"Hey, Is This Vegan?": Exploring Vegan and Vegetarian Youth Experiences in Life and School

Eating a vegetarian or vegan diet can have many positive impacts including reducing the demand for meat and dairy which helps prevent more animals from experiencing inhumane treatment in factory farms, reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions, and improving one's individual health. The largest segment of the population that is adopting a vegan or vegetarian diet or lifestyle are Millennials and Gen Z. There is extremely limited research on vegetarian and vegan youth, so I conducted qualitative research to understand the following research questions: 1) What are the experiences of students in grades 4-12 along the Wasatch Front who are vegan or vegetarian? 2) What are their experiences with access to vegan or vegetarian school-supplied meals? In order to answer these questions, I gathered data through focus groups with participants along the Wasatch Front and the following five themes emerged: 1) vegan or vegetarian dishes are not consistently offered at school; 2) vegetarian and vegan students desire to feel included and respected; 3) there is a lack of awareness of what veganism is; 4) vegetarian and vegan youth experience microaggressions because of their diets; and 5) there are positive outcomes because of supportive families and with families and friends changing their diets.

VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES “Hey, Is This Vegan?”: Exploring Vegan and Vegetarian Youth Experiences in Life and School Brooke Stencil Westminster College A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in Community Leadership Westminster College Salt Lake City, Utah May 2023 VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES ii Abstract Eating a vegetarian or vegan diet can have many positive impacts including reducing the demand for meat and dairy which helps prevent more animals from experiencing inhumane treatment in factory farms, reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions, and improving one’s individual health. The largest segment of the population that is adopting a vegan or vegetarian diet or lifestyle are Millennials and Gen Z. There is extremely limited research on vegetarian and vegan youth, so I conducted qualitative research to understand the following research questions: 1) What are the experiences of students in grades 4-12 along the Wasatch Front who are vegan or vegetarian? 2) What are their experiences with access to vegan or vegetarian school-supplied meals? In order to answer these questions, I gathered data through focus groups with participants along the Wasatch Front and the following five themes emerged: 1) vegan or vegetarian dishes are not consistently offered at school; 2) vegetarian and vegan students desire to feel included and respected; 3) there is a lack of awareness of what veganism is; 4) vegetarian and vegan youth experience microaggressions because of their diets; and 5) there are positive outcomes because of supportive families and with families and friends changing their diets. Keywords: Vegetarian youth, vegan youth, microaggressions, National School Lunch Program, school food, animal rights, climate change, Gen Z VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES iii Dedication To the billions of animals that are forced to suffer and sacrifice during their too-short lives. You deserve better. To Gus, you are more incredible than I could have ever imagined. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES iv Acknowledgements To Dr. Shelley Erickson: thank you for your support during this project. I am immensely grateful to have had the opportunity to work with you. Thank you for all your comments, words of encouragement, and excitement around my research. You propelled me forward to the finish line. To all my professors, especially the following: Dr. Peggy Cain, thank you for creating this program. Your passion for making the world a more equitable place will continue to inspire me. Dr. Shawn Coon, thank you for your guidance during Capstone. You led us well. To Ashlee, Wil, Hollie, Riley, Josh, Sendys, Kelton, Ian, Elliott, Whitney, AlyDane, Joey, Jo, Lizzie, Aimee, Eric, Ruby, Min, Tiana, AJ, Lu, and Maggie: thank you for being part of my grad school experience. You all motivate me to be better and to continue learning. I wish you all the best on your journeys ahead! To Kate Wheeler: thank you for your guidance and validation of my findings. I am so grateful there are people like you working to develop a better future of food for our students. To Kelly and Jody: thank you for letting me try out my interview guide with you—you built my confidence and made me laugh harder than I had in some time. Kelly, thank you for your friendship throughout this program. You kept me social, active, and my spirits high. To my brothers: Eric, thanks for being able to make me laugh anytime we talk. Jeff, getting to talk to you—in person or on the phone—is one of my favorite ways to spend time. Thanks for being an inspiration of perseverance and excellence. Celebratory drinks at Javier’s soon! To my parents: Mom and Dad, thank you for instilling a love of learning in me and for always cheering me on. I may never have found this program if it wasn’t for your time at Westminster! To my fur family: Barry, thank you for all the warm blanket cuddles; Maggie, thank you for gracing me with your beautiful presence and for letting me pet you when I needed a pick-me-up; Odessa, thank you for being by my side throughout this program and basically any time I’m at home—you are the definition of unconditional love. Marvin and Wilford, I love and miss you always. To my participants: thank you for sharing your stories with me. I was amazed by each of you, and I thank you for your efforts to reduce harm towards animals and the environment. Without you, I wouldn’t have been able to conduct this study. To Gus: I hoped for you for a long time and loved carrying you with me through much of my grad school journey. I am in awe of you daily and will continue making efforts to give you the brightest future possible. To Eric: you are everything I could ever imagine in a partner. You supported me tremendously throughout this experience and I share this accomplishment with you. Thank you for encouraging me, believing in me, and for helping make my dreams come true. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES v Table of Contents Chapter I: Introduction………………………………………………………………………….1 Problem Statement………………………………………………………………………...1 Conceptual Frameworks…………………………………………………………………..2 Decolonial Theory………………………………………………………………...3 Feminist Theory…………………………………………………………………...4 Root Causes……………………………………………………………………………….5 Patriarchal Oppression and the Gendering of Food……………………………….5 Capitalism…………………………………………………………………………7 Study Context……………………………………………………………………………..8 Significance………………………………………………………………………...…….10 Positionality Statement…………………………………………………………………..11 Community Organization………………………………………………………………...12 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….13 Chapter II: Literature Review…………………………………………………………………14 A Brief History of Vegetarianism and Veganism………………………………………..14 History of Vegetarianism………………………………………………………...14 History of Veganism……………………………………………………………..15 Why People Choose a Vegetarian or Vegan Diet………………………………………..16 Vegetarianism and Veganism and Animal Rights……………………………….16 Vegetarianism and Veganism and Health………………………………..………17 Vegetarianism and Veganism and Climate Change…………………..………….18 Why Most People are Omnivores………………………………………………………..19 Lack of Awareness and Consideration about Food and Diet…………………….19 Societal Norms Around Gender and Masculinity………………………………..20 Vegan Stereotypes……………………………………………………………….22 Generation Z and Activism………………………………………………………………24 Food in Middle and Secondary Schools…………………………………………………26 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….31 Chapter III: Methods…...….…………………………………………………………………..32 Research Design: Phenomenology………………………………………………………32 VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES vi Participants………………………………………………………………………………33 Methods of Data Collection……………………………………………………………...33 Recruitment Plan…………………………………………………………………33 Focus Groups…………………………………………………………………….34 Participants………………………………………………………………………35 Conducting the Research……………………………………………………...…36 Assent/Consent Forms and Interview Guide…………………………………….37 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………….38 School Menu Review…………………………………………………………….39 Ethical Concerns and Potential Limitations……………………………………………...39 Validity Measures………………………………………………………………………..41 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….41 Chapter IV: Findings.…………………………………………………………………………..42 Inadequate Access to Nutritious Meals and Allergen Information………………………42 Existing Model in Place for Allergens…………………………………….……..49 Desire for Inclusion, Not to be Othered………………………………………….………52 Same but Different……………………………………………………………….52 Inclusion as Caring………………………………………………………………53 Lack of Awareness of Veganism…………………………………………………...……55 Vegan and Vegetarian Microaggressions………………………………………………..58 Dual Positive Impacts……………………………………………………………………62 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….65 Chapter V: Discussion………….………………………..……………………………………..66 Recommendations……………………………………………………………….……….66 Provide Well-Balanced Meals for Vegans and Vegetarians…………….……….66 Clearly Label Allergen Information………………………………….…………..67 Involve Students in Crafting the Menu………………………….……………….68 Become More Aware of Dietary Restrictions……………….…………………...68 Community Organization………………….…………………………….……….69 Future Research Ideas……………………………………………………………………69 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….70 VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES vii References……………………………………………………………………………………….72 Appendices.……………………………………………………………………………………...83 Appendix A: Research Flyer……………………………………………………………..83 Appendix B: Recruitment Script…………………………………………………………84 Appendix C: Minor Assent Form………………………………………………………..85 Appendix D: Adult Consent Form.………………………………………………………86 Appendix E: Interview Protocol.………………………………………………………...87 Appendix F: National Institutes of Health Training……………………………………..90 Appendix G: IRB Approval Form F………………………………………...…………...91 VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES viii List of Figures Figure 1: 1992 food guide pyramid by USDA……………………………………………..Page 28 Figure 2: 2005 MyPyramid by USDA……………………………………………………..Page 29 Figure 3: 2011 MyPlate by USDA…………………………………………………………Page 30 Figure 4: Sample lunch menu #1…………………………………………………………..Page 45 Figure 5: Sample lunch menu #2, after filtering out dairy, milk, and egg…………………Page 46 Figure 6: Sample lunch menu #3…………………………………………………………..Page 47 Figure 7: Nutrition information for the EZ Jammer Sandwich…………………………….Page 51 VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 1 Chapter I: Introduction Food plays a variety of roles in our lives—for everyone, it is a means of survival. Yet looking beyond its basic function, it can serve as a lifestyle, a form of self-expression, or an act of resistance. Choosing to eat a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle enables people to take a stance against animal cruelty, capitalism, and systemic patriarchal oppression. While not every person is able to make the choice to eat a vegetarian or vegan diet for any number of reasons including food scarcity, health reasons, or due to cultural standards, I wanted to explore the experiences of young people in the U.S. who had made this decision. Many younger people are choosing to eat a vegetarian or vegan diet and there is much to be understood about their experiences with vegetarianism or veganism, as well as their access to suitable foods at school. The following chapter will identify the problem statement for why I conducted this research, explore the conceptual frameworks and root causes that underpin the issues, describe the study context and significance, outline my positionality, and introduce the community organization I partnered with to validate and share my research. Problem Statement The population of people choosing to eat vegan, vegetarian, or even a diet that is a deliberate reduction in meat—especially the younger generations including Millennials and Generation Z—is growing (Gheihman, 2021). The range of vegetarianism spans several categories with flexitarians on one end, opting to partially remove meat from their diet to vegetarians in the middle, who do not consume any meat, and vegans on the other end, who abstain completely from consuming animal products (Christopher et al., 2018). There are many reasons people choose to eat a vegetarian or vegan diet including for their own health, out of respect for animals, and to eat a more climate-friendly diet (Sewell, 2020). It takes discipline, VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 2 education, and support to successfully maintain a vegetarian or vegan diet; otherwise, it can be easy to revert to a more traditional, Western diet of animal consumption due to the prevalence and cultural ubiquity of such foods. In K-12 schools, many students rely on school-supplied meals for breakfast and lunch. Currently public-school lunches across the country are subsidized through the United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and have requirements about the types of food that are served at each meal. Schools only get funding if they follow the requirements (Beleson, 2021; United States Department of Agriculture, 2017). The guidelines do not require school meals to accommodate a vegan or vegetarian diet and prevent students from being well-fed in a way that aligns with their personal values and/or health requirements. Therefore, my research questions were: 1) What are the experiences of students in grades 4-12 along the Wasatch Front who are vegan or vegetarian? 2) What are their experiences with access to vegan or vegetarian school-supplied meals? Conceptual Frameworks Food is necessary to our survival. People make decisions about food every single day, multiple times a day. Yet for many people there is a lack of education around the origin of the food they consume, specifically around the experiences of the animals involved. For people in positions where they can decide what they eat, their food choices are decisions that could be made in favor of animal justice; however, most of the time, people’s everyday food choices lead to animal suffering. Of the billions of land animals killed for food every year in the US, 90% are raised in factory farms which means living in extremely tight quarters, lacking basic needs such as sunlight, and suffering inhumane deaths (Maerz, 2020). Furthermore, choosing a vegetarian or vegan diet has been feminized and society is made to believe a diet of purely vegetables is VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 3 impossible to sustain one’s health (Adams, 2016). The Western diet is heavily meat-based and vague about the origin of its food which is deeply rooted in colonialism and sexism. The following sections will outline the foundation for decolonial and feminist theories, how coloniality determined the traditional Western diet, and will explore the effect our food choices have on oppressing women and animals. Decolonial Theory Decolonial theory offers approaches to reclaim knowledges, resources, and ways of living that were taken from Indigenous peoples during settler colonization beginning in the late fifteenth century (Quijano, 2007; Tuck & Yang, 2012). Settler colonists from Europe came to many other parts of the world to wipe out existing ways of living by Indigenous peoples through elimination of beliefs, symbols, production of knowledge, along with removal of the people from their land and genocidal removal of Indigenous peoples altogether (Grosfugel, 2011; Quijano, 2007; Tuck & Yang, 2012). With colonization, several hierarchies and systems of power were established that valued humans over all other species, and within the human category, privilege was given to humans that are male, white, Christian, heterosexual, able-bodied men above all others (FigueroaHelland & Lindgren, 2016; Grosfugel, 2011). Similarly, the dominance of the colonizers brought about the valuation of rational thought over non-linear ways of knowing which arise through passion, intuition, empathy, and animality (Figueroa-Helland & Lindgren, 2016). By privileging rationalism, there is lower tolerance for emotions—something frequently connected to women; for instincts—something often tied to animals; and for co-existing and respecting animals as species that have just as much of a right as humans to live and enjoy the land. Similarly, these hierarchies work to allow the permeation of the perspective that subaltern cultures were inferior VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 4 to the Western way of living which has been seen throughout the last 500 years through racism, classism, and sexism. Decolonial theory focuses on combating neoliberalism and on living more harmoniously with the land and all its inhabitants, devaluing individualization, and learning from the “borders” to uplift the voices of the marginalized and find a more equitable and harmonious way of living (Figueroa-Helland & Lindgren, 2016). Along with robbing of land, resources and knowledge and establishing the hierarchies, the colonization of America also brought about the new form of power via world capitalism which commodified labor of both humans and animals (Quijano, 2000). Feminist Theory As a result of settler colonialism, women were not viewed as equivalent to men, but as a lesser, submissive person whose role was to reproduce the Euro-centric white race and manage the home (Lugones, 2010). Within feminist theory is the ecofeminist critique that looks at the connection between the subordination of women to men and the destruction of our ecosystems through capitalism and human consumption (Bauhardt, 2013; Mellor, 2006). Ecofeminism compares the intellectual value that is placed on men with the value placed on women being their bodies and the nurturing work they provide. Women’s reproductive work is the responsibility of creating and caring for children and aging parents and is not compensated like traditional men’s work. The woman’s work is taken advantage of in the same way humans take advantage of natural resources. Mellor (2006) uses the ecofeminist political economy to outline life in a male-experience (ME) economy. In the ME economy products are consumed without consideration for what went into the production of them. The worker in this economy does not take on work that is typically associated with women. Similarly in a ME economy, one is not beholden to natural growing VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 5 cycles, or the resources required to provide the goods they require. Waste is not given much reflection, except to offload in a marginalized community to not devalue the ME economy’s environment. Taking this concept and applying it to food, the ME economy perpetuates the lack of awareness of where food comes through the lack of consideration for animal circumstances, both in living conditions and cruel treatment of animals like dairy cows. The milk and cheese produced from dairy cows is not given a