How to effectively align the Utah Effective Teaching Standards with American Indian values : a first step for elementary school teachers

Many times we find that American Indian students are disengaged in their K-12 education and classroom practices can conflict with their culture. This disconnect between value structures can make it difficult to navigate the educational pipeline leading to low college enrollment and attrition. This project will identify ways to align the Utah Effective Teaching Standards, specifically the distinguished level, with cultural values and best practices for American Indian students. By identifying ways teachers in Utah can meet both the teaching standards and their student's values, educators can create environments that reflect the values of their American Indian students, which can help engage students. By summarizing effective empirically supported solutions I will identify the strategies that work best in the classrooms providing highly skilled instruction that both encourages learning and creates a welcoming environment. Additionally, this project will outline values of American Indian students and discuss how they can be incorporated in teacher instruction. Using these sources of theory and research, I have created a resource for Utah elementary educators to help effectively align teaching strategies to cultural values of American Indian Students.

HOW TO EFFECTIVELY ALIGN THE UTAH EFFECTIVE TEACHING STANDARDS WITH AMERICAN INDIAN VALUES: A FIRST STEP FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS by Rose Yazzie A Senior Honors Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of The University of Utah In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Honors Degree in Bachelor of Science In Elementary Education Approved: Mary' Directd Urban Institute of Teacher Education A J. Metz Thesis Supervisor j. I 'd umonette iSiang Iitans Dr. Lauren Aimonette Elementary Education Honors Advisor Dr. Sylvia D. Torti Dean, Honors College April 2014 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW 1 METHOD 10 RESULTS 12 DISCUSSION 28 CONCLUSION 31 REFERENCES 32 i Abstract Many times we find that American Indian students are disengaged in their K-12 education and classroom practices can conflict with their culture. This disconnect between value structures can make it difficult to navigate the educational pipeline leading to low college enrollment and attrition. This project will identify ways to align the Utah Effective Teaching Standards, specifically the distinguished level, with cultural values and best practices for American Indian students. By identifying ways teachers in Utah can meet both the teaching standards and their student’s values, educators can create environments that reflect the values of their American Indian students, which can help engage students. By summarizing effective empirically supported solutions I will identify the strategies that work best in the classrooms providing highly skilled instruction that both encourages learning and creates a welcoming environment. Additionally, this project will outline values of American Indian students and discuss how they can be incorporated in teacher instruction. Using these sources of theory and research, I have created a resource for Utah elementary educators to help effectively align teaching strategies to cultural values of American Indian Students. 1 Introduction and Literature Review Disparities in the Educational System The U.S. Education System has failed American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) students. Disparities in the system begin before children even enter formal schooling. In 2010, the percentage of 3- to 5-year-old AI/AN children enrolled in preprimary programs (kindergarten, preschool, nursery school) was 52% (Aud, et al., 2012) which was the lowest of any other racial/ethnic group (70% Asian, 67% White, 65% Black, 56% Hispanic). Aud et al. (2012) found that these enrollment patterns varied by parent level of education such that parents with more education enrolled their children into these types of programs at higher rates; parents who never completed a high school degree had the lowest percentage of enrollment in preprimary programs. From 1990 to 2011, White, Black, Asian, and Hispanic parents increased their educational attainment while American Indian parents had no increase in educational attainment during this period (Aud et al., 2012). Although one might wonder why this matters, research shows that pre-k and early head start programs enhance children’s health, reduce aggressive behavior, and promote their cognitive, social, emotional, and language development (APA, 2005). For AI/AN students, educational disparities can be seen in the elementary and secondary school system. Thirty five percent of AI/AN students attend high-poverty public elementary schools and 17% attend high-poverty public high schools (Aud et al., 2012). These statistics are actually an underestimate of the number of AI/AN students who attend high-poverty schools as they do not capture those attending schools administered by the U.S. government’s Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). High povertyschools are those in which 76-100% of students are eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. High poverty schools typically have greater incidents of violence, more students who have limited English proficiency, teachers with lower educational attainment, lower 8th grade reading and math scores, and the lowest high school graduation rates (Aud, et al., 2013). Although National high school graduation rates range from 54.1% to 79.2% for all students (Schultz & Kroegar, 1996); AI/AN students graduate at rates that are drastically lower and disheartening (30.4% to 63.8%). Possibly related, 31% of AI/AN students missed 3 or more days of school in one month compared to their Asian/Pacific Islander (11%), White (18%), Hispanic (21%) and Black (23%) peers (Aud et al., 2012). In 2010, roughly 13% of AI/AN individuals aged 16-24 were not enrolled in school and had not earned a high school diploma or General Educational Development (GED) certificate (Aud et al., 2012). From 1990 to 2010 this rate (status dropout rate) declined for Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics, but not for AI/AN students. The status dropout rate for AI/AN students is only slightly under the status dropout rate for those bom outside of the U.S. (Aud et al., 2012). In college, AI/AN students have the lowest enrollment rates of any cultural group (Stokes, 1997). For example, in 2004 only 17% of AI/AN high school graduates attended some type of postsecondary training as compared to 67% of their White peers (Agbo, 2001). For the AI/AN students who do attend college, only 11.5% graduate with a bachelor’s degree (Yosso, 2005). Owings, McMillan, & Burkett (1995) suggested that one explanation for the underrepresentation of AI/AN students in postsecondary education is due to these students not earning high enough scores on the SAT to meet admissions criteria. In a sample of 98 AI/AN college students, House (1997) found a relationship between high school achievement, college admissions test scores, and subsequent performance in specific college courses. If high school academic performance is a predictor of college enrollment and subsequent college performance, we need to intervene early in these students’ educational careers. Research on minority student success points to the need to not only intervene with academic coursework, but to enhance academic self-efficacy beliefs and promote the importance of education (Gloria & Ho, 2003). Other research indicates that AI/AN students who have a strong cultural identity are more likely to be retained in school (Huffman, 1991) and are less likely to feel powerless and isolated on the college campus (Trimble, 1987). Importance of Education Economically, it's hard to argue against the benefits of education. Human capital theory is often used to describe the relationship between education and income and suggests that employers will pay a higher wage to more educated and skilled workers (Olaniyan & Okemakinde, 2008). Labor statistics endorse this theory; the median weekly earnings of full-time workers with at least a bachelor’s degree are $ 1,158, while the median weekly earnings of full-time workers without a high school diploma are $450. This suggests that college graduates earn nearly three times more than high school dropouts (U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012). With respect to lifetime earning potential, those with a college degree can expect to earn almost $2.2 million more than those without a high school diploma (Camevale, Smith, & Strole, 2010). The job outlook is also more advantageous