Defining ballet: how the culture shapes the expression of art

Ballet is truly its own entity in the dance world. With its strict pedagogy and rich history, its evolution to modernity has taken a winding path. As ballet has transitioned into the new millennium, there has been consistent chatter about how to classify ballet. There are those who hold steadfast to the belief that ballet can only be truly ballet if it is practiced in its purest pedagogical form, and some who believe ballet can exist outside that narrow constraint. In some nations, such as Russia, ballet has been preserved as a conservative art. There is one method for training, standardized through state-funded ballet schools with a selective process that ensures the students have the facility to reach superior technical aptitude. Within America, ballet diverges from this definition. By employing several training methods, America illustrates a more fluid approach to ballet. Most American students dance at homegrown studios and are not turned away due to natural incapability, such as anatomical limitations. However, for those seeking a stricter approach to training, there are a few elite schools within the country that function at a high caliber. This research discusses how ballet operates on opposite ends of the spectrum of both professional training versus recreational training technique, contrasting Russia and the United States in an effort to explore how each approach can seemingly be classified as ballet from two disparate viewpoints. Further, this work aims to demonstrate how ballet is flexible, meaning it satisfies different needs depending on the location in which it is practiced. Through examining culture, this research illustrates how ballet rose and developed differently within Russia and the United States to enrich and provide meaning to each population.

DEFINING BALLET: HOW THE CULTURE SHAPES THE EXPRESSION OF ART by Roxanne Macdonald Lebenzon A Senior Honors Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of The University of Utah In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Honors Degree in Bachelor of Fine Arts In Ballet Approved: ______________________________ Jennifer Weber Thesis Faculty Supervisor _____________________________ Luc Vanier Director, School of Dance _______________________________ Melonie Buchanan Murray Honors Faculty Advisor _____________________________ Sylvia D. Torti, PhD Dean, Honors College April 2017 Copyright © 2017 All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT Ballet is truly its own entity in the dance world. With its strict pedagogy and rich history, its evolution to modernity has taken a winding path. As ballet has transitioned into the new millennium, there has been consistent chatter about how to classify ballet. There are those who hold steadfast to the belief that ballet can only be truly ballet if it is practiced in its purest pedagogical form, and some who believe ballet can exist outside that narrow constraint. In some nations, such as Russia, ballet has been preserved as a conservative art. There is one method for training, standardized through state-funded ballet schools with a selective process that ensures the students have the facility to reach superior technical aptitude. Within America, ballet diverges from this definition. By employing several training methods, America illustrates a more fluid approach to ballet. Most American students dance at homegrown studios and are not turned away due to natural incapability, such as anatomical limitations. However, for those seeking a stricter approach to training, there are a few elite schools within the country that function at a high caliber. This research discusses how ballet operates on opposite ends of the spectrum of both professional training versus recreational training technique, contrasting Russia and the United States in an effort to explore how each approach can seemingly be classified as ballet from two disparate viewpoints. Further, this work aims to demonstrate how ballet is flexible, meaning it satisfies different needs depending on the location in which it is practiced. Through examining culture, this research illustrates how ballet rose and developed differently within Russia and the United States to enrich and provide meaning to each population. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii INTRODUCTION 1 BALLET HISTORY 2 BALLET IN RUSSIA 4 BALLET IN AMERICA 7 APPROACH TO TRAINING 11 DEFINING BALLET 15 REFERENCES 17 CANDIDATE INFORMATION 19 iii 1 INTRODUCTION The intricacies of ballet have long intrigued the dance community. Ballet was first conceptualized in Europe and, though it developed over time, its codification as a strict dance form was notable. Unlike previous dances of its time, such as peasant or folk dancing, ballet was the first of its kind to be specifically created by and for the nobility. Therefore, as the training became more standardized and formal schools were erected, observing hierarchy and obeying authority became a significant aspect of training as a whole. The technique of ballet solidified once the steps were codified. Jean Georges Noverre, a comedic dancer turned ballet master in Europe, wrote in 1760 Les Lettres sur la Danse et Les Ballets, which expressed his opinions on the way to train dancers (Lee, 2002). These letters provided a guideline for other dance masters, explaining much about the role of the teacher in training as well as the correct way to implement technique. These letters led to a general standardization