The choir school of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir: history and curriculum 1999-2013

The distinctiveness of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir (MTC) as a unique American choral ensemble is revealed in a persistent paradox that both underscores its history and sets it apart from other choral organizations. By virtue of its widely distributed television broadcasts, recording projects, and touring schedules, the MTC essentially exists within a professional musical environment, yet the singers who participate are actually a collection of amateur volunteers. The tension between amateur skill levels and mounting professional musical demands exposed a need to improve the quality of the amateur singers and their preparation for Choir participation. To this end, the MTC instituted a "Choir School," alongside other institutional changes in 1999, to serve as a training mechanism for promising singers. Since its inception, the Choir School has experienced changes in curriculum content and course format. The researcher documents an important undertaking in the Choir's history and preserves the instructional efforts of Choir School faculty. The story of the Choir School is a chronological historical document and also includes a survey of curricular material. This study includes an examination of the following five general areas: 1. The institutional climate and context for the creation of the Choir School 2. Previous attempts at training MTC singers 3. A chronological history of the present day Choir School 4. Impact of the Choir School program on the organization 5. Implications for other community choirs and secondary choral education Concepts such as evolution and adaptation, the role of musical literacy, musical independence and "responsible singing," and alignment were emerging themes in the narrative of this study. Elements of this custom-designed choral curriculum, such as preventative score marking and training singers in choral ensemble skills, may provide applications for other volunteer community or church choruses, collegiate choirs, or secondary choral classrooms.

THE CHOIR SCHOOL OF THE MORMON TABERNACLE CHOIR: HISTORY AND CURRICULUM 1999-2013 by Cherilyn Renee Worthen A dissertation submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Music The University of Utah December 2014 Copyright © Cherilyn Renee Worthen 2014 All Rights Reserved The University of Utah Graduate School STATEMENT OF DISSERTATION APPROVAL The dissertation of Cherilyn Renee Worthen has been approved by the following supervisory committee members: Joelle L. Lien , Chair 7/10/14 Date Approved Jessica Nápoles , Member 5/8/14 Date Approved Rachel Nardo , Member 5/8/14 Date Approved Susan Neimoyer , Member 5/8/14 Date Approved Mack Wilberg , Member 5/8/14 Date Approved and by Miguel Chuaqui , Chair/Dean of the Department/College/School of Music and by David B. Kieda, Dean of The Graduate School. ABSTRACT The distinctiveness of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir (MTC) as a unique American choral ensemble is revealed in a persistent paradox that both underscores its history and sets it apart from other choral organizations. By virtue of its widely distributed television broadcasts, recording projects, and touring schedules, the MTC essentially exists within a professional musical environment, yet the singers who participate are actually a collection of amateur volunteers. The tension between amateur skill levels and mounting professional musical demands exposed a need to improve the quality of the amateur singers and their preparation for Choir participation. To this end, the MTC instituted a "Choir School," alongside other institutional changes in 1999, to serve as a training mechanism for promising singers. Since its inception, the Choir School has experienced changes in curriculum content and course format. The researcher documents an important undertaking in the Choir's history and preserves the instructional efforts of Choir School faculty. The story of the Choir School is a chronological historical document and also includes a survey of curricular material. This study includes an examination of the following five general areas: 1. The institutional climate and context for the creation of the Choir School 2. Previous attempts at training MTC singers 3. A chronological history of the present day Choir School 4. Impact of the Choir School program on the organization 5. Implications for other community choirs and secondary choral education iv Concepts such as evolution and adaptation, the role of musical literacy, musical independence and "responsible singing," and alignment were emerging themes in the narrative of this study. Elements of this custom-designed choral curriculum, such as preventative score marking and training singers in choral ensemble skills, may provide applications for other volunteer community or church choruses, collegiate choirs, or secondary choral classrooms. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................ vii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1 Mormon Tabernacle Choir Background ...........................................................3 Purpose of the Study .........................................................................................6 Significance of the Study ..................................................................................7 Organization of the Study .................................................................................8 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................10 The Mormon Tabernacle Choir ......................................................................10 Related Choral Organizations .........................................................................21 Choral Pedagogy Resources ...........................................................................38 Summary .........................................................................................................46 3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................49 Data Collection ...............................................................................................52 Oral History: Interviews .................................................................................52 Archival Documents .......................................................................................55 Choir School Artifacts ....................................................................................55 4. EARLY TRAINING ATTEMPTS ........................................................................57 Historical Attempts .........................................................................................57 Twentieth-Century Prechoir School Training Attempts .................................60 vi 5. HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY........................................................................71 Institutional Climate and Context ...................................................................71 Phase I: 1999-2002 .........................................................................................76 Phase II: 2003-2006 .......................................................................................77 Phase III: 2007-2013 ......................................................................................79 2007-2008 ......................................................................................................87 2009-2013 ......................................................................................................89 In-Service Program and Future Planning .......................................................91 Present-Day Choir School Planning 2014-2015 ............................................96 6. CURRICULUM CONTENT ..............................................................................104 Phase I: 1999-2002 .......................................................................................105 Phase II: 2002-2006 .....................................................................................111 Phase III: 2007-2014 (both segments) .........................................................113 7. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................132 Findings ........................................................................................................133 Applications for Community, Church, and Secondary Choral Educators ....140 Discussion: Challenges and Recommendations ...........................................148 Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................154 Appendix A. SELECTED CHORAL RESOURCES ................................................................157 B. MUSICIANSHIP MATERIALS .........................................................................159 C. VOCAL TRAINING MATERIALS....................................................................170 D. CHORAL ENSEMBLE SKILLS MATERIALS.................................................181 E. SPECIALTY TOPICS .........................................................................................191 F. ASSESSMENTS ..................................................................................................197 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................204 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express gratitude to the University of Utah Music Education faculty for their assistance in my graduate school experience. Although the pathway to this goal was not always clear to me during the process, ultimately I was provided with powerful examples and opportunities to adjust and affirm my own teaching philosophies and priorities, which is precisely what I needed. Specifically, I am grateful to Joelle Lien for her overall assistance as my chair and inspiring an emerging interest in music education ethics. My thanks to Rachel Nardo for her always-timely encouragement, which directly resulted in obtaining my first university faculty position. Special thanks to Mark Ely and Jessica Nápoles for tackling responsibilities above and beyond their usual assignments to help me cross the finish line. Committee member Susan Neimoyer offered wise feedback-and assisted a particularly congested line-up of doctoral students all in the same week! I also wish to thank the Mormon Tabernacle Choir singers and staff who made this project possible, especially those who offered archival documents for review. Specifically, I express gratitude to Craig Jessop, who took an extraordinary risk in extending the assignment to direct the Choir School program. His trust and continued encouragement in my choral career has been an incredible blessing. Thanks to Mack Wilberg, whose relentless pursuit of musical excellence in concert with humility and steadfast service is both a rare combination and an inspiration. As the external member ofviii my committee, he donated precious time and resources despite terribly inconvenient circumstances, for which I am deeply grateful. Thanks to Ryan Murphy, whose collaborative spirit, risk taking, love of people, and masterful work in the Temple Square Chorale has permanently and positively influenced my choral teaching. I offer extreme gratitude to Rebecca Wilberg for her dynamic personality, mentorship, vocal instruction, and for all the learning that happened while we weren't singing in a lesson! To my fellow Choir School instructors Bonnie Goodliffe and Linda Margetts, I offer sincere appreciation for their collective musical knowledge and patience when things changed at the last second. I also appreciate their willingness to share their personal resources and materials for this publication. Their examples of service are both inspiring and a central piece of the Choir School story. Thanks also to Scott Barrick for his enthusiasm and supervision during each annual Choir School class. Special thanks to Jerold and JoAnn Ottley for their fine instruction during my own Choir School experience and for their selfless service to the MTC over so many years. Also, thanks to Donald Ripplinger for illuminating the subtle but important role of choral music education in this story and for his own musical service to the MTC. Several circumstances and people ultimately influenced my decision to pursue doctoral studies. I am grateful to Paul Broomhead for his generosity and support of my unusual assignments and projects. His willingness to share resources was a critical turning point in preparing curriculum. I also thank Ronald Staheli for the indelible imprint of my Brigham Young University Singers experience on my musical life. Rosalind Hall was also an unexpected mentor at a time of transition. My experience teaching at The Waterford School was another unforeseen step in this progression and ix allowed me to generate important philosophical questions at the right time. I give thanks to my choral colleagues there, including Dirk Johnson, Brent Wells, Melissa Mills, Emily Ball, and Sandra Krause; also to the administration for allowing me to begin my doctoral studies. I thank all my graduate school friends (both BYU-Blue and Utah-Red), Tabernacle Choir friends, and others-all too numerous to list-for their generosity, service, gut-wrenching laughter, for taking the time to check up on me, and for support during increasingly unbelievable events for us all. Thanks to Eric Schetselaar, Erin McOmber, Sandefur Schmidt, and Shane Warby for their individual expertise and heroic rescue efforts. Lastly, I express love and thanks to my parents, Richard and Anne Worthen, and to my siblings for their unconditional love and support despite continued confusion at my crazy schedule; they allowed me to sleep through many family holidays and vacation breaks when I was out of steam. Thanks to my nieces and nephews who helped me keep perspective along the way and distracted me at all the right times. What a humbling thing it is to pause and "call the roll" of the people who support us in our endeavors. God's hand in this whole process is evident to me, especially at this time. I offer love and profound thanks for each and every person whose kindness has contributed to this milestone.CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The study topic is an outgrowth of the combined experiences of the author's work as a choral music educator and singer in the Mormon Tabernacle Choir (MTC). Over time, through work as both a conductor and a singer in the choir, she wrestled with philosophical questions such as: What constitutes excellent choral singing and what skills are required of high quality choral singers? Why is there not more written concerning what elements constitute choral ensemble skills and choral-specific curriculum? What is the relationship between musicianship skills and high quality choral performance? As a teacher, observations of other choral colleagues, as well as personal experience, revealed a recurring pattern related to choral curriculum design. When asked to define, improve, or justify the content of their choral curriculum, many choral teachers simply resorted to implementing more sight-singing materials, adding music theory topics, or talking about the history of a piece of music in rehearsal. Other teachers insisted that students would receive choral curriculum simply by participation in a performance-based class. As a university instructor, the author noticed that even students from successful choral programs could not report the specifics of what they learned, even though there was an established record of choral performing success. Often, when the subject came up in casual conversation with colleagues, the author noted that many instructors could not define the tasks and content they wished their students to master 2 beyond creating successful performances. A general investigation into choral teaching resources revealed that many books present topics related to choral singing such as conducting gesture, audition procedures, vocal technique, finding age-appropriate