier Desert Volcanic Field which stretches from northern Beaver County through Millard into Juab County. The igneous rock from this field indicates that the last volcanic activity in Utah occurred less than a million years ago. The black rock used in the construction of Cove Fort was produced during this most recent time of activity. The Quaternary period includes two epochs, the Pleistocene, THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 19. which lasted approximately 1.6 million years, and the Holocene, which covers the last 11,000 years-approximately the period of human occupation of the region. One of the major features of the period was Lake Bonneville, the southern tip of which stretched into Beaver County. Glaciers formed during the Ice Age east of the Lake Bonneville in the Tushar Mountains as well as other mountain ranges in Utah leaving evidence of their action during the Pleistocene era. Evidence of Pleistocene animals-the mammoth, native horse, deer, camels, mountain sheep, and musk-oxen-has been found. About 11,000 years ago, as the Ice Age came to an end and the last or mod­ern epoch-the Holocene-began, Beaver County emerged with its land forms and features that are recognizable today. Collectible Minerals and Fossils Rich in diverse geological resources, Beaver County features a score of popular rockhounding sites which produce a remarkable variety of collectible minerals. In the west are two sites in the Needle Range-one below Sawtooth Peak and one near the contact of the intrusive and surrounding limestones in Wah Wah Pass in the north­ern Wah Wah Mountains. In the old townsite of Newhouse, col­lectible specimens of pyrite, chalcoprite, pyrite, and quartz crystals can be found on the mining dumps. At least twenty types of miner­als, including galena, pyrite, and sphalerite, are located in the Horn Silver mine area. Northwest of Milford, iron (ludwigite), azurite, malachite, brochantite, and chrysocolla may be found on the mine dump at West Springs in the Beaver Lake Mountains, while these minerals plus copper and quartz are found in the open pit of the OK Mine in the same mountains. Several other abandoned mines in the same vicinity host these and other minerals such as chalcopyrite and galena. Chalcopyrite and several other minerals are available near the Old Hickory Mine and others in the Rocky District area a few miles northwest of Milford. Lead sulfide is located in mines of the Star and North Star districts southwest of Milford. Five major rockhounding localities in the Mineral Mountains northwest of Beaver produce other varieties of collectible minerals such as beryllium, aquamarine, blue beryl, lead and zinc-wulferite, smoky quartz, feldspar, and gar­net. Garnet and a dozen other minerals may be found in the Granite 20 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY and N o r t h Granite mining districts on the n o r t h side of East Pass Canyon in the Mineral Mountains. Agates are the prize in the South Creek area south of Kane Canyon about six miles s o u t h of Beaver. Sheeprock Canyon in the Tushar M o u n t a i n s produces alunite, amethyst, argentite, limonite, quartz, and tellurium minerals. Clearly statewide and local members of numerous gem societies, rock clubs, mineralogical, geological, a n d archaeological groups find Beaver County a favorite location for discovering valuable mineral speci­mens. Climate Beaver County's climate is generally temperate and has limited extremes in t e r m s of heat or cold in four well-defined seasons. Sunshine on an average of 320 days a year is unobstructed by urban pollutants, and precipitation is limited to 11.65 inches annually in the Beaver Valley a n d 8.5 inches in the Milford area. Beaver City is located at the 5,860 foot level in a broad, gently sloping valley between the Mineral Mountains ten miles to the west and the Tushar Range m o r e t h a n five miles to t h e east. While the 9,000 foot tall Mineral peaks shelter Beaver from storms, t h e even taller Tushars impede s t o rm movement, causing air condensation and the dumping of heavy moisture on Beaver. The city's climate is semi-arid and sunny, with low precipitation and humidity, and wide swings in daily a n d annual t e m p e r a t u r e . Beaver enjoys four well-defined seasons with below zero b u t not severely cold winters, and generally light snowfalls which account for one t h i r d of the area's annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n . The greatest snowfalls occur in December, January, a n d February Because of its mile-high elevation, Beaver's summers