of ballet. Once the framework for ballet was established, national schools emerged within several countries in Europe, each developing their aesthetic preferences. Russia funded state run ballet schools with an intense selective process that ensured a pool of naturally capable dancers, and paid for their education in ballet. Further, Russia began to implement their own pedagogical standards and outlined their expectations for technique. Now called the Vaganova technique, this Russian style was protected from other nation’s aesthetic preferences due to the ability to fund state schools. Vaganova technique was influenced by the French, Danish, and the Italian ballet styles (Marius Petipa, Christian Johansson, and Enrico Cecchetti as the respective method founders) though Russian 2 ballet took on its own stylistic inclinations. For Russian dancers, such as those from the Mariinsky, “life revolved almost exclusively around ballet from the day they entered the doors of the imperial ballet school... students of the imperial ballet school were considered members of the tsar’s household” (Ezrahi, 2012, p.13). By the time ballet had fully spread its roots into America during the 20th century, it had taken two diverging paths. While American ballet was heavily influenced by a Russian, George Balanchine, ballet within the two countries was dissimilar. One path American ballet took includes a few large ballet schools (such as the School of American Ballet) that made headway following the more “traditional” training model that Russia had previously established. These larger schools are often connected to highly-revered ballet companies that perform classic repertory as well as new works. Yet, for most Americans practicing ballet, large schools are unobtainable (due to geographic availability and expense). The majority of American dancers attend local homegrown studios, meaning that instructors often have only local training themselves, which brings along a wide variation of training standards and a more recreational feel (Zeller, 2016). BALLET HISTORY OVERVIEW To grasp ballet training, one must first have an understanding of how ballet began from a historical context. Ballet emerged from court dances, which had two functions: as a venue for power displays of the upper-class and to facilitate courtship among the nobility. In order to do be successful, there was a need for a troubadour, a dance master capable of teaching dance steps (Homans, 2013). Soon thereafter, court dance steps became more complicated, and the dances began to be staged as balletti. 3 The 1500s marked the beginnings of French Court Ballets, ballet de cour, which were adapted from masquerades. These ballets were focused upon verse and song, and had political implications. During this time, the first example of lengthy choreography, patterns of both dance and music together occurred with the conception of Le Ballet Des Polonais in 1573 (Homans, 2013). However, court dances of this period (1500 to 1600) were considered a ballet à entrée series. Ballet à entrée could sometimes be a very long series of thematically related dances, serious and comic, concluding with a grand figured dance in which all the characters appeared together. This laid the groundwork for the template of choreographic sequence for ballets in periods to come (McGowan, 1963). Jean Georges Noverre was a comedic dancer turned ballet master in Europe, who had great influence in the art for his contribution through documenting ballet technique. In 1760 he wrote Les Lettres sur la Danse et Les Ballets, a series of imaginary letters that expressed his philosophy of how to train dancers (Lee, 2002). This publication influenced the art greatly, explaining much about the role of the teacher in training as well as the correct way to implement technique. These “letters” changed the face of ballet and began the movement to further codify ballet technique. Dance in the 18th century brought about much technical change due to the increasing intricacy of choreography. Pirouettes and small jumps, along with the inclusion of social dances of the time, created an era of dance innovation in which ballet was not just about dance, but also focused on drama and splendor. This era is the age of the ballet d’action, the beginnings of story ballets. These ballet d’actions, concentrated on conveying a story, which is more aligned with what people think of as ballet today (McGowan, 1963). 4 The course of ballet, as it grew to become the art form we know today, has great influence on how ballet is practiced and taught now in the 21st century. The sheer fact that ballet stems directly from the nobility and privileged social classes means that an integral part of its custom is centered around strict traditions, and these traditions are still upheld by some schools throughout the world. Since some believe this is an important aspect of the pure form, when the traditions are not upheld there are often disagreements about how ballet should be practiced. BALLET IN RUSSIA Ballet in Russia is fully integrated socially into the culture. Russians revere ballet and those who practice it. Those who danced at state-run schools during Imperial times were considered part of the Tsar’s household. Every part of their life was consumed by ballet. Yet, ballet went through much turmoil during the Bolshevik Revolution, as well as the Soviet takeover. The Bolshevik Revolution struck the imperial theaters like a thunderbolt. Ballet had been an entertainment for the elites of imperial