literature, or general preparations for secondary educators, but not specific to choral singer skills. The author hoped to find resources that would support the teaching of choral-specific curriculum material. Instead, she found books focused on other specialty topics, books that were too broad in scope, or books that were meant as general textbooks for choral methods courses. Resources for the singers themselves were limited; of those resources, most focused directly on musicianship training for singers or were designed as a choral textbook series for use with a specific anthology. As a singer in the MTC, the author also noticed a discrepancy between the content of the training program then in place and the recurring tasks required of singers each week in rehearsal. Though much of the Choir School experience emphasized sight singing and basic musicianship, the reasons a conductor might stop in rehearsal had little, if anything, to do with those topics. The conductors coached such topics as ensemble precision, vowel uniformity, or creating a particular tonal color, yet singers spent a large part of the required sixteen weeks of training focusing on their ability to sight-sing with accuracy. Although the skill of sight singing is a quality desirable for new singers, the growing chasm between course content and weekly rehearsal experiences reflected the issues the author encountered related to choral curriculum development with other choral educators. To the author, it seemed as though a third area of choral-specific topics might be required to more effectively train singers as effective choral musicians with specific focus 3 for the unique demands of the MTC. These observations and experiences ultimately led to the author's affiliation with the MTC Choir School. In preparation for this assignment, the author discovered that no single specific choral resource would completely serve the needs of this particular organization; a custom-designed training course would be required to serve the needs of this choral institution. Mormon Tabernacle Choir Background The Mormon Tabernacle Choir is a volunteer musical organization operated and overseen by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The Choir began in 1847 as a simple group of newly settled emigrants who assembled at the direction of Brigham Young to provide music for local worship meetings. The organization has grown to its present day configuration involving almost 400 singers and additional ensembles within the performing arts "family." Consisting of an enormous force of volunteer staff and performers, the organization is unique among choral organizations for its size, mission, and performing schedule. The MTC announced institutional changes in 1999 that resulted in two additional performing entities affiliated with the Choir: (1) a volunteer orchestra called "Orchestra at Temple Square," and (2) a training choir comprised of newly auditioned provisional singers and volunteers from the larger MTC. Known formally as the "Temple Square Chorale," this new combination of singers gathered each year in preparation for a concert accompanied by the Orchestra at Temple Square. The annual performance is a partial fulfillment of the training requirements for all new singers. In March 2005, a third ensemble was added to the Choir organization, resulting in a twenty-eight-person handbell ensemble called the "Bells on Temple Square." 4 Less visible to the general public, but still a significant institutional change, was the creation of the Temple Square Chorale, simultaneously accompanied by the creation of a formal "Choir School," designed to assist in the training and preparation of newly admitted singers. The original program was conceived as a recurring academic course accompanying the four-month training period required of all newly auditioned singers. Following the model of a sixteen-week semester, new singers met twice each week for two hours. On Thursday evenings, the class covered material relating to the academic aspects of choral singing preparation, such as music theory, music literacy, vocal training, choral techniques, and related institutional information. These classes were dedicated to more formal study such as lectures and laboratory experiences, and the other evening each week was set aside for applied study in the context of Temple Square Chorale rehearsals. At the conclusion of the academic class, both singing and written assessments were conducted to determine a provisional singer's official acceptance into the MTC. To become a member of the Temple Square Chorale and participate in the MTC Choir School, prospective singers experience a several-month-long process from their initial application to final acceptance. The audition process itself involves several phases. First, the singer sends a recording of his or her own voice, following a list of specific instructions. Depending on their desired voice part assignment, singers record a combination of vocalise exercises as well as a specific hymn. Both musical directors listen to the recordings of all applicants and create a list of singers invited to move on to the next audition. These singers are then invited to participate in a formal written exam to determine elements of musical aptitude and music fundamentals such as music theory and music notation. This particular portion of the process involves written and listening 5 exams in several parts, each scored separately. After averaging the scores on all portions of the written exam, singers with an acceptable mean average are next invited to attend a live audition with the Choir directors. Singers who make the final phase of the singing audition are asked to sing a hymn of their choosing. They also sight-read various musical examples such as short phrases or a particular voice part in a new hymn as part of a solo audition. After considering abilities at all phases of this process, directors make selections relative to the number of openings in each voice part. Singers also undergo an interview with Choir leadership to determine if their personal schedules and commitment are suited to the Choir's demanding schedule. All MTC singers volunteer their time, attending a two-hour rehearsal each Thursday evening and Sunday morning rehearsals in preparation for the live recording of their weekly radio and television broadcast, Music and the Spoken Word. During concert weeks, recording projects, and in preparation for tours and special events, singers will be asked to attend extra rehearsals as needed. Once the leadership and directors agree on a particular singer's fitness for the organization, singers are notified of their provisional status and are invited to participate in both the Temple Square Chorale rehearsals as well as the Choir School from January to May of each year. It is in the Choir School that the organization is able to establish the required standard of behavior, review policies and procedures, and provide the necessary musical training to effectively participate in the MTC. Over its thirteen-year history, the course content has evolved in relationship to changes in directorship, technological advances, and new priorities from Choir and Church leadership. Because of its continued success in 6 preparing amateur singers to meet demanding musical standards, the training program may serve as a model for other choral organizations. Purpose of the Study This study presents an overview of the Choir School of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir from its formal beginnings in 1999 to 2013. The goal is to recount the history, related curriculum components, the overall evolution of the program during this period, and to document the impact on both Choir singers and the organization itself. Specifically, the scope of this study includes the following research questions: 1. The institutional climate and context for the creation of the Choir School program: A. What events preceded the formation of the CS? B. Who was responsible for the formation of the program? C. What were the objectives for the formation of the program? D. What events or discoveries related to the institutional need for the program? 2. Previous attempts at training singers in the Choir: A. What educational efforts were made prior to the formation of the Choir School? B. What methods of instruction and materials were used during these attempts? 3. A chronological history of the present-day Choir School program: A. What comprises the curriculum content? B. Who are the members of the instructional and administrative staff? C. What kinds of materials are used and/or created for the Choir School program? D. How do the directives of Choir Leadership affect the curriculum content? 4. Impact of the Choir School program on the organization: A. How has the curriculum evolved in relationship to changing directors? B. What changes, if any, have occurred in the preparation level of new singers? C. What have been the Directors' perspectives of the impact of the Choir School program? D. What changes will be necessary to the future success of the program? 7 5. Implications for other community choirs and/or secondary choral education: A. How might a program like this one benefit other related choral organizations? B. What discoveries and/or successes of the program might impact the body of choral pedagogy knowledge? Significance of the Study Although public relations material on the MTC is readily available, the body of academic writing on the MTC is somewhat small and most often focuses on the directors themselves or trends in repertoire and programming, as discussed later in the literature review. The establishment of the Choir School program in 1999 was documented locally in newspaper articles in connection with the other MTC organizational changes. Except for internal correspondence, there is no formal record of the Choir School history, structure, instructors, curriculum content, program design, or impact on the MTC organization itself. The Mormon Tabernacle Choir is a well-known choral organization with an otherwise extensively documented history as it relates to the history of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Choir's contributions as an icon in American choral music. Still, its position inside the choral community is peculiar in that it does not directly exhibit the conventions of a large, professional chorus, a large community choir, or a large church chorus. Nor is it an educational institution that exists primarily to serve music education to its singers. The organization of a formal procedure for the training of amateur singers reflected a specific need within the MTC organization and a pragmatic attempt to fulfill that need. The result was a significant effort by instructors and staff to improve the contribution and quality of the amateur singers who formed the ensemble. 8 This study serves as an effort to record and preserve these contributions and illuminate an otherwise unrecorded portion of the history of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir. Clearly, the MTC is unique from other choral organizations in purpose, mission, and organizational content. However, information about the design, content, impact, and effectiveness of the program contributes to the body of knowledge concerning general choral pedagogy, training for amateur singers, or programs for other volunteer community choirs. Although knowledge of the training program is limited in terms of public relations and promotional materials, both the MTC office secretaries and present Choir School Director have fielded several inquiries about the program itself, whether the materials are available anywhere, and how one could learn more about their training procedures. Requests such as these confirm interest in the details of the training program and indicate that aspects of the Choir School program may provide a model for other choral organizations. It may also prompt other studies and research on the Choir School itself, or generate other similar practices and programs for community, church, or secondary choral organizations. Organization of the Study Chapter 1 is an outline of the purpose and significance of the study as it relates to issues of preservation for the organization itself, general choral pedagogy, training for amateur singers, and possible models for other choral organizations. Chapter 2 is a discussion of literature relevant to the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, other choral organizations, and general choral pedagogy materials. The variety of choral materials available at that time did not represent complete, useable material for the pragmatic needs of the MTC in their Choir School. As such, the Choir School required customization to 9 meet the unique organizational needs of the MTC. Chapter 3 includes the methodology for the research, including data collection and procedures for the study. Chapter 4 is a survey of early attempts at singer training in the history of the MTC. Internal organizational considerations and the climate surrounding the formation of the school are discussed in Chapter 5, followed by a narrative that explains the chronology of the Choir School. The in-service program for current Choir members and future planning is also discussed. Chapter 6 is an exploration of the actual curriculum content used in all three phases of the program. Chapter 7 includes a summary of the findings, a discussion, implications for other community and church organizations, and a conclusion.CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Relevant literature for a history of the Choir School of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir falls under three general subject headings: (1) writings specific to the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, (2) literature related to other choral organizations, and (3) resources related to choral music teaching. The chief challenges to the present review include a lack of pre-existing studies of the MTC Choir School program and the fact that much of the material published about the Choir is not scholarly. Existing literature provides historical context for the MTC, as well as general references to the Choir School in press releases and official websites. Until now, there have been no formal studies of Choir School records, contents, history, evolution, or impact. Literature related to the history of the organization itself, conductor biographies, and pieces performed by the MTC comprise the available resources. The Mormon Tabernacle Choir The most frequently encountered writing on the MTC includes condensed histories, quotations, and photographs of the Choir in "coffee table" books, usually written in commemoration of an anniversary of the Choir. More informal than scholarly, these books usually include personal vignettes from singers, historical surveys of the various conductors and organists, reports of touring successes, and celebratory remarks 11 by notable personalities. Uses for these types of collections include the promotion of the Choir for commercial or cultural purposes, gathering historical chronologies of the choir, understanding the experience of a singer, placing the Choir in cultural contexts, learning about the repertoire, or understanding changes in directorship or in the general organization. America's Choir by Heidi Swinton is the most recent publication,1 commemorating the Choir's seventy-fifth anniversary of radio broadcasting. The scope of this text is broad, covering everything from touring to volunteerism to the Tabernacle as a building and its organ. Artistically presented, Swinton's book includes beautiful photography and chapters organized by their titles, which are derived from significant hymn lyrics. Earlier versions of this same kind of publication are also available. These include Gerald Peterson's More Than Music: The Mormon Tabernacle Choir and The Mormon Tabernacle Choir by Jeffrey Calman.2,3 Both books offer general historical information along with photos, quotes from singers, conductors, and fans-tributes suitable for a golden anniversary celebration. The two 1979 publications commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the Choir. Calman's book includes a list of past and present Choir members as well as a collection of fourteen significant hymns and anthems related to the Choir's history. The sheet music is published alongside other illustrations and photographs providing additional musical content. J. Spencer Cornwall, principal 1Heidi S. Swinton, America's Choir: A Commemorative Portrait of The Mormon Tabernacle Choir (Salt Lake City, UT: Shadow Mountain, 2004). 