for those with higher levels of education, as 30% of the 46.8 million new jobs created by 2018 will require at least an associate’s degree; an additional 30% will require a bachelor’s degree or higher (Camevale et al., 2010). This gives college-educated individuals a distinct advantage in the job market as employers demand greater skill and education from their employees. Those without a high school diploma or those with only a high school diploma will only have access to 40% of the new jobs being created. The situation is most dire for high school dropouts; they are two times more likely to be unemployed than their peers with a bachelor’s degree (U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011). It is clear that a high school diploma is no longer sufficient for acquiring a skilled job and earning a livable wage. The value of postsecondary training and education cannot be underestimated. In addition to the economic advantages associated with attaining a postsecondary degree, there may also be health and psychosocial benefits. For example, data from the National Health Interview Survey (Cutler & Lleras-Muney, 2007) indicates that individuals with higher levels of education are less likely to have been treated for an acute or chronic disease, less likely to die from an acute or chronic disease, and less likely to report symptoms of anxiety or depression. In contrast, individuals with less education have a greater risk for heart disease and diabetes, and miss more days of work due to sickness than their better educated peers (Cutler & Lleras-Muney, 2007). The Centers for Disease Control report that individuals (regardless of age) who have not completed high school or obtained a GED are more likely to have serious conditions such as heart disease, a stroke, emphysema, diabetes, liver disease, depression, and an overall health status that is only “poor” or “fair,” suggesting that significant health benefits may result from greater education (Schiller, Lucas, Ward, & Peregoy, 2011). Not only does a college education contribute to better health, but it also enriches personal lives through a broadened perspective of the world. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) suggest that college-educated individuals are more likely to pursue supplementary educational opportunities, vote, volunteer, participate in community leadership, and engage in politics than those with less education. Additionally, college-educated individuals reported higher overall subjective well-being and better quality of life than those without a college education (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). A Cultural Disconnect Efforts to assimilate American Indians into a European-American culture can be traced back to the 1790’s. The theory behind “civilization” or “Americanization” policies was that if American Indian children learned Western customs and values they could merge the two cultures and be a part of the majority society. However, in the late 1800’s traditional ceremonies were outlawed and American Indian students were forced to leave their tribal traditions behind to speak English and study standard subjects in Native American boarding schools. In an interview on NPR in 2008, Charla Bear states, “For the tens of thousands of children who went to boarding schools, it’s largely remembered as a time of abuse and a desecration of their culture (Bear, 2008). In the same interview, Tsianina Lomawaima, head of the American Indian Studies Program at the University of Arizona, is quoted as saying that the government’s objective at that point was to “erase and replace” American Indian culture. Since this era, indigenous knowledge and practices have further been scrutinized and judged to be inefficient (McKinley & Brayboy, 2005). From the start, curriculum in U.S. schools has largely ignored the American Indian culture and thus many cultural mismatches have risen. “Our schools have failed to nurture the intellectual development and academic performance of many Native children, as is evident from their high dropout rates and negative attitudes towards school (The Indian Nations at Risk Task Force, 1991, p. 1). Patrick (2008) interviewed teachers of American Indian students and gathered their responses regarding the mismatch. A common theme found in his study was that teachers’ lack of knowledge of tribal values led to the use of a cultural deficit model to explain underachievement. Teachers attributed poor academic performance to real or perceived characteristics of the American Indian community. This type of perspective “blames the victim” and turns a blind eye to institutional oppression. Moreover, it relieves the school from their responsibility to educate all students appropriately. It also offers an explanation for why students of color are overrepresented in non college-prep tracks and special education (Conchas, 2006). Part of being culturally relevant involves being open and motivated to learning about the American Indian culture. Not only reading about American Indian values in a book, but getting involved in the community and establishing relationships. It involves taking on a leadership role by collaborating with families and advocating for resources and services. Being culturally relevant can be as simple as a smile, saying “hi” to the student in the hall, or initiating a brief check-in. These are things that provide a warm, welcoming environment. If these traits are not exhibited it can lead to the student feeling “strange” and may trigger resistance (Cummins, 1989). American Indian Value Structure. Although there is no one size fits all approach to working with American Indian students it is always best to become familiar with your students and gage your pedagogy around them. By first identifying some common American Indian values identified by Schultz and Kroegar (1996) we can start to see ways these cultures may clash. In the classroom, cultural mismatches can impact academic engagement, academic self-efficacy, educational commitment, school commitment, and resiliency. These attitudinal and motivational factors can subsequently impact academic performance and retention. In column one of Table 1, common values of American Indian communities are presented. For example, a common value is for the group or collective to take precedence over the individual. For many American Indians, taking care of a collective will ensure that others are also taking care of you. Other American Indian values include living in the moment, valuing elders, cooperation, patience, generosity, humility, and religion or spirituality as a way of life, not just a discrete component. Western Value Structure. The U.S. Educational System is rooted in European American or Western values, politics, religion, and economic histories. For example, Western education programs promote the acquisition of knowledge as the goal of education (Robert St. Clair, 2000). In contrast, AI/AN people might view meaning as the goal of education. Other Western ideas and values that can be seen in the classroom include: individual success over group success, the importance of planning for the future, using every minute of time, competition, assertiveness, and praise and attention. These values run counter to how AI/AN children are raised and it therefore only makes sense that they would be challenged by Western educational structures and practices. Result o f Disconnect. If teachers do not realize there may be a cultural disconnect for their American Indian students they will not adjust their teaching practices, and the disparities in education and lifelong earnings for these students will continue. These teachers will also lack empathy, provide an irrelevant curriculum, and use inappropriate testing (Reyhner, 1991). Their students will be lost, become disengaged, and start to act out. Cummins (1989) argues that the educational system is either allowing students to be successful or setting them back farther. In the case of American Indian students, it is setting them back further. Through this project I hope to address this cultural disconnect by providing teachers with culturally relevant teaching strategies that engage American Indian students. Use o f Culturally Relevant American Indian Teaching Methods Schools have remained a place to emphasize a Western value structure. By creating class environments that value competition, individualism, and assertiveness we inadvertently reinforce these values as the norm. In the classroom, this mismatch of Western and American Indian values can have a serious impact on the academic success of American Indian students. Recently however, there have been those who support culturally relevant education. In fact, some refer back to Vygotsky’s Theory of SocioCultural Learning