Russia, and its prospects were at best unclear during the assault on tradition and the clash between old and the emerging new order that followed. (Ezrahi, 2012, p.10) Yet, despite the political unrest, ballet was still able to thrive within the country, providing an outlet for the general population to forget their own frustration towards the government: Far from galvanizing revolutionary fervor, ballet offered an escape from the horrors of revolutionary reality. The starved, freezing populations of Moscow and 5 Petrograd were flocking to see the same ballets that had shortly before delighted a bejeweled audience. (Ezrahi, 2012, p.17) Ballet became woven into the very fibers of Russian culture, transcending social class and holding steadfast while everything around it crumbled. Once the Soviet regime was in full swing, ballet only intensified. During this time period, Russian national ballet schools began to codify their own technique and produce dancers at an incredible caliber. One of the most influential instructors of this time was Agrippina Vaganova. Vaganova’s most notable ballet employment opportunity was her invitation to instruct at St. Petersburg Ballet School, which was renamed Leningrad Choreographic Technikum after the revolution. A graduate of the school herself, Vaganova soon became their leading teacher, creating some of the most legendary dancers of the time due to her expertise. Under Vaganova, ballet itself became more expressive and more acrobatic, but with an incredible technical basis. She pushed male dancers to lift more daringly and jump higher, and for female dancers, flexibility and expansiveness in movement was stressed. Her entire teaching philosophy was installed throughout Russia at every major ballet school (Aarino, 2002). Vaganova’s contribution to ballet technique is still felt worldwide today, for she reformed the pedagogic system that produces Russian-trained dancers (Homans, 2013). Both reorganizing and expanding technique, she invented a clear and concise manner to train dancers and published her work in Basic Principles of Classical Ballet in 1934. Russian ballet, even before the Soviet regime, was completely supported by the government (monarchy) through funding for performances and ballet training for 6 children. Once selected to attend a national school from a rigorous audition process, young boys and girls are taken from their previous lives and put into a strict regimen. All aspects of life are controlled by the government: when to sleep, how much to eat, what to wear. Yet, the trade-off is that families are no longer financially responsible for their children. Especially during times of conflict and hardship, it was appealing to parents to send their children to train in ballet. Ballet was kept on a short leash in Russia, and some believe the financial support from the government came at too high a cost. On one hand, the arts benefitted from strong state support and from a state sponsored mindset that promoted a high regard for cultural achievements as a core value of Soviet civilization. On the other hand, constraints were put on artistic development by the regime’s ideologically driven attempt to control artistic creation. (Ezrahi, 2002, p.4) Being stifled creatively led many artists to flee the country in search of both artistic and social freedom. Defectors were met with a new life and the opportunity to stray away from the classic ballets choreographed years before. Today, the most famous Russian schools in the Vaganova pedagogy include the Vaganova Academy, Bolshoi Ballet, Perm Ballet, and Kirov Ballet School. Only dancers with bodies suitable for ballet are accepted. Part of the audition process includes a physical exam where the prospective student is scored on their physical capability, ensuring that only those training in the school have the bone structure and natural ability to make the optimal ballet dancer. If accepted, students begin the eight-level training program. The training, beginning at age ten, is six days a week for five to six hours a day 7 of ballet, for eight to nine years (Aarnio 2002; Roslavleva, 1966). Dancers are only permitted to learn more steps if they master the previous ones, or in other words, only when they have enough strength to complete the step in the manner that meets the standard set by Vaganova herself. There is emphasis on a large range of turnout and flexibility with perfect placement. Due to the selection process and the number of hours spent training, those who graduate out of the program are high caliber dancers, perhaps the highest in the world. Ballet is still considered an integral part of Russian culture and pride, which is a significant aspect of why it is nationally funded. The pride and value that Russians place on the art is incredible, therefore, it is built into their society and appreciated by all. Because it is taken seriously, the methods employed in the state-run schools are not questioned by the masses. Or, during the communist regime, perhaps people were afraid to question the previous methods and thus they have remained steadfast. BALLET IN AMERICA The nature of ballet diverges between Russia and Western countries around the time of Sergei Diaghilev, the founder of Ballet Russes. Ballet Russes exemplifies this shift in ballet through the new repertoire created and the manipulation of costuming. In 1909 Diaghilev took Ballet Russes to Paris for its debut season, and for the first time, audiences were wowed by the blending of Russian and Western traditions (Garafola, 2009). Diaghilev experimented with traditional ballet, such as full- length story ballets with traditional costumes, to stand-alone pieces with more modern costumes that veered away from full-length skirts and corsets. Ballet Russes experimented with more revealing 8 costuming and set design with a richer color pallet. Artists such as Leon Bakst, Pablo Picasso, and Henri Matisse created works for the company, modernizing both sets and costume designs (Garafola, 2009). Perhaps the best example that illustrates how the Western world was modernizing ballet lies within Ballet Russes’ Rite of Spring (Lee, 2002). Ballet soon was an imported art, particularly with the rise of Diaghilev and his travelling Ballet Russes. However, the standard of Russian ballet had not yet reached America. Instead, ballet of this standard was shown in European countries, such as with Ballet Russes first season in Paris. Starting with Rudolf Nureyev in 1961, a wave of new Russian ballet dancers defected to America and started a sensation, though there had been a few dancers in the years before who paved the way. While “the Italian ballet tradition has been filtering into the United States for over half a century… the movement that scholar Suzanne Carbonneau levy has termed ‘Russomania’ took hold in less than a decade” (Zeller, 2016, p.12). Defectors, “set the bar for style and technique to which people still compare performances” and “spread the influence of the Bolshoi and Kirov approaches to training” (Avestruz, 2008, p.2). American ballet “appeared, almost without transition, in immediate response to the powerful stimulus of the Ballet Russes and as a result of expert training in the classical idiom offered by outstanding Russian teachers” (Amberg, 1949, p.viii). Yet, ballet still had much work to do to find its footing outside of places where it was nationally funded and a socially significant aspect of culture. George Balanchine, a defector himself, and principle choreographer for Ballet Russes, was a great influence in the course of American ballet. Balanchine, along with 9 three other dancers, received permission to leave the Soviet Union on a Western tour, and he did not return. He found work initially after leaving Russia with Diaghilev’s Ballet Russes. In the Soviet Union, the authorities didn’t like that Balanchine was experimenting choreographically with new concepts and with things such as ballets with no plots (Homans, 2013). They wanted him to keep his work classical and structured, not the experimental dance he was creating. Choreography was becoming more abstract and less like the classical era, where choreographers like Petipa had dominated (Lee, 2002). Balanchine, upon arrival in America, found the School of American Ballet alongside Lincoln Kirstein, which upheld ballet’s tradition while still fostering contemporary work. Together, the two men dreamed of “establishing an American school of ballet that would equal, even rival, the established European schools” (School of American Ballet). The School of American Ballet, the fruition of Lincoln Kirstein’s and George Balanchine’s work, was officially founded in January 1934, with the dream of eventually attaching a great American ballet company to the school. Balanchine was able to see the direction of American ballet, perceiving “American dancers as moving naturally, athletically, and fast, without preconceived notions of virtuosity and a pedantic, traditional approach. With ‘Serenade,’ a ballet that Balanchine created with the first class of students at that school, Balanchine's American ballet career began” (West, 2008, p.1). With Balanchine gaining headway in America, other larger ballet schools that upheld high standards of training were established. These schools turned out technically sound dancers, and America found itself with a whole crop of talent ready to perform for American audiences. 10 The issue with American ballet was how to integrate it into American culture. Unlike Russia where ballet had been an integral aspect of its national identity, American ballet had to carve its way into the lives of its people. Lincoln Kirstein, cofounder of New York City Ballet with Balanchine, questioned the role of dance should do and “what part it should play in American society” (Harris, 2007, p.140). One voice which rang louder than others during the 1930s and 1940s was John Martin, a dance critic for the New York Times. He had serious concerns for the creation of American ballet, particularly due to his early experience with Balanchine’s neoclassical work. Balanchine experimented both with minimalistic plots and replaced what was considered “normal” for music with scores that had an odd mix of instrumentation and polyrhythms (Caute, 2003). “Martin believed that the function of dance was communication, and Balanchine’s ‘dance for dance’s sake’ philosophy drove him nuts” (Harris, 2007, p.140). Further, Martin believed that the direction of American ballet had to get its inspiration from “American themes, bodies, and creativity” rather than imported from outsiders or copied directly from countries such as Russia (Harris, 2007, p.142). With ballet in America gaining popularity, the need to find an American ballet identity arose. Some traditionalists saw the pinnacle of the art from as the opulent ballets from Russia and could not picture ballet as anything else. Yet, American ballets were soon coming into their own; choreographers explored “American” themes, which were met with high regards. Billy the