2Gerald Peterson, More Than Music: The Mormon Tabernacle Choir (Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press, 1979). 3Jeffrey Calman, The Mormon Tabernacle Choir (New York: Harper and Rowe, 1979). 12 conductor of the MTC from 1935 to 1957, wrote another historical portrait of the Choir.4 He provides his own commemorative portrait and perspective on the choir's history in A Century of Singing. This work includes rare glimpses into issues surrounding the logistical function of the Choir as well as Cornwall's philosophy concerning choral tone and his personal vision for the institution. A few other memorial books focus specifically on the conductor, the organs, or the performing facilities for the Choir. Vicki Alder's portrait, Under My Baton: Richard P. Condie with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, is an example of a commemorative book that details MTC history during the tenure of Spencer Cornwall's successor, Richard P. Condie.5 Alder recounts the accomplishments of the Choir as well as Condie's contributions as a vocal pedagogue. Condie's understanding of vocal technique and ability to teach amateur singers using effective analogies is discussed. His preference for a tone appropriate to the Romantic Italian art song tradition resulted in a sharp departure from Cornwall's preference for the "purity of children's voices."6 When asked about his philosophy of choral tone and vocal production, Condie explained, "I was not trying to get a straight tone from them; I did want a good blend, but I wanted a sound with warmth and quality-solo quality."7 Singers who experienced Condie's rehearsal strategies and approaches to vocal technique share their perspectives in Alder's book. 4J. Spencer Cornwall, A Century of Singing: The Salt Lake Mormon Tabernacle Choir (Salt Lake City, UT: Deseret Book Company, 1958). 5Vicki Alder, Under My Baton: Richard P. Condie with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir (Salt Lake City, UT: Promontory Point Publishing, 2008). 6Ibid., 43. 7Ibid., 44. 13 John Longhurst, retired senior organist, discusses the concept, design, and construction of the organ at the LDS Conference Center, which is the second home of the MTC.8 Longhurst also offers insight into the performing facility that houses the organ and serves as the venue for many of the Choir's performances. The book includes general history, along with photos, stories, and quotes that detail the decade-long planning of the organ construction. An audio CD accompanies this text and includes narratives by the organ builder. In his second chapter, Longhurst provides historical context for the MTC, situates Mormon music within the cultural parameters of the nineteenth century, and discusses music as it relates to Mormon theology. Another conductor's biography, though not in "coffee table" book style, is The Children Sang by Ray Bergman.9 Bergman chronicled the life of Evan Stephens, an early and highly influential MTC conductor. Details included in this semischolarly text provide context for the choir's history during its formative years and contain references to the first substantive choral training offered by the Choir. Stephens, who authored several singing primers, was known for being an itinerant singing instructor for local youth and also for encouraging extra effort by singers in the Choir, augmented by additional instruction. His influence as a local music educator reached thousands of community members through a series of musical projects and concert performances, as well as a variety of class offerings designed to involve local youth. His collaborations often involved hundreds of singers at a time, and he relished the concept of large, massed 8John Longhurst, Magnum Opus: The Building of the Schoenstein Organ at the Conference Center (Salt Lake City, UT: Mormon Tabernacle Choir, 2009). 9Ray Bergman, The Children Sang: The Life and Music of Evan Stephens with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir (Salt Lake City, UT: Northwest Publishing Inc., 1992). 14 choirs in concert. Under his leadership, the MTC increased in membership size, improved the quality of the musical product, and took its first steps toward national recognition. Other histories focus specifically on the memoirs of Choir travel and touring, such as Salt Lake Mormon Tabernacle Choir Goes to Europe: 1955, by Warren Thomas.10 General musical histories of the Salt Lake City area often include references to the Choir in relationship to other organizations. Marcus Smith provides this contrast by examining local musical activities that occurred outside the MTC, especially in the local oratorio society.11 Also readily available are newspaper articles with concert advertisements or reviews, announcements, press releases, and other local newsworthy items. These artifacts abound especially in local Salt Lake City newspapers or in the cities and venues that host the Choir's now biennial concert tours. Archival information related to Choir activities includes official MTC correspondence and meeting minutes. Less formal, but still authorized by the MTC is Keeping Tab, the informal newsletter of the organization. Scholarly writing on the MTC is comprised primarily of dissertation studies, with topics ranging from detailed historical information about the Choir to comprehensive biographies of past and present conductors. Of these, two dissertations focus on critical personalities and their influence on the MTC Choir School Program. In his study, Lyle Archibald discusses the expansive and unprecedented twenty-five-year leadership of Jerold Ottley.12 Ottley's contributions include the first formal efforts at choral instruction 10Warren Thomas, The Salt Lake Mormon Tabernacle Choir Goes to Europe: 1955 (Salt Lake City, UT: Deseret News Press, 1957). 11Marcus Smith, With Them Were Ten Thousand and More: The Authorized History of the Oratorio Society of Utah (Salt Lake City, UT: Actaeon Books, 1989). 12Lyle Jay Archibald, "Make Haste Slowly: Jerold D. Ottley's Tenure with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir" (DMA diss., Arizona State University, 2011). 15 for the MTC. Archibald's concluding pages are the first references to today's MTC Choir School. Archibald completes his biographical sketch with references to Jerold Ottley's return to his "educational roots," noting that Ottley himself authored and taught the first version of the MTC Choir School upon his retirement. Archibald cites several critical innovations and improvements to the MTC under Ottley's leadership, most notably the "improved musicianship and vocal skills" which occurred under his directorship.13 In addition, Ottley implemented several policy changes concerning age requirements and leave of absence programs for Choir singers. Archibald also interviews Craig Jessop (MTC conductor 1999-2009) and notes some of the circumstances of the origins of the 1999 changes to the MTC. In this study, the formation of the Choir School program and the Orchestra at Temple Square are referenced from both Ottley's and Jessop's perspectives. In his master's thesis, Brett Stewart contrasts the early conductor Evan Stephens with Mack Wilberg, the current Musical Director.14 Stewart's treatment includes short biographical information, compositional output, musical writing styles, and musical leadership of both personalities. He also describes the influence of both composers on music-making inside the Mormon Church. Stewart highlights the commonalities of both historical and present-day contributions of each influential conductor by selecting and analyzing a sampling of their musical compositions. A unique aspect of his overall discussion is the exploration of the influence each conductor had on the culture and 13Archibald, "Make Haste Slowly," 24. 14Brett Howard Stewart, "Choral Composers and Conductors Evan Stephens and Mack Wilberg: Their Influence on Music in the Latter-day Saints Church" (MA thesis, California State University, Long Beach, 2006). 16 trends of music in the Mormon Church. Stephens's contributions are acknowledged by the inclusion of several of his compositions in the present LDS (Latter-day Saint) hymnbook. Wilberg's musical influence is evidenced by the wide use of his choral arrangements, especially contemporary treatments of older LDS hymns, many of which are used in the LDS Church's Annual and Semiannual General Conferences. A much earlier master's thesis by Mary Musser Barnes attempts to detail the history of the Choir, but is loosely organized.15 With a 1936 publication date, it is less useful than many of other more recent histories. Still, Barnes presents information related to the Choir's choral repertoire at the turn of the century. Writing much more recently, Christopher Redfearn summarizes the choral philosophies, leadership, and instructional strategies of the recent Musical Director, Craig Jessop.16 The historic institutional changes that resulted in the formation of the MTC Choir School occurred directly as a result of Jessop's leadership and his formal request for the institution of the Choir School. Redfearn presents information on the core of Jessop's instructional style through a series of interviews, lecture transcriptions, and rehearsal observations. Redfearn also describes Jessop's unique career pathway before and after his appointment as director of the MTC. Many of Jessop's various connections and experiences with Robert Shaw are discussed as they relate to his later leadership of 15Mary Musser-Barnes, "An Historical Survey of the Salt Lake Tabernacle Choir of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints" (MA thesis, State University of Iowa, 1936). 16Christopher Redfearn, "The Choral Philosophies and Techniques of Craig Jessop" (DA diss., University of Northern Colorado, 2012). 17 the MTC. Interviews with Jessop reveal another brief mention of the Choir School and the ideas surrounding its original conception.17 Studies that focus on the repertoire of the Choir include Fern Denise Gregory's 1984 dissertation.18 She relates information specific to J. Spencer Cornwall's tenure and also provides larger historical context for the Choir during that time. Under Cornwall, the Choir "performed its first stereo recordings, first television appearance, and first movie soundtracks."19 Her document focuses specifically on the choral repertoire from that time period, comparing Cornwall's and Condie's literature selections, and providing a descriptive survey of ninety-eight arrangements by Cornwall. In his dissertation, Mark Porcaro traces the increasingly secular repertoire performed by the Choir from 1949 to 1992. Porcaro writes about the changing cultural climates, musical, and administrative decision making that affected this trend. In a scholarly work that emphasizes sacred song in America, scholar Stephen Marini references the MTC, but only briefly, as one of several topics represented in his book.20 Author Michael Hicks includes a brief examination of the Choir's history in his book Mormonism and Music.21 Hicks provides a quick but detailed chronology of the Choir's history by outlining the successive conductors in the context of the MTC history. Hicks also combines information about national cultural climates, administrative 17Redfearn, "Craig Jessop," 31. 18Fern Denise Gregory, "J. Spencer Cornwall: The Salt Lake Mormon Tabernacle Choir Years, 1935-1957" (DMA diss., University of Missouri-Kansas City, 1984). 19Fern Gregory, "J. Spencer Cornwall," iii. 20Stephen A. Marini, Sacred Song in America: Religion, Music, and Public Culture (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2003.) 21Michael Hicks, Mormonism and Music: A History (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003). 18 decision-making within the LDS Church, trends in American music history, and perceptions of the MTC during these time periods. He creates a well-balanced picture of the Choir in connection with the development of Mormonism. Other loosely related dissertations or academic writing include biographies on the Tabernacle organists, such as Alexander Schreiner. Daniel Frederick Berghout details Schreiner's biography as well as his writings, musical compositions, and information related to the MTC broadcasts of Music and the Spoken Word, in which he frequently performed.22 His performance repertoire and touring schedules are also discussed. Limited scholarly work on the Salt Lake Tabernacle itself is also available. In a 2005 dissertation, Aaron McArthur researches the importance of "tabernacles" in general as centers of religious and social importance within Mormon communities.23 The role of the Tabernacle on Temple Square is discussed, but only within the context of other religious buildings. Jay Slaughter discusses music training practices, and materials for use within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in his dissertation.24 Slaughter discusses music education within Mormon culture and explores various aspects of musical training. Slaughter mentions music-training practices within local congregations, Church-owned universities, and the Tabernacle Choir. The Tabernacle Choir is only mentioned briefly in relationship to what kind of support Church leaders were offering to the Choir. The study 22Daniel Frederick Berghout, "Alexander Schreiner: Mormon Tabernacle Organist" (DMA diss., University of Kansas, 1998). 23Aaron James McArthur, "The Buildings at the Center: Latter-day Saint Tabernacles in the Mormon Culture Region" (MA thesis, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 2005). 24Jay Leon Slaughter, "Role of Music in the Mormon Church, School, and Life" (EdD diss., Indiana University, 1964). 19 covers a chronological scope of music in worship from ancient scriptural beginnings to the early days of the Mormon Church to modern practices in the 1960s. William Purdy examines general music making within Mormon culture in the early days of the Church from 1830 to 1876 in his dissertation study.25 Purdy places a larger emphasis on music education, on early and influential music educators, and discusses community music making including bands and music in local theaters. Many of the personalities discussed in this dissertation are local music leaders and teachers with ties to the Tabernacle Choir, such as George Careless, Charles J. Thomas, and Ebenezer Beesley. Purdy also examines music literature, songs from the time period, and the development of Mormon psalmody and hymnody. Brian Bentley discusses the status of Mormon choral music in the twentieth century.26 Although his study focuses specifically on the music of former Tabernacle organist Robert Cundick, he addresses issues of music training within the LDS church with short discussions on the MTC, music education in church-sponsored schools, and music training for local music worship needs. In his discussion of the MTC, Bentley includes a list of LDS-authored hymns that also appear on Choir recordings.27 One dissertation relates issues of music training but in relationship to the study of children's music within the Mormon Church. Colleen Karnas-Haines investigates the 25William Purdy, "Music in Mormon Culture, 1830-1876" (PhD diss., Northwestern University, 1960). 26Brian Richard Bentley, "The Philosophical Foundations and Practical Use of Choral Music in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the Twentieth Century, Focusing on the Music of Robert Cundick, with Emphasis on His Sacred Service, The Redeemer" (DMA diss., University of Cincinnati, 2005). 