second thought about why that life sustaining resource was not provided to the newborn calf, but rather assumes the purpose of its production is to satisfy cravings for savory snacks and the human body’s demands for calcium. Root Causes Connecting the conceptual frameworks to the root causes, decolonial and feminist theories illuminate how patriarchal oppression has contributed to the gendering of food. This has perpetuated the traditional Western diet and emphasized the need for meat at all meals. Likewise, capitalism has prioritized profit over life and found news ways, like factory farming, to produce more food out of less space and fewer resources. Within capitalism, it is also worth noting the influence the government has had on establishing what foods are perceived to be necessary in a healthy diet and the “necessity” of meat and dairy to gain one’s required nutrients. Patriarchal Oppression and the Gendering of Food Both decolonial and feminist theories are crucial in explaining why people eat the type of foods that we do. It starts by examining the way food is gendered. Carol J. Adam’s (2016) book The Sexual Politics of Meat is dedicated to examining how meat is masculinized and notes the consumption of meat in a Western society is masculine and all other foods are feminine. In a patriarchal society, masculinity is valued higher than femininity; therefore, eating meat is a form of power and oppresses other groups including women and animals. Historically, within the VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 6 typical patriarchal household, the man was ensured to have a generous amount of meat with his meal, while the women and children were typically consuming meals of grains and vegetables. This substantiated meat as masculine and diets that lacked meat were viewed as feminine. Colloquially speaking, the use of the word meat or beef as positive things, for example “to get to the meat of an argument” or “to beef something up” are getting to the point or making something more substantial (Adams, 2016). In contrast, a vegetable colloquially is indicative of someone who lives a passive life. One example of colonization leading to the gendering of food and westernizing of diets is with British colonizers in the mid 1700s in India. The British colonized India during this time and one component to the colonization was feminizing traditional Indian diets (Carson 2021). Traditionally Indian people’s diets were primarily vegetarian and through colonization, constructed the vegetarian diet as effeminate and standardized Western masculinity through images of virility and meat-eating. Traditional displays of Western masculinity can be seen through displays of dominance over another being through sexual prowess, violence, and rationality—all of which are exemplified through meat-eating practices (Carson, 2021). This serves as a reminder for why meat-eating is so common and supports why eating meat and other animal byproducts is considered the norm in today’s society. Using the feminist framework to understand how food—beyond meat—is subject to patriarchal oppression, one needs to consider the source of their food. Milk and cheese are the products of a nursing cow and instead of the milk going to the hungry calf, the mother is separated from her newborn and mechanically milked to produce food for humans. As decolonial theory outlines, anthropocentrism places humans over all other living beings and justifies the treatment towards the cows. Furthermore, capitalism fuels the perpetuation of the abuse by VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 7 demanding more output for less money. Western masculinity is built on dominating others and empowering man (human and male) over all others. Looking beyond animal-derived food and applying the ecofeminist framework, one can see the gendering of the world around us. How we refer to the planet as Mother Earth and the taking of her resources as pillaging or likening the act to rape are ways gender is applied to justify the use and oppression of the land (Carson 2021). Capitalism In the exploration of food origin, it is helpful to understand the commodification of food and the role it plays in capitalism. The goal is to maximize the return on investment and within capitalism, profit is prioritized over people. For example, if people or corporations will profit more off food being used as livestock feed to create more beef and dairy versus using that food to directly feed hungry people, it will be used as livestock feed to maximize profits (Shiva, 2009). Consistent with capitalism, industrial agriculture looks for ways to produce more food at a lower cost. Since the 1980s, meat purchasing companies set low prices for what they would pay, forcing farmers to find more inhumane and unhealthy methods to raise livestock to slaughtering weight (Guthman, 2011). This included the use of hormones and antibiotics on the animals to speed up the time it took to sell. The government has an important role in determining food availability and cost to consumers. There is an imbalance of how government subsidies are distributed amongst farmers, most notably with meat and dairy industries receiving up $38 billion each year to subsidize their goods and less than one percent of that amount going toward the production of fruits and vegetables (Sewell, 2020). With the vast majority of subsidizing happening in the meat and dairy industry, it inevitably puts more pressure to increase production at lower costs. Capitalism is a leading cause of animal suffering as it puts pressure to efficiently increase production of meat VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 8 and dairy at the cost of humane animal treatment. Evidence points to needing to reduce animal protein consumption or else risking inflated prices of meat which will disproportionately affect the poor and lead to heightened food insecurity (Aiking, 2014). Government, along with food businesses and civil society should be responsible for enacting the transition to less animal protein in diets (Aiking, 2014). Decolonial and feminist theories help us understand how food and Western diets have been shaped from settler colonial-inflicted hierarchies that lead to power dynamics of where our food comes from and why we eat the food we eat. Capitalism has heavily influenced the creation and growth of factory farming which leads to inhumane treatment and deaths of billions of animals every year. The government has influenced what food is available through subsidizing which plays a significant role in people, families, and youth eat. By understanding the root causes and their impact, we can apply these frameworks to uncover more equitable and just ways of eating, specifically in our schools. Study Context The research took place virtually with participants that were vegetarian or vegan at the time of the study. The participants were located along the Wasatch Front in the state of Utah. This region was selected as it is where I resided and has many thriving vegan and vegetarian restaurants, a substantial vegan community as evidenced by Facebook groups, annual VegFest, and several nonprofits focused on promoting veganism. All of this indicates the interest in veganism and vegetarianism along the Wasatch Front. The participants were between the ages of 10 and 17 and were a mix of vegan and vegetarian, although predominantly vegan. My research was conducted in November 2022 through February 2023. During this time, there was much to be anxious about. There was a deepening division across the country VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 9 regarding politics with more extremist beliefs, a war happening in eastern Europe with tensions rising about nuclear war, and gun violence increasing since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, especially amongst children (Jay et al., 2023). Furthermore, climate change continues to be a pressing issue. Recently, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released a report indicating an inevitable rise in temperatures and need to limit human-created greenhouse gas emissions (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2021). One large contributing factor to the climate crisis is people’s consumption of animals for food. Several billion animals are slaughtered every year yet there is no need for humans to consume animals to obtain a nutritious diet. There is a growing movement amongst young people and parents to adopt a healthier, animal-free diet (Gheihman, 2021). However there are limited options for plant-based school meals in Utah K-12 public schools due to the requirements of government-funded meals (United States Department of Agriculture, 2017). My research was conducted with participants along the Wasatch Front—a multi-city area near the Wasatch Mountains in Utah. This geographic area was where I was physically located and was familiar with the schools and various neighborhoods as I had lived here over thirteen years. It also included several populous cities to widen the sample pool of participants. I had access to a few people, mainly parents who ate a vegan or vegetarian diet or knew other parents in the area that did to begin outreach to as well as a network of fellow vegetarians and vegans through online groups I was a member of. I used qualitative research to conduct my study with focus groups being the specific methodology. I used focus groups instead of individual interviews as I believed the comfort level would be higher when there were a few participants and myself, compared to a one-on-one interview setting. Likewise, focus groups provided a setting conducive to participants sharing VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 10 common experiences and addressing issues together (Johnson, 2017). As I created the focus groups, I aimed to cluster similar aged individuals together. There is a wide range of comfortability, experiences, and relatability among sixth through twelfth graders and I anticipated some feelings of intimidation from the younger participants if there was too wide of an age range. I was mostly able to do this; however, it was more so by chance as I had a more difficult time than anticipated in finding participants. While the vegetarian and vegan community along the Wasatch Front, particularly in Salt Lake City, is strong, finding youths that wanted to participate and had parental or guardian permission made finding potential participants challenging. Significance There are many upsides to reducing meat and animal consumption in one’s diet. 14.5% of greenhouse gas emissions come from livestock with the production of beef noted as the largest contributor (Kristiansen et al., 2021). Several years ago, the IPCC identified that changing to more sustainable diets is an underdeveloped way to fight back against climate change (IPCC, 2014). More than 90% of meat in the U.S. comes from factory farms where both animals and the workers exist in inhumane environments (Maerz, 2020). Choosing to reduce meat and other animal byproducts in one’s diet can enable people to mitigate climate change, demonstrate compassion for others, while potentially improving one’s own health. There is a common negative association with vegetarians and vegans as the decision to remove or reduce animal products from one’s diet is contrary to Western cultural norms (Markowski, 2019). I wanted to explore the experiences of youth who have chosen this lifestyle and understand more about the options and barriers they have at school. By better understanding youth’s experiences with vegetarianism and veganism, especially at school, I was able to provide my findings back to the VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 11 Salt Lake City School District to offer up where improvements can be made. In addition, I began connecting with local nonprofits, members of the Salt Lake City government, and other school districts to share my research. Getting the findings out to as many people as possible will be helpful not just in supporting our vegan and vegetarian youth, but also in educating the community and advocating for animal and climate justice. There is opportunity to better understand the experiences of vegetarian and vegan youth as there is limited research in this area. There is opportunity to incorporate more vegan options into school menus—when including vegan options on the school menu, more than 50% of meals sold were the vegan menu offerings and researchers felt it would help food service directors meet nutritional guidelines and improve the health of the children (Eckart et al., 2010). In my review, most research that has been conducted has taken place outside of the U.S. and there is very limited research on youth that are vegetarian or vegan. My research will contribute by adding student voices and experiences to help guide the future of food in schools. Positionality Statement I have chosen to eat a vegan diet over the last several years as I became more informed about animal cruelty, the contribution animal agriculture has on carbon emissions, and general health benefits of removing animal products from my diet. The catalyst for my change came after reading Eating Animals by Jonathan Safran Foer (2009) in 2010 and learning about the cruelties of factory farming. Embarrassingly, I had not given the origin of the food I consumed daily a second thought. Likewise, I had always loved animals and came to the startling realization about the indirect harm I was needlessly causing the animals. From there, I spent about twelve years learning more about the source of my food and removed land animals from my diet. I was inconsistent with my commitment to veganism for several reasons including cravings, influence VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 12 from people around me, and feeling hungry with limited vegan options readily available. Given my journey with vegetarianism and what it took for me to fully embrace a vegan lifestyle, I was able to empathize well with my participants. I do not believe perfection is achievable and was understanding of all interest levels. Although I was not able to directly relate to my participants as they are much younger than me and attending grade school, I do have a vested interest in the future of food at school. While working on the capstone project I became pregnant and birthed a beautiful baby boy. My husband and I plan to raise him vegan, and I am hopeful that when he begins grade school, vegan and vegetarian diets will be more understood, accepted, and accessible at school and in the community. I fit within the vegan stereotype as I am a white, upper middle-class woman. I recognize that eating a plant-based diet indicates my financial ability to buy the food I want, rather than the food I need. My family and friends have been gracious and encouraging in this journey and it is important to note that my spouse is also vegan, which means I have support in my home. I strongly believe that animals have the right to a safe and fulfilling life and that our food system as it functions today is unjust to the animals, the workers, the surrounding communities, and the natural world. I recognized these beliefs likely were not the same beliefs of those I interviewed and was aware of this as I conducted my research to eliminate as much bias as possible. Community Organization I worked with a project supervisor as well as with a nonprofit organization during my research and completion of my thesis. My project supervisor was Kate Wheeler, Farm to School Procurement Specialist at the Utah State Board of Education. I interviewed Kate early in the Master of Arts in Community Leadership program to investigate the opportunity for my research VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 13 topic. Kate was extremely knowledgeable about school supplied meals in the Salt Lake City School District. She was a fantastic resource for my thesis and helped to validate my findings as she is very involved in the food supply aspect of the school district. She was also able to advise me best on how to share my research findings to have the most impact. Conclusion For my research, I conducted focus groups and reviewed the data through a decolonial and feminist lens to better understand the state of vegetarian and vegan youth in the Salt Lake City community. Most research to date has been focused on vegetarian and vegan adults, exploring concepts like why people choose to go vegan, the experiences of vegan people, and sensory appeal with meat alternatives. There has been some research conducted with vegan youth; however, the research that I have found has taken place outside of the U.S. I am excited to expand this body of research and create more understanding of vegan/vegetarian youth’s experiences in this country. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 14 Chapter II: Literature Review Before conducting research to better understand the experiences of vegetarian and vegan youth in Salt Lake City, specifically with their experiences with food at school, it was important to conduct a thorough review of existing research. The following chapter explores a brief history of vegetarianism. This leads to defining veganism and the core reasons why people choose to be vegan, along with why people continue eating animals. From there, I define and explore the generation that I will be conducting research with, Gen Z, and their attitudes towards activism and veganism. Lastly, I evaluate food at school and existing programs that limit vegetarianism and veganism for today’s youth. It is important to understand the experiences of this population as they have decided to change their diet, and potentially even lifestyle, for the betterment of either personal health, health of the planet, and/or the sake of animal rights. Learning what challenges they face and how they can be better supported to succeed as a vegetarian or vegan will not only support today’s burgeoning generation, but also the climate and animals that we share this land with. A Brief History of Vegetarianism and Veganism History of Vegetarianism Vegetarianism, the practice of removing meat, fish, and poultry from one’s diet, has been a way of life as early as the 6th century B.C. (Frey, 2013). Frey notes that religion is the primary driver for why people choose to be vegetarian with Hinduism accounting for 70% of all practicing vegetarians worldwide. There are several variations of vegetarianism beyond the standard removal of meat products to allow for some flexibility in diet while still having an impact on animal rights, environmental justice, and personal health. For example, ovo- VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 15 vegetarians will remove dairy from their diet, but still eat eggs; a flexitarian will mostly eat vegetarian diet but allow for some meat consumption on special occasions. Despite the various benefits that a vegetarian diet offers, there is still a relatively low population of vegetarians. In a recent study, researchers found approximately 10% of adults 18 and over in the United States consider themselves some form of vegetarian (Norwood & Bir, 2018). This was compared to a survey conducted prior to that, during 2013 to 2017, found only 5% of Americans to be vegetarian or vegan, indicating a rise in the population of people adopting this lifestyle. This indicates there is a rise in those adopting a vegan or vegetarian diet. When exploring where the growing interest in the two diets is coming from, it can be linked to the younger generations. There has been an increase in environmental awareness and desire to shift to a meat-free or vegan diet when looking at both youth and young adults (Goyal et al., 2020). Gen Z especially has been keenly aware of the looming threat of climate change, and I believe, and want to explore further through my research, is likely more inclined to take personal action through an effort like reducing meat consumption in their diets. History of Veganism Eating a vegan diet has also become more popular in the last decade or so and can be traced back to thousands of years ago during biblical times. There is an example in the Hebrew Bible of servants eating vegetables and drinking water for ten days; they were found in better health than those who had consumed the “royal rations” (Frey, 2017). Veganism has grown in popularity in the last several decades since its official origin. In 1944, Donald Watson coined the term vegan by removing the middle letters of the word vegetarian and stating that veganism signifies “the beginning and the end of vegetarian” (Frey, 2017, para. 1). Similarly, Watson defined veganism as removing all animal products from one’s life to a larger degree than VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 16 vegetarianism (Hertweck, 2021). Hertweck also notes that Donald Watson created the Vegan Society the same year to identify veganism as a lifestyle and guidelines for what being vegan entails. The need for this group arose from guidelines of vegetarianism not doing enough to reduce animal exploitation. The vegan diet was clearly defined by the Vegan Society—which involved removing all animal products including eggs, dairy, and honey—however Leslie J. Cross noticed a lack of definition around veganism (The Vegan Society, 2022). Cross’ definition was established in 1949 and defined veganism as “the principle of the emancipation of animals from exploitation by man” (para. 2). Over time the definition has become more robust to specifically note the various places animal products should be avoided such as clothing and entertainment, and to promote the development of alternative materials. Why People Choose a Vegetarian or Vegan Diet The reason people choose a vegetarian or vegan diet can come from a variety of reasons such as health concerns, animal rights issues, and environmental activism (Goyal et al., 2020; Wright, 2015). Vegetarianism and veganism is a form of activism, whether it is advocating for one’s own self, being a voice for the voiceless, or protecting the well-being of the planet, there are many excellent reasons why people go vegetarian or vegan. Vegetarianism and Veganism and Animal Rights There are several paths that lead someone to remove meat from their diet. The primary reason in the Western world is ethical and moral through demonstrating compassion to animals by refusing to use them for food and not supporting an inhumane animal agriculture industry (Hoek et al., 2004). Many vegans recognize the imbalance the Western civilization has caused and actively choose a more empathetic lifestyle by not consuming animal products (Stepaniak, 2000). In the 1970s, Richard Ryder came up with the term speciesism which has many iterations VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 17 on its definition but essentially places humans above all other species and allows for the discrimination and exploitation of non-human species (Ryder & Singer, 2017). People who eat vegetarian or vegan and live a vegan lifestyle—meaning removing consumption of animals in not only diet, but also clothes, home goods, and all other aspects of life to the extent possible— are fighting back against speciesism and aiming to create a more just world. Animal agriculture, specifically factory farming, upholds speciesism as billions of animals suffer throughout their short lives to inevitably end up as food for humans (Fetissenko, 2011; Williams 2008). For the last eighty or so years, factory farms have been created to increase production of animal food products in the smallest space possible to increase profits (DeGrazia, 2002). Most consumers do not realize the conditions of the farm where their animal food products come from as “ag gag laws” have enforced penalties or criminalization for those who attempt to access and share information about factory farms (Sanders, 2019). However, some activists have risked their safety and have captured footage from inside—and it is unimaginably horrific. There are hens with beaks cut off and living in poorly ventilated spaces, cows transported for days without food to their death in which workers do not use a high enough voltage on a stun gun to properly put them unconscious before slaughter; workers urinating on the work floor to ensure they meet their quota of cows being put to their death (DeGrazia, 2002). For people who happen upon or take the time to learn about factory farming, it can be highly influential in their desire to become vegan or vegetarian. Vegetarian and Veganism and Health For those observing a vegetarian or vegan diet due to health reasons, the benefits can include lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease, obesity, and type 2 diabetes (Craig, 2009; Faber et al., 2020). Likewise, a review of observational studies found an inverse relationship VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 18 between a diet high in plant-based foods and risk for overall cancer (DeClercq et al., 2022). Among the various reasons one may eat a vegetarian or vegan diet, the health-based vegan appears to have the best perception amongst general society. In a study done to evaluate perceptions amongst omnivores of vegans, health-based vegans who advocated for their diet were found to be more socially attractive and elicited a more receptive response (De Groeve et al., 2022). This is likely because it does not challenge omnivores food choices as the healthbased vegan has made dietary changes to improve their own life. Vegetarianism and Veganism and Climate Change Another reason people choose to eat a vegetarian or vegan diet is the reduction a nonmeat eater’s diet has on their individual carbon footprint. The United Nations anticipates that due to population growth, by 2050 there will need to be about 70% more food production than today’s output to feed everyone (Bogueva & Marinova, 2022). To achieve this, society will need to shift to consuming foods that rely less on deforestation and Earth’s natural resources to a more sustainable diet that uses a smaller footprint to produce. Likewise, animal agriculture is one of the leading causes of greenhouse gas emissions, comprising 14.5% of human-induced emissions, tied with global transportation (Kristiansen et al., 2021). Switching to a well-balanced, plant-based diet can lead to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 29-70% (Springmann et al., 2016). A different study in Australia upholds this by finding a vegan diet has the highest potential for lessening greenhouse gases as well as the resources needed to feed the population (Candy et al., 2019). However, an ovo-vegetarian diet has only slightly higher emissions than a vegan diet, due to more unusual ingredients found in vegan recipes to substitute meat and dairy (Kolbe, 2020). Whether one is an ovo-vegetarian or a vegan, there is a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions due to the diets being meat-free. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 19 Youth who have made the decision to reduce or remove animal products from their diets and lifestyles likely understand to some extent, the positive impact of their choices. There is a lot of good that comes from making more sustainable food choices. Yet, with so many benefits for why people should reduce their meat and animal consumption, it begs the question of why do people still eat meat? Why Most People are Omnivores Many people eat an omnivore diet—a mix of plants and animals—because it is considered normal in Western society (Joy, 2020). Joy (2020) goes on to label and define a new term, carnism, as “the belief system that conditions us to eat certain animals” (p. 19). Similar to the way patriarchy existed for thousands of years prior to feminists labeling it, Joy posits that carnism has also existed as an invisible ideology in the United States. While there has been a growing interest and population of vegetarians and vegans over the last decade, three times as many people identify with having been vegetarian before, but not currently, than are currently vegetarian (Hodson & Earle, 2018). It can be difficult to change dietary habits for several reasons— lack of knowledge about where food comes from, lack of consideration about one’s diet, and existing societal structures are factors in why people eat meat. Lack of Awareness and Consideration about Food and Diet Most people do not have an accurate sense of where their food comes from nor the impact their food has on people, animals, and the environment. Willful ignorance comes into play in which people often refuse to want to learn more about factory farming or the origin of their food (Williams, 2008). Furthermore, the use of non-animal related terms like “pork” and “meat” keeps the direct link from food to animal out of consumer’s minds (Adams, 2016; Cantrell, 2016). This lack of consideration is often a factor when people purchase their groceries VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 20 as there is no direct connection to the life that was lost to produce the cut of beef or slice of bacon. The location where the food was grown, the people and animals responsible from creation to final product, the miles food traveled to arrive on the plate, the conditions for the workers and animals involved—there is a lack of awareness in what goes into the production of food. A best estimate suggests the average distance food travels is around 1,500 miles; however, there is no way to accurately quantify average distance traveled, but it is helpful to guide a localfirst approach (Schnell, 2013). The locavore movement encourages people to purchase food from locally grown sources which tends to support a more ethical way to be a consumer (Borghini et al., 2021; Young, 2020). In support of locavorism, research compares the environmental impact of consuming meat versus fruit and found if a banana travelled six times around the planet, it would still have a smaller climate footprint of eating local red meat (Cockshaw, 2021). However, without access to this type of information, it is easy for people to visit a grocery store and expect to see the food they need or desire on the shelves. It is hard to be aware of something needing to change when there is no way of knowing the pain, miles traveled, and actual cost to procure something like a tri-tip steak. Societal Norms Around Gender and Masculinity Historically meat was hunted by men and in an anthropocentric view, is a means of exemplifying the conquering of another being (Adams, 2016; Carson, 2021). Specifically, consumption of red meat is closely linked to male identity and cisgender, heterosexual, masculinity in Western culture (Loughnan et al., 2014; Tucker, 2014). In comparing the perception of vegetarians to omnivores, vegetarian men were viewed as less masculine than omnivorous men, yet there was no clear differentiation between female participants’ masculinity VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 21 based on diet (Ruby & Heine, 2011). Similarly, gender plays an important role in meat remaining a central part of the meal. Men have a higher propensity for meat consumption and women have a higher likelihood for eating plant-based diets (Graça et al., 2015b). Further implicating the desire to or not to change, an evaluation of people’s attachment to meat found people who have a higher attachment to eating meat are less inclined to lower their meat consumption or switch to a plant-based diet (Graça et al., 2015a). Men have a stronger attachment to eating meat than women and their desire to continue eating meat is coupled with avoiding information that may challenge the status quo (Leach et al., 2022). This brings together two themes—meat consumption is stronger with men and may lead to a willful ignorance about the origin and implications of their food. Combined, this could be an area to further explore to understand what may lead to a reduction or removal of meat in the diet of self-identified masculine men. In order to explore how youth were perceived by others as a vegetarian or vegan, it was important to understand what led them down this path and explore the gender norms that might be at play. In wanting to understand attachment to meat beyond gender norms, people feel meat has preferred sensory appeal in terms of taste and texture (Tucker 2014). When asked why omnivores choose to eat meat, it is simply because they prefer the taste of meat (Loughnan et al., 2014). Exploring this notion further, people prefer both the texture and taste of meat, which explains why meat substitutes are less favorable (Graça et al., 2015b). Examining meat substitutes as alternatives to meat, there was more openness to meat alternatives depending on the meal it was served with—in this example, meat alternatives were more favorable in pasta than in soup (Hartmann & Siegrist, 2017). Meat alternatives need to closely resemble meat in regard to taste, texture, and similar preparation methods to potentially replace meat (Michel et al., 2021). In the past several years there has been an influx of plant-based meat substitute brands VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 22 such as Impossible Burger and Beyond Meat that bring a strong resemblance to traditional meat. There is opportunity to explore if the recent meat substitutes that more closely emulate animal meat are close enough substitutions that consumers, especially Gen Z, might eat. Vegan Stereotypes While there is some negative treatment toward vegetarians, the mistreatment is heighted towards vegans as it is a more extreme version of vegetarianism. Should someone consider switching to vegetarian or vegan diet, another barrier to doing so comes from the way vegans are portrayed in society. Because veganism stretches beyond just a diet and is woven into all aspects of life, identifying as a vegan is truly a lifestyle. It is a lifestyle that brings moral character into question for people who do consume animal products and swims upstream against social norms. This conflict has resulted in the stereotyping of vegans into a negative light. Vegans are labeled as self-righteous, hypocritical, judgmental, opinionated, and self-righteous which can lead to discrimination and othering of this population (Gregson et al., 2022). Similarly, in evaluating bias towards minority groups, vegans can be treated with a similar amount of bias, prejudice, and discrimination (MacInnis & Hodson, 2017). This indicates that vegans should be viewed as a minority group that is treated more negatively than non-vegans. Because of these stereotypes, vegetarians and vegans are subject to mistreatment from omnivores. Marginalized communities are oft recipients of microaggressions—frequent covert negative comments and slights that communicate opposition and create an unwelcoming environment (Mohajeri, 2020, Sue et al., 2007). Microaggressions have most commonly been associated with race and can be broken down into three categories: microassaults, microinsults, and microinvalidations (Sue et al., 2007). Microassaults tend to be more obvious and intentional put downs of an individual. Microinsults are much less obvious and likely unknown to the perpetrator and have the intention VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 23 of subtly offending someone. Lastly, microinvalidations aim to diminish a person’s experiences and feelings. All of these I believe could be applicable to vegetarian or vegan people’s experiences. More recently, microaggressions have been associated with other marginalized groups including gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, among others. From my research, I did not find any scholarly articles on vegetarian or vegan microaggressions; however, I believe this group of people does experience microaggressions as explained further in Chapter IV. People with food allergies are a similar group that comparisons can be drawn upon. For example, someone with a peanut allergy would need to be acutely aware of the ingredients in food to ensure they do not become ill or worse. Much like the bias noted previously for vegans, those with peanut allergies suffer from mistreatment. Of survey participants with peanut allergies, 52% reported bullying due to their allergy (Tsoumani et al., 2022). While some participants noted their allergy had a minimal impact on their lives, others reported it having several negative effects on their daily lives. People with peanut and other allergies are unable to eat foods containing allergens due to health concerns. There is a more severe consequence if someone with an allergy consumes foods they cannot compared to a vegetarian or vegan. However, a moral vegetarian or vegan may suffer psychological distress by unknowingly breaking their moral commitment and should still be considered serious, although serious in a different way than those with allergies. Through my research, I was curious to learn more from the participants about how vegans and vegetarians are perceived in their homes, social circles, and in school. The traditional vegan stereotype may impact vegan or vegetarian youth self-esteem and sense of belonging amongst their peers at school. Through my research, I am hopeful opportunities will arise for VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 24 how schools can normalize the vegetarian and vegan diets through the commentary from my participants. Generation Z and Activism The youngest generation of legal adults are known as Generation Z or Gen Z, comprised of people born between 1995-2010 (Bencsik et al., 2016). This generation is garnering a reputation for themselves as being socially connected, well-educated, aware of environmental and social injustices and generators of momentum behind social causes (Bogueva & Marinova, 2022). They are the first generation to grow up with the internet at their fingertips and have heightened awareness of global issues that pose a threat to their futures. Gen Z, similar to the preceding generation of Millennials, are categorized as “digital natives” meaning they are fluent in the digital language of technology, use the Internet for both information and play, and immerse themselves in video games (Prensky, 2001). Because of this consistent access to information, Gen Z is well connected to global events that pose as looming threats to their futures. Gen Z uses social media as a digital megaphone to make their voices heard and is considered a generation that wants to make a difference and likes to discuss meaningful topics that will impact their lives (Powell et al., 2021). Likewise, research indicates Gen Z makes informed decisions about their food, looking for sustainability and healthy food options when making their choices (Su et al., 2019). While Gen Z is more aware and active about social justice issues, and should be lauded for their activism, it is unfair of older generations to place the onus on the younger generation to fix the world’s problems. Often, the media applauds Gen Z for their efforts and demands, yet fails to provide meaningful change (Hess, 2021). This ties back into the general lack of awareness around vegetarianism and veganism. The burden should not be placed on our youth to inform adults on what the issues are and ways to work towards solving them. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 25 One key issue that many people including Gen Z are focused on is the climate crisis. A study was conducted in Australia with Gen Z about the leading factors that cause climate change, and about 85% participants cited coal, fossil fuels, and other unsustainable sources of energy as the leading cause (Bogueva & Marinova, 2022). However, only 38% noted livestock and meat consumption as factors leading to climate change and felt ethical issues were main drivers of reducing meat consumption. Another study in the United Kingdom found only a minority of “conscious consumers” amongst Gen Z participants understood the impact of food system issues and climate change (Food Standards Agency, 2020). While Gen Z is attuned to social movements, there seems to be some limitation on awareness of the impact a vegan or vegetarian diet can have on climate change. In reviewing Gen Z and their experiences with veganism, a study was conducted during the Covid-19 pandemic of young adults and their attempts to switch to a vegan diet. The findings showed that participants who had supportive friends and family were better able to maintain the new diet (Williams et al., 2023). Vegan diets were reverted or altered if the participants had a hard time finding a suitable replacement for the typical animal product, with some participants taking up a flexitarian diet. Another struggle for some participants was a lack of approval from non-vegans about their dietary changes and that leading to unsuccessfully pursuing a full vegan diet. This may relate back to carnism and eating meat is just the way it is, the societal norms that are deeply ingrained in people’s ways of living, and vegan stereotyping that eating this way is not normal. There is opportunity for schools to support vegetarian and vegan youth by providing food options that are consistent with vegetarian and vegan diets. This would help to normalize different dietary needs and be one less aspect of the students’ lives that make it difficult to find the nutritious and sustainable food options they seek. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 26 Food in Middle and Secondary Schools The USDA has played a large role in influencing food prices and advised citizens, especially youth, on what types of food to eat. In 1946, the USDA initiated the NSLP which was established allow all students to each a nutritious lunch for low or no cost (Martin, 2011). However, it was also implemented to ensure purchase and consumption of domestically grown foods (Guthman, 2011; Martin, 2011). The USDA gave reimbursements to schools that used the surplus food and mandated proportions of dairy and other proteins (meat) that came from surplus commodities. This forced the hand of school food suppliers to purchase meat and dairy for school meals instead of more nutrient-rich, health-conscious foods. The NSLP also provides nutritional standards for what is served in schools and provides lunch to nearly 40% of children in America (Stern et al., 2022). The government has an important role to play in shaping the foods many children are provided, yet there has been little movement to advance nutritional guidelines to more sustainable, meat and animal reduced meals despite evidence of its impact on the environment and growth in dietary needs and preferences of today’s youth. In 2010, the Healthy Hunger Free Kids Act (HHFKA) was created and improved nutritional standards for the NSLP (United States Department of Agriculture, 2013). In addition to this, another positive change came in 2012 when the USDA updated the NSLP to allow commercially prepared tofu as a protein option (United States Department of Agriculture, 2016). To inform schools on what is eligible, the USDA provides a buying guide for school food providers outlining what qualifies as meat and meat alternatives (United States Department of Agriculture, n.d.). Meat alternatives includes legumes, tempeh, peanut butter and other nut butters, soy yogurt, and of course, tofu. This a step towards progress, but without requiring it as an option, it is up to the Food Service Director for the school district to determine whether tofu or other meat alternatives are VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 27 included on the menu. This requires the Food Service Director to be open to incorporating different ingredients, conscientious enough to think about being inclusive of non-traditional diets and informed on how to craft nutritious meals using meat alternatives. A recent study exploring how frequently meat alternatives and/or fish were served in New York City public schools found zero options offering these proteins on school lunch menus (Borkowski et al., 2020). With New York City being a hotspot for vegans and vegetarians, it does not provide much hope that other cities are updating their school menus to be more inclusive of vegetarian or vegan diets. The meal pattern also states the types of milk that are eligible for distribution to children and reimbursement through the NSLP—there is not one dairy-free option. Should a child want or need a dairy-free alternative to milk, in some schools, a doctor’s note is required to receive nondairy milk (Martin, 2011). This prohibits vegan youth from being able to get essential nutrients such as calcium and may lead to hunger which, along with food insecurity and malnutrition can result in poor academic performance (Fletcher & Frisvold, 2017; Florence et al., 2008; Giroux, 2022; Hecht et al., 2020). Alternatively, there have been some school districts that have taken a step forward in making vegetarian meals more accessible. In 2009, Baltimore County Public Schools were the first public school system to begin participating in Meatless Mondays (Rowland, 2010). The meat-free options were met with curiosity and excitement from the students as new dishes appeared on the school menu. The school administration noted it was not aiming to push a vegetarian agenda, but rather wanted to reduce cholesterol and saturated fats while providing alternative protein options to meat (Barclay, 2009). The change in the school district’s menu was met with wrath from the American Meat Institute, Animal Agriculture Alliance, and Missouri Beef Council as they attempted to push back on the changes and urged concerned parents to get VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 28 in touch with the school district to complain about a lack of protein. The effort to create fear amongst parents and children about vegetarian or vegan food furthers the notion of carnism and makes it quite difficult for real change to happen that would support easier access to sustainable menu options for students. Another major factor contributing to the uphill battle that vegetarian and vegan students face in schools is the food pyramid. In 1991 the government released the first food pyramid which was met with disapproval from agribusiness as the meat and dairy producers felt it encouraged the public to consume less of their products (Hobbs & Wenzel, 2020). The USDA retracted the pyramid within a couple of weeks of its launch and reintroduced it about one year later. Figure 1 shows the Food Guide Pyramid that launched in 1992 (United States Department of Agriculture, 1992). Figure 1 1992 food guide pyramid by USDA One major change is an increased range for guidance on how much meat one should consume per day—driven by pressure from meat producers. With this initial guide, there is a significant VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 29 emphasis on fats, oils, and sweets at the top of the pyramid. The two to three servings of milk, yogurt, and cheese group and the meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts group indirectly indicate one should include something from both categories in each meal. The nuts are displayed in the protein section; however, the full bird, full fish, and large piece of steak could be perceived as preference for meat over other protein sources. The food pyramid was rebranded to MyPyramid and updated in 2005, as seen in Figure 2, to visually show the five food groups more equitably in a vertical display instead of stacked horizontally and simplifies the labels for protein sources as “meat and beans” and dairy as “milk” (Godoy, 2016). Figure 2 2005 MyPyramid by USDA This simplification of the labeling makes it possible for people to review this diagram and think there are fewer options for protein. Similarly, it more clearly establishes dairy as a necessary component to a healthy diet. The visuals for milk include two types of cheese and three different illustrations of milk. Another difference with this illustration than the original pyramid is it VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 30 introduces a human figure climbing stairs up the side of the pyramid, to illuminate the value of exercise, along with diet, to improve health. The food pyramid was revised again, see Figure 3, in 2011 to a plate which splits the portions in half with fruits and vegetables taking up half and grains and protein taking up the other—dairy is in a circle by itself outside of the plate (MyPlate, n.d.). Figure 3 2011 MyPlate by USDA The latest iteration removes meat from the visual, but does not visually show options for what the protein could take shape in. On the website for MyPlate, there is an option to learn more through a mini poster that gives more context for what should be considered in each category, as well as callouts around portion limitation on sugars, saturated fat, and sodium, as well as the importance of being active (MyPlate, 2022). The mini poster lists options for dairy and does include fortified soy versions as a “dairy” option, albeit in a parenthetical. The food pyramid has for several decades influenced what Americans believe they should eat to be healthy. This diagram informs school-aged children on ideal foods to be consumed and have assisted in perpetuating the Western diet that insists a meal is not complete without meat and dairy. Despite some progress in the food pyramid and with the NSLP, there is still a long VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 31 way to go to supporting vegetarian and vegan youth with food options conducive to their lifestyles. Conclusion While there is very limited research in the United States on vegan youth and food at school, one study in Sweden found that availability of obtaining vegan food at school lunch was perceived to be an important part of converting to veganism (Larsson et al., 2003). Access to the food needed enables vegan youth to maintain their diet successfully and nutritiously. This is the gap I aimed to explore further by conducting qualitative research with vegan and vegetarian youth to better understand their experiences, specifically with food at school. Making a change to one’s diet is a significant way to demonstrate activism and stand for something bigger than oneself—understanding their experiences and obstacles to upholding a vegan or vegetarian diet will help identify how this population can be better supported to enact the change they are hoping to achieve. The next chapter outlines the methods I used to conduct my research with vegetarian and vegan youth along the Wasatch Front to better understand their lived experiences and thoughts for how to improve the school food options to better meet their needs. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 32 Chapter III: Methods In this chapter, I will outline the methods I used to research the experiences of youth along the Wasatch Front who are vegan or vegetarian and more specifically, to better understand their experiences with access to plant-based foods at school. I outline the research design I structured my research around. I will then outline the context for the setting of my research and explain why I chose this setting. From there I will outline the participants I recruited, including ways I went about outreach, my interview guide, and the consent and assent forms I used. I will explain my method for data collection and why I chose to use focus groups to gather findings. I will then talk about how I analyzed the data, addressed potential limitations and concerns, and discuss efforts I took to make the research valid. Research Design: Phenomenology I designed my research around the theory of phenomenology. Phenomenology focuses on the lived experiences of a group of people with a common thread (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The essence of their shared experience is what is important, and the goal of phenomenology lies with better understanding this specific group’s experience. The phenomenon I explored were the experiences of vegan and vegetarian youth, specifically regarding access to food in school. More broadly, I wanted to learn how the participants are experiencing life at school as a vegan or vegetarian. Typically, vegans can be othered and mocked for choosing to eat a plant-based diet (Markowski, 2019). However, as climate change becomes a more prevalent issue for society, and knowing that Gen Z is more active around social justice issues, I was interested in uncovering if vegan and vegetarian youth are more accepted by their peers. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 33 Participants For my research, I conducted three focus groups with students in grades four through twelve to understand the perceptions of plant-based meals, their experience with food at school, and their general lived experiences as vegetarian or vegan youth. I also took time to learn about what influenced them to select that diet, what their experiences with veganism or vegetarianism had been like—both at and outside of school— and what changes they would like to see at school to support their dietary choices. I selected youth to focus my research on as they are future decision makers and I believe should have a say in shaping the food they are offered at school. I am impressed with younger people who have found reasons to operate outside of the Western norm and actively take a stance against meat-eating and other animal consumption. Furthermore, I chose grades four through twelve as students any younger will likely not have the maturity to be thinking about where their food comes from nor have influence on purchasing decisions in the household. Tweens and teens are likely to have given the food they consume more thought and are more aware of environmental, animal, and personal health concerns. Methods of Data Collection In this section, I will review how I went about collecting data to answer my research questions about vegan and vegetarian youth experiences, specifically with food at school. This section will cover how I recruited participants, how I contacted and communicated with the parents and participants, and how I used focus groups as my method of data collection. Recruitment Plan Despite being vegan, I did not identify as a peer to the participants I met with as I am older than the group of people I researched. Because of this, I did not have immediate access to many vegan or vegetarian youth. I created a digital and physical flyer to post at popular vegan VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 34 and vegetarian spots that quickly summarized the purpose of the study and how to contact me (see Appendix A). This included online in two vegan social groups and physically in half a dozen vegan restaurants along the Wasatch Front. I also texted a few parents of middle and high school aged people to see if their children were eligible or if they could pass my flyer along to other parents. I emailed several nonprofits including Sage Mountain, Utah Animal Rights Coalition, and Wasatch Community Gardens to see if they were willing to share my flyer. Most participants or parents contacted me through email to express interest in the research study or ask questions to learn more (see Appendix B). I also communicated with some parents via Facebook Messenger as they learned about the study through the Facebook post I made. All communications were done either via text, email, or Facebook Messenger. Focus Groups I conducted three virtual focus groups with people ages 10-17 along the Wasatch Front in Utah. The sample of eligible participants was somewhat limited due to the criteria around age, diet, and location; therefore, I opted to conduct the focus groups virtually to enhance the likelihood of getting more participants to volunteer for the research. I chose focus groups instead of individual interviews as I believed comfort level would be higher when there were a few participants and myself as a researcher compared to a one-on-one interview setting. Likewise, focus groups provided a setting conducive to participants sharing common experiences and addressing issues together (Johnson, 2017). As I created the focus groups, I tried to group similar aged individuals together. There can be a wide range of comfortability, experiences, and relatability among the age range of my population, and I anticipated some feelings of intimidation from the younger participants if there was too large of an age range. Despite having a bit of a hard time finding participants, I was VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 35 lucky to be able to group similar aged students together. The first focus group consisted of two people, both of whom were 13 years old. The second focus group was comprised of two people, both of whom were 17 years old. And the third focus group consisted of three people, ages 10, 12, and 14. Notably, the 10-year-old and 14-year-old were siblings which may have helped to increase the comfort level. Participants Chloe (she/her) – Chloe was a thirteen-year-old vegetarian who had eaten this way since she was about nine years old. Her reason for eating vegetarian stemmed from her mother changing to a whole food plant-based diet. Chloe mentioned how she never really enjoyed eating meat and found it more convenient to follow a diet that was aligned with her mom’s. Jacob (he/him) – Jacob was a thirteen-year-old vegan who had been vegetarian since birth and vegan within the last five years. Jacob’s sister had been having issues with dairy and so his whole family decided to switch to a vegan diet to support her. April (any pronoun) – April was a seventeen-year-old vegetarian. April became interested in vegetarianism in middle school, after a few months they adopted a vegan lifestyle, and more recently changed their diet to be vegetarian due to physical and mental health reasons. Their initial reason for going vegetarian was through interacting with a friend of their mom’s on a kayaking trip and then learning more about animal cruelty at a social justice camp. Rachel (she/her) – Rachel was a seventeen-year-old vegan. Rachel had embraced a vegetarian lifestyle about four years ago and in the last two years became vegan. Her reasoning for going vegetarian initially was after learning more about the environmental impacts of factory farming. Rachel kept educating herself and became aware of the ethical reasons for going vegan and that motivated her to remove all animal products from her diet. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 36 Gwyn (she/her) – Gwyn was a fourteen-year-old vegan since birth and sibling to Alex. Gwyn attended school online during the time of the study but was able to speak to school experiences from her time at school prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Gwyn’s parents decided to go vegan after learning more about animal cruelty, although she mentioned her parents letting her make the decision for herself. Fiona (she/her) – Fiona was a twelve-year-old vegan who on occasion will consume dairy. Fiona’s parents abruptly changed their family’s diets to vegan after watching a documentary. Although Fiona initially had some questions about the change, she quickly accepted the removal of meat and dairy and has become passionate about veganism herself. Alex (they/them) – Alex was a ten-year-old vegan since birth and sibling to Gwyn. Like Gwyn, Alex’s parents raised them vegan from birth and was also allowed to make the decision to be vegan for themself. Conducting the Research Rapport is important to the interview process as it builds trust and helps participants feel comfortable sharing information (Spradley, 1979). Building rapport will not only be important during the focus group process, but as I will be speaking minors, I wanted and needed to build trust with the parents. One way I sought to build rapport was to take some time in the beginning of the focus groups to share a bit about myself, let the participants introduce themselves and have an icebreaker question. This all helped to let everyone get to know each other a bit more and allow each participant to speak. Being a vegetarian or vegan is a big part of people’s lives, and I found all the participants were eager to share their experiences, allow space for each other to speak, and when appropriate, build off each other’s statements. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 37 There are several reasons why people choose to eat a vegan or vegetarian diet including improving personal health, enhancing animal wellbeing, and reducing individual carbon footprints through food choices. In the focus groups, I asked questions to learn about what influenced the students to go vegetarian or vegan, if anyone else in their family or friend group ate a similar diet, what their experiences were like with food at school, and what helped them with the transition to their vegetarian or vegan diet (if they were not vegetarian or vegan from birth). With the knowledge I gained from the participants, I plan to ultimately create a presentation to share with authorities at local school districts to educate them on the growing desire to consume more plant-based foods and how they can better support their non-meat-eating student population. Assent/Consent Forms and Interview Guide I required participants to sign an assent form (See Appendix C) in addition to their parent or guardian signing a consent form (See Appendix D). I primarily communicated with the parents of the participants and ensured they knew of the need to sign the forms prior to the focus group happening. Due to the virtual nature of the focus groups, I accepted signed forms via email, text message, and Facebook Messenger to make getting the signed documents back to me as easy as possible on the parents. Likewise, as I began the focus group, I reminded the participants that they were able to opt out of the research process at any time and asked if any clarification was needed on what they committed to by signing the assent form. Also prior to asking the participants questions in the focus group, I had them share with everyone their name, pronouns, age, and what school they attended. At that time, I asked the participants if they would like to select a pseudonym for the research or if they wanted me to choose one for them. All participants said they did not have a pseudonym they wanted me to use, so I selected all of them. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 38 Lastly, before beginning the questions, I let them know they could say at any point if they wanted me to not use something they shared in my research. Prior to conducting the focus groups, I prepared an interview guide and used it as a roadmap during the focus groups (See Appendix E). I remained flexible in the focus group if the participants shared information that caused the interview to deviate slightly from the guide. I also modified the interview guide after the first focus group based on where the discussion went and added and removed questions based on where the discussions went. Data Analysis All focus groups were recorded using two devices to ensure the recording was captured. I used Zoom to record audio and video as well as a backup audio recording using Otter.ai. Both Zoom and Otter.ai offered the capability to transcribe the focus group, but I only used Otter.ai as I found it to be more accurate. Immediately following the focus groups, I jotted down field notes to denote nuances in the focus group that were not have been picked up through just the voice recordings. I then began my analysis by first reviewing the transcriptions and cleaning up the data and editing words that were misunderstood by the recordings. Then I went through the transcription to develop a potential list of codes through a process known as emergent coding (Saldaña, 2021). I color coded the transcription with codes and captured all the codes in an Excel file. With each focus group, I continued to revise this list of codes until all data were gathered. Once data collection was finalized, I coded the data with the finalized coding framework that capture the essence of participants’ statements. Through this process of coding, I was able to identify patterns and themes that arose from the data and ensured that the assertions I made were fully warranted. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 39 School Menu Review During the coding process, I thought it would be beneficial to review a sampling of school menus from public schools along the Wasatch Front. I visited two different school district’s websites and reviewed a few of the monthly menus. I was able to click into each menu item to review ingredients, see images of the food, and read a description of the meal. This brought to light the food that is being offered at school and the confines vegan and vegetarian youth face if they want or rely on school-supplied food. Ethical Concerns and Potential Limitations Ethical considerations are imperative to any research project to protect the research participants. Three key components are necessary to ethically conduct research—respect for persons, beneficence, and justice (National Institutes of Health, 2008). To ensure my own competency to adhere to these standards, I completed training through the National Institutes of Health (see Appendix F). For my research, people under the age of 18 participated, so I needed to take extra precautions to ensure they were aware of any risks and that there was consent needed to participate. Likewise, I needed additional permission from their parents to allow the research to be conducted. I documented the plan for my research including its significance, the age range of people I wanted to participate, geography where the research would take place, how I would recruit participants, the types of questions I would ask and any risks. This was submitted to and approved by the Westminster College Institutional Review Board (see Appendix G). As I considered what risks might come into play during my research, I prepared for if a participant was vegetarian, and others were vegan how would they feel? Would they encounter some feelings of guilt or resentment based on what others in the group may share? For many people, there are certain animals in their lives that are cherished and protected at all costs—dogs VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 40 and cats for example. Yet, there is indirect killing of farm animals every day to supply nearly all the meat that is consumed in the U.S. Discussions around the inhumane treatment and murdering of the farm animals, exploitation of factory farm workers, and fears for the future due to the ever-worsening climate crisis could all lead to feelings of fear, guilt, and sadness. I made sure to watch for signals from participants to see if I needed to pause or console anyone. There were times I expressed my remorse for some of the treatment the participants received for being vegetarian or vegan. There was minimal risk for the participants in the focus groups and the outcomes of the research outweigh the costs for the participants, emotionally and otherwise (National Institutes of Health, 2008). Another risk that I anticipated was having a difficult time recruiting people to participate in the research. I had narrowed the population to a very specific group—sixth through twelfth graders, with interest in vegan/vegetarianism, who attend public school in Salt Lake City School District, and have experience eating school-provided food. I did need to expand the location where I recruited to along the Wasatch Front, as well as opened it up to non-public school attending students, as well as widened the age range to 10-18. This helped me to have enough participants to make a meaningful study. Lastly, a potential limitation I can foresee is in speaking with Kate Wheeler, Farm to School Specialist in the Salt Lake School District is the low probability of enacting change through the school lunch system. There is one person that holds much of the power in determining what foods are offered in public schools in Salt Lake City and from my discussion, it seems unlikely the research may lead to much change. There is hope that the parents of the youth who want to make changes in the sustainability of the food offerings at school will create a force that enacts change. There is risk that not much may come immediately after conducting the VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 41 research; however, I believe it is worthwhile to pursue the research to identify a more sustainable way of determining school lunches that suits the needs of the youth while also helping farm animals, the environment, and student health. Validity Measures I shared the findings with my Project Supervisor to have her peer review my analysis and provide feedback as a validity measurement (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). My Project Supervisor works within the Utah State Board of Education as a Farm to School Procurement Specialist and will have insight into school menu requirements and can help to validate if the findings are consistent with the data. Another way I worked to gather valid data was through reflexivity as I assessed my own positionality and biases that I may have brought to the analysis of the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This is important as I am vegan and did not want to influence the data and findings based on my personal lived experiences as a vegan. Conclusion I conducted research that is purposeful and examined an underrepresented topic and community based on the studies I had discovered. I was able to find enough participants who were willing to take the time to partake in a focus group and that I could analyze what they share with me in a meaningful way. By conducting qualitative research, I sought to better understand the lived experiences of vegan and vegetarian youth and provided an outlet for them to share their thoughts on a topic that presumably is near and dear to their hearts. Their participation expanded on our understanding of vegetarian and vegan youth experiences. Their confidentiality was upheld, and my findings were validated through my Project Supervisor to ensure they were thoughtful and relevant. Chapter IV addresses the recurring feelings that my participants shared and opportunities to enhance the lives of this population. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 42 Chapter IV: Findings I conducted three focus groups comprised of vegan and vegetarian youth who live and/or attend school along the Wasatch Front. During these focus groups, I was able to hear their perspectives and stories, as well as their feelings. The discussion covered topics including their accounts of why they were vegetarian or vegan, their food-related experiences at school, their thoughts on an ideal school lunch menu, and their interactions with peers and adults regarding food and vegetarianism and veganism. The focus groups helped to shape findings on common experiences and expectations amongst vegan and vegetarian youth. The findings correlate to much of literature review detailed in Chapter II as well as the root causes outlined in Chapter I including capitalism, carnism, and anthropocentrism. In this chapter I explore in detail each of the following five central themes that emerged from the focus groups and show how they are connected to a root cause: the difficulty in accessing both ingredients and well-balanced vegetarian and vegan meals at school, the desire to be included, the lack of awareness— especially amongst adults—about veganism, the consistent exposure to vegan and vegetarian microaggressions, and the dual positive impact that happens between vegetarians and vegans and their friends and families. Inadequate Access to Nutritious Meals and Allergen Information Following suit with traditional Western diets consisting of meat-heavy entrée options, food offered at school is very frequently and unavoidably comprised of meat and dairy. Chloe, a thirteen-year-old vegan pulled up on her phone a recent school lunch menu during a focus group. Sample entrees included meals like Country Fried Beef Strips, Corn Dog, Fried Chicken Bowl, and Barbeque Pork Riblet Sandwich. Similarly, both for school breakfast and lunch, the milk requirement is that it is low or non-fat dairy milk; there is no mention of offering a dairy-free VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 43 milk alternative as an option. In fact, while many students choose to be vegan or vegetarian for personal reasons, or deep moral convictions, others may do so for health-based reasons, not least allergies to certain ingredients, e.g., dairy. April, Rachel, and Gwyn all shared their experiences with the school menu and expressed how limited the options are for vegetarians and vegans. April, a seventeen-year-old participant that was vegan for five years in middle school and early high school and was at the time of the focus group vegetarian, shared their thoughts on only having a salad bar as an option for lunch. Because, you know, a salad bar isn't enough. You know, they're like, well, we have lettuce we have like, you know, whatever, you know, a fruit cup or something like that. But that's not an option. Like that's one choice, but it's not even a choice. It's what they have. So it would just be nice to like have more than one choice to pick from. April pointed to a lack of variety, but also looming within their comment is a lack of wellrounded nutrition with the vegetarian and vegan options at school. If a fruit cup is the only vegan offering that day, a vegan student is unable to get the proper nutrition needed to sustain them throughout the day. Programs that provide free meals to grade school students results in an increase in academic performance (Hecht et al., 2020). If a child needed food from school and was vegetarian or vegan, they likely will not be able to access the food needed to sustain them and there is considerable scholarly evidence that poor nutrition negatively contributes to academic performance (Fletcher & Frisvold, 2017; Florence et al., 2008; Giroux, 2022). Rachel, a seventeen-year-old vegan student echoed April’s experience with limited vegan food available to her at school. “What I have seen is that there are very limited options and even if I did want to have some food like I'd be able to have lettuce.” The vegan option for the sampling of schools I reviewed showed a salad bar and fruit cup as likely the only vegan options. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 44 The salad bar had a few different protein options in the form of beans; none of the salad dressings were vegan. It would be difficult for vegan students to compose a full, well-balanced meal. The situation for vegetarians is perhaps, less dire, but still plainly inadequate. Most lunch entrees contain meat and certainly limit the options for what can be eaten. Gwyn, a fourteen-year-old student who has been vegan since birth, who has attended inperson school in years past, but at the time of the focus group attended school online, noted there was not a single vegan option at her previous school. When asked if there were vegan options at school in her experience, she reflected, “There actually isn't anything. If you want salad, you have to get the main dish.” As noted in the review of school meals, most main dishes include meat and/or dairy. The suggestions that a student purchase the main dish to get a salad or the suggestions that students can pick off the cheese or easily remove the meat from the meal is untenable. First, in the latter, there is still cross-contamination of the animal products and potential allergens. Second, it fails to appreciate the motivation for many vegan/vegetarian youths and forces them to choose between violating their deepest moral convictions or acquiring nutrients; it negates the effort of the vegetarian and vegan students since the meat or dairy are now going to waste. Fiona, a twelve-year-old vegan student expressed a similar and perhaps more troubling piece of information about access to healthy vegan and vegetarian food. If a student declines the milk option, the substitute beverage is a fruit juice; however, if they select the fruit juice, they are unable to get a piece of fruit as part of their meal. “They say you can get a juice instead of a milk, but that counts as your fruit so you can't have that. So if you have like apple juice, then you can't get a fruit which is really weird. And mean.” Milk is a good source of calcium and protein, and unless the fruit juices are fortified with calcium, then this system robs children of vital VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 45 nutrients and reduces access to more fruit. Along with depriving students of fresh fruit, it also points to how vegetarians and vegans are made to feel different. By not having vegetarian or vegan alternatives to food it places students in an uncomfortable position of having to confront and negotiate with the food providers about what they are able to have instead of just getting to pick a meal. Then end of Fiona’s comment indicating that it is mean she cannot have regular fruit encapsulates the feeling of deflation that comes from being othered and not having one’s beliefs supported at school or in life. As part of the Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act (HHFKA) in 2010, new rules were implemented with goals to improve nutrition and reduce hunger in children. (United States Department of Agriculture, 2013). The HHFKA informs