Kid' (1938), a work highly original in concept as well as movement that is still performed. But there were also 'Frankie and Johnny' (1938, revived in the 11 1940s and the 1980s) and 'Hear Ye! Hear Ye!' (1934, about courtroom practices), by Ruth Page; 'Pocahontas' (1936) and 'Filling Station' (1937)... All of these works proved that, viewed purely as subject matter, the American experience was a valid starting point for the creation of ballets. (West, 2008, p.2) Therefore, the worry that Martin voiced was put to ease. Throughout the 1930s, purely American themes were successful. American ballet came into its own and shortly grew into a distinct style which reflected the essence of America. In addition, American ballet instructors were more open to blending different pedagogies together than only maintaining the strict Vaganova training method, conveying the sense of openness central to American culture. As Lincoln Kirstein best states, The Russians like to keep their audience at arm’s length. We almost invite ours to dance with us. Anyone of us would like to know Fred Astaire, since we have known other nice, clever but unassuming boys like him... These dancers have the American style, and so has the cynical footwork of Donald Duck and Popeye, the Sailor. It is this kind of feeling we will have to find and accentuate in order to provide American dancers with their best background, and American dance audiences with their best entertainment. (Anderson, 1986, p.160) APPROACH TO BALLET Another key facet in the investigation of ballet in Russia and America has to do with how it is practiced today. Despite historical differences, there are other factors that contribute to the overall reason that ballet is perceived differently between the two countries. Most significant is the accessibility of ballet training to the masses. 12 In Russia, as explained above, ballet training is predominantly offered through state-run academies. Training is a privilege. Children are selected by the state and whisked away at a young age to live in dormitories, where their food, sleep, and practice hours are managed for them. Their learning style is complete immersion; while practicing technique at a state-run school, their academics are few and far between. Thus, students are molded as dancing machines. The learning style is incredibly authoritarian, where the young dancer abdicates all personal freedom for the sake of the art form. As these children grow up in the art, they know that their future, if they continue dancing, is secure. Dancing is the ultimate honor. An interview with the former Russian dancer Irina Kolesnikova reveals the rigor of dancing for the state run Vaganova Ballet Academy, “That day my childhood ended. The demands of ballet were everything. Hours and hours doing exercises at the barre. All the time you worried the teachers didn’t like you. All the time you feared they would tell you to go” (Gannon, 2016). The price of security came at the loss of some freedom, though the reward was high if you could progress through the school and be hired by a state-run company. The alternative was worse; either become like a celebrity, revered for upholding pure pedagogy (Vaganova) and tradition of the art-form, or struggle to make ends meet without the protection of the state school. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that the integrity of Russian technique is so important to their national identity today. Training is serious and the outcome is glorious; Russian dancers inspire and emulate beauty in ballets that were choreographed generations prior, and are still received just as well hundreds of years later. While some of the treatment of the young dancers has improved, for the most part, state- run schools 13 function similarly to how they were run in the past (Aarino, 2002; Roslavleva, 1966). Dancers selected still feel blessed to have the chance to dance and honor their country, though the alternative life outside the studio walls has improved greatly. The cultural atmosphere of America differs greatly from Russia, where the social construct varies to the point that it almost becomes impossible to implement ballet technique in the same manner. There are few elite schools, such as The School of American Ballet, that model closely the Russian state-schools. Students are required to audition for acceptance before even considering whether they can afford the high price of training at this school. During the 1990s, the School of American Ballet opened a dormitory attached to the school, so for the first time, students lived and danced in the same building. Here, the dancers were controlled and lived similarly to their Russian counterparts, where the only purpose of their education was to become high-achieving dancers. As of 2015, prices of living in the dormitory are $15,965 for the winter term only, not including tuition spanning from $4,000-$6,000, depending on level placement (School of American Ballet). Despite the high cost, many young dancers dream of going to this school because of its reputation, and there are few scholarships available. For the majority of students, the many thousands not fortunate enough to attend an elite program, dance training takes a different shape. Most American dance training emphasizes an individualistic approach with a wide range of natural capacity and goals for the dancer’s future. Ballet education is optional and dependent on monetary funds and overall family support to shuffle their young dancer to and from lessons. Children