are pleas­antly cool, only rarely exceeding 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Maximum temperatures typically range in the 80s, with night-time maximums dipping to the 40s or high 50s. Unlike some other areas in the Great Basin, Beaver's greatest rainfall occurs in the m o n t h s of July and August, mostly as a result of t h u n d e r s t o r m s . March, April, and December receive the next highest amounts of precipitation due to storms moving through the area from the Pacific Ocean. In contrast, June is by far the driest month, followed by November and January THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 21 Aside from the strong winds that accompany storms, Beaver's winds are typically light to moderate. The area's growing season is only 106 days, generally beginning in early June and ending with the first frosts in mid-September. Farmers usually identify 10 June as the end of the late frosts until 25 September which marks the first of the early frosts. Breezes from Minersville Canyon to the east protects Minersville from late and early frosts and supports longer growing seasons. As a result of the relatively short growing season, beef produc­tion and dairying are more profitable than most agricultural pursuits, although the climate is conducive to potato-growing. Weather obser­vations have been made in Beaver since 1889, giving us a fairly com­prehensive idea of the area's weather during the historic period. Milford is situated in the middle of the county along the usually dry lower Beaver River in a gently sloping valley about fifteen miles long. Directly to the west is the small Star Range, and ten miles far­ther northwest the San Francisco Mountains which rise more than 4,600 feet above Milford's elevation of 5,028. Although 800 feet lower than Beaver, Milford's growing season of 131 days is still relatively short. This is in part due to the steppe climate in which nighttime temperatures are quite cool. The average date of the last frost is 18 May, while the average date of the first killing frost is 26 September. Growing seasons have been as long as 179 days but as short as 80 days. The unpredictability of growing season length, together with the low annual precipitation of eight to nine inches, makes many types of agriculture problematic. Only in March and July does the precipitation average as much as one inch annually. Crop success is mostly dependent on irrigation water obtained from several deep wells and from controlled runoff from Minersville Reservoir. The average snowfall of thirty-eight inches a year is fairly evenly distributed during the winter months. The snow is light and pow­dery, however, and has below average moisture content. Local humid­ity is lower in the summer than winter, making for hot, dry summer days and cold, more humid, somewhat uncomfortable winter days. Most years the temperature will drop to 10 degrees below zero or lower, while temperatures will exceed 100 degrees Fahrenheit in about half the years. July is the hottest, wettest month. January is the coldest and among the most dry with respect to precipitation. 22 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY Temperature extremes have reached 105 degrees on the hot end and -34 degrees on the cold side. Strong southerly winds travel through the area in the spring and summer, while cold winters cause haz­ardous snow drifts which endanger local stock and transportation. Summer thunderstorms and atmospheric disturbances in the begin­ning of winter and spring contribute to the area's variable climate. Vegetation and Life Zones Distinctive communities of vegetation exist throughout Beaver County, each identified by one or more dominant types of plants. The characteristics of these zones are determined by latitude, altitude, temperature, moisture, and soil conditions. Because it contains mountains, high plains, and lower valleys, Beaver County features four distinct Vegetation Zones. In the Mountane Zone are the highest regions of the Mountain Home and Indian Peak mountains, the Wah Wah Range, and the Tushar Mountains. In the Pinyon-Juniper Zone are the lower slopes of these same mountains, plus all of the San Francisco, Mineral and Black Mountain ranges. The Hamblin, Pine, Wah Wah, Milford, and Beaver valleys are found, somewhat pre­dictably, in the Sagebrush Zone. The county's lowest areas in north­ern Wah Wah Valley and the long valley bottom through Milford Valley are in the Shadscale Vegetation Zone. Each Vegetation Zone can be defined by its corresponding Life Zones, each differentiated by the verticality