which identifies how students develop and build their learning processes off of their social world, largely made up by culture (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996). There are a number of examples of schools that have integrated culturally relevant practices and realized positive academic outcomes for their students. The Hawaii Sustainable Education Initiative integrates an elementary curriculum with Hawaiian culture. In addition to the traditional curriculum, students take part in “place based learning.” These include non-formal learning experiences associated with cultural activities such as fishing, fanning, and dancing (Schonleber, 2011). Other examples of the effective implementation of culturally relevant curriculum includes the Dine College on the Navajo Reservation, Haskell Indian Nations University, and the College of the Menominee Nation. Each of these institutions integrates teaching practices consistent with American Indian Culture. For example, the educational philosophy of Dine College “places Dine life in harmony with the natural world and the universe.” Students study Dine language, history, and culture (Dine College, 2014). Community service and research projects are designed to directly impact the social, economic, and cultural well­ being of the surrounding community. While it seems there has been some success in the alignment of culturally relevant curriculum for American Indian students, there have also been some failures. The American Indian Public Charter School in Oakland, California was created to address the poor educational outcomes of American Indian students. Initially, the school had a predominantly American Indian population and focused on American Indian culture such as bead-making, drumming, and dancing. Unfortunately, a new school principal eliminated these practices and turned the focus to standardized test scores. The percentage of American Indian students at the school decreased to less than 5% (Murphy, 2009). A school in Castagano (2012) tried to base their curriculum around Navajo values and culture. Unfortunately, the teachers didn’t feel they had the necessary materials, skills, or cultural knowledge to keep the curriculum going. Moreover, the teachers felt pressure to “get through the common core” and focus on helping their students prepare for standardized assessments. Teaching from a culturally relevant perspective takes time and patience. Teachers need the flexibility to change topics if it seems relevant or “go 10 deeper” into a discussion. This project keeps these teaching constraints in mind and therefore, doesn’t focus on changing the curriculum per se but gives teachers quick tools that can be easily implemented. This project is unique based on the fact that the researched strategies are focused and aligned with the Utah Effective Teaching Standards. These standards came into play when Utah educators decided to create a teacher assessment method that would align with the Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium, the InTASC standards. The InTASC standards are used as an expectation to hold teachers to and are implemented by the Council of Chief State School Officers beginning in 2011. These standards were created to ensure that educators were completing their job of preparing students for college or career readiness while outlining what effective teaching looks like (CCSSO, 2011). Utah educators took the InTASC standards and aligned them with the needs of Utah classrooms and core curriculum creating the Utah Effective Teaching Standards, UETS. The UETS allow for teachers and evaluators to assess the level to which a teacher performs each standard on a scale consisting of Emerging/ minimal, Effective, and Highly Effective. The Utah Effective Teaching standards began implementation in 2011 and since have allowed educators to assess and track their growth on the continuum of efficient teaching. This project will identify ways to align the Utah Effective Teaching Standards, specifically the highly effective level, with cultural values and best practices for American Indian students. Method Participants Four individuals who identify as American Indian and who have experience working with American Indian children were contacted to take part in an informal interview to assist in understanding the unique needs of this population and gain a perspective on interventions that are culturally congruent. Participant 1 is a male who worked as a middle school counselor for six years and is now an Assistant Principal at an elementary school in Utah. Participant 2 is a male who worked as a middle school counselor for 8 years and is now the director of an American Indian Success Program for students grades K-12 in a school district in Utah. Participant 3 is a female who worked as a middle school counselor for five years and is now an instructor at a community college in Arizona. Participant 4 is a male college student who volunteers as a mentor for American Indian youth. Materials Three sets of materials were used in this project: 1) a set of interview questions, 2) the Utah Effective Teaching Standards (UETS), and 3) theoretical and research literature from the education, psychology, and multicultural fields of study. Interview Questions. To be respectful of the participants’ time, I asked them four questions: 1. Research tells us there is a disconnect between the American Indian community and the educational system. What examples have you seen or experienced? 2. Have you noticed any change in this disconnect over time? 3. What do you think could be done to improve the situation? 4. Do you have any specific suggestions or strategies for teachers? 12 Utah Effective Teaching Standards (UETS). As described above, the Utah Effective Teaching Standards (UETS) were created in June 2011 to ensure Utah teachers are using effective teaching practices. The standards outline minimum knowledge and skills required across all subject areas and grade levels. Thus, they can be used to hold teachers accountable to high quality instruction. Theoretical Writings & Research Literature. A thorough literature review was conducted using EBSCO Host and Psychlnfo research databases from the Marriott Library using search terms such as “American Indian,” “American Indian Values,” “Native American,” “Education,” “Culturally Responsive,” “Students,” “Persistence,” “Academic Performance,” “Retention,” and “Drop Out,” resulting in over 50 appropriate articles. Additional information was found in reports, books, a newspaper article, and an online NPR interview. Procedures I decided that my “product” for this Honors research project would be a handout for elementary teachers on specific pedagogical practices that are consistent with American Indian values. I started by reviewing the Utah Effective Teaching Standards and decided to create suggestions for the “Highly Effective Level” of each of the 10 standards. Given this is not a research study, a formal qualitative methodology such as a content analysis was not conducted. Instead, I read the articles and interviews described above and used them to inform my suggestions. Results Summary of Interview Data 13 Experiencing the Cultural Divide. When asked if there is a disconnect between the American Indian community and the educational system, Participant 1 said, “Without a doubt.” He further stated: America’s educational system was built to “deculturalize” racial minorities particularly American Indians. The education structure, process, pedagogy, curriculum, and assessments are still entrenched in this deculturalizing, assimilative process, so it should come as little surprise that many American Indian students, parents, and communities feel disconnected to their schools. Participant 1 also provided the following two examples of the cultural divide: The most obvious example of this deculturalizing process in schools occurs with language. Most American Indian students have little opportunity to acquire and develop their tribal language and there remains an institutionalized practice that disregards tribal languages and with that tribal knowledge and epistemology. Another example of educational disconnect I routinely see with many students of color, including American Indian students comes in the form of motivation and the lack thereof. Because most curriculums and pedagogies are not culturally and linguistically responsive to students of color, motivation and efficacy is sometimes low for many students. American Indian culture is also placed at a deficit in the educational system and as a result American Indian students are routinely tracked into special education or remedial classes. Couple this along with the historical trauma that education has inflicted upon American Indians and this