the National School Lunch Program and outlines a meal pattern requirement which indicates daily minimums of fruit, vegetables, dairy, and meat or meat alternatives (United States Department of Agriculture, n.d.). As noted in the meal pattern, meat alternatives include tofu, tempeh, dry beans and peas, yogurt, peanut butter, and other nut butters. However, there is no requirement for the food buyer to diversify the meat selection or include protein options that are not derived from animals. To see if any of the meat alternatives were being offered at schools in the area of my research, I found several menus online. Figures 4, 5, and 6 show sample menus from schools along the Wasatch Front. The first two figures show menus within the same school district and are limited for both vegetarian or vegan students. Figure 4 Sample lunch menu #1 VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES The menu illustrates how nearly every option includes meat, except one—a grilled cheese sandwich. While a grilled cheese sandwich is suitable for a vegetarian, this is not an option for vegan students. Figure 5 Sample lunch menu #2, after filtering out dairy, milk, and egg 46 VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 47 The sample menu in Figure 5 shows the offerings for the “Grab & Go Menu” which is primarily comprised of salads or sandwiches as the main component of the meal. The interactive menu allows students to apply filters to cross out menu items that contain specific ingredients. I filtered to remove dairy, milk, and egg and Figure 5 shows the remaining menu items available in blue font. Only sides like mini carrots, salad cup, and diced pears remain. While there are many healthy options, the primary component of the meal is missing, rendering it not a well-balanced meal option for vegan students. Figure 6 shows it is considering vegetarian students more as it offers some vegetarian alternatives as a main dish on a few days. Figure 6 Sample lunch menu #3 VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 48 The third sample menu is from a different school district and provides more vegetarian options, such as offering both Pepperoni Pizza Rippers or Cheese Pizza Rippers for a main dish. Yet most days, the main dish contains meat with dishes like Mini Corndogs and Roast Turkey. An analysis conducted on New York City public and private school breakfast and lunch menus found less than one option per week was offered of fish and meat alternative options and zero options in public school (Borkowski et al., 2020). Despite a change in 2012 to allow tofu and other meat alternatives to count as the meat requirement, there does not seem to be many school menu options that include meat alternatives (United States Department of Agriculture, 2016). This policy change does not impact vegetarian and vegan students unless the people in VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 49 positions of power create menus that include meat alternatives. With meat eating, or carnism, heavily engrained in Western diets it is highly unlikely schools will progress their menus to be inclusive of vegetarian and especially, vegan diets (Joy, 2020). Capitalism is another root cause for why there is a severe lack of vegetarian or vegan options in schools. As noted in Chapter II, the agreement for schools to get reimbursements for the National School Lunch Program required the food to be sourced from surplus dairy and meat (Guthman, 2011; Martin, 2011). Not only is there no incentive for food service directors to draw up meal plans that include vegetarian or vegan options, but the USDA also requires the use of dairy and meat or meat alternatives. Yet again, without policy in place to require a consistent meat-free meal, the menu likely will not contain vegetarian or vegan meals. The interest of students looking to fight anthropocentrism, the environmental crisis, or improve their own health are forced to live within the capitalist structure that privileges humans over animals and profit over people. Existing Model in Place for Allergens Vegetarians and vegans need to be acutely aware of ingredients in food to know whether it is something they can consume, either on account of their health needs, moral convictions, or both. Similarly, but to a more serious degree, people with nut allergies need to know what ingredients are in meals to avoid becoming ill. Schools have become more sensitive to preventing allergic reactions with children who cannot consume ingredients like peanuts (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). Many participants noted their school has a dedicated peanut-free table in the cafeteria so students with a nut allergy can safely eat their meal and not worry about the presence of peanuts. Participants shared there is an absence of labeling VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 50 of ingredients or common allergens on school menus. Chloe, a thirteen-year-old vegan student mentioned the following: They don't serve any kind of nuts like, or well they do serve soy, but no like peanuts. So like that's reassuring I guess because like there's rules against that, but if you have like other like dietary restrictions, it's hard to like know if you can eat it or not. And if you do ask, like most of the time, I feel like they wouldn't, like let you know. They wouldn't care enough to tell you. Chloe’s statement indicates the level of care the schools take to reduce life-threatening allergens from the menu. Yet there is hardly even an option outside of a salad bar that is suitable for a vegetarian or vegan diet. Jacob echoed a similar sentiment, That's another thing I wanted to say, is that at schools, they don't have little slips that say, these are the ingredients to this food. And I would much prefer if they have that. So I can check, hey, is this vegan?” Noting allergen information can help vegetarian and vegan students, along with those students with allergies, quickly identify what they are able to consume. It could make their lives easier if they knew right off the bat what meals were vegetarian or vegan. In my investigation of several public-school websites along the Wasatch Front, I discovered schools do post their menus with allergen information on their website. If a student wanted to get breakfast or lunch at school, they do have the option of researching ahead of time to discover the menu and identify any vegetarian or vegan options. It is worth noting the peanut butter and jelly sandwiches (both with nut butter and the peanut-free option called the EZ Jammer Sandwich) contained milk (see Figure 7). VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 51 Figure 7 Nutrition information for the EZ Jammer Sandwich This is preposterous as it is likely the only consistent food option for vegans that contains protein, a macronutrient essential for balanced nutrition. Likewise, there are no vegan salad dressing options for the salad bar. Vegetarian students can put together a full meal with salad bar and peanut butter and jelly sandwich, but unfortunately the only consistent options for the vegan students are a dry salad with no dressing and vegetable sides. This is problematic for vegan students that rely on accessing food at school. No one should be forced to choose between hunger and their moral convictions. Yet with carnism so deeply rooted in our society, people believe meat is a necessary part of a meal and there is a lack of respect for people choosing to be vegetarian or vegan. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 52 Desire for Inclusion, Not to be Othered Despite taking a stance against animal cruelty and going against the grain of traditional Western society, the vegan and vegetarian participants I spoke to did not have a desire to stand out from the crowd. When asked if they were to help design a new school menu what would they include, nearly all participants answered they would like to have vegetarian and vegan options that mirrored the non-vegan options. In addition to not feeling excluded, participants shared how they felt included when someone at school went out of their way to provide a vegan or vegetarian alternative in classroom celebrations. The following sections explore how vegetarian and vegan students want to have the same choices for food as others, just made without animal products, and the impact that being included has on the lives of vegan and vegetarian youth. Same but Different Given the lack of vegetarian and vegan options at the participants’ schools, we discussed what they would like to see on the school menu if they could help re-create it. When I asked the participants about what they would like to see on the school menu, the response was uniform— what is being offered in the non-vegan options, but a vegetarian or vegan version. Chloe, a vegan student in middle school summarized it well when she said, “I would put like what other people are having, but different. Like because it's a little, it's a little awkward to have something like completely different, like really special than what everybody else is having.” April had a similar perspective on what types of foods they would like on the menu, “I enjoy like, you know, vegan foods that are meant to mimic non-vegan foods.” Being a vegetarian or vegan at school is different enough that for many participants, it draws some unfavorable attention from their peers. Although research suggests the stereotypes of vegans being self-righteous, hypocritical, and opinionated, it was not the case that these stereotypes held weight with my population (Gregson VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 53 et al., 2022). My participants wanted to be able to eat food that aligned with their moral convictions and cannot rely on food provided by the school to do so. The issue lies within the food system, driven by the government via the USDA and fueled by capitalism. The priority lies with lowering costs for food, relying on government funding, and the criteria for using surplus meat and dairy as part of the National School Lunch Program. Although those with peanut allergies may have a different motivation for their diet than many on a vegetarian or vegan diet, there is some overlap in needing to avoid specific ingredients and it is safe to draw parallels between the two if done with care. In a qualitative study conducted with people in the UK who have a peanut allergy, 22% reported feeling varying degrees of isolation due to their allergy. These findings are similar to the experiences of vegan and vegetarian youth as they were corroborated in my focus groups. Participants are not trying to stand out from their peers, they just want to be included in food options in a way that supports their dietary and moral decisions. Decolonial theory points to the many hierarchies that were established during colonization including privileging humans over animals and men and masculinity over women and femininity (Figueroa-Helland & Lindgren, 2016; Grosfugel, 2011). Ethical vegetarians and vegans are actively taking a stance against these hierarchies, mainly anthropocentrism and androcentrism and are operating outside of the patriarchal system. By disavowing the typical meat-eating diet, they are refusing to accept the masculine food system and working to create a more just world for all who inhabit it. Inclusion As Caring A few participants spoke about feeling included when a parent or teacher when out of their way to make sure to have a vegan treat during classroom celebrations. April, a former vegan and now vegetarian, recounted a time when there was a special vegan dessert for them VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 54 during a birthday celebration in class. “Yeah, I remember one time in middle school someone like brought cupcakes for their birthday and their mom bought me a special vegan cupcake. It was like that felt really good to know that like the parents like care.” It is rare enough that vegetarian and vegan students can partake in food at school, that they assume they won’t be able to participate in food related activities. When someone goes out of their way to take seriously and accommodate their dietary needs, it has a big impact on their feelings of inclusion. Notably, the amount of effort to include these students is not insurmountable. Rather it is quite easy to ensure there is an allergen friendly option so everyone can participate. Despite the low bar for teachers and schools to achieve inclusion, feeling included in food specific moments is more of the exception than the rule for vegetarian and vegan students. Several participants recounted times when they were unable to be a part of an activity that centered around food. Gwyn, a fourteen-year-old who has been vegan since birth recalled with some sarcasm an experience from school, “There were some times when I wouldn't be included at all they would have like an ice cream party. And I would be able to get the delicious water.” Only getting to have water and not enjoy the ice cream borders on being punishment for the vegan students. Jacob shared a heart-wrenching story about a time a teacher brought in cheese and pepperoni pizza for a class pizza party. There was one point where I was like, I was just a little bit or I was saying that I wasn't, that I was vegan and I couldn't eat it. And they just say, hey, if it smells too bad, go into the hall. If, if this is an issue, go into the hall because there's no there's no way for us to fix it or do anything about it. Not only was Jacob unable to eat the lunch, but he was also told to leave the classroom if he didn’t like the smell. This is hurtful behavior that marginalizes the efforts Jacob is putting VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 55 forward to reduce meat consumption and animal harm. It excluded him from the class celebration, effectively othering Jacob from his peers. It also calls perhaps undesired attention to Jacob’s diet and furthers the likelihood of him encountering future microaggressions. This is a particularly egregious account and a deplorable act by this person. Typically, a class pizza party or an ice cream celebration is a time for the students to be rewarded and celebrate together. By not having something for all students to eat, it quickly others the students who cannot participant and makes them feel excluded from the rest of the group. Perhaps it even causes them to go hungry throughout the day which can have an adverse effect on their academic performance (Hecht et al., 2021). Carnism is a root cause for why many people are not aware or sensitive to the needs of vegan or vegetarian youth. The perception of eating meat is normal and that meat is necessary for a well-balanced diet has been entrenched in us since a young age. Whether it is encountering the Food Pyramid at school, dining in a restaurant and seeing entrees almost always containing meat, or reflecting on the centering of meat at the most commonly celebrated US holidays (e.g., BBQ for 4th of July, Christmas ham, turkey dinner at Thanksgiving), meat seems omnipresent in our culture. However, it does not need to be the case for humans must eat animal-derived products during mealtime. This ties directly into the following theme about the general lack of education on veganism. Lack of Awareness of Veganism Although there has been a rise in meat, dairy, and egg alternative products as well as more people becoming vegan, there is still a misunderstanding about what veganism is. A recurring theme from participants was encountering adults that did not know what veganism was. Even well-intentioned adults tried yet failed to provide vegan options and other adults challenged youth on what veganism is. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 56 April remembered a time in which she was faced with an adult trying to help get her vegan food. During a lunch which consisted of hot dogs as the main dish, April found themself without anything to eat. The principal noticed April was not eating and approached them to ask why. They recalled the following, Like, you know, I told my principal that I was vegan and he gave me yogurt and so he didn't know what it meant. And so like it's hard to necessarily trust that someone is like actually going to give you veggie or vegan food. Vegetarian is a little easier because it's just meat, but not everyone knows what veganism is. So it's like it's hard to know if they are just giving me stuff without meat or actual vegan stuff. However well-intentioned, the principal gave April a non-vegan yogurt to make sure they had something to eat and so failed to meet April’s basic needs. April shared that they did not feel comfortable saying to the principal they could not eat the yogurt as it was not vegan since they were a young student speaking to an authoritative figure. This demonstrates the lack of awareness around veganism, as well as shows the lack of support vegans and vegetarians get at school. It also shows that we need systematic and structural change. As much as the students I met with just wanted to be able to have food in keeping with their diets, it is abundantly clear that the full burden cannot be placed on them. Gen Z often gets saddled with the presumption that they will help fix the future (Hess, 2021). This unfortunately passes the onus into the future when Gen Z people are of age to change policy instead of doing that work now. Outside of school, participants struggled with some adults not understanding veganism or the difference between vegan and vegetarian. When Jacob and his family were just starting on their vegan journey, he noted how it was hard to trust if what family friends were serving was indeed vegan. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 57 Some adults were telling us it was vegan, probably not knowing what vegan was. So they said they just gave it to us saying it’s vegan and we’re like, This doesn't taste vegan. We looked at the ingredients and it was like it wasn't vegan at all. When someone is around their friends, they want to be able to trust what they are being told. If someone says something is vegan, one is inclined to believe them. When in the company of friends, if someone says something is vegan and it turns out to have animal derived products in it, it likely was an honest mistake. Chloe shared a time when a friend’s parent challenged her about the difference between vegetarianism and veganism. I feel like adults should be more informed than children like one of one girl in my class. This year I told her I was vegetarian. And she and she like genuinely still thinks that I'm vegan. And I'm like, there's a difference. There's genuinely a difference between the two. If you get that mixed up that can be like a problem. So she went home and asked her mom apparently and her mom said they're the same thing she's lying to you. She's trying to trick you. It is hard to know why the girl’s mother did not understand the difference between veganism and vegetarianism, let alone why their response was to claim that Chloe was lying. Although no more than 10% of the U.S. population is vegetarian or vegan, it seems to me veganism is harder to understand for omnivores (Norwood & Bir, 2018). A vegetarian diet is clear—the removal of meat from one’s diet. Veganism is eschewing all animal products from one’s consumption, even honey as it comes from bees, and often seeps beyond just diet and becomes one’s ideology. Vegans frequently look to avoid purchasing or consuming anything that contains animals including clothing, cars, furniture, and other products. Presuming they are one in the same and not taking the time to understand demonstrates an underlying desire to operate within the cultural VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 58 norms that carnism establishes and lack of respect for people making the decision to eat differently (Joy, 2020). When people do not understand a vegetarian or vegan diet, they may serve up food that contains meat or other animal products. For moral vegans and vegetarians especially, this goes against their belief system as they have often chosen to not eat meat or other animal products out of respect for animals and/or environmental concerns. This hurts our vegan and vegetarian youth as it breaks down trust they have in people around them, including adults and creates an unnecessary barrier in their endeavor to remove meat and animal products from their diets. Vegan and Vegetarian Microaggressions Being vegetarian or vegan means going against the grain. Non-vegans and nonvegetarians are quick to put down those who have chosen to remove some or all animal products from their diet as it calls into question their own morality. Vegans can be prejudiced and discriminated against by non-vegans (MacInnis & Hodson, 2017). There is a necessary resolve needed to persevere, whether it be fielding comments from peers or navigating spiteful actions. Drawing upon the peanut allergy study, over half of the participants reported bullying with 60% of that subset indicating the bullying was at least moderate if not more severe (Tsoumani et al., 2022). Because vegetarian and vegan youth are operating outside of a normal Western diet of meat and dairy, they are targets for being othered and receiving unkind treatment (Mohajeri, 2020). Chloe shared two stories illustrating the inconsideration she has experienced because she is vegan. First was about a time she had been dedicated to vegetarian for a while and was offered a snack by another student, not knowing there was malicious intent behind the act. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 59 I had been like, been vegetarian for two years. Like I hadn't like broken it or anything. Like I was very committed to it. And one girl on the bus was like, ‘Do you want to try my chip?’ And I was like, ‘Yeah,’ so I tried it. And she laughs at me and says that was a pork rind. And I was like, ‘Oh,’ and she didn't get punished at all. Like there's no punishment for that. This is a disturbing story; it is not necessarily surprising that a teenager would bully Chloe and trick her into eating meat. I find the part where there is no repercussion for the student’s actions unacceptable. The second story Chloe mentioned was about the lack of respect for her, her mother, and their choice to be vegan. “So in my car, like me and my mom and then we pick up some kids, they like eat breakfast in our car, like they eat meat in our car. And like get it on the seats and stuff.” This goes to show that veganism and vegetarianism is not always respected among the general population (Mohajeri, 2020). However, many people choose this diet and/or lifestyle as a moral choice and a belief system. Fiona likened this type of mistreatment to be on par with mocking someone for going to church. “I'm just having a belief. It's like me teasing you for if you go to church, it's like, it's not even your business in the first place.” Schools would not knowingly allow a student to taunt someone for their religious beliefs as that is a protected class. Yet, vegetarianism and veganism can be driven by morality, and I argue should be protected in a similar vein as gender, sexuality, and religion. Another example of a microaggression was echoed by April. They shared how when they first became a vegan in middle school, the transition at home was fairly seamless, yet the experience at school was another story. “It was only really hard at school when like, you know, people around me were like, you know, criticizing me or like, I had one person say that I wouldn't last a month and I lasted like three years.” This microaggression as a one-off experience VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 60 is not necessarily damaging to one’s psyche, but to endure comments like this requires grit and steadfastness in their beliefs. I find it especially remarkable to see youth break away from societal norms, stick to their convictions, despite the consistent microaggressions they withstand. A theoretical framework known as the “vegan paradox” outlines how making the case for vegetarianism and veganism to be the morally correct choice can either influence someone to reconsider their eating habits or put someone on the defense because of how deep seeded carnism is in our society (De Grove et al., 2022). There is cognitive dissonance for meat eaters as they typically love animals (pets) but still eat meat. This leads to internalized guilt and is a reason why people feel comfortable at least teasing vegans, and at most bullying them. I believe because there are so few vegetarians, especially vegans, it is easy for non-vegetarians and nonvegans to mock this choice to reconcile the cognitive dissonance they feel. Another example of a microaggression that was shared by a couple of participants is having to sit in class while other students eat meat. Many teachers allow snacking in the classroom and unless there is a high-risk allergy, then all snacks are fair game. This results in vegan and vegetarian students being subjected to smelling and watching others eat meat, specifically beef jerky. Chloe reflected on her experience, They should start being like more inclusive and make sure that there are rules against like, eating straight up beef jerky during middle class or like, like, same thing like don't eat peanuts. Like they're really strict about that. Like don't eat gluten in certain classrooms. Don't eat peanuts in certain classrooms. There's no rules against like eating meat, which sucks. Chloe and Fiona both alluded to understanding that eating meat is not life-threatening like how if someone ate peanuts when a student has a peanut allergy. However, it is an inconvenience and a VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 61 distraction to watch someone snacking on meat in a learning environment. Jacob echoed a similar encounter with meat-eating during class. Another experience was two of my classmates were just eating beef jerky right next to me. It wasn't a big issue because after a couple years of sitting here trying to do something, it doesn't even matter anymore. I just get used to the ah, they’re eating meat. Okay, I don't really care. I mean, it just something that passes me by. Jacob’s experience is interesting in that it shows his commitment to veganism and perhaps his understanding that it is hard to change people’s behaviors. He is finding it easier to let the microaggressions roll off his shoulders instead of letting it get to him, which is admirable, but not easy to do. April had an experience in which the impact of their efforts was called into question. They shared that upon someone learning they were vegan, they told them, “You know, like, that's just like, you know, useless like you're not helping anyone.” This relates back to the vegan paradox and how some people react to vegans in a negative way because of the cognitive dissonance associated with eating meat, but loving animals. Capitalism also propels this notion as people are constantly reinforced that meat-eating is good through media like fast food commercials that feature sizzling bacon or juicy burgers. Even at school, meat is a primary component of the Food Pyramid or MyPlate, both of which are teaching tools for what constitutes a “good” meal. All of which serve to uphold the meat and dairy industry as a literal cash cow. The notion of meat and dairy being crucial components to every meal increases supply and puts more pressure on animal agriculture to produce more at lower costs—the central pillar of capitalism. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 62 Dual Positive Impacts It can be a hard transition to be vegetarian or vegan. Finding replacement foods, dealing with comments and/or taunting, and general lack of options at school all add to the difficulty of going vegetarian or vegan. All participants noted how the support of friends or family helped them when they first started their vegetarian or vegan journey. Primarily the support of their parents helped all of the participants successfully transition to vegetarianism or veganism. This aligns closely with findings from a recent study about how family and friends were a key enabler to youth in maintaining a vegetarian or vegan diet (Williams et al., 2023). There were several participants that spoke about how impactful their family was at the onset of their dietary transitions. Chloe shared the following story about her sister. It really helped me to like know that my sister was like going through the same things as me. And like she like wasn't perfect either. She would like when I first started, like, I would slip up like sometimes she was going through the same thing and it was helpful to know that like somebody was like going through the same thing at the same time. Chloe found comfort in knowing her sister was having similar experiences and took solace in her admirable yet imperfect journey. There is pressure for vegetarians and vegans to be perfect, especially if they are advocating for animals or the environment and the choice to remove animals from their diet is not for personal reasons. Of the several labels vegans often receive, being a hypocrite is one (Gregson et al., 2022). Accidentally or purposefully consuming a piece of meat or a slice of cheese does not automatically turn someone back into an omnivore. There is a wide range of types of vegetarians and intensities of veganism, and most people do not transition from being omnivores to herbivores in a linear way. It can take many forms including being a flexitarian and VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 63 mostly cutting out meat, eating meat only on special occasions, eating vegan until dinner time, among many other paths. To have someone going through the same experience and being able to lean on each other for support is particularly helpful. Jacob and April expressed similar sentiments about the support of their family. When discussing what was helpful when transitioning to veganism, Jacob said, “really just having the support of everyone in my family.” Relatedly, April mentioned how kind and supportive their parents were when sharing that they wanted to go vegan. April shared “I told my parents I was like, I want to try out veganism and they were both very supportive. And my dad, he would always like cook. Like, he basically cooked a separate meal for me.” It can be extra effort for the parents of vegan or vegetarian youth to understand what their child can eat and perhaps learn how to cook new foods. Supportive parents must be open to operating outside of Western norms and willing to learn more about the many benefits of vegetarianism or veganism including it being better for the environment, lowering demand of animal products therefore reducing harm to animals, and better for individual health (Goyal et al., 2020; Wright, 2015). Parents must also be willing, as their children have done, to look beyond carnism and recognize that humans do not need to eat meat to have a well-balanced diet (Joy, 2020). Interestingly, Rachel reflected that her parents had a slightly different reaction to her wanting to shift from being vegetarian to vegan. When I told my parents I wanted to go vegetarian, they were really supportive. And then it was about a year into that when I suggested going vegan, and they kind of pushed back a lot because it was just I don't know, it's a big difference from just like not eating meat, to not eating any animal products, since that's just such a large part of like, our culture, I guess. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 64 Going vegetarian is simpler than going vegan and still has a tremendous impact on lowering demand for meat, improving one’s health, and helping to fight climate change. Removing meat is more straightforward than removing all animal products. So long as there is not meat in the dish, it is vegetarian. This is usually easy to recognize and with approximately 10% of all U.S. adults identifying as vegetarian, it is more common than a vegan diet (Norwood & Bir, 2018). Going vegan requires being more meticulous about knowing all the ingredients in a dish as it is not always easy to spot dairy, eggs, or honey. As noted in the first theme, not having access to ingredients in the food at school poses a challenge to the vegan students and results in them bringing food from home instead. For a student that relied on school food and was vegetarian or vegan, they would need a doctor’s note to get non-dairy milk and a vegan meal (Martin, 2011). In addition, there is a secondary impact that happened which is positively impacting the lives of people around them. Rachel and April recounted how family members reduced their consumption of animals because of their choice to go vegetarian or vegan. Rachel recounted the evolution of her family’s eating habits due to her activism. “But I think when they saw like my passion for like the environment and like animal cruelty and stuff like that, they became more educated. And now they're actually fully plant-based, too.” April echoed the influence they had on their mom, “I think probably a couple months after I went vegan. She went vegetarian too, I think mostly in like support, you know, to help me.” It is immensely difficult to make broad social change, but it is very much worth noting the impact vegan and vegetarian youth are making on the people around them. Participant’s families are perhaps changing habits about the food they purchase and consume and may become more aware of the impact the meat and dairy industry has on personal health, the environment, and farm animals. This potentially has a ripple effect as the parents and siblings share their knowledge with those around them, and so on. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 65 Likewise, Fiona noted how people she has shared factory farming information with her class and about half of her peers have indicated being open to reducing their intake of animal products. Gwyn also noted that a couple people in her social circle have tried veganism or became vegetarian because of her and her family’s veganism. My participants’ willingness to change their diets and promote vegetarianism or veganism is admirable and speaks to how many members of Gen Z are in touch with social justice issues and taking a stance against many Western norms (Bogueva & Marinova, 2022). Conclusion Although many of the findings are not necessarily surprising, the extent to which the themes appeared were surprising and at times appalling. With the rise in vegetarianism and veganism over the last few years, I suspected and hoped that there would be a higher degree of acceptance of these dietary and lifestyle choices (Norwood & Bir, 2018). Unfortunately, it seems that vegetarianism and veganism challenge the status quo that is undergirded by capitalism, has reinforced the “need” for meat and other animal products in food. However, I would be remiss to omit that despite the microaggressions and lack of respect my participants have received as vegans or vegetarians, they were an inspiring and compassionate group of people. They were steadfast in their convictions, kind to one another, and showed immense understanding of those around them. Despite the various reasons to feel despondent, from climate change to wealth inequality, from systemic oppression of marginalized groups to the erosion of civility, these vegan and vegetarian youths have left me with a greater sense of hope for the future of humanity. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 66 Chapter V: Discussion The research I conducted with seven participants helped me better understand the lived experiences of vegetarian and vegan youth along the Wasatch Front. Many of the themes from Chapter IV demonstrated the opportunity for modifications to school policy and ideas for further research. This concluding chapter will cover my recommendations to local school districts and Parent Teacher Associations about how to better support students with dietary restrictions, ideas for future research that could be conducted with vegetarian and vegan youth, and concluding remarks. Recommendations The focus groups I conducted all pointed to a need for reform within the school menus and consideration being given to vegetarian and vegan students. I recommend the following updates to the local school districts to better support the needs of vegetarian and vegan youth: a) provide a well-balanced and nutritious option that is suitable for both vegetarians and vegans; b) visibly label allergen information on meal options; c) involve students in crafting menus; and d) become more aware of dietary restrictions to demonstrate respect. Provide Well-Balanced Meals for Vegans and Vegetarians Currently it appears that at many schools, the main options for vegetarians and vegans are a salad bar and peanut butter and jelly sandwiches. In some cases, the menus offered a few more options for vegetarians, such as cheese pizza, although there was not a vegetarian option offered every day. Likewise, I discovered through my review of school websites that the peanut butter and jelly sandwich option contains dairy. As peanut butter and jelly sandwiches can be a good source of protein and carbs, it makes an excellent option for vegans and vegetarians. While the VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 67 current option is suitable for vegetarians, it is not acceptable for vegans. I recommend updating the sandwich to not contain any dairy so it can be a viable option for vegans as well. According to the USDA meal pattern, only milk containing dairy is an option for a milk beverage. Outside of vegan students, there may be a portion of the population that is lactose intolerant. Providing a non-dairy “milk” option as a beverage would provide vegan students a nutritious option that still provides the calcium needed for healthy bones, as well as provide an excellent source of protein. While this is mandated by the USDA, a change in policy would be needed to institute this for all schools. Lastly, addressing the salad bar as the other option for vegan students—there are numerous meat alternatives that could be provided in the salad bar to make this a more substantial meal. Introducing tofu or tempeh for example would allow vegan and vegetarian students to get adequate protein in their lunch. Likewise, offering at least one vegan salad dressing would entice students to select this option. Clearly Label Allergen Information When asked if participants had access to allergen information for the food offered at school, it did not seem like this was accessible to students. Through my investigation of sample school menus online, I found there is clear labeling of allergen information for every dish served. I recommend making this more well known to students either by way of reiterating in communications to students about school menus or by listing common abbreviations for allergens on physical menu postings. This will prevent vegetarian and vegan students from having to wonder what is in the food. It will also prevent them from having to ask school staff and not be confident in the response about whether the food is safe for them to eat. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 68 Involve Students in Crafting the Menu Public schools participating in the NSLP need to follow the meal pattern in order to get funding for the meals. However, as long as they are sticking to the criteria, there is freedom to get creative with the menu. To better represent the population, it would be beneficial to involve a group of students when building the menu. A call for participants could include students interested in food and have a special interest, such as vegetarian, vegan, or gluten-free. This would provide useful feedback to the Food Service Director and anyone else who has input on building the school menus. Become More Aware of Dietary Restrictions For both educators and administrators, it is important to understand the needs of their students. Children are still dependent on adults at this age. They need to have trust that the adults at school understand enough about their dietary preferences that they food they are provided will meet their dietary restrictions. This also lends itself to being more inclusive of all students in school and supports making sure all children can participate in food-related activities or meals if they want to. This means being sensitive to any allergies and providing options for gluten-free, vegetarian, and vegan students. Based on my findings, I would also encourage teachers and staff to understand what it means to be vegetarian and vegan. This would demonstrate inclusivity and help to make vegetarian and vegan students feel more a part of celebrations and school-provided meals. It may also reduce hunger and improve academic performance. Lastly, teachers and administrators need to take seriously any microaggressions towards vegetarians or vegans and react appropriately. The convictions that vegetarian and vegan students hold should be respected and upheld to their fullest extent. VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 69 Community Organization All the recommendations outlined above benefit my Project Supervisor, Kate Wheeler, and her work at the Salt Lake City School District. Kate is the Farm to Fork Specialist at the Utah State Board of Education (USBE). Kate’s position sits within the Child Nutrition Programs of the USBE and helps to connect farmers and nonprofits to schools to provide healthy fresh foods. Although there are parameters for amounts of fruits, vegetables, proteins, grains, and dairy required in school-supplied meals, there is a lot of room for creativity when building the school menus. Kate has a direct impact on the food being provided to students at school and can help influence the menus to be more inclusive of vegetarian and vegan diets. Likewise, my research indicated a need to provide easier access to allergen information so students can identify menu options that are suitable to their dietary needs. Beyond sharing these findings with Kate, I hope to share my research more broadly with school districts along the Wasatch Front and those with the ability to make change will act upon these recommendations. Future Research Ideas While there was limited research on vegetarian and vegan youth in the U.S. to begin with, my research only begins to scratch the surface. There is much more that can be explored. One area I wanted to investigate further but was not able to due to sample size was the difference between the experiences of vegetarian and vegan youth by gender identity. Existing research points to the varied degrees of treatment when comparing adult vegetarians and vegans, and both categories could be explored further by gender with youth. There is also more research that could be explored about the implications of microaggressions on vegan and vegetarian youth. Much research to date around microaggressions centers, rightfully so, around race and gender as the impact to these VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 70 populations is vast and oppressive. There is some research around the stereotyping of vegans and comparing the behavior of others towards vegans and vegetarians. From this, it is possible to insinuate the microaggressions that vegans and vegetarians face due to their choices, yet there is opportunity to better understand when (e.g., school, social events, family gatherings) and by whom (e.g., family, friends, peers, acquaintances). A third area that I think is worthy of further review is understanding if there is an impact on participation in school, both academically and with extracurricular activities, as well as impact on mental health. The current school menus are limited for vegetarians and extremely limited for vegans. For students who rely on school supplied meals and are vegetarian or vegan, there may be an increase in hunger and inability to perform well academically or in extracurricular activities. This is an area that could be valuable to explore to further support the need for more well-balanced meals for vegans and vegetarians at school. Lastly, a final area that I believe could help shape the future of food at schools is by understanding perspectives and experiences of students whose school consistently provides a vegetarian and vegan option with every meal. It would be interesting to see if these students are more accepting of vegetarian and vegan diets and what their perspectives of vegans and vegetarians are having been exposed to various dietary preferences. Conclusion This entire research experience has taught me a lot about myself, the many and often simple opportunities that exist to improve the lives of youth, and the power of listening. For myself, there were days I did not think I would be able to complete my research for any number of reasons. I discovered that my personal limit is much bigger than I assumed—between holding a full-time leadership position at work, being pregnant, birthing, and beginning to raise an VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 71 incredible baby boy, and going through this research process really for the last two and a half years has shown me what I am capable of. I am so inspired by each participant I spoke with. Their compassion for those around them—their families, friends, peers, teachers, animals, and environment was moving. They were steadfast in their beliefs and supportive of each other, even without knowing one another prior. They gave me hope for the future and I left feeling recommitted to doing my part to leave the world better than I found it through activism and community participation. The research illustrates that there is much to learn about vegan and vegetarian youth experiences at school and shows that these further questions deserve to be studied. 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Experiences of initiating and maintaining a vegan diet among young adults: A qualitative study. Appetite, 180, 1-8. Wright, L. (2015). The vegan studies project: Food, animals, and gender in the age of terror. University of Georgia Press. Young, C. (2020). Should you buy local? Journal of Business Ethics, 176(2), 265-281. 82 VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES Appendix A: Research Study Flyer 83 VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 84 Appendix B: Recruitment Script Hi ___________, Thanks for your email--I am still conducting my research and would love to have you participate! For more context about what to expect: I'm meeting with small groups of vegan/vegetarian students in the Salt Lake area to learn more about their experiences. The meeting will take place via Zoom and typically lasts between 60-90 minutes. I'll ask questions about what made you interested in veganism/vegetarianism, experiences with food—especially at school, what foods you like to eat, etc. To participate, I'll need both forms attached to this email signed -- the assent form gets signed by you and your parent/guardian and the consent form will need to be signed by your parent/guardian as well. If it's easier, feel free to print, sign, and send a photo of the signed documents back via email. I'm trying to schedule another focus group some time in the next week -- are you available to participate this weekend? Once the focus group concludes, I'll send out a gift card as a token of my appreciation for your time and willingness to participate. Let me know if you have any questions -- I'm excited to hear about your experiences as a vegan youth! Brooke Stencil VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 85 Appendix C: Minor Assent Form *Before signing make sure you understand what it says This focus group is asking you about your experiences with eating a vegan or vegetarian diet and thoughts about what is offered through the school meal program. You will do this focus group with a group of other similar-aged kids. It will last around 60-90 minutes. You do not have to participate if you do not want to, and you can stop participation at any time. Everything you share will be confidential, meaning your name will not be given to anyone. This study has been explained to you by: Brooke Stencil If you want to participate, please sign your name below and write the date next to your name. Your parent/guardian will also sign this form. Participant Signature ____________________________________________________________ Parent/Guardian Signature ________________________________________________________ Co-investigator Signature ________________________________________________________ VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 86 Appendix D: Adult Consent Form *Before agreeing for your child to participate in this study, it is important that the following explanation of the proposed research be read and understood. It describes the purpose, procedures, benefits, and risks of the study. It also describes your right as a participant. Your child has been invited to participate in a research study, the purpose of which is to better understand the experiences of vegetarian or vegan youth in the Salt Lake County public schools. Using reflections and shared experiences, we can better understand gaps in how the needs of vegetarian and vegan youth are being met, specifically at school. Participating in this study means agreeing to a focus group, made up of three to eight other students, in sixth through twelfth grade. I will aim to keep the group as similar in age as possible. The focus group will last between 60-90 minutes and will take place virtually on Zoom or Microsoft Teams. By signing this consent form, you are agreeing to allow your child to participate in a focus group. Your child will be asked a series of questions about their experience being vegetarian or vegan and what their experiences have been like at school, especially around access to food served by the school. You child’s identity will remain confidential; however, the results of the study will be made available to you upon request and may be used in formal publications and/or presentations. The purpose of collecting this information is with the goal of informing school district food decision makers of the need for evolution with the school menus to better accommodate and provide for a more diverse student body. You will be notified if there are any significant changes made during the duration of the study. Participation is completely voluntary and your child may choose to quit the study at any point in time without consequence. If you have any questions about this study or wish to withdraw your child, please contact the coinvestigator, Brooke Stencil, at [e-mail] or via phone at 801-243-9592. If needed, you may also reach out to the primary investigator, Dr. Shelley Erickson, at [e-mail]. If you have any questions regarding your child’s rights as a research participant, you may contact Sheryl Steadman, Chair of the Institutional Review Board at [e-mail]. ____ I agree to the audio and video recording of the focus group Parent/Guardian Signature _______________________________________________________ Co-investigator Signature _____________________________________________________ VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 87 Appendix E: Interview Protocol Introduction Guide Focus Groups I am a graduate student at Westminster College working on my Masters of Community Leadership. I am interested in the experiences of Salt Lake County youth who are vegan or vegetarian during some or all parts of their diet. I am vegan and have been for the last five years. The information provided by participants will help to shape a better picture of the current landscape of how school meals serve vegetarian and vegan students. Likewise, the information will inform how school meals in Salt Lake County could evolve to become more sustainable and inclusive. Confidentiality: All personal information will be kept confidential. I will refer to you by a pseudonym of your choosing instead of using your real name. If there is anything particularly sensitive that you do not want me to share in my findings, please let me know. Likewise, you are free to opt out of the research at any time without consequence. Before we begin, I want to thank you for taking the time to review and sign the assent form. If you have any questions about the assent form, please ask. Let’s get started – let’s first go around the room and have each person introduce themselves and share their name and pronouns, what school they attend, what grade they’re in, and if you’d like to select your pseudonym/fake name, please share now. • • Introductory/Familiarization Questions o These questions are aimed at breaking the ice among the group and with me and to get participants feeling comfortable talking amongst the group. Likewise, we will begin exploring experiences with eating vegetarian or vegan. ▪ Share with us your favorite meal you’ve ever had. ▪ Describe to the group __________________ Vegan/Vegetarian Specific Questions o Please share with the group if you are currently vegan or vegetarian, or interested in learning more ▪ If you’re vegan or vegetarian, how long have you eaten this way? o Please tell the group what made you decide to eat a vegetarian or vegan diet (all or some of the time). ▪ Follow up questions • How long have you been eating this way? • For those that made the choice to go vegan, can you describe the transition in your eating habits? For example, did you make the change overnight? Did you start by removing certain kinds of foods first? o Are other people (family, friends) vegan or vegetarian? VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES ▪ ▪ 88 For participants whose families are not vegan/vegetarian – what is your experience like eating meals with your family? For participants whose families are vegan/vegetarian – what is your experience like eating meals with your families? Food at School o What has been your experience with eating a vegetarian or vegan diet while eating food at school? ▪ Have you been in certain scenarios where you were unable to find food that was vegetarian or vegan? o How frequently do you get a meal at school? ▪ Tell me more about the options for vegetarian or vegan food at school? o If you were able to order vegetarian or vegan food, what are examples of what you’ve been able to get? o What are some menu items you wish the school menu had? o What have your experiences been like when there is a celebration/party/event at school where food has been provided? ▪ Have there been options for you to eat and maintain your vegan/vegetarian diet? o What has been your experience at school with being vegetarian or vegan? ▪ How have your peers reacted when learning that you are vegan or vegetarian? ▪ How have teachers or staff at the school behaved when learning you are vegan or vegetarian? o How does your school handle allergies (peanut allergy, for example) compared to students that are vegxn? o Describe a time someone has gone out of their way to make sure vegxn food was provided for you? o Describe a time it has been difficult to get vegxn food (either at school or outside of school)? Opened ended questions to get more info o When you are at friends’ houses, what are your experiences like with access to vegetarian/vegan food? o How have your peers reacted to your food choices? ▪ If there are some tough stories about people being inconsiderate/rude/etc., ask how they handle it. o Do you find friends are open to trying the types of food you eat? Do you have any examples you can share? o *If someone shares other people discounting their vegxn preference, ask how that makes them feel o What was the most helpful thing to you when you first became vegan/vegetarian to feel supported? VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES 89 o What would you most want people in charge at your school to know about your experiences with food at school? o What advice would you give someone your age if they were thinking about not eating meat anymore? o What are your favorite breakfast/lunch/dinner/snack foods? o What types of protein do you like to eat? o Describe a typical vegan person o Are there any notable people (celebrities, artists, influencers, etc.) that inspire you or whom you get information from? ▪ If yes, tell me about them o Are there other causes you are passionate about? ▪ Where do you get information about these? VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES Appendix F: National Institutes of Health: IRB Training 90 VEGAN AND VEGETARIAN YOUTH EXPERIENCES Appendix G: IRB Approval 91 Stencil_Brooke_approval.pdf APPROVAL of a thesis/project submitted by Author(s): Brooke Stencil | Advisor: Shelley Erickson School Department: School of Education Title of Thesis: “Hey, Is This Vegan?”: Exploring Vegan and Vegetarian Youth Experiences in Life and School Chairperson, Supervisory Committee: Shelley Erickson Approved on 05-01-2023 Dean of School of Education: Lance Newman Approved on 05-01-2023 Stencil_Brooke_permission.pdf STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO DEPOSIT & DISPLAY THESIS IN THE INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORY Name of Author: Brooke Stencil | Advisor: Shelley Erickson Additional Authors: | | | School Department: School of Education Title of Thesis: “Hey, Is This Vegan?”: Exploring Vegan and Vegetarian Youth Experiences in Life and School With permission from the author(s), the staff of the Giovale Library of Westminster College has the right to deposit and display an electronic copy of the above named thesis in its Institutional Repository for educational purposes only. I hereby give my permission to the staff of the Giovale Library of Westminster College to deposit and display as described the above named thesis. I retain ownership rights to my work, including the right to use it in future works such as articles or a book. Submitted by the Author(s) on 4/28/2023 9:39pm The above duplication and deposit rights may be terminated by the author(s) at any time by notifying the Director of the Giovale Library in writing that permission is withdrawn.