and slopes of their ter­rain, functions of ancient orographic (mountain-related) lifting. Again contrasts in precipitation and temperature related to elevations and slope are responsible for the variations in plant life which mark each Life Zone. The Montane Zone, which occupies about 15 percent of the county's land area, includes the Transition, Canadian, Hudsonia, and Arctic-Tundra Life Zones. The rare Arctic-Tundra Zone includes the county's few areas located at elevations greater than 11,000 feet above sea level. Situated only in the highest peaks of the Tushar Range, this Life Zone has sparse vegetation due to poorly developed soils. It contains hardy complexes of grasses, sedges, mosses, and annuals. The Hudsonian Life Zone includes mountainous areas between 10,000 and 11,000 feet in elevation. The dominant plants in this zone THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 23 are Englemann Spruce, which generally prevails, and subalpine fir. Other trees associated with this zone include timber and bristlecone pine. Complexes of grasses, forbes, sedges, and annuals also are found near subalpine meadows and lakes. In the Canadian Life Zone, between 8,000 and 10,000 feet, are found Douglas and White Firs, Lodgepole Pine, and Aspen. Blue Spruce and Ponderosa Pine also typically exist within this plant community and may even dominate in some areas. Above the 5,500 foot level are located mountain brush and Ponderosa Pine in the Transition Life Zone. The underlying brush consists of a chaparral association of oak, maple, mahogany, and sagebrush. Many of the valley areas of Beaver County are located in the Sagebrush Vegetation Zone, a general classification which includes the Upper Sonoran Life Zone. As its name implies, the Sagebrush Zone is dominated by the most common shrub in the Great Basin- sagebrush. Sometimes crowding out most other plant life, sagebrush prefers gravelly, non-alkaline soils and is at other times associated with various types of grasses. In addition, the Upper Sonoran Life Zone features oak, juniper, shadscale (a salt-tolerant, drought-resis­tant plant), with juniper, pinyon, greasewood, and saltgrass growing in other areas. The Pinyon-Juniper Association located in the county's lower mountains is also related to the Upper Sonoran Life Zone in which sagebrush merges into the pinyon-juniper commu­nity. This condition generally occurs below the 7,500 foot level and accounts for continuous expanses of forest across some of the lower mountain ranges. Where a boundary exists between sagebrush and pinyon-juniper growth, such delineation are sometimes referred to as the "arid timberline." A lack of moisture limits the flourishing of pinyon-juniper species where precipitation is less than twelve inches annually. Wildlife Among the large mammals in Utah made extinct in historic times over all or most of their former ranges are the grizzly bear and the wolf, both hunted out of existence or chased away. No moose or mink exist in the county, even though the high mountain terrain would seem to provide habitat for these species. 24 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY Kents Lake. (Don O. Thorpe) Several carnivorous species of various sizes live in Beaver County. With the exception of bears and raccoons, which are omnivorous, the carnivores are mainly flesh-eaters. The dog-like coyote ranges county-wide, much to the dismay of livestock raisers. The smaller kit fox, however, ranges from the Mineral Mountains to the west county line. While the grizzly is gone, the black bear can still be found in small numbers in the high regions of the Tushar Range. Several varieties of shrews have been documented in Beaver County, including the water and vagrant shrews in the eastern part of the county. The dusky shrew is found only in the high, mountain­ous southeast corner of the county. Many of the state's nineteen species and subspecies of bats and myotis flourish in Beaver County, among them the big myotis, hairy-winged and long-eared myotis, small-footed myotis, silvery-haired bat, western pipistrelle, big brown bat, hoary and long-eared bats, the pallid bat, and Mexican free-tailed bats. Although rarely seen, most of these range widely throughout Beaver and its neighboring counties. One of Utah's five kinds of pika, a small, rabbit-like mammal with small, round ears, fore and hind legs of about the same size, and THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 25_ no visible tail, lives in the high Tushars along the county's eastern edge. Among the mountain-dwelling rabbits in the Tushars are the