disconnect becomes understandable. Participant 2 discussed this disconnect and his experiences working with students as they go through their schooling. While Participant 2 says there is undoubtedly a mismatch he brings up the point that American Indian students who identified more closely with their traditions and culture were able to positively navigate the mismatch. This provides us with more evidence on why cultural knowledge is important and should be used by educators to increase student success. Participant 3 said she has seen American Indian students struggle in school and she believes this has to do with “living in two worlds.” She said that it is typical for 14 adolescents and young adults to enter a period of role confusion in which they are trying to determine where they fit in the world; however, American Indian students have the additional struggle of ethnic identity development. She said that “every American Indian adolescent knows the perception the White world has about them. Do they succumb to this identity? Try to forge a different identity?” Participant 4 discussed the lack of representation of American Indian experiences and “heroes” or positive role models in the educational setting. This participant also correlated the mismatch to a failure to navigate the educational pipeline instead, calling it a pipeline to failure. Assimilation is Alive and Well. In response to the question if the disconnect has changed over time, Participant 1 suggests that assimilation efforts have worked: Many American Indians have lost their tribal language, culture, and identity. Furthermore, because schools have enabled positional superiority based upon the majority culture, American Indian students often see their own cultures as superfluous or unnecessary (see hegemony). It is only after their K-12 experience that many American Indian students recognize and appreciate their cultural assets and differences. Also, on a national scale, education has shifted far and away from a studentcentered approach to educating students to an economically-driven one and attunement to culture and personal identity is being left behind or is not even in the race at all. Social and creative opportunities for our students are also becoming scarce as schools narrow their curriculums and focus on end of the year testing. This trend I feel, erodes connectedness for all students in school. Participant 2 believes there has been stability in the mismatch - with its devastating effects being repeated. He has some hope for change as he has seen projects 15 put into place to address the concerns of American Indian students and attempt to improve their success in the schools. Participants 3 and 4 agreed with this pattern and extended the mismatch into the college years. Responding to Diverse Populations. Participant 1 provided some big picture ideas for improving the cultural mismatch: On a national scale, our schools must respond to our diverse populations and changing demographics. Education must become more student-centered and culturally and linguistically responsive. Pre-service teaching programs must provide instruction and opportunities for future teachers to develop culturally responsive pedagogy. Schools need to be able to respond to their own unique demographics rather than a just having a common prescribed curriculum and standards. This should be done by empowering communities and parents to engage in their schools and having a larger voice in the outcomes for their students. College and career readiness should be a part of education, but it should not be the only part. Education should not be driven by corporate American or be solely about job creation. I believe education should serve other purposes as well, such as social and cultural purposes. The Lakota author Vine Deloria aptly writes “Unfortunately Western civilization does not link knowledge and morality but rather it connects knowledge and power and makes them equivalent.” Ladson-Billings contemplated over two decades ago whether African-American students needed separate schools designed specifically to them to capitalizing on their own culture and background. This may be the only pragmatic K-12 approach for educating American Indian students if we are to retain language, culture, and identity. This model is already successfully being done in higher education with Tribal colleges that infuse Native culture to culturally relevant curriculum. Tribal colleges have higher positive outcomes in retention, graduation rates, and students continuing on to graduate programs. For this to happen, state and tribal parity need to be developed and true tribal sovereignty recognized. Participant 2 calls for a stronger relationship and alignment of goals between those involved in American Indian education and educators to help create an effective educational system. He mentioned that there are many other steps that need to be taken; however, this is a good first step toward improvement. He also mentions the mismatch of 16 expectations surrounding the role of the educator, “Parents view the school personnel as being competent to meet the needs of the children without their direct involvement.” This quickly become a complex situation when you take into account the mistrust/disproval built up by boarding schools which many parents attended. Participant 2 also mentions the mismatch of teaching styles and the learning styles of American Indian students making him question the effectiveness of educational strategies used in the classroom. Participant 3 suggested multicultural education for teachers. She said that as a school counselor she was trained to provide counseling and guidance to parents and students from multiple backgrounds. She said she’s been the recipient of microaggressions from teachers and fears that students have as well. Participant 4 recalls the efforts made during the assimilation era and discusses implementing immersion style schools that could help reverse the mismatch found in schools today. Recommended Strategies for Teachers. Participant 1 suggested that teachers develop an awareness of their own biases and stereotypes and make an attempt to be part of the solution instead of part of the problem: The first step to solve any problem is awareness, I feel teachers need to first become aware of their historical roles of conforming and compliance and ask “for whom and on whose behalf am I teaching?” (See Freire) If a teacher believes their role to be that of student compliance or only sees their students as receptacles with no prior knowledge, his or her students will disengage and become unmotivated. Teaching then becomes an act of submission and colonization. Successful teachers are able to connect to students and their parents. They are able to scaffold off their student’s culture and prior knowledge and connect to new ideas and knowledge. Successful teachers are able to connect value and relevance to their curriculum and create authentic learning opportunities for their students. Because teaching is a humanistic endeavor, outstanding teachers are able to affirm and validate personal culture and identity. All of these efforts have been shown to 17 increase student motivation and engagement and teachers become emancipators and agents of change. Participant 2 discusses the need for educators to take the initiative to get to know their students and communities and to allow for their culture to be represented in the class creating relevancy while also exercising sensitivity. He also mentions forming positive relationships with parents and guardians by sharing positive updates and notes/observations on students. Participant 3 said she wasn’t familiar with specific teaching strategies but she thought that teachers could learn more about American Indian values and think of them as strengths. How can the teacher foster these strengths in the classroom? At the same time, she said it is still important to teach American Indian students how to be successful in a White world. Participant 4 stresses the importance of educators being aware of their own biases and stereotypes and how they could impact interactions with students. He also mentions making use of mentors to help reinforce positive models and to help American Indian students understand their culture as a strength rather than a deficit. American Indian Teacher Guide After reviewing the literature and the interview responses I generated a list of American Indian Considerations that align with the UETS Highly Effective Teaching Standard (Table 2). UETS Standards & Highly Effective Indicators Standard One: Learner Development -developmentally appropriate experiences that are inclusive of student strengths, interests and needs. American Indian Considerations -student involved in creation