27Ibid., 15. 20 history of the songbooks used in teaching young children in weekly worship meetings.28 The methods used to teach these are also discussed. The author devotes a portion of the study to investigating the relationship of music to various aspects of Mormon life, and the MTC receives a small mention. The author explains that because LDS hymnody is only a small portion of the literature output of the Tabernacle Choir, "the Mormon Tabernacle Choir recordings should not be viewed as representative of the LDS musical culture."29 Relatively little scholarly writing on the MTC is available, and it is mostly limited to conductor biographies, examination of literature, and related topics such as the buildings on Temple Square, or the organs. Many of the above-mentioned scholarly studies on music training within the Mormon Church include insights into the larger areas of music training, music education, and music for use in LDS worship services. Of these, most contain short references to the MTC as a peripheral discussion within their study. In some cases, these studies provide context for understanding the cultural background of the singers who choose to audition for the MTC. All of these studies incorporate a general perspective on the evolution and place of choral music in Mormon life. Still, the extant literature does not provide direct information about the current issues surrounding the challenges of training amateur singers for participation in today's Mormon Tabernacle Choir. Scholarly and nonscholarly histories of the MTC, as well as dissertation biographies of MTC conductors, comprise the literature that is most relevant to the present study. 28Colleen Jillian Karnas-Haines, "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints/Mormon Children's Music: Its History, Transmission, and Place in Children's Cognitive Development" (PhD diss., University of Maryland-College Park, 2005). 29Karnas-Haines, "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints/Mormon Children's Music," 32. 21 Related Choral Organizations Symphonic and University Choirs The MTC's position in the choral community is unique in that it does not wholly conform to traditional definitions of a community, church, or other volunteer choral ensembles. The extant literature about other choral organizations is helpful in understanding how the MTC compares to other similarly sized choirs. Related organizations include large choirs, university choirs, children's choirs, boy choir/choir school programs, community choral groups, and church choirs. Keith Raessler briefly summarizes the MTC in an article on the history of choral music.30 The information is succinct-only a page long-but describes the MTC as "probably the most nationally recognized choir."31 This short sketch also mentions the formation of the Orchestra at Temple Square as an important institutional change. Raessler also mentions other important historical choral organizations and conductors such as Westminster Choir College, St. Olaf, and the important American choral leader Robert Shaw. Although the Mormon Tabernacle Choir is a "widely recognized institution of American culture," other large volunteer choruses enjoy a presence in American music-making.32 Scholarly writing on these symphonic and university ensembles is available in the form of books, articles, and dissertation studies. The Atlanta Symphony Chorus, founded by Robert Shaw, is likely the chorus most comparable to the MTC. Singers in the Atlanta Symphony Chorus are also adult 30Kenneth Raessler, "The History of Choral Music in the United States" in The School Choral Program, ed. Michele Holt and James Jordan (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2008), 58. 31Ibid., 58. 32Ibid. 22 volunteers. Their repertoire is comprised of the choral symphonic canon as well as commissioned works. Interestingly, Craig Jessop, a former MTC conductor, studied and performed with Robert Shaw in various volunteer and professional choruses. The Atlanta Symphony Chorus does not, however, share the religious mission and weekly television broadcast schedule, which is unique to the MTC. One dissertation study examined the impact of Robert Shaw and the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra on the surrounding area's educational climate.33 Shaw's appointment as director of the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra was the beginning of many significant choral-orchestral collaborations that would later involve a resident chorus. Earlene Decker Brasher provides biographical information on Shaw and cites several articles on Shaw's choral influence in her literature review. Brasher discusses the impact of Shaw's work in a specific geographic location as well as the 1967 development of the Atlanta Symphony Chamber Chorus, which was the predecessor of the present day chorus. The Chicago and Dallas Symphony Choruses are other examples of auditioned, adult choirs with paid positions and/or a combination of paid and volunteer singers. Stanley Livengood details a history of the Chicago Symphony Chorus in a 2001 dissertation.34 The author chronicles the contributions of Founding Director Margaret Hillis to current conductor Duain Wolfe by following concert programs and choral events to the year 2000. The study also includes a description of staff positions, the policies that allow both paid and volunteer singers to participate, and the connection between the 33Earlene Decker Brasher, "The Contributions of Robert Shaw and the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra to the Educational and Cultural Climate of Atlanta" (PhD diss., The University of Southern Mississippi, 1988). 34Stanley Graham Livengood, "A History of the Chicago Symphony Chorus, 1957-2000" (DMA diss., The University of Oklahoma, 2001). 23 Chicago Symphony Chorus and Orchestra. Livengood's history is more scholarly than the previously listed commemorative histories, written to celebrate the fortieth anniversary of the chorus. Interestingly, although several authors have written the history of Margaret Hillis, there is no extant literature on the history of the chorus itself. In his study, Livengood also highlights seven years of leadership by Duain Wolfe, who has been recognized for his work in outreach and educational programs. Aside from their differences in purpose, other differences between these symphonic choirs and the MTC are the skill level of the singers and the distinction between volunteer and paid status. For instance, the Atlanta Symphony Chorus requires a classical art song or aria as part of its audition process.35 The training required to prepare an art song or aria as opposed to a simple hymn presents a disparity in the assumptions of training for incoming singers. As such, interested singers in those locations will likely include a higher percentage of more formally trained musicians. Generally, the skill level of an amateur singer in the MTC does not reflect formal musical study or a college music degree. On the matter of paid singers, organizations such as the Chicago Symphony Chorus do contract their singers and allow for compensation in various positions such as section leader.36 The MTC does not employ paid section leaders or singers. Large university choruses that reflect a particular religious mission are found within religiously affiliated institutions, such as St. Olaf College, Pacific Lutheran University, Concordia College, and Brigham Young University, to name a few. An 35Atlanta Symphony Chorus, "Audition Requirements" http://www.asochorus.org/audition.asp Accessed 5 March 2014. 36Chicago Symphony Chorus, "Agreement: American Guild of Musical Artists" http://www.musicalartists.org/agreements/ChicagoSymphonyChorus.20082012.pdf. Accessed 5 March 2014. 24 example of a renowned nonreligious, large university with an emphasis on choral singing is Westminster Choir College of Princeton, New Jersey. In each case, information relative to the choir's history and mission inside the university is available directly from university websites and other historical documentation in a variety of dissertations, books, and articles. St. Olaf and Westminster are commonly cited as representative college choral programs with long-standing traditions that have influenced "schools of choral tone" as defined by Howard Swan.37 Two histories of the St. Olaf Choir provide context for the development of this influential collegiate ensemble. In his 1921 account, Eugene Simpson depicts the collective community of Norwegian settlers, their musical culture, and the efforts of the College to support a music program for its campus.38 More recently, Joseph Shaw, a religion professor at St. Olaf, was invited by the music department to author a full history of the St. Olaf Choir.39 Shaw builds on the work of Simpson, bringing contemporary information about the university and its choral program development into the discussion. Anton Armstrong discusses the impact and influence of F. Melius Christiansen, the founding director of the St. Olaf Choir.40 In his article, he explores both biographical information and commentary on Christiansen's philosophy of choral tone, preferences for straight-tone singing, instructional strategies, repertoire, and audition procedures. 37Harold Decker and Julius Herford, Choral Conducting: A Symposium (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973). 38Eugene Simpson, A History of the St. Olaf Choir (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1921). 39Joseph Shaw, The St. Olaf Choir: A Narrative (Minneapolis, MN: St. Olaf College, 1997). 40Anton Armstrong, "The Life and Influence of F. Melius Christiansen," Choral Journal 37, no. 4 (November 1996): 9-14. 25 Armstrong also discusses Christiansen's impact on contemporary choral programs, especially in the Midwestern United States. Joseph Beck's article examines the Westminster Choir tradition through its recording legacy and also discusses the influence of conductor John Finley Williamson.41 Beck also includes a useful discography and a discussion of choral tone. Just as the MTC's choral tone differed under Cornwall and Condie, Williamson's concept of choral tone was markedly different from Christiansen's approach. Williamson's instruction produced a more soloistic sound, emphasizing the development of the individual vocal instrument. This philosophy created an emphasis on the "tremolo" and sometimes resulted in complaints about intonation problems because of obscured pitches.42 Today, under four conductors, Westminster Choir College offers a program with eight choral ensembles, each suited to a particular age, skill, or emphasis on choral repertoire.43 Some authors present comparative studies of these historical choirs. Leonard Van Camp compares the choirs at Northwestern University, St. Olaf College, and Westminster by examining their historical origins and how the choral ensembles were formed.44 Van Camp also investigates aspects of the a cappella choral singing tradition. Other studies include comparisons of evolving choral sound or the general philosophies of choral tone 41Joseph G. Beck, "Westminster Choir: Recordings as History," Choral Journal 37, no. 4 (November 1996): 27-34. 42Raessler, Choral Music in the United States, 53. 43Westminster Choir College, "The Choirs" http://www.rider.edu/wcc/academics/choirs. Accessed 5 March 2014. 44Leonard Van Camp, "The Formation of the A Cappella Choirs at Northwestern University, St. Olaf College, and Westminster Choir College," Journal of Research of Music Education 13, no. 4 (Winter 1965): 227-238. 26 in these various ensembles.45 In his dissertation, Alan Zabriskie examines the varied choral sounds between Westminster and St. Olaf choirs. He offers additional detail by reviewing the historic descriptions of the sounds of each choir and identifying common factors in developing choral tone. The major influence on choral tone is the conductor who shapes it in rehearsal; thus, it should follow that choral tone in each ensemble evolves as each new conductor works with a choir. Present-day conductors Joe Miller and Anton Armstrong are contemporary examples of these changing tonal concepts. Zabriskie summarizes this evolution according to the chronological series of conductors and presents their preferences in terms of pedagogical approaches to the voice and rehearsal technique. Varying tonal preferences influence the pedagogy used by conductors in various choral ensembles. However, many choral ensembles share structural elements that contribute to the overall success of those programs. Jennifer Garrett compares these elements by contrasting St. Olaf College, The University of Southern California, and The Florida State University in a 2010 dissertation study.46 She explores common themes and factors that contribute to the successes of these programs, but does not focus heavily on issues of choral tone. She examines the details of each university's choral program according to various topics, presented as possible models for other collegiate programs to follow. Ultimately, Garrett identifies attributes such as program longevity, visibility, 45Alan Zabriskie, "Evolution of Choral Sound of the St. Olaf Choir and the Westminster Choir" (PhD diss., The Florida State University, 2010). 46Jennifer M. Garrett, "Elements of Leading Collegiate Choral Programs in the United States" (DMA diss., Arizona State University, 2010). 27 positive ethos, and heritage of choral singing as repeated trends in each of the schools in her study.47 Of these related choral ensembles, the MTC shares commonalities such as size of choir, similar choral-symphonic repertoire, leadership of influential choral conductors, and use of adult singers. It also shares a sense of religious affiliation and mission with choirs in residence at church-sponsored universities. In most cases, the literature that discusses curriculum or training within these ensembles is either unrelated (university curriculum and programs are very different from MTC weekly routine) or unavailable (formal training programs are not the standard practice of civic symphony choruses), unless a conductor's biography addresses the philosophies of a particular director. Still, the skill level of the amateur singer, the frequency of performances, and weekly national exposure sets the MTC apart from these otherwise similar organizations. Choir School Programs and Children's Choirs The tradition of "Choir Schools" as a formal pathway for training young adult males both musically and academically for musical church service is documented in books, articles, DVDs, and scholarly writing. A film documentary on the King's College Choir explores the cultural, educational, and musical lifestyle of the young male singers in this famous English Choir School program.48 The film depicts chorister life, including musical and academic training, as well as musical performances. Choristers describe their life in the boarding school program, particulars of the performing demands, and how they 47Garrett, "Elements of Leading Collegiate Choral Programs in the United States," 156. 48King's College Choir, The Story of the King's College Choir: The Boast of King's. DVD. Directed by Richard Chesterman. Regis Records, 2007. 