white-tailed jack rabbit and snowshoe rabbit. Virtually the entire county is inhabited by the black-tailed jack rabbit and the Audubon cottontail. The Nuttall cottontail ranges in the eastern quarter of the county, while the pygmy rabbit lives in the western area of the county. The red squirrel or chickaree, a tree squirrel, lives in the Tushar Mountain Range, as does the yellow-bellied marmot. The eastern two-thirds of the county provides a habitat for the white-tailed prairie dog and the Townsend ground squirrel. There is some occur­rence of the rock squirrel in the eastern mountains, while the ante­lope squirrel dwells county-wide, as do the golden-mantled ground squirrel and the least chipmunk. The say chipmunk resides only in the Tushars, while the cliff chipmunk is also confined to the county's eastern regions. A few varities of northern pocket gopher and botta pocket gopher occupy minor areas of the county. In the far western areas, the Baird pocket mouse and the little pocket mouse live. The Great Basin pocket mouse ranges widely from the Mineral Mountains west, but the dark kangaroo mouse, Ord kangaroo rat, and chisel-toothed kangaroo rat are restricted to the western areas. Numerous other var­ieties of mice inhabit Utah, and several of them flourish throughout Beaver County, among them the western harvest mouse, canyon, deer, pinon, northern grasshopper, and red-backed, montane meadow, long-tailed, and big jumping mice. The desert wood rat shares their habitats in many areas. Intensively hunted for their pelts in the nineteenth century, the county's namesake, the beaver, lives only from the Beaver Valley east­ward into the Tushar Mountains. The less sought-after porcupine ranges widely through the county. Several varieties of snakes live in Beaver County. Racer snakes live in open fields, near streams with grassy borders, in mountain mead­ows and thin brush in the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones. Reaching over four feet in length, the fast, aggressive racer feeds on frogs, toads, reptiles, small mammals, and insects. It is brown/blue, green/blue, dark gray, or black. The desert striped whipsnake can be seen in warm, rocky, brush-covered foothills and grasslands. It is 26 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY The water pipeline crosses at the base of this mountain in Beaver Canyon. (J.D. Osborn) three to five feet long and feeds on lizards, small rodents, and snakes. The gopher snake measures 2-1/2 to 6 feet long, and is ground col­ored with light brown, clay, buff, or whitish rows of squarish or oval blotches. It feeds p r i m a r i l y on rodents. Among the garter snakes found in the county are the common western varieties. The main p o i s o n o u s snake found locally is t h e western rattlesnake which inhabits the Lower Sonoran to Boreal Life Zones in chaparral, grass­land, sagebrush plains, a n d m o u n t a i n s into the p i n e zone up to 11,000. It hides in rock outcrops where it preys on rabbits, mice, gophers, lizards, and other mammals. Reaching over four feet long, t h e western rattler varies in color and p a t t e r n but features the blotched patterns on its back common to most rattlesnakes. As many as ten types of lizards live in the inviting desert climes of Beaver County. Among the most widely d i s t r i b u t e d are western whiptail, side-blotched lizard, western skink, western fence lizard, sagebrush lizard, collared, and leopard lizards. Also found in some localities are the short-horned, desert-horned, and tree lizards, and the spotted whiptail. THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 27_ Ancient and Native Peoples Anthropologists divide Utah's prehistoric peoples into three groups. The Paleo-Indians, which included the Clovis and Folsom cultures, were hunters and gatherers who appeared in North America after the last ice age and probably made their way from Asia in small groups over a thousand-year period across the thousand-mile wide Bering Strait land bridge while it was above the waters of the ocean. The Paleo-Indian occupation stretches back at least 12,000 years and lasted approximately 5,000 years. The Paleo-Indians were big game hunters, and it was likely that their pursuit of mammoths drew them out of Siberia and across the Bering Strait to North America. The plentiful supply of mammoths made hunting relatively easy, and the Paleo-Indian population grew rapidly. Within a period of a thousand years, the pursuit of game took the Paleo-Indian people throughout the North and South American continents. Anthropologists postu­late that at