of own academic goals and data collected -student self-reflection on strengths, interests and needs -explain the value behind any work assigned1 18 -data driven curriculum that is level appropriate - engages/collaborates with family and student’s social support network to promote growth and development -support parents involvement in the classroom by inviting them teach lessons/lead activities11 -positive letters/notes home to increase parent involvement111 - work to dispel possible cultural distrust of the educational system by frequently communicating with family Standard Two: Learning Differences -including group work and encouraging collaborative learning, -invite community members into your classroom to recognize & affirm student cultural wealthlv -incorporate content that examines American Indian issues/ populations while creating a language objective as well. -understand that silence is comfortable and valued - responses may not be immediate, time is needed for reflection1 -allow student to first see a whole picture before focusing in on a specific piece of knowledge, students can create concept maps when beginning a new unit or topic v -have the student paraphrase a reading and ask if there are any words they do not understand - vocabulary can sometimes be a challenge1 -safe/nurturing learning environment that values student contributions and differences -appropriate resources and incorporation of many values/ perspectives in the class to meet diverse learners needs -bridges school and community cultures -encourages authentic ways to demonstrate learning -uses and identifies strategies, strengths, & needs in both content and direct language instruction -enables students to assess and reflect on their language development Standard Three: Learning Environments -Class built procedures, expectations, rules - self-reflection and modeling is used in the class to help monitor and maintain class interactions -collaboration as a tool for students to meet educational goals -incorporates technology/media in the class creating an updated learning environment -links and incorporates real-world contexts of curriculum while also creating an expectation of the students to apply to their own lives -students need warm, supportive and caring teachers™ V118 -students need individual attention and personal contact with their teachers -teachers should reach out to students and their communities™11 -preventative classroom community that explains why procedures/rules are used and allows students to be a part of that discussion.1X -students should be involved in making and enforcing school rules x X1 -students reflect on how their behavior impacts the class to help maintain positive interactions. Let students ask themselves “What happened? What can I do to avoid/fix this?” -teachers should not use “tracking” (separate classes or groups for high, average, and low achievers) given the negative impact on American Indian students instead heterogeneous groups are more effective*11 -use social stories or positive statements that help role model what you are expecting of students2 -provide opportunities for students to work in small groups and then bring the small group conversations into the larger class group2 -arrange desks in a circle and include kinesthetic actvities2 19 Standard Four: Content Knowledge -deepens and connects content knowledge to be comprehensive -creates relevant learning opportunities for students based on the Utah Core Standards -stays current in content area and pursues professional development in content, -guides students to critical thinking and problem solving strategies that can be used across many subjects -is comfortable presenting content in multiple ways to communicate the key points -creates a language rich environment and holds a clear expectation of accurate use of academic language Standard 5: Assessment - varies assessment strategies to allow students to display their understanding in many ways -allows students to be a part of the expectation of work decision and lets students build plans to achieve this goal -promotes a revision process where feedback and models are given to guide students to quality work -creates accommodations for diverse learners -uses summative & formative assessments styles to guide instruction -reflects and selects assessment styles that can be used to track student progress -engages students in an ethical learning environments and assessment Standard 6: Instructional Planning -short term and long term plans with a scope and sequence -creates relevant and effective instruction that is based on core standards -teachers should draw connections between academic knowledge and its application to the real world13 -teachers should enhance content by adding in culture making it relevant rather than “watering down”5 -basic skills should be taught in a context that is meaningful for students14 -align experiences and learning styles with the cultures of your class in ways that foster problem solving in many contexts15 -teachers can easily explain the value/relationship behind content and assignments1 -use many different modes of assessment -assure that students are confident and practiced in test taking vocabulary and experiences for example, time restrictions should be discussed 16 -allow students to express their understanding in multiple ways17 -incorporate authentic assessments for example, a portfolio18 -coach students concerning test formats that may conflict with cultural values, for example, true or false questions that restrict to a single answer and bar reflection19 -balance assessment based decisions with other assessments rather than solely focusing in on one assessment15 -ensure assessment is valid for use with American Indian students -student evaluation should be multidimensional and include self-evaluation -block scheduling can be useful in creating a “family” environment for students20 -teachers should try to create themes that relate to the core standards in a way students can build schema off of8 -planning should facilitate learning and ease cultural mismatches3 -teachers should integrate language arts lessons with other content areas to help develop a holistic learning experience rather than a compartmentalized experience3 -strategic planning that includes needs of all students21 20 -uses diverse strategies in their instruction that lead to an inclusive instruction style -creates a sense of motivation and curiosity for learning by allowing students to discover and problem solve -uses integration as a tool to assess/ further apply content taught in a lesson and encourage critical thinking Standard 7: Instructional Strategies -practices different teaching styles and adapts to fit needs of students developmentally, linguistically, and culturally -regularly checks for student’s understanding and grasp of content -analyzes student misconceptions -determines ways to deepen learning by encouraging students to think critically and creatively Standard 8: Reflection and Continuous Growth -reflects on data and sources of information in order to inform class instruction and evaluate outcomes -searches for professional/personal learning development -reflects on personal biases and seeks ways to deepen understanding. -participates in discussion and research of new ideas that pertain to education -develops a professional learning plan Standard 9: Leadership and Collaboration -takes initiative to develop policies and practices to improve instruction -accountable for student learning and assumes leadership role in content area -supports school and community programs that help -students benefit from teaching strategies that are experiential and interactive by using a mix of visuals, paired or group work, and hands on activities 1113 -students benefit from visual aids, drawings, illustrations, and demonstrations to convey concepts1 -students benefit from learning through observation and role plays22 -provide praise or corrections in a one-on-one environment - not in front of their peers1 -teachers should self-reflect on their own assumptions and biases regarding American Indian people23 -teachers should understand and reflect on their own perceptions of teaching as culturally constructed24 -teachers should reflect on educational philosophy, classroom practices, and self25 -reflection strategies can include diaries, peer observations, and video recordings of instruction26 -teachers can ask: What do I do, What does this mean, How did I come to be like this, How might I do things differently?27 -teachers should interact with students both in and out of the classroom to help develop a collaborative relationships with the community28 -provides colleagues with resources and materials for effectively engaging and facilitating the academic success