28 balance their academic and musical studies. The documentary also includes clips of choral performances that illustrate the choral aesthetic of the English boy choir. While the documentary film provides a comprehensive look at chorister life, a study by Cynthia Hawkins discusses curricular content and the program design of music education programs for choristers in Church of England Choir Schools.49 In this study, she examines a total of thirty-six schools and provides rich descriptions of five choir school programs. Hawkins cites excellence, elitism, and endurance as hallmarks of the English Choir School life.50 A main purpose of her study was to explore the possibility of adapting English choir school programs as possible models for Canadian music education. However, her document offers a valuable and comprehensive review of available literature on this history of the English boy choir programs.51 Hawkins also reviews contemporary choir school programs along with a survey of historical Choir School practices. Daniel James McGrath examines the historical context for boy choirs and includes comparisons of the few remaining boy choir programs in America in a 2005 dissertation study.52 His purpose was to report trends in American boy choir programs to the academic community. McGrath explores two American models of boy choir programs that included an after-school program and choirs affiliated with the parish day 49Cynthia Susan Hawkins, "Aspects of the Musical Education of Choristers in Church of England Choir Schools" (MA thesis, 1985). 50Ibid., 1. 51Ibid., 3-5. 52Daniel James McGrath, "The Choir School in the American Church: A Study of the Choir School and Other Current Chorister Training Models in Episcopal and Anglican Churches" (DMA diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 2005). 29 school. These two models were then compared to a more traditional model, the choir school at St. Thomas's Church in New York City. This particular program resembles the English model by offering a residential program that prepares singers for performance in worship services affiliated with the church. Singers are trained in academic subjects, and the residential situation allows them to maintain a rigorous weekly performing schedule, in addition to concerts and recording projects. McGrath concludes his study by offering the requirements necessary to develop this type of choral tradition in other Anglican churches. Other scholarly articles and dissertations contain discussions on American boy choirs as actual case studies. Wallace and Brown discuss the Harlem Boy Choir and its choir academy in a 2006 dissertation study. Of particular interest is their overview of boy choir programs in historical periods from the Renaissance to the present day.53 The authors also describe the evolution of their training program in various phases. A case study of the Alabama Boy Choir includes detailed information on all aspects of participation in the program from chorister, parent, and administrative perspectives.54 Gary Patterson discusses instructional strategies for training the adolescent voices of the Texas Boy Choir in a 2007 study.55 Julian Ackerley discusses the history of the Tucson Arizona Boy Choir in his dissertation study, which also includes a historical overview of 53 Deloris Wallace and Bennett Brown, "The Founding and Evolution of a School for the Boys Choir of Harlem: Choir Academy of Harlem" (EdD diss., Fordham University, 2006). 54Madeline Smith Bridges, "A Case Study of the Alabama Boy Choir: Effort, Success, Self-Worth, and Competence Within a Climate of Excellence" (EdD diss., University of Alabama, 1996). 55Gary Walter Patterson, "George W. Bragg, Jr. and His Techniques for Training the Preadolescent Boy's Voice as Demonstrated through the Texas Boys Choir: 1946-1975" (DMA diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2007). 30 boy choir traditions from antiquity to present-day American boy choirs.56 The history of the choir is represented in four decades and augmented by information about three of the choir's conductors. The remainder of the study contains information related to touring, auditions, rehearsal procedures, and bylaws. Although available, literature related to the design, instruction, and pedagogy of children's choir programs is only distantly related to the training of adult amateur singers. Still, the literature offers resources for general choral curriculum or effective choral teaching strategies. Renowned children's choir expert Jean Ashworth Bartle authored two classic texts in this genre. Both books contain general choral information and instructional guidance for working with this specific age group and type of choir. One publication includes extensive repertoire lists, and the other contains insights into preparing children's choirs for major choral-orchestral works.57,58 A text by Henry Leck, another leading children's choir conductor, contains a similar approach to children's choir resources and includes specialty topics such as the changing voice or using Kodaly principles in rehearsal.59 He also discusses administrative strategies for children's choir directors; the book includes a CD-ROM that offers templates of useful forms. Stephanie Mowery discusses curricular aspects of children's choir programs within the context of a much larger church music education curriculum in her 2009 article. The discussion does 56Julian Michael Ackerley, "Tucson Arizona Boys Chorus: A History" (DMA diss., University of Arizona, 1983). 57Jean Ashworth Bartle, Lifeline for Children's Choir Directors (Toronto: Gordon V. Thompson, 1988). 58Jean Ashworth Bartle, Sound Advice: Becoming a Better Children's Choir Conductor (New York: Oxford, 2003). 59Henry Leck, Creating Artistry Through Choral Excellence (New York: Hal Leonard, 2009). 31 not include specific curriculum content. However, it encourages youth of all ages to participate in various forms of church music education.60 Kenneth Phillips outlines an entire vocal teaching curriculum for elementary age singers in his well-known text.61 Divided by age levels, each vocal program contains explanations of exercises, suggested sequencing, and assessment forms for use in choral classrooms. Marie Stultz also presents vocal teaching curriculum and choral rehearsal strategies for young singers at various age levels.62 In her book, she discusses choral training for elementary age singers and includes specific literature recommendations that coordinate with teaching particular choral skills. A second volume of her widely recognized resource follows in a similar comprehensive format, but focuses on older elementary aged students through early adolescence.63 Children's choir programs exist in many models, both as academic offerings in and outside schools or within community church programs. Formal extracurricular children's choirs often provide models of comprehensive music education, but are particular to varied philosophical priorities of an institution, a specific conductor, or an overarching academic program. Scholarly writing on boy choirs, choir school programs, and children's choirs is available in the form of conductor biographies, program histories, or books on effective choral teaching. Although this genre of choral ensembles is somewhat distantly related to teaching adult amateur singers in the MTC, these materials 60Stephanie Mowrey, "Children's Choirs: A Model of Excellence for Children's Music Education in the Church," Choral Journal 50, no. 4 (2009): 67-68. 61Kenneth H. Phillips, Teaching Kids to Sing (New York: Schirmer Books, 1992). 62Marie Stultz, Innocent Sounds (Fenton, MO: Morningstar Music Publishers, 2007). 63Marie Stultz, Innocent Sounds: The Singers' Journey Continues (Fenton, MO: Morningstar Music Publishers, 2008). 32 provide resources and models for program development, curriculum content, and general choral teaching methods. Community and/or Church Choirs A body of extant literature related to community and church choirs is available in both scholarly studies and general choral teaching resources. Academic writing includes histories and case studies, many of which examine a particular aspect of the program or describe a participant's experience in these choirs. Craig Gregory discusses the Turtle Creek Chorale of Dallas in a 2010 dissertation study.64 Specifically, Gregory examines factors that have contributed to the longevity and success of the choir. Using models from business literature to organize and explain aspects of the organization's growth, the study's findings emphasize the role of specific artistic directors, namely Tim Seelig, as critical components in the organization's success. Other qualitative studies discuss actual ethnographies of various choirs, the identity of choral singers, or methods of effective teaching and learning within those organizations. Jean Titcomb examines the church choir as a central place for informal adult learning.65 She found that singers in church choirs valued music as a form of worship over performance, a factor that contributed greatly to the organization and experience of the singer. Study findings reveal that various forms and methods of adult learning such as repeated practice, the buddy system, and personal study are present in 64Craig Allen Gregory, "Attributes of United States Community Chorus' Success and Longevity: A Case Study with the Turtle Creek Chorale of Dallas, Texas" (PhD diss., The Florida State University, 2009). 65Teri Jeanne Titcomb, "The Social Context of Informal Adult Learning: An Ethnography of a Church Choir" (PhD diss., Temple University, 2000). 33 the choir culture.66 Rituals such as sharing joys and concerns or singing the same opening and closing hymn each week also provided structure to the adult learning experience.67 Janice Coffin authored another investigation of choir participation and longevity in her dissertation study.68 Highlighting women's barbershop choruses for this investigation, she offers a list of strategies choruses might consider when seeking to create a more lasting choral culture. Coffin cites efforts such as targeted marketing, creating a supportive environment, using effective conflict resolution tools, and creating opportunities for fun and friendship as important findings.69 Several dissertations examine adult choral singing as both recreational activities and a way of continuing one's education. In her 2009 study, Rachel Rensink-Hoff examines the motivation of singers and the dichotomy between volunteer participation as recreation and the need to apply musical standards in performance.70 Findings in this study reveal that the aging demographic of community choirs might signal a potential decline in choral interest. Data also show large discrepancies between actual and perceived types of musical and nonmusical success, and that perceived individual enjoyment is a more important factor to singers than group success. Anastasios Aliapoulios provides a much larger examination of adult amateur singers in a 1969 66Ibid., 93. 67Ibid., 81. 68Janice D. G. Coffin, "Why did we join? Why have we stayed? Membership in a Women's Barbershop Chorus, a Narrative inquiry into Leadership, Learning, and the Development of Voice through Singing" (MEd thesis, University of Prince Edward Island, 2004). 69Ibid., 156. 70Rachel Rensink-Hoff, "Adult Community Choirs: Toward a Balance between Leisure Participation and Musical Achievement" (PhD diss., University of Western Ontario, 2009). 34 dissertation study.71 Aliapoulios adds depth to the discussion of the relationship between music participation and continuing adult education by challenging music educators to reconsider the timelines for music education participation. Instead of assuming singers will end their music education experiences after high school or college, the author encourages educators to support choral music education experiences over a singer's entire life span. This study establishes the importance of the community chorus within music education. Donald Simmons has also contributed a study related to community choir participation.72 He concludes that the enjoyment of music participation and public performance are primary motivators cited by singers as reasons for participating in community choirs. In her 2008 study, Maureen Baird discusses how amateur singers cognize, process, and experience their own choral singing participation in community ensembles, as a way of measuring the meaning of belonging to a choir.73 In a study that sampled several Canadian choirs, the author found that members of small choirs tend to feel more valued and felt more positively connected to other singers than those in medium-to-large choirs. This study also compares singer populations, which included paid versus unpaid singers, and singers with and without music degrees, issues relevant to the Mormon Tabernacle Choir. This study finds that volunteer singers feel a greater sense of satisfaction and elevated moods than paid singers. A final comparison between younger and senior 71Anastasios Apostolos Aliapoulios, "A Study of the Adult Amateur Choral Organization in the United States and the Implication for Adult Education" (DMA diss., Boston University School for the Arts, 1969). 72Donald William Simmons, "The Motivations and Musical Backgrounds of Participants and Non-Participants in Selected Community Choruses" (EdD diss., University of Illinois, 1962). 73Maureen Jaymin Baird, "Perceived Benefits of Choral Singing: Social, Intellectual, and Emotional Aspects of Group Singing" (MA thesis, McGill University, 2008). 35 members of the choir that reveals older singers feel a greater sense of unity in the ensemble. Cindy Lauren Bell discusses the gap between amateur choral performance and the field of music education in general in her 2000 dissertation.74 She examines adult amateur singers and adult learning in the context of the rehearsal behaviors of conductors. Implications of this study include addressing conductor competencies for preservice teachers who may interact with adult amateur singers. Data show that adults will likely be successful in lifelong learning if they are self-motivated in both individual and group settings.75 Conductors of adult learners will need to present a combination of competencies in personal, musical, and technical skills to keep singers engaged. Phyllis Vincent discusses other community choir and music education issues in her 1997 study.76 Vincent identifies various mixed choral ensembles in the state of Kentucky and surveys them to discover demographic data, education levels, motivations for choral participation, and influences and motivations for singing. Findings reveal parents and home environments as the two most influential factors in a singer choosing to participate in a chorus. The demographic for these choirs was consistent with other research on community choirs. Connections between secondary school choral singing and choosing to continue in community choirs imply that consistent participation and meaningful experiences in school programs are critical to community choral singing. 74Cindy Lauren Bell, "An Examination of Adult Amateur Community Chorus and Choral Conductor Rehearsal Behavior, with Implications for Music Education" (EdD diss., Columbia University Teachers College, 2000). 75Ibid., 138. 76Phyllis M. Vincent, "A Study of Community Choruses in Kentucky with Implications for Music Education" (PhD diss., The University of Kentucky, 1997). 36 Another aspect of adult learning and choral singing concerns issues of music literacy. In her dissertation Barbara Green discusses music reading and learning for adult singers inside community choirs.77 This study finds that (1) adult choirs arouse a participant's interest in the formal study of music, (2) adults need music literacy as much as language literacy, an invaluable acquisition, (3) chorus members take their participation seriously, and (4) the future of adult community choirs depends both on the longevity of existing choirs and the birth of new ensembles.78 Studies on the development of adult church choirs are also germane to the current study on the MTC Choir School program. These scholarly writings include topics such as general curriculum design, teaching and learning specific to particular organizations, solutions for twenty-first-century training of singers and choristers, or histories of church choir programs. Richard Stanislaw chronicles descriptions of church choirs from various journals and literature.79 His findings illustrate that challenges faced by today's church choir programs may not necessarily be new. Stanislaw draws sometimes-humorous comparisons to nineteenth-century church choir "troubles" such as seating, resisting innovation, avoiding annoyance, and whispering through the service.80 That church choir directors have previously and historically encountered these kinds of problems is meant as a motivating reminder that solutions are available and church choirs have continued to thrive despite those types of irritations. 