their peak population level the Paleo-Indians numbered close to one million individuals. The presence of Paleo-Indians is confirmed by the discovery of Clovis points-a distinctively shaped spearhead made by the Paleo- Indians and named for the town in New Mexico near which the first spearheads were observed. Another distinctive type of spear point- known as the Folsom point-developed later, but is also used to con­firm the presence of the Paleo-Indians. While neither Clovis nor Folsom points have been identified in Beaver County, both types of artifacts have been found in nearby locations suggesting that America's earliest inhabitants found their way into what is now Beaver County 10,000 to 12,000 thousand years ago. The Archaic Culture began to develop about 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The big game animals hunted by the Paleo-Indians became extinct about 11,000 years ago. The warming climate, as the ice age came to an end, to which the mammoth was unable to adapt and perhaps the extensive hunting by the Paleo-Indians led to its demise. The Paleo-Indians adapted by hunting the smaller animals which did not become extinct and by giving more attention to the collection of plant foods including roots, seeds, nuts, fruits, and berries. The pro­duction of Clovis points ceased and the Paleo-Indians began to adapt 28 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY to much greater varieties in the natural environment than their pre­decessors had known. These changes and adaptations led to the emergence of many different hunting and gathering cultures identi­fied by anthropologists as Archaic hunters and gatherers to distin­guish them from their Paleo-Indian ancestors. Perhaps the best known and most recent of the prehistoric peo­ples in Utah are the Anasazi and Fremont Cultures which emerged about 2,000 years ago and lasted until about 700 years ago. These cul­tures are distinguished from the Paleo-Indian and Archaic peoples primarily because of their cultivation of crops such as corn, beans, and squash, and domestication of turkeys and other animals. They also began to construct underground shelters instead of living in caves and natural shelters. The Anasazi especially began to build with adobe and stone and are well-known for the multi-storied dwellings found at Mesa Verde National Park, Chaco Canyon, Canyon de Chelly, and other locations throughout the southwest. While the Anasazi peoples did not extend as far north and west as Beaver County, the Virgin River or Western Anasazi lived in pre­sent- day Kane and Washington counties. The Fremont people, named for the Fremont River in South-Central Utah, occupied an area from the Bear River, the Great Salt Lake, and Uintah Basin on the north to Beaver and Iron counties on the south. While the reasons for the demise of the Anasazi and the Fremont have not been precisely determined, climatic changes, internal con­flicts, and the arrival of new groups, such as the Navajo, Ute, and Paiute peoples have all been offered as possible reasons. The prehistoric peoples of the Beaver County area left countless artifacts at hundreds of sites as a record of their occupation stretching back perhaps as much as 12,000 years into the distant past. While no written record recounts the generations of the area's prehistoric resi­dents, a treasure of pottery, tools, projectile points, weapons, bone remains, and stone tapestries of painted and carved rock art and other physical evidence indicate that the area's early peoples were scattered throughout the county over the millennia since the end of the last ice age. Important prehistoric sites surround the county and suggest con­siderable traffic through the area, especially as ancient peoples moved THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 29 in search of game and other resources important to their way of life. Approximately twenty miles south of Minersville, the mysterious Parowan Gap is one of the world's best known rock art sites and dis­plays both Archaic and Fremont styles. Thirty miles south of the Beaver-Iron County line, Evans Mound and Median Village near Summit have been excavated to reveal important information about inhabitants of the region over a thousand years ago. A dozen miles from the northeastern corner of Beaver County, Fremont Indian State Park, located along the route of Interstate 70 through Clear Creek Canyon, is one of Utah's most popular state parks with its intriguing rock art panels and excavated village sites. Clear Creek Canyon was an important transportation corridor for prehistoric