of AI/AN students -facilitates college and career readiness for all students by emphasizing link between education and income -connects students to appropriate resources for academic success -seek out additional resources for students when appropriate (e.g., school counselor, school psychologist, social worker) 21 strengthen the educational pipeline and vision of college and career readiness -Engages colleagues in professional dialogue, peer observation, peer feedback, and peer coaching Standard 10: Professional and Ethical Behavior -develops positive and appropriate relationships in the class -complies with federal and state laws -upholds others to this same standard -demonstrates fidelity with student information and other records by maintaining accurate records -maintains professional demeanor and appearances -maintains professional student-teacher boundaries, but gets to know students, their families, and their community -understands importance of family, elders, and tribal members in academic success of student but maintains confidentiality and privacy of records -demonstrate respect for American Indian culture29 -challenges colleagues when they employ racial stereotypes and microaggressions -encourages colleagues to leam more about AI/AN culture Table 2-American Indian Teaching Guide Standard 1: Learner Development. Utah Effective Teaching Standard One discusses learner development. This standard which relates to the learner and learning environment, asks that educators understand and accommodate student development across a variety of student groups. When talking about the highly effective level of this standard, teachers should be using data to inform the class learning experience (including individual student needs) to build developmentally appropriate curriculum. This standard also focuses on collaboration and taking initiative in forming the education team of each student to promote their growth and development. Research suggests that teachers can easily incorporate the needs of American Indian students by allowing them to be involved in the creation of academic goals and classroom expectations. This has been shown to increase motivation and engagement. Also, by explaining the value behind any work assigned (Schultz & Kroegar, 1996) students may see how the work assigned can be beneficial to the collective rather than being seen as tedious. Teachers should also work with parents and community members to create involvement and trust (Stokes, 2007; Agbo, 2001) where historically, this may have been lacking. This might include the use of parent notes and letters home that provide parents/guardians with positive updates on their student. Additionally, invitations to visit or help out in the classroom can build the student’s support network and make him/her feel welcome and an integral part of their education. Standard 2: Learning Differences. Standard two discusses learner differences and understanding diversity. The highly effective level of this standard requires educators to create a safe and nurturing learning environment, view student diversity as an asset, and bridge multiple perspectives in the classroom. Educators also incorporate strategies that fit the needs of diverse students and form scaffolding around the diverse needs of students. To be conscious of American Indian students, educators can affirm student cultural wealth by inviting community members into the classroom (Yosso, 2005). This may include elders in the community or other role models, for example college mentors. By affirming the wealth of student cultures they can begin to value their experiences and empower their education. By allowing time for reflection, teachers ensure that students are able to think deeply and create/engage the connections students may have made (Schultz & Kroegar 1996). Also educators should understand that silence can be a useful part of the learning environment that allows students to reflect and review language used in any lesson. Educators must also be familiar with the language barriers American Indian students may face and allow for student to see concept maps and paraphrase readings (Sparks, 2000). Standard 3: Learning Environments. Standard Three discusses learning environments that support individual and collaborative learning. Highly effective educators work with students to create classroom procedures and routines that they can use to help build student autonomy. Effective educators also model and support students as they create and strive to achieve their goals. Educators following this standard also incorporate a collaborative environment that links real world contexts and application to student’s lives. Educators first and foremost must set up a positive learning environment that starts with a warm, supportive and caring teacher (Colardarcci, 1993; Platero, 1986; Deyhle, 1989). By allowing for individual attention and teacher efforts to reach out to their communities, students begin to feel cared and valued (Deyhle, 1989). This also extends into the classroom management plan a teacher creates, by incorporating student input on rules and procedures as well as a discussion on why they are set in place setup American Indian students for greater success (Kneale, 1950; Glasser, 1968). Educators should regularly model their expectations in the classroom (Schultz & Kroegar, 1996) for example using social stories to model emotions or behaviors students can easily identify what is expected. Also the use reflection in the classroom can create positive behavioral interactions by allowing students to reflect on how their behavior impacts the class as a whole, questions such as “What can I do to avoid/fix this?” let students reflect on a the behavior immediately and also identify a better way to react should the situation arise again in the future. When using a collaborative approach teachers should be mindful of tracking and ensure that the grouping is heterogeneous, this allows for greater collaboration that can them be discussed as a whole group (Oakes, 1985). Also by setting up the classrooms physical environment in a circular shape the teacher enables a respective isetting and allows space for kinesthetic activities (Schultz & Kroegar, 1996). Standard 4: Content Knowledge. Standard Four begins the section relating to instructional practices. Standard Four covers content knowledge and looks at creating relevant opportunities for students that are deep and comprehensive based on the core standards. To effectively teach the core, educators must be up to date on content and be competent in ways to facilitate the learning of the content in multiple ways. Educators should guide critical thinking and problem solving strategies. Teachers also create a language rich environment and hold a clear expectation of academic language. For American Indian students teachers should draw connections between academic knowledge and its application to the real world (Cummins, 1988). This is a great opportunities for educators to engage students in a variety of ways that directly relate to the world and culture that surrounds them in a meaningful way (Reyhner, 1990). However, teachers should enhance content by adding in culture making it relevant rather than “watering down” and creating lessons that are subpar or include questionable materials, all content should be held to a standard of high quality (Sparks, 2000). Teachers should also align experiences and learning styles with the cultures of the class in ways that foster problem solving in many contexts (Nelson- Barber & Trumbull, 2007). Teachers should also be comfortable making connections and modeling those connections to students to explain the relationship and value behind the content (Schultz & Kroegar, 1996). Standard 5: Assessment. Standard Five addresses assessment. Highly effective teachers vary assessment strategies to allow students to display their understanding in many ways. They allow students to be a part of the expectation of work and let students build plans to achieve their goal. The educator also promotes a revision process where feedback and models are given to guide students to quality work. They also create accommodations for diverse learner. An educator following this standard reflects on and subsequently selects assessment tools and styles that can be used to track student progress; for example, the use of summative & formative assessments styles to guide instruction. A responsive teacher will use many different modes of assessment that is paired with actions to follow up and help fill in holes of understanding. An example of this is if an educator was to include self-evaluation as a way to create a comprehensive look at student learning. This could also include the use of other assessments like an authentic