typically attend only local academies where there is a wide variety of competency in their 14 instructors, some have little to no professional experience. With such a variety of teachers, students’ competency falls on a wide spectrum. Further, not all schools teach in the same pedagogy. American schools often blend the major techniques together and students are exposed to several pedagogies, including Cecchetti, Vaganova, the Royal Academy of Dance, and more recently, American Ballet Theater’s National Training Curriculum (Homans, 2013). Likened to how the country is a melting pot, ballet education is more inclusive of many teaching techniques, blending elements from many places into one philosophy. A hurdle American dancers often face is how much of their future should be dedicated to continuing to dance. As they age, it becomes a struggle to balance secular education with ballet and the decision to continue to pursue ballet. Further there is more pressure to select another career since job security within the field is often uncertain. In the fiscal year 1997, total direct government assistance was just over two billion, while private charitable support of the arts was close to four billion (Heilburn, 2001). Since art is clearly a low priority for government funding, and ballet is both underfunded and underappreciated, many dancers abandon the idea of dancing as a profession and turn their attention to other fields of study. Dance in general, let alone ballet, is mostly practiced for fun along with other activities. Just like how in the past, when the dance world had to adjust expectations to accept neoclassical ballets that veered away from tradition, there are new elements of dance today that are under scrutiny. When Ballet Russes first began choreographing minimalist ballets, it shocked audiences and some even reported that it was not ballet 15 because it was not executed in the traditional style. Yet today, these ballets are revered and undoubtedly referred to as ballet. Therefore, it is easy to see that there is often has a period of resistance before people become accustomed changes in ballet. With so many different outlets for dance within America, it is evident that ballet has taken a fluid approach. In the United States you can practice ballet in the old tradition, such as experienced through academies like the School of American Ballet, but this school offers no room to practice ballet in the recreational sense. However, if someone chooses to take ballet purely for fun without the pressure of learning proper strict technique, does that make what they do any less credible? DEFINING BALLET What dance, in this case ballet, can provide to each participant is tremendous. Not only an artistic outlet, ballet teaches teamwork, discipline, and expression. Especially if practiced as an after-school activity, dance is a safe space to gain confidence in social skills. If one decides to take the recreational path, the art still enriches and enhances those who study it, regardless of the manner in which it is learned. The argument is whether ballet can still be defined as ballet if it is solely practiced recreationally. In other words, if professional training is not the main focus, is the practice still classified as ballet? I propose that we take a more holistic definition of ballet and consider the art in much broader terms. With 5,367 dance schools in America (in 1997), and a majority of those schools offering some form of ballet, there is still a large following for ballet in America (Wilson, 2006). Despite the range of talent and access to strict training, students 16 are still learning the fundamental steps of ballet. Though Russia has a more secure system, which ensures a brand-new crop of highly talented dancers every year, it does not undermine the many students in America who don a bun, tie their ribbons on their ballet slippers, and stumble through a ballet recital. And even those students within America who train at a high caliber do not invalidate the success of more recreational dancers. We need to stop trying to put art inside of a box. Ballet can be what you want to make it, as explained by Russia’s strict system, or the gradient level of participation of some who prefer it a hobby. Those who hold to the strict tradition and feel they must protect the integrity of the pedagogy do not believe that recreational ballet is truly ballet. This viewpoint is too constricted for the current trajectory of the art form. By attempting to make clear definition of what is or what is not ballet, we become distracted from the ultimate goal: to inspire and uplift both participants and observers. 17 REFERENCES Amberg, G. (1949). Ballet. The Emergence of an American Art... (Vol. 42). New American Library. Anderson, J. (1992). Ballet & modern dance: a concise history. Dance Horizons. Caute, D. (2003). The dancer defects: the struggle for cultural supremacy during the Cold War. OUP Oxford. Ezrahi, C. (2012). Swans of the Kremlin: ballet and power in Soviet Russia. University of Pittsburgh Pre. Harris, A. (2007). Choreographing America: Redefining American Ballet in the Age of Consensus. In Interrogating America through Theatre and Performance (pp. 139-155). Palgrave Macmillan US. Gannon, L. (2016, July 30) “Russian ballet dancer Irina Kolesnikova reveals the heartbreaking truth behind the most difficult performance of her life.” Garafola, L. (2009). Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. Da Capo Press. 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