peoples, many of whom were en route to the west slope of the Mineral Mountains to obtain obsidian for arrow and spear points. The Wildhorse Canyon Obsidian Quarry, located approximately ten miles east of Milford and listed in the National Register of Historic Places, is the only known obsidian flow in Utah that was used by historic peoples as a source of raw materials. Because of the large number of "chipping stations" near the quarry, archaeologists conclude that the prehistoric visitors to the quarry remained near the quarry to work the obsidian into points which could be easily transported. Artifacts made of obsidian from the quarry have been found in excavations as far north as Danger Cave near Wendover in Tooele County and Hogup Cave northeast of the Great Salt Lake in Box Elder County. Closer to the source, obsidian artifacts from the Wildhorse Quarry have also been found at Median Village and Evans Mound in Iron County. Ongoing research is likely to uncover Wildhorse Canyon obsidian artifacts in other prehistoric sites throughout the area.4 It is likely that obsidian points or tools from the Wildhorse Quarry were used to carve many of the petroglyphs throughout the Great Basin. While there is much to be learned about the rock art left by the area's ancient inhabitants, anthropologists believe that the Archaic, Anasazi, and Fremont peoples are responsible for the geo­metric designs, abstract figures, footprints, bird tracks, sunbursts, mountain sheep, stick figures, and anthropomorphs which have been pecked into the boulders and cliffs in the area. One site west of 30 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY Manderfield consists of thirty boulders with petroglyphs, the largest of which has anthropomorphs with hands and feet pecked deeply into the basalt rock. Another site located on a small hill in Pine Valley in western Beaver County has several hundred squares, spirals, cir­cles, mountain sheep, snakes, and other designs carved into the ledges of the hill.5 Contemporary with the end of the Anasazi and Fremont cultures about 700 years ago is the arrival of Utah's Numic peoples-the Goshute, Ute, Paiute, and Shoshoni peoples. They carved few if any petroglyphs but inhabited the valleys and deserts of the Great Basin when the first Euro-Americans arrived during the eighteenth century. Beaver County was part of a border area where the Southern Paiute merged with the Western and Southern Ute. Anthropologists Isabel T. Kelly and Catherine S. Fowler find that there was little to dis­tinguish the Western Utes from the Paiutes and that the Beaver, Cedar, Kaiparowits, and Antarianuts (located near the Henry Mountains and Colorado River) Indian groups " . . . should be con­sidered transitional Southern Paiute. . . . the Cedar group was called Ute by some of its Paiute neighbors, and to one person from the Cedar area, the Beaver group was Pahvant, who are usually consid­ered to be Western Ute."6 William R. Palmer, Cedar City resident and long-time student of the Paiute Indians, concludes that the Beaver County Indians were Paiute. He identifies thirty-five distinct nineteenth-century Paiute bands in southwestern Utah-five of which were located within the borders of present-day Beaver County and are part of the larger Beaver subgroup identified by other anthropologists. The five bands include the Tu-roon-quints band in the northeast corner of the county; the Qui-ump-uts band around Beaver and Adamsville; the Pa-moki-abs band in the vicinity of Minersville; the Toy-ehe-its band in the Milford area; and the Indian Peak band in the western part of the county and into Nevada.7 Within the bands there were usually several individual camps often headed by relatives. Leadership tended to remain within one family, but did not necessarily pass from father to son. A brother, brother-in-law, nephew, or grandson might become the new leader after the elder men of a group conferred usu- THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 31 ally in lengthy deliberations that might involve input from neighbor­ing camps and groups.8 The Indians relied on small game for food, including rabbits, which were often h u n t e d in drives, a n d other animals such as rats, mice, gophers, squirrels, chipmunks, and birds. Pine nuts, roots, and berries were also i m p o r t a n t , and the I n d i a n Peak area of western Beaver County was said to produce the best pine nuts.9 As early as the eighteenth century, some Paiute groups began to cultivate crops of corn and squash using irrigation ditches. By the early decades of the n i n e t e e n t h