assessment (Callahan & Mclntire, 1994). These assessments should be integrated into decision making alongside standardized tests (Nelson- Barber & Trumbull, 2007). This is important because it allows students to demonstrate their knowledge in several ways and can help compensate for any mismatches from the dominate culture that is integrated into these assessment types (Stachowski, 1998). Educators should also help their students become confident in test taking vocabulary and test taking experiences that may conflict (Brescia & Fortune, 1990); for example, discussing the test format of true or false can help ease students’ cultural mismatches (Nelson- Barber & Trumbull, 2007). Educators should also ensure that assessment is valid for use with American Indian students. Standard 6: Instructional Planning. Standard Six discusses instructional planning. Educators that fulfill this standard create short term and long term plans with a scope and sequence. They also create relevant and effective instruction that is based on core standards while using diverse strategies in their instruction that lead to an inclusive instruction style. This also helps create a sense of motivation and curiosity for learning by allowing students to discover and problem solve. Highly effective educators also use integration as a tool to assess/ further apply content taught in a lesson and encourage critical thinking. Teachers that work to create relevant classrooms for American Indian students can incorporate a block schedule that allows for students to create a family environment or cohort (Sherman & Sherman, 1990) which will encourage students to take risks and share opinions since they feel like an important part of the whole. By creating this attitude, teachers can begin to facilitate learning and help ease cultural mismatches in the classroom. Also teachers can create themes that encompass the core standards in way that relates to their students. By creating these themes and integrating across subjects, 26 teachers help make the curriculum more holistic rather than the compartmentalized experience (Agbo, 2001). This can be important to help students build a connected experience across the many different curricula they are taught in a day. Teachers must also make a conscious effort to include the needs of all students in their planning (Parsons, & Cohen, 2013). Standard 7: Instructional Strategies. Standard Seven covers instructional strategies. Teachers should practice different teaching styles and adapt to fit the needs of students developmentally, linguistically, and culturally. Teachers should also regularly checks for a student’s understanding and grasp of content. Teachers should create ways to analyze student misconceptions and help fill any gaps in learning. Highly effective teachers also determine ways to deepen learning by encouraging students to think critically and creatively. When working with American Indian students, educators should include experiential and interactive teaching strategies which can incorporate and a mix of visuals, illustrations, demonstrations and kinesthetic activities that help convey concepts (Schultz & Kroegar, 1996). Teachers should be conscious of the effectiveness of strategies that embody group or partner work as well as hands on activities as beneficial to American Indian Students (Glasser, 1986; Cummins, 1988). Furthermore students benefit from observations and role playing (Mongomery et al, 2000). By first allowing students to observe or role play they are set up for success and will be more willing to attempt a task with this extra support. Finally, educators should incorporate strategies that allow for praise or corrections in a one-on-one setting (Schultz & Kroegar, 1996). Standard 8: Reflection and Continuous Growth. Standard Eight begins the section on educator professionalism. Highly Effective educators reflect on data and sources of information in order to inform class instruction and evaluate outcomes. They should also be constantly searching for professional/personal learning development to help them grow as professionals. Teachers should also reflect on personal biases and seeks ways to deepen understanding as well as participating in discussion and research of new ideas that pertain to education. They should develop a professional learning plan that creates growth and allows for reflection in their field. Teachers should self-reflect on their own assumptions and biases regarding American Indian people (Makomenaw, 2012). This can be particularly important in ending the home school mismatch that is found in many school settings for American Indian students. Also teachers should understand and reflect on their own perceptions of teaching as culturally constructed (Pewewardy, 2002). They should also reflect on educational philosophy, classroom practices, and self (Harvard Graduate School of Education, 2014). While reflection can seem vague, Tice (2004) outlines several questions that can lead to deep reflection of instructional practices and professionalism. Tice encourages teachers to ask themselves: What do I do, what does this mean, How did I come to be like this, How might I do things differently? Teachers can also reflect in many different ways which include diaries, peer observations, and video recordings of instruction (Smyth, 1989). Standard 9: Leadership and Collaboration. Standard Nine focuses on Leadership and collaboration. A highly effective teacher takes initiative to develop policies and practices to improve instruction. They are held accountable for student learning and assume a leadership role in their content area. Teachers should support school and community programs that help strengthen the educational pipeline and vision of college and career readiness. Educators should engage colleagues in professional dialogue, peer observation, peer feedback, and peer coaching. Teachers that work with American Indian students should interact with students both in and out of the classroom to help develop collaborative relationships with the community (Klienfeld, 1979). Highly effective educators also provide colleagues with resources and materials for 28 effectively engaging and facilitating the academic success of American Indian students. Educators should also be willing to connect students to appropriate resources for academic success and seek out additional resources for students when appropriate (e.g., school counselor, school psychologist, social worker). This can be helpful when facilitating college and career readiness for all students by emphasizing link between education and income. Standard 10: Professional and Ethical Behavior. Standard Ten discusses professional and ethical behaviors. Educators should develop positive and appropriate relationships in the class and student support networks. Educators are required to comply with federal and state laws and to uphold others to this same standard. They should also demonstrate fidelity with student information and other records by maintaining accurate records. A highly effective educator also maintains professional demeanor and appearances. Teachers that work with American Indian students should maintain professional student-teacher boundaries, but gets to know students, their families, and their community. They should also make an effort to understand importance of family, elders, and tribal members in academic success of student but maintains confidentiality and privacy of records. By demonstrating respect for American Indian cultural values the educator can maintain a professional relationship with the community (Harrington & CHiXapkaid, 2013). Highly effective teachers should encourage colleagues to learn more about AI/AN culture and also challenge colleagues when they employ racial stereotypes and micro aggressions. Discussion American Indian students are having difficulty navigating the educational pipeline. Researchers have suggested there is a disconnection between the values structures of American Indian students and the U.S. educational system. This disconnection may contribute to the poor 29 academic outcomes realized by American Indian students throughout primary, secondary, and postsecondary educational systems. This proj ect combined educational theory and research to provide suggestions for how elementary education teachers can meet the teacher standards while at the same time, creating an academic environment that is culturally consistent with American Indian values. More specifically, the product of this project is a teacher guide. In general, suggestions are divided into five broad areas: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Knowledge Academic planning & teaching methods Awareness & advocacy Relationship building Community First, Knowledge was