77Verna Barbara Green, "Enhanced Musical Literacy through Participation in the Adult Amateur/Volunteer Chorus: A Descriptive Study" (EdD diss., Columbia Teachers College, 1998). 78Ibid., 166-170. 79Richard Stanislaw, "Church Choirs: A Nineteenth Century Heritage," Choral Journal 51, vol. 2 (September 2010): 73-74. 80Ibid. 37 Clell H. Wright offers strategies for developing church choir musicians as a solution for retention problems in church choir programs.81 Church choirs that rely on repeated recruiting efforts may experience large turnover if the recruitment plan fails to adequately promote musical growth in the singer. Wright examines strategies for allowing internal motivation to become the primary factor in retaining a singer, though external motivations may be required to attract one. This approach provides interesting context for the church choir conductor and is particularly relevant to the story of the MTC because of the discussion on improving the quality of their volunteer singers. C. Michael Hawn also addresses music training for church choir members.82 His 2007 article offers strategies based on his thirty years of experience as a church musician. Personal journal entries cited in his article outline Hawn's thoughts concerning preparing, training, and teaching church musicians. Hawn encourages a deeper understanding of the relationship of choral music to theology as opposed to a simple knowledge of choral literature. He also offers advice to those who seek professional employment in worship music. The term "church choir" is a broad label and describes small volunteer choruses of absolute amateur skill level (both singers and conductors), or amateur groups led by someone with limited experience. (The "church choir" label is accurately applied to local choir singing in a Latter-day Saint congregation.) Some church choir programs serve medium-to-large congregations and hire professionally trained conductors to lead any 81Clell E. Wright, "Hallelujah! The Volunteer Paradox: Periphery to Nucleus," Choral Journal 44, vol. 4 (November 2003): 57-61. 82C. Michael Hawn, "What Has Happened to the Church Choir? Strategies for Preparing Church Musicians for the Twenty-First Century," Choral Journal 47, vol. 9 (March 2007): 8-21. 38 variety of worship music ensembles for children and adults. Because church choirs vary, the related literature takes on a very wide variety of audiences and topics specific to the denomination, congregation, and the type of church choir program discussed. Dissertations and scholarly writing on church choirs address topics from conductor behavior to singer participation, and specific church choir histories. Other studies and articles focus on literacy and programs to develop the amateur church musician. The MTC has a religious mission and is, by most definitions, a church choir. Its regular, recurring preparation for weekly "services" is common to other church choral ensembles, although the weekly radio and television broadcast is understood to be non-denominational and does not reflect traditional LDS worship meetings. The MTC also shares features of a typical large, adult community chorus. Choir members, ranging in age from 25 to 60, fit the model of an average community choir singer more than the profile of a paid choral professional. For this reason, information related to the training of adult singers in both community and church choirs constitutes the relevant literature for this study. Choral Pedagogy Resources A challenge in narrowing the relevant body of literature on choral teaching is that choral singing requires skills across many separate subject areas. Conductors need resources in conducting technique, score preparation, and developing choral tone to build their personal choral skills. They also require materials to address music literacy, aural skills, and vocal pedagogy as tools for achieving a choral product through reading and singing choral music. Additional topics of interest to choral conductors include effective rehearsal strategies, addressing diction in various languages, literature selection, score 39 marking, or even choral music history. As such, there is a wide body of materials available for choral music teachers, but no one resource exceptionally addresses all the particular needs for any one chorus and its conductor. To more carefully narrow the literature for this study, the author focused on scholarly publications that addressed aspects of choral pedagogy or teaching choral tone. However, broad-spectrum literature about choral teaching is widely available for both directors and their singers. Of these, general resources for the secondary choral educator, children's choir director, or church choir director make up the largest quantity. These sources mainly include comprehensive textbooks and conductor instructional manuals. Depending on the author's presentation and perspective, these materials can be broad or more detailed in scope. Generally, these resources address information such as program administration, vocal pedagogy, conducting instruction, literature selection, and rehearsal strategies. Specifically, these may include topics such as vocal teaching strategies, the adolescent voice, music literacy, sight singing, literature selection, auditions, standing formations, music history, and rehearsal techniques. A literature review that accounts for all types of choral teaching resources would be prohibitive for the scope of this study. Still, many of these general textbooks, DVDs, books, manuals, and teacher aids were helpful to Choir School instructional staff in designing curriculum, and may be of interest to the reader. For this reason, a list of choral teaching resources consulted by the MTC instructors in their curriculum preparations is included in Appendix A. Scholarly writing specific to choral pedagogy and choral tone is surprisingly less abundant than the hundreds of general textbooks designed to prepare choral teachers. A 40 few authors have studied choral pedagogy resources in general and offer some insight into trends, pedagogical history, and lists of pedagogical resources over the last several decades. One recent and helpful resource by Sarah Jones is a content analysis of the in-text citations of choral pedagogy texts between 1989 and 2009. She quantitatively examines citations to capture the status of knowledge in the choral teaching field. The study provides comprehensive information related to the available choral pedagogy resources in general, both scholarly and nonacademic. Jones discusses an interesting paradox in the choral teaching world concerning the materials used in preparing choral directors. Her findings confirm the experience of the author in searching for research-driven, scholarly writing related to choral teaching. An exploration of the in-text citation was one pathway to exploring the presence of true research within professional training materials. The study does not signal the inadequacy of these particular resources as helpful tools; it confirms that more research is needed to provide future generations with scientific confirmation of anecdotal and experiential teaching ideas. A collection of articles and dissertation studies constitutes a surprisingly small body of literature dedicated to issues of teaching choral tone. Bill McMillan discusses the questions conductors must address when determining their overall concept of a preferred choral tone.83 He references the work of Howard Swan as a point of departure for categorizing important considerations for choral tone such as balance, blend, intonation, diction, and rhythmic vitality.84 McMillan argues that both new and experienced conductors benefit from a reflective study of their philosophies on choral tone. An article 83Bill McMillan, "Choral Tone: A Decision," Choral Journal 39, vol. 3 (October 1998): 43-44. 84Harold Decker and Julius Herford, Choral Conducting: A Symposium (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973), 4. 41 by Lori Wiest provides additional resources and recommendations for vocal pedagogy resources that will enhance a conductor's study of the voice.85 She argues that the mastery of vocal pedagogy is the best possible pathway to improving the choral tone of an ensemble. This is especially notable considering the high number of amateur singers who participate in choral organizations and may not have access to private vocal instruction. Her article includes a helpful list of vocal teaching resources for the choral educator. An especially insightful resource on choral tone is a 2013 dissertation by Kira Zeeman Rugen.86 She examines shifts in choral tone preferences from the 1970s to twenty-first-century choral ensembles. Interviews with representative conductors of well-known choral ensembles, including Craig Jessop, help codify and categorize preferences in choral tone among varied choral ensembles. The MTC is mentioned specifically as an example of a recognized choral ensemble that has experienced shifts in choral tone. Rugen finds that there is an observable shift in tonal preferences from the 1970s forward, though there is a myriad of opinions about what issues matter most and what constitutes quality in creating one's ideal choral sound. She explores possible explanations for these perceived shifts over time such as developments in vocal pedagogy, changes in technology, performance practice issues, and emulation of perceived recorded sounds. Her study provides a comprehensive look at the topic of choral tone while also providing contextual information about many recognized choral ensembles and the philosophies of their various conductors. 85Lori Wiest, "Building a Healthy Choral Tone," Choral Journal 42, vol. 3 (October 2001): 35-36. 86Kira Zeeman Rugen, "The Evolution of Choral Sound: In Professional Choirs from the 1970s to the Twenty-First Century" (DMA diss., Arizona State University, 2013). 42 Another study that highlights the variety of opinions on what constitutes quality choral tone is a study by Donald Martin Rogers.87 In his study, he asked twelve professional choral conductors to adjudicate taped examples of choral performances in relationship to issues of choral tone. Conductors were then asked to offer possible remedies to the issues in the examples. Realizing that a great deal of subjectivity exists within the literature on choral tone, Rogers hoped that if some agreement could be reached, it might influence future teacher training materials on issues of choral rehearsal techniques. The researcher found that there was a high amount of agreement between both the labeling of choral tone issues and the resultant strategies for solving those problems. Two dissertations examine strategies of achieving beautiful choral tone in educational settings. Sandra Babb explores the methods of four successful collegiate choral conductors in various settings including a state honor choir, a collegiate choral rehearsal, and a community choir.88 To begin, Babb establishes a comparison of Westminster Choir College and St. Olaf Choirs in relationship to their concepts of choral tone. Next, she outlines related issues of voice science and the components of vocal pedagogy as a foundation for definitions and terms. By observing rehearsals and analyzing their methodologies, Babb looked for evidence of verbal, nonverbal, and vocal modeling strategies within the choral rehearsal. She discovered significant differences between the amount of time spent on choral tone in rehearsal as well as the types of 87Donald Martin Rogers, "The Level of Agreement Among Adjudicators Concerning Problems and Solutions when Analyzing Taped Examples of Choral Tone" (PhD diss., University of North Carolina, 2004). 88Sandra L. Babb, "Rehearsal Techniques Used to Build Choral Tone by Four Expert Collegiate Choral Conductors Across Settings" (PhD diss., The Florida State University, 2010). 43 modeling used to teach choral tone preferences. A second study took a similar approach to uncovering the rehearsal techniques in a high school classroom.89 Jenkins examines the choral rehearsal strategies of one particular director with respect to issues of choral tone. An extensive period of rehearsal observations and interviews comprised the bulk of the qualitative data, which sought to explain how the director achieved his choral results. Jenkins isolates specific techniques used by the director in order to determine his overall teaching methods. The author also discusses effective high school teaching practices, vocal pedagogy, choral rehearsal techniques, philosophies on music literacy, and vocal health. Issues of choral tone are often related to discussions of vocal resonance, intonation, and vocal timbres. Laurier Fagnan discusses the relationship of choral tone and intonation in the context of vocal resonance.90 He offers specific rehearsal and warm-up strategies to encourage the Italian Bel canto principle of maximizing the best of both warm and dark sounds (chiaroscuro). Choral singers can practice this skill by increasing chiaroscuro resonance during the first page of a song, monitoring the tip of the tongue throughout a series of vowels, and using chiaroscuro exercises in the choral warm-up. Choral effects of resonance balancing include improved clarity in tone and diction as well as an increase in tonal vibrancy. Amanda Quist discusses choral tone and resonance in her dissertation study.91 Quist concludes that it is possible to teach singers to improve 89Bonnie L. Jenkins, "Beautiful Choral Tone Quality Rehearsal Techniques of a Successful High School Choral Director" (PhD diss., University of Missouri Columbia, 2005). 90Laurier Fagnan, "Chiaroscuro Resonance Balancing: The Bel Canto Answer to Choral Tone and Intonation Problems," Choral Journal 49, vol. 5 (November 2008): 51-55, 58-61. 91Amanda Renee Quist, "Choral Resonance: Reexamining Concepts of Tone and Unification" (DMA diss., University of North Texas, 2008). 44 their resonance and increase the presence of upper harmonic partials as a solution to choral intonation issues. According to Quist, choirs that use resonance as a tool in their singing tend to have better intonation, balance, blend, dynamics, and artistry.92 She also discovers that choirs with the ability to alter and increase resonance are able to sing without fatigue and work seamlessly in a variety of style periods.93 A discussion on teaching choral tone also involves the basic principles of vocal pedagogy and vocal teaching within a choral rehearsal setting. Lamartine discusses the effect of a regimen of solo vocal exercises on choral tone.94 Results indicate that a prepared set of vocal exercises for use in a university ensemble positively impacted the singers' sound, their understanding of the pedagogical function of the exercise, and ultimately, the overall choral sound. The age of the singer is another consideration in vocal pedagogy and teaching choral tone. The MTC allows singers to begin as young as age twenty-five and requires that singers retire at age sixty. Singers in the MTC may experience a variety of vocal changes over the course of their participation in the Choir. Two dissertations explore issues surrounding vocal aging and the choral ensemble. Jane Becker examines the physiological effects of aging on the human voice in her dissertation.95 Becker also offers a curriculum of exercises and teaching strategies for use in the solo vocal studio as well 92Amanda Quist, "Choral Resonance," 35. 93Ibid. 94Nicole Christopher Lamartine, "A Curriculum of Voice Pedagogy for Choral Conductors: The Effect of Solo Voice Exercises on Individual Singer Technique, Choral Tone, and Choral Literature" (DMA diss., The University of Arizona, 2003). 