century, t h e I n d i a n Peak group in Beaver C o u n t y had begun to cultivate fields.10 Paiutes lived under shade trees in warm weather and conical b r u s h shelters with a smoke hole and opening facing east during cold weather. Tents of skin and canvas were intro­duced by the Ute Indians in the 1850s. Their unique ways of gathering food and surviving in this harsh geography fascinated the outsiders. One described the production of nets for catching rabbits: The squaws made a long net of oose, a flaglike plant that grows on the foot hills. The mesh of the net was about the size of a jack rab­bit's head. The squaws would beat out the fibre of the oose and spin it into two strand twine about the size of a mason's chalk line. The little spinning machine was very simple, being made of two sticks. The handle was about five eights of an inch in diameter and twelve or fourteen inches long, being broader and heavier at one end and tapered to a point. On the extreme end was a button or 'doll's head,' about three-eights of an inch in diameter. This was where the material to be spun was attached, whether it was oose or horsehair. Near the knob, there was a hole through the whirling stick and the handle passed through this hole until the knob on the end prevented it from going clear through. This part was lubri­cated with deer tallow, and it was no trick at all to swing this spin­ner eight to one hundred revolutions per minute. The one that whirled the spinner sat still while the one that spun the fibre walked backwards with a bunch under one arm, then two or more strands were twisted together by turning the other way.11 The Paiute excelled at basket making and engaged in limited agricul­ture. They gathered seeds and pulverized t h em with stone grinders 32 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY and cooked t h em into a thick mush.1 2 Dried corn, red root seeds, mint, ground cherries, sunflower seeds, sego roots, mustard greens, and wild potatoes provided significant variety and nutrition. Members of the different bands and groups visited each other's territory to hunt, gather, and trade. Sometimes they intermarried and at other times they carried out raids to acquire women and children to sell as slaves. The Beaver group was among several groups that were more often the aggressors t h a n the victims in the slave raids.13 The fact that the Spanish Trail passed through Beaver County made it difficult to avoid p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e slave t r a d e by local Indians because of the high prices that were paid for young girls and boys who were sold as slaves at b o t h ends of the Spanish Trail-southern California and Santa Fe, New Mexico. The Paiutes first became acquainted with Euro-Americans in 1776 when the Dominguez-Escalante expedition passed t h r o u gh their territory. The Franciscan fathers recorded that near present-day Minersville was the southern extend of the "Bearded Yutas," w h om they had first encountered in the Pavant Valley of Millard County. Escalante described these Indians as " . . . people with long beards and pierced noses . . . [who] looked like Capuchin or Bethlemite fathers."14 Twenty years after the o p e n i n g of the Spanish Trail between Santa Fe, New Mexico, and Los Angeles, California, in 1830, Mormon pioneers arrived to settle first at Parowan in January 1851. Brigham Young and other Mormon leaders were successful in ending the slave trade along the Spanish Trail by the 1850s. Within twenty years most of the lands of the Paiutes, including those in Beaver County, had been settled by Mormons. The Paiutes responded by consolidating into larger groups, usually in the vicinity of the Mormon settlements, and with occasional acts of hostility toward the newcomers. For the most part, however, the Indians and Mormons lived peacefully, with the Paiutes trading deerskins and pine nuts to the Mormons for food and clothing.15 A few of the Paiutes were remembered for their ability wit h a b ow and arrow. On more t h a n one occasion, Pahshaunts impressed the local citizenry. According to Samuel D. Hutchings, " . . . a person could place biscuits on the points of a picket fence and Pahshaunts would get across the street with his bow and arrow and pick a biscuit off every shot."16 THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 33^ Itinerant Indians did cause trouble from time to time, including one assumed to be a Navajo who passed through Beaver County in November 1868 and stole a horse from William Allred. Pursuing the Indian across the mountains, Allred overtook