a main theme that was incorporated in the suggestions of the chart. Knowledge encompassed many things however was focused on American Indian culture, biculturalism, self-efficacy, multicultural competence, and orientation to education. Educators that have a deeper knowledge of the needs and strengths of American Indian students will be better prepared to provide highly effective instruction. Academic planning, activities, teaching methods, and expectations are some of the most important items discussed in this work. I closely examined the highly effective level of each standard to ensure that the strategies would provide high quality instruction. This also enables educators to plan more responsive lessons by incorporating these strategies rather than asking to teach a separate curriculum. These strategies can easily be used in planning for math lessons and language arts also. Awareness and advocacy was a third theme that was identified. This includes openness, understanding biases and stereotypes, and challenging microaggressions. As included in the interview summary, Participant 1 encouraged teachers to remain open to understanding their role 30 as an educator as either one who perpetuates the mismatch or as an educator that empowers students. Relationship building was another major theme because it really impacts the way American Indian students perceived their teachers. For example, in one study American Indian students were asked to evaluate their educators. The evaluation results were telling of the relationship they had with the teacher, or lack of relationship. In that study (Boll, Tan, & Austin, 1997) American Indian students rated their teachers lower than their Caucasian peers. This guide encourages building warm and welcoming relationships that create mutual respect. Finally, Connecting to community is an important theme because it not only incorporates parents/ guardians but also allows for social support and mentoring. This connection also creates validation of student culture and community that can help bridge the mismatch. A few limitations of this study bear mention. First, the suggestions provided in the teacher guide may not be all-encompassing. There have been hundreds of teacher strategies identified through research and practice that may also align with these standards and be culturally congruent. A second limitation has to do with participants. Not only did I have a small number of participants, but no participants represented parents. The partnership between parents and educators has been found to be important and can help bridge the cultural divide (Cahape and Howley, 1992). Third, there’s a possibility that because I identify as an American Indian (as do my interviewees), our biases may have skewed our perceptions. At the same time, this could be a strength. Finally, this was not a research project. Research will need to be conducted to examine the effectiveness of the guide for teachers, the ease of using the guide, and their development as a culturally competence instructor (attitudes, knowledge, awareness, and skills). 31 Conclusion In summary, this project worked to provide strategies that align with the Utah Effective teaching standards and are responsive to the needs of American Indian students. It is hoped that elementary education teachers will implement these strategies and develop their own understanding of why this work is necessary. These actions can lead to the increased the likelihood that American Indian students will have positive educational experiences and persist in school. In speaking of his success incorporating American Indian values into the U.S. educational school system, Douglas Wright, Superintendent of San Juan School District in Utah said, “We want them to realize that we’re providing them a solid education that hopefully will prepare them for wherever they want to go in the world but we’re also honoring their traditions and cultures so they know who they are, and we feel that helps them to be better learners” (Schencker, 2013). This teaching guide can be used as reference guide for teachers who wish to build a classroom that is founded on strategies that are inclusive of American Indian students. 32 References Agbo, S. A. (2001). Enhancing success in American Indian students: participatory research at Akwesasne as part of the development of a culturally relevant curriculum. Journal Of American Indian Education, 40(1), 31-56. Bear, C. (2008). American Indian Boarding Schools Haunt Many. Interview on National Public Radio, dated May 12, 2008. 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Enhancing success in American Indian students: participatory research at Akwesasne as part of the development of a culturally relevant curriculum. Journal O f American Indian Education, 40(1), 31-56. IVYosso, Tara J. (2005) Whose Culture has capital? A Critical Race Theory Discussion of Community Cultural Wealth. Race Ethnicity and Education. 8 (1) 69-91 v Sparks, Scott. (2000) Classroom and Curriculum Accommodations for Native American Students. Intervention in School and Clinic. 35 (5) 259-263. V1Colardarci, T. (193) High school dropouts among Native Americans. Journal o f American Indian Education. 23(1) 15-22. vu Platero, P.R., Brandt, E.A., Witherspoon, G., & Wong, P. (1986) Navajo Students at Risk: Final Report for the Navajo Area student drop out study. Window Rock, AZ: Navajo Division of Education, Navajo Tribe. VU1Deyhle, D. (1989) Pushouts and Pullouts: Navajo and Ute School Leavers. Journal o f Navajo Education, 6 (2), 36-51. 1XNel, Johana. (1994) Preventing School Failure: The Native American Child. The Clearing House. 67 (3) 170-174 x Kneale. A. (1950) Indian Agent. Caldwell, ID: Caxton XI Glasser,W. (1968) Control Theory in the Classroom. New York:Harper & Row. XII Oakes, J. (1985) Keeping Track: How schools structure inequality. New Haven, CN: Yale University. 13 Cummins, J. (1988) Empowering Minority Students. Sacramento, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education. 14 Reyhner,J. (1990) Adapting Curriculum to Culture. In J. Reyhner (Ed.), Teaching American Indian Students (pp.96-103). Norman: University of Oklahoma. 15 Nelson-Barber, S., & Trumbull, E. (2007). Making Assessment Practices Valid for Indigenous American Students. Journal o f American Indian Education, 46(3), 132-147. 16 Brescia, William & Fortune, Jim C. (1990) Standardized Testing o f American Indian Students. New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM. 17 Stachowski, L.L. (1998) Student Teachers’ efforts to promote self-esteem in Navajo pupils. The Educational Form. 62 (4) 341-346. 18 Callahan, C., & Mclntire, J.A. (1994) Identifying Outstanding Talent in American Indian and Alaska Native Students. Washington DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. 19 Nelson-Barber, S., & Trumbull, E. (2007). Making Assessment Practices Valid for Indigenous American Students. Journal o f American Indian Education, 46(3), 132-147. 20 Sherman, R.Z. & Sherman, J.D. (1990) Dropout Prevention Strategies for the 1990’s. Washington, D.C: Pelavin Associates, Inc. 37 21 Parsons, S., Dodman, S., & Cohen Burrowbridge, S. (2013). Broadening the view of differentiated instruction. Phi Delta Kappan, 95(1), 38-42. 22 Montgomery,D., Miville, M.L., Winterowd, C., Jeffries, B., & Baysden, M.F. (2000) American Indian College Students: An Exploration into Resiliency Factors Revealed Through Personal Stories. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 6 (4) 387-398. 23 Makomenaw, Matthew. (2012) Welcome to a new world: Experiences of American Indian tribal college and university transfer students at predominantly white institutions. International Journal o f Qualitative Studies in Education. 25 (7) 855-866. 24 Pewewardy, Cornel. (2002) American Indian and White Students Talking about Ethnic Identity in Teacher Education Programs: Helping Teacher Education Students Know Themselves as Cultural Beings. Action Teach Education. 24 (2), 22-34 25 Harvard Graduate School of Education. (2014) Active Learning Practices for Schools. Retrieved from: http://learnweb.harvard.edu/ALPS/reflect/index.cfrn 26 Tice, Julie. (2004) Reflective Teaching: Exploring Our Own Classroom Practice. Retrieved from: http://www.teachiniJenglish.org.uk/article/reflective-teaching-exploring-our-ownclassroom-practice 27 Smyth, J. “Developing and Sustaining Critical Reflection in Teacher Education,” Journal of Teacher Education (1989) 40(2), 2-9. 28 Kleinfeld, J. S. (1979) Eskimo School on the Andreafsky: a study o f effective bicultural education. New York: Praeger, 1979. 29 Harrington, B.G., & CHiXapkaid.(2013) Using Indigenous Educational Research to Transform Mainstream Education: A Guide for P-12 School Leaders. American Journal o f Education. 119(4) 487-511