95Jane Becker, "Vocal Aging: Considerations for the Solo Vocal Studio and the Choral Rehearsal Setting" (EdD diss., University of Houston, 2002). 45 as the choral rehearsal. Becker addresses both musical and psychological issues for community choirs, with practical solutions singers of retirement age. He also lists modifications a conductor might consider in his gestural vocabulary. A quantitative study by John Orr also contains a discussion on issues relative to the aging voice.96 He notes that vocal function exercises has some positive effects on issues such as singer phonation length, vocal range, and perceived improvement in the singer's voice. However, the exercises did not show a marked result in managing vibrato rates. A choral conductor and singer resource by Victoria Meredith also addresses pedagogical considerations for older singers.97 Her text is a resource for the aging singer (not necessarily the conductor) and provides a combination of encouragement for lifelong singing and a regimen of exercises to strengthen the vocal mechanism. Two choral textbook publications by Brenda Smith and Robert Thayer Sataloff offer information on the relationship of vocal pedagogy and the choral rehearsal. Choral Pedagogy is a textbook that treats issues of vocal pedagogy in the context of choral rehearsals with the addition of voice science research.98 Of special interest to this study are chapters which reference amateur versus professional singers, the aging voice, voice-building for choirs, and choral singing techniques. Although a specific chapter is designated to the relationship of the singing voice and choral tone, the authors do not discuss much more than basic definitions and terms. However, a 2012 book by the same 96John Robert Orr, "The Effect of Vocal Function Exercises on the Objective and Subjective Measures of the Singing Voices of Amateur Choral Singers Over the Age of Fifty" (DMA diss., University of Alabama, 2008). 97Victoria Meredith, Sing Better as You Age (Santa Barbara, CA: Santa Barbara Music Publishing, 2007). 98Brenda Smith and Robert Thayer Sataloff, Choral Pedagogy (San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, 2013). 46 authors specifically focuses on choral teaching, vocal pedagogy, and voice science for older singers.99 There is some repeated material between the texts, but the 2012 version offers selected exercises and vocalises for older singers that can be incorporated into a group choral warm-up or personal practice. The authors address issues specific to gender and the aging voice. Both books contain chapter questions and summaries, organized by short subtopics within each chapter. Choral Music: Technique and Artistry by Charles Heffernan is another choral music textbook with many general topics, and includes a clear and comprehensive discussion on developing choral tone. Heffernan writes brief but detailed explanations and includes vocal exercises and rehearsal strategies for choral conductors.100 Summary This literature review contains sources from three subject areas relevant to this study: (1) Mormon Tabernacle Choir resources, (2) histories of similarly sized choruses and related choral organizations, and (3) materials related to choral pedagogy and considerations of choral tone. Literature specific to the Mormon Tabernacle Choir provides important historical context to the organization. With the exception of a few general mentions inside within conductor biographies, there is no available scholarly writing specific to the MTC Choir School program. The MTC is a unique choral organization that does not conform to models of university, church, community, or children's choir programs. The size of the choir, its 99Brenda Smith and Robert Thayer Sataloff, Choral Pedagogy and the Older Singer (San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, 2012). 100Charles Heffernan, Choral Music: Technique and Artistry (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall Publishing, 1982). 47 rigorous rehearsal and performing schedule, weekly radio and television broadcast program, touring and recording obligations, and use of amateur singers for these professional projects make it difficult to categorize according to traditional choral models. However, contrasting the MTC with other ensembles clarifies these differences. Though the MTC uses the term "Choir School" as the name for its own training program, and although it seeks to train its singers for their worship music service, there are obvious inherent differences between a formal, comprehensive academic training program for young male singers and the less formal experience of the mixed-voice, adult volunteer chorus. As such, the literature related to these Choir School programs is not relevant to this study beyond the occasional reference to choral pedagogy. In general, the most useful resources within the topic of "other choral ensembles" were the writings and studies on community choirs, adult singers, and the aging voice. Choral teaching materials for future choral educators abound in large quantities, often including experiential or anecdotal information on a wide variety of topics. Materials that reflect a scholarly approach to choral pedagogy are not as prevalent and reflect an underdeveloped area of choral research. For this study, the author also includes writings that discuss developing choral tone or teaching choral ensemble skills. As singers came more prepared over time with music literacy skills, the MTC Choir School program eventually increased its efforts to provide choral skills and vocal pedagogy for the singers. To this end, music literacy, conductor training, music literature selection, choral materials for children, rehearsal techniques, and sight-singing materials have been excluded from this review. 48 Curriculum design for the MTC Choir School is an outgrowth of the realization that its program required unique training because of the skill level of its amateur singers. In researching possible materials, program instructors determined that most choral materials were either too broad or too detailed to be useful textbooks for the MTC Choir School. Ultimately, the most relevant literature to the working program of the MTC Choir School includes the sources Choir School faculty referenced as they designed their own portion of the curriculum. In these cases, the range of topics for the materials was vast including all subjects covered by the four instructors. The faculty consulted both scholarly and practical writing including textbooks, journal articles, dissertations, choral curriculum materials, music theory and music literacy materials, as well as information related to the MTC. Instructors worked independently to access the materials that informed their instructional strategies and curriculum content. For the purposes of an academic literature review, a complete investigation of all choral subject areas was prohibitive. As such, a list of the choral materials consulted by MTC choir school faculty is provided in Appendix A. Scholarly materials that reflect an emphasis on the MTC organization, related choirs, or studies on choral tone comprise the literature most germane to this study. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY An examination of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir's Choir School program required various modes of historical research. This study presents a chronological description of events in cooperation with themes and patterns that have emerged over its thirteen-year history. The story of the MTC Choir School is reflected in the processes, problems, challenges, and progress experienced in the course of the Choir's institutional development. The relationship of the Choir School to MTC leadership changes and increasing musical demands both explained its present form and provided insight into possible future pathways. In The Modern Researcher, Jacques Barzun and Henry Graff contend: "Every speech, report, inquiry, or application begins with the ‘the background'; nothing, it is thought, can be understood apart from a knowledge of what went before."101 Kenneth H. Phillips affirms the aims of historical research by offering an explanation of its benefits: "The role of historical research has evolved in music education and therapy as a means by which practitioners discover their ‘roots' and chart their futures."102 To more completely understand anything in its present construct, one must examine the events that 101Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff, The Modern Researcher (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985), 43. 102 Kenneth H. Phillips, Exploring Research in Music Education and Music Therapy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 49. 50 led to its conception, implementation, and evolution over time. According to Gall, Borg, and Gall, historical research is "a process of systematically searching for data to answer questions about a past phenomenon for the purpose of gaining a better understanding of present institutions, practices, trends, and issues in education."103 Unlike other educational research, which seeks to "create data," the historical researcher "discovers data through a search of historical sources such as diaries, official documents and relics…the evidence is available before the historian formulates a thesis."104 For this study, data were discovered by means of oral history interviews and document review. The power of oral history as a research tool is expressed by Paul Thompson as "a connecting value which moves in all sorts of different directions. It connects the old and young, the academic world, and the world outside. But more specifically, it allows us to make connections in the interpretation of history…That is the unique power of oral history."105 Additionally, a varied collection of documents, including archival correspondence, lecture notes, lesson plan sketches, quizzes, and other course material, comprise the other data in this study. McCulloch validates documentary research with the following: "An analysis of documents has been the most characteristic and traditional method employed 103Meredith D. Gall, Walter Borg, and Joyce P. Gall, Educational Research: An Introduction (White Plains, NY: Longman, 1996), 664. 104Ibid., 645. 105 Paul Thompson. "Believe It or Not: Rethinking the Historical Interpretation of Memory" in Memory and History: Essays on Recalling and Interpreting Experience, ed. Jaclyn Jeffrey and Gleance Edwall (Lanham, MD: University Press of America and the Institute for Oral History, 1994), 11. 51 in modern historical research."106 Although the MTC is not a university, the following confirmation by McCulloch endorses the usefulness of these types of documents used in this study: "The changes in curriculum at a university might be appraised through institutional records, lecture notes, and student diaries, where these exist. Moreover, documentary research may frequently be allied to good effect with other research methods in education."107 In the present study, both historical and documentary methods of discovery have proved beneficial. McCulloch concludes that this combination of approaches "offers a means of promoting methodological pluralism which seems especially appropriate in a field as diverse and challenging as education."108 Concerning the organization of a historical study, Gall, Borg, and Gall write, "The particular problem or topic being investigated and the historian's disciplinary orientation determines how the presentation will be organized."109 In the present study, the two methods of organization are (1) chronological order, and (2) topical or thematic organization. The author's disciplinary orientation as a choral music educator plays an important role in assessing and organizing data related to choral curriculum and instructional strategies. A chronological approach highlights the events that led up to certain significant discoveries or creations. George N. Heller writes, "…organizing evidence in a historical 106Gary McCulloch, "Historical and Documentary Research in Education" in Research Methods in Education, Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion, and Keith Morrison (New York: Routledge, 2011), 252. 107McCulloch, "Historical and Documentary Research in Education," 254. 108Ibid. 109 Gall, Borg, and Gall, Educational Research, 666. 52 investigation is primarily concerned with the passage of time, that is, chronology."110 However, a singularly chronological detail may exclude important thematic issues that recur within the development of an organization. Those developments may best be understood as themes or topics as important unifying devices within the organization.111 This study requires a methodology that presents the data using a combination of both chronological and thematic ideas. This pairing reconciles deficiencies in each, allowing the reader to chart institutional growth in time against recurring thematic ideas and issues in the organization. Data Collection Sources of data consulted for this study include (1) a series of oral interviews, (2) written correspondence with persons affiliated with the MTC Choir School, (3) related archival documents, and (4) artifacts illustrating both the content of the course, instructional strategies, and assessment techniques. Oral History: Interviews The primary source of information central to this study was obtained by oral interviews with critical members of the MTC Choir School staff from each instructional phase. (Names are listed on page 54.) Additionally, written correspondence and telephone communication provided ancillary information from present Choir School auxiliary staff and Music Directors, as well as those affiliated with early attempts at training the Choir. 110George N. Heller, "On the Meaning and Value of Historical Research in Music Education," Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 33, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 4-6. 111Gall, Borg, and Gall, Educational Research, 667. 