him along the Sevier River between Circleville and Marysvale. After circling to get ahead, according to a Deseret News report, "When within about 20 or 25 yards from brother Allred, the latter fired one barrel of his shotgun loaded with five revolver bullets, which settled the account with Mr. Indian."17 In 1865 several Paiute leaders signed a treaty at Spanish Fork agreeing to relinquish their lands and move to the Ute Reservation in the Uintah Basin. No Paiutes made the move, and in 1873 the United States Commissioner of Indian Affairs sent a special commission headed by John Wesley Powell to Utah and Nevada to look into Indian problems including the removal of the Paiutes from areas of settlement. Given the hostility of Utes toward Paiutes, it was con­cluded that a better place for relocation than the Uintah Reservation would be the Moapa Reservation in Nevada. The Southern Utah Paiutes agreed to the move on the condition that they be provided sufficient aid to take care of themselves. However, few moved, and most of those who did returned. Little attention was given the Southern Utah Paiutes by the federal government after the 1870s In 1915 the Indian Peaks Reservation was established in western Beaver County-primarily as a home for the Beaver, Cedar, and Panaca Paiute groups. The Kanosh Reservation, established in 1929, drew a few Paiutes from the northern end of Beaver County. Residents of the Indian Peaks Reservation supported themselves with gardens and a few cattle, but the lack of sufficient income made it necessary to seek employment elsewhere, and by 1935 most residents of the Indian Peaks Reservation had moved away.18 One person who continued to reside on the reservation during the 1940s was named Old Jack. He claimed to be 100 years old and supported himself by making high quality bows and arrows which he sold throughout the state.19 The Indian Peaks Reservation and the Kanosh Reservation, along with the Shivwits and Koosharem reservations, were terminated from federal control in 1954 in a controversial action that was challenged by the Paiute tribe. After a long struggle, Congress passed and 34 HISTORY OF BEAVER COUNTY President Jimmy Carter signed into law the Paiute Restoration Act on 3 April 1980. The act restored to the approximately 500 members of the Southern Utah Paiute Tribe the rights enjoyed by other American Indians and provided for the r e t u r n of 15,000 acres of land to the Paiutes.20 In 1999 there are n o longer any members of the Paiute Tribe liv­ing in Beaver County. Nevertheless, the Paiute Indians and their pre­decessors- the Fremont, Archaic, and Paleo-Indian peoples-have left a rich, if only partially understood, history. ENDNOTES 1. For a general study of geology in Utah see William Lee Stokes, Geology of Utah (Salt Lake City: Utah Museum of Natural History and Utah Geological and Mineral Survey, 1986). 2. Ibid., 176. 3. Ibid., 179. 4. Claudia F. Berry, "Wildhorse Canyon Obsidian Quarry," National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination Form, September 1975; copy on file at the Utah State Historical Society. 5. Dorothy Sammons-Lohse, "Great Basin Style Rock Art Thematic Group," National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination Form, August 1981; copy on file at the Utah State Historical Society. 6. Isabel T. Kelly and Catherine S. Fowler, "Southern Paiute," in Warren L. D'Azevedo, Handbook of North American Indians Great Basin, Vol. 11, (Washington,DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986), 368. 7. William R. Palmer, Map of Paiute Bands, Special Collections, Southern Utah State University. 8. Kelly and Fowler, "Southern Paiute," 380. 9. Ibid., 370. 10. Ibid., 371. 11. Aird G. Merkley, ed., Monuments to Courage: A History of Beaver County (Milford: Beaver County Chapter of the Daughters of Utah Pioneers, 1948) 20-21. 12. Thomas J. Farnham, "Indians on the Old Spanish Trail," Utah Historical Quarterly, 2(July 1929), 78. 13. Kelly and Fowler, "Southern Paiute," 368-69. 14. Hebert E. Bolton, Pageant in the Wilderness: The Story of the THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE 35 Escalante Expedition to the Interior Basin, 1776 (Salt Lake City: Utah State Historical Society, 1972), 191. 15. Merkley, Monuments to Courage, 15-19. 16. Ibid., 26. 17. Deseret News, 16 November 1868. 18. Kelly and Fowler, "Southern Paiute," 390 19. Merkley, Monuments to Courage, 19. 20. Ronald L. Holt, "Paiute Indians of Utah," in Allan Kent Powell, ed. Utah History Encyclopedia (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1994), 408-10.