53 Oral interviews provided both new information and a confirmation of preliminary research that establishes a general timeline of events leading up to the formation of the school. Interview subjects were contacted in advance of their interview appointment to determine willingness to be interviewed and a convenient appointment time. The University IRB (Institutional Review Board) results exempted the study from formal contractual arrangements with the subjects, but permissions were obtained nonetheless. All interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed as necessary. Interview questions varied for each subject depending on his or her relationship to the Choir School. As information was collected, interview questioning became increasingly specific to the unique role of each subject. For instance, questions to the vocal coach were exclusive to issues of vocal pedagogy within the MTC organization. Questions for the music theory instructors focused on the practical application of music literacy in the MTC rehearsals each week. Directors and administrative staff responded to questions about their overall goals for the program, vision for the course, and their perception of the impact of the Choir School program on the MTC organization. All instructional staff members from the current Choir School faculty were willing to be interviewed. A group of singers who met the following criteria were selected for personal interviews and email correspondence: (1) representative singers who participated in the Choir School during each chronological phase; (2) amateur singers who represented varied professional backgrounds (though a population of MTC members work as school music teachers or in some professional music capacity, the design of the Choir School program was specifically created to address the challenges of training amateur singers who would not arrive to the Choir with traditional collegiate preparation); (3) singers 54 who also participated in the recent in-service program, and (4) availability and willingness. Though all indicated a willingness to meet and share information, some declined on account of scheduling difficulties or were available only to provide information via email in lieu of a formal personal interview. All current MTC singers who participated in the first session of the Choir School program were consulted for their insights, memories, and artifacts. Of the thirteen members contacted from that group, four responded with memories, artifacts, and journal entries from that period of time. Information from the Music Directors includes a compilation of correspondence, staff meeting notes, and personal communications between the author and conductors. The researcher sent interview questions to Mack Wilberg, current Music Director of the MTC, in an effort to provide professional distance and mitigate any possible personal pressure he might feel to respond to the author concerning her own curriculum and teaching. As necessary, follow-up correspondence provided additional clarification. Singers who participated in recent in-service trainings as well as previous Choir School sessions constituted a much smaller number, but were also included in the interview process. Approximately twelve singers fit these criteria, and seven responded to informal and formal interview questions. Singers who had previously participated in a focus group for the 2007 Choir School session also contributed helpful information to the narrative. Of these, four singers provided responses to general e-mail interview questions. Oral interviews were conducted with Craig Jessop (former Music Director of the MTC), Jerold Ottley (former Music Director of the MTC and founding director of the Choir School), JoAnn Ottley (former MTC Vocal Coach), Donald Ripplinger (former Associate Musical Director of the MTC), Mack Wilberg (current Music Director of the 55 MTC), Linda Margetts (Part-time Tabernacle Organist and Choir School instructor), Bonnie Goodliffe (Part-time Tabernacle Organist and Choir School instructor), Rebecca Wilberg (current MTC Vocal Coach), Thomas Durham (former MTC singer), and Karen Hornberger (current MTC singer and Choir School participant). In total, the researcher conducted ten formal oral interviews, and obtained important information from thirteen singers who responded to both live interview questions and e-mail inquiries. Archival Documents The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints maintains an active archival library in Salt Lake City, Utah, that includes a dedicated section containing information related to the Mormon Tabernacle Choir. The most relevant set of documents from the formal archives is correspondence between the former MTC Musical Director Craig Jessop and Gordon B. Hinckley, former LDS Church President and long-time advisor to the Choir. Hinckley approved Jessop's original request for structural changes to the MTC upon the 1999 resignation of Jerold Ottley. It is this authorization that set in motion the formation of the MTC Choir School and other additions to the organization, including the Temple Square Chorale and the Orchestra at Temple Square. Choir School Artifacts Artifacts from the founding session of the Choir School and its subsequent phases form tangible evidence to define the chronology and overall development of the course. This information, uncollected and entirely unorganized before this study, was gathered from physical files in the MTC office, as well as from notes, notebooks, handouts, exams, and related instructional material gathered from all the instructional staff and Choir School directors. Descriptive data were found in a variety of formats including test keys, 56 course outlines, weekly agendas, quizzes and tests, lesson plans, handouts from instructional staff, handouts from guest teachers, video footage of final singing assessments, participant feedback forms, course rosters, editions of the official MTC newsletter, and programs from Temple Square Chorale concerts. An additional storage room in the office contains personnel files for all MTC singers and staff, including Jerold and JoAnn Ottley. These files contain information such as general correspondence with the office, auditions applications, test scores, and leave of absence requests. Although not specifically related to the Choir School, a helpful resource from another office storage room was a bound book of oral history interviews by Craig Jessop of Donald Ripplinger and his daughter, former Choir member Jane Ripplinger Fjeldsted. This collection contains information about Ripplinger's training efforts for the Choir. Other useful descriptive data, albeit less organized, are the binders, notes, and notebooks kept by both Choir School participants and instructors during each session. The notes and binders of some participants and instructors were available for perusal during interviews or offered for temporary inspection during the study. CHAPTER 4 EARLY TRAINING ATTEMPTS Within the natural course of a choral rehearsal, a conductor provides ongoing coaching and correction. Over time, this cumulative process results in the long-term musical training of the singers. Although it may be interesting to track the instructional trends of various MTC conductors in order to further define the impact of this training, such an investigation exceeds the scope of this study. As such, in this study, the researcher looked for evidences of training that transpired outside the normal course of MTC rehearsals. Historical Attempts Consistent with the pioneering spirit of the settlers of the American West, early conductors of the Choir were accustomed to working with whatever was available in terms of singers, materials, and facilities. George Careless (conductor from 1869 to 1880) formally studied music in London and was a professional musician by trade. Because of this training, he wrote many of his own compositions and arrangements when printed music was scarce in the new settlement. Before the now-famous Salt Lake Tabernacle was constructed, singers gathered locally in a temporary outdoor structure called the Bowery to rehearse and perform music for worship services. When Careless took over directorship of the choir, he arrived to find just forty singers in an unlit, unheated 58 Tabernacle in the middle of winter. He immediately requested a stovepipe and an oil lamp, both of which were installed the next week. He also went to work organizing the collaboration of several smaller choirs. This effort resulted in an 1873 performance by a 304-voice choir, a number much closer to the current Mormon Tabernacle Choir membership number of four hundred.112 Ebenezer Beesley (conductor from 1880 to 1889) succeeded Careless, and understood clearly the tension between performance demands and amateur singers. To illustrate this dichotomy, his grandson Sterling Beesley writes: Ebenezer Beesley was keenly aware of the insufficiencies of the Tabernacle Choir, and in this connection experienced the customary delicate dilemma of the leader of nearly every Church choral group: How to harness and blend those very willing, but less than artistically professional, without hurting their feelings? To those less discerning, and not musically sophisticated, the Choir as a whole was splendid; but to the true music critic, it was not peerless.113 After a performance at the 1884 Annual General Conference, Beesley considered their appearance an "ordeal," because Church leaders requested too many pieces with insufficient rehearsal time. In addition, Beesley noted an "incapability" among new members who had been referred by other singers. To correct this problem, he "determined to henceforth test the voice and capability of each new applicant."114 Evan Stephens followed Beesley as the conductor of the Choir in 1889. A largely self-taught itinerant music teacher, Stephens was experienced in matters of musical training and coordinating large groups of music students. He was responsible for facilitating the Choir's historic 1893 Chicago World's Fair performance that launched the 112Jeffrey Calman, The Mormon Tabernacle Choir (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 43. 113Sterling Beesley, Kind Words: The Beginnings of Mormon Melody (Salt Lake City, UT: S.E. Beesley, 1980), 403. 114Ibid. 59 Choir into a place of national recognition. The prospect of a fledging amateur choir from the newly settled American West performing for a large audience in metropolitan Chicago was daunting. The added stress of a competition created understandable extra pressure as Stephens and the Choir made preparations. Additionally, the late timing of the decision to enter the contest put the Choir at a possible disadvantage from the other entrants. Thomas Griggs, a singer in the choir, recorded the following in his journal: "Have a great many rehearsals to attend. Stephens is working hard but intelligently, industriously, interestingly, and successfully."115 Bergman also writes, "Evan Stephens had copies of one of the contest selections and telegraphed for the others. The Choir began learning and practicing each separate part at once. Their conductor said his work was continuous, every day and evening, and at the end of two weeks he had no voice left."116 Although the extra practices were one attempt to improve musical quality in preparation for the contest, Stephens continued raising musical standards even after the Choir received their second-place ranking in the Chicago competition. He instituted formal courses and selective ensembles as an attempt to raise the standard of musicianship in the Choir. Bergman describes these strategies: Stephens announced a major series of trainings and classes for present and future Choir members, consisting of three divisions, plus a reorganization of the juvenile choir. The first was a ladies' chorus, to make a study of the music of the masters for a ladies' chorus, and to be open to those most advanced musically and possessed of good voices. Next was a male chorus taken from the tenors and basses. Both choruses would work in conjunction, aiming at more advanced work in shading, voice culture, dramatic expression, and a study of the characteristic music of the great masters. Stephens planned a series of "nights with the great 115Bergman, The Children Sang, 117. 116Ibid., 118. 60 composers," the main feature of the season's work. Less advanced members would have a preparatory class "no less interesting than the others, but to be in the form of a mixed chorus." This class would study mainly operatic choruses. New prospective members of the Choir could join by paying an entrance fee of one dollar; classes would [be] free to Choir members.117 From its earliest days, the Choir's conductors were concerned with meeting the challenge of performances and rising demands with sometimes limited or inadequate resources. Pragmatic solutions then and now resulted in occasion-specific requests for assistance, increased rehearsal time, singer skills assessments, or the development of specialized ensembles. At times, musical directors encouraged increased personal music study or intermittent coursework to increase the proficiencies of MTC singers. Performance demands for the Choir continued to rise over the course of its history, due in large part to the increase in audience size and the distribution of weekly radio (and later television) broadcasts of Music and the Spoken Word. Recording projects and concert touring under the leadership of twentieth-century conductors also added to the increasing demand for improvements in the skills of Choir members. Still, ongoing institutional music training was never firmly established, and collective instruction for singers occurred naturally as a result of participating in rehearsals and responding to conductor requests. Under the direction of Jerold Ottley in the late 1970s, the organization began exploring more specific measures for instructing Choir singers. Twentieth-Century Prechoir School Training Attempts In general, contemporary attempts to provide singers with training were essentially need based or specific to a particular musical necessity or skill. In an effort to more permanently improve singer skills, Jerold Ottley took action on two significant 117Bergman, The Children Sang, 128. 61 projects during his tenure as musical director. First, he wanted to gather evidence in support of his actual experience about the general musicianship level of the volunteer singers. His practical experience led him to believe that many of these willing singers lacked understanding in basic musicianship skills. Information gleaned from some kind of musical assessment would allow the directors to create practical solutions based on the results. Though it made some singers nervous, Ottley followed Beesley's model of assessing the singers' skills using a modern-day academic tool. Ottley made an official announcement requiring all singers to take the Aliferis Music Achievement Test. Used more commonly as an entrance exam for college music majors, the test measures knowledge and skills such as pitch, rhythm, and harmony. Many of these test questions reached beyond the normal music literacy of the average MTC singer. Ottley knew his idea would be met with some resistance, but the test results would expose which musical training needs were most pressing and would provide statistical evidence to support their previous instincts about the choir members' musicianship skills. Donald Ripplinger (former Associate Music Director) reported "…some even sent letters to the Church president complaining about the need for the test, especially those who had been in the Choir a long time."118 Referencing this same event, Ottley recalled, "Many singers thought they would be kicked out of the choir, but this was not the case."119 After analyzing the data from these tests, Ottley was able to plan ways for singers to receive help in certain musical areas, prioritizing topics according to test results. 118Donald Ripplinger, interview by author, 16 December 2013, Alpine, UT. 119Jerold Ottley, interview by author, 24 September 2013, Murray, UT. 62 Thomas Durham, a Brigham Young University music theory professor and then-member of the Choir, administered the exam. Using these scores, singers were later divided into groups according to skill level and asked to attend a short series of pre-rehearsal classes for additional instruction in basic musicianship.120 Durham, who was a middle school student of Ottley's, in his position as an experienced university-level instructor, was a practical choice for providing extra instruction in those music basics. "It made sense. I was in the choir, we knew each other well, had a history, and I was teaching that kind of class all the time."121 Durham also reiterated Ottley's memory that the test caused great anxiety for singers who worried they would be "kicked out" if their scores were not acceptable. In the end, the scores were simply used as a baseline to organize singers into groups of similar skill for instructional and logistical purposes. Durham knew firsthand the dilemma of the amateur singer in the Choir. Of his own experience, he observed, "I was often seated in between singers with huge, booming voices…I didn't have that kind of voice, but I did have other musicianship skills. I could read the music, identify intervals…I could read rhythms really well. Lots of singers had great voices, but not all had those skills. But they were helpful to the Choir."122 Durham also consulted with Ottley and provided referrals for a possible music theory textbook as a fixed resource for these kinds of classes. This textbook also formed the basis of material to be included in a written exam as part of the audition process for new singers. This text 120Ottley, 24 September 2013. 121Thomas Durham, interview by author, 11 November 2013, Provo, UT. 122Ibid. 63 is still available in the office for prospective singers to check out in preparation for their Choir audition or as an additional resource for those who may want review.123 Ottley also standardized the audition process for prospective Choir memb