Cultivating Student Engagement a Study for a Montessori Early Childhood Classroom

The primary purpose of this qualitative action research project was to find effective elements and methods for generating student engagement in my Montessori early childhood classroom. An additional purpose was to determine how the Montessori Method itself, with its prepared environment, affects student engagement in the learning process. The setting was an early childhood classroom in a small, private Montessori school. Within a multi-age classroom of nineteen students, four were selected from the three-year-old age group as the focus for this study. Data was collected for six months and included student artifacts, observations, assessments, photo journals, and video recordings. Additionally, there were teacher interviews and a reflective journal. Unexpectedly aligning with the self-determination theory of building relationship, autonomy, and competence in the classroom, ten tools emerged for cultivating student engagement. Because those three fundamental elements were so complementary, the optimum impact was achieved more easily when they were combined as integrated components of a whole. Additionally, the Montessori Method was found to integrate successfully and seamlessly, reinforcing the ten tools discussed. A significant finding was that student wandering or "watching" could actually be an observational learning behavior and should be encouraged, within boundaries. Both the Ten Tools discovered and the Engagement Rating Scale could be useful to cultivate student engagement, either inside or outside of a Montessori setting. Further research could be done to customize for K-12.

Running Head: CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 1 CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT A STUDY FOR A MONTESSORI EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOM by Tina L. Willmore A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the degree of Master of Education Westminster College Salt Lake City, Utah May 2016 CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 2 Abstract The primary purpose of this qualitative action research project was to find effective elements and methods for generating student engagement in my Montessori early childhood classroom. An additional purpose was to determine how the Montessori Method itself, with its prepared environment, affects student engagement in the learning process. The setting was an early childhood classroom in a small, private Montessori school. Within a multi-age classroom of nineteen students, four were selected from the three-year-old age group as the focus for this study. Data was collected for six months and included student artifacts, observations, assessments, photo journals, and video recordings. Additionally, there were teacher interviews and a reflective journal. Unexpectedly aligning with the self-determination theory of building relationship, autonomy, and competence in the classroom, ten tools emerged for cultivating student engagement. Because those three fundamental elements were so complementary, the optimum impact was achieved more easily when they were combined as integrated components of a whole. Additionally, the Montessori Method was found to integrate successfully and seamlessly, reinforcing the ten tools discussed. A significant finding was that student wandering or "watching" could actually be an observational learning behavior and should be encouraged, within boundaries. Both the Ten Tools discovered and the Engagement Rating Scale could be useful to cultivate student engagement, either inside or outside of a Montessori setting. Further research could be done to customize for K-12. Keywords: Self-Determination theory, engagement and motivation, early childhood, Montessori Method CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 3 Table of Contents Chapter I: Introduction Overview ................................................................................................... 5 Researcher Statement ................................................................................ 5 Topic and Purpose ..................................................................................... 6 Research Framework and Questions ......................................................... 7 Potential Significance and Limitations ..................................................... 8 Chapter II: Literature Review Introduction ............................................................................................... 9 Approaches to Motivation and Engagement .............................................10 Relatedness as central to creating a safe academic and social atmosphere ............................................................................11 Autonomy, choice, participation ..........................................................13 The Montessori Method and Teaching Practices in an Early Childhood Classroom ...........................................................................15 Conceptual Framework of Research .........................................................18 Summary ...................................................................................................19 Chapter III: Methods Purpose and Overview ..............................................................................21 Study Design, Approach, and Rationale ...................................................21 Setting and Participants .............................................................................22 Data Collection Methods and Rationale ...................................................25 Reflective journal .................................................................................25 Field notes/observations .......................................................................26 Audio/video recordings ........................................................................26 Teacher interviews ...............................................................................27 Student artifacts/portfolios/photo journals ...........................................27 Assessments .........................................................................................28 Data collection summary ......................................................................28 Data Analysis ............................................................................................28 Validity and Trustworthiness ....................................................................28 Ethical Considerations ..............................................................................30 Conclusion ................................................................................................30 Chapter IV: Data Analysis and Findings Introduction and Overview .......................................................................31 Main Themes and the Self-Determination Theory ....................................31 Theme 1: Relationship Building ...............................................................31 Positive recognition of the person ........................................................32 Noticing and reinforcing the positive ...................................................34 Community circle participation and social awareness .........................35 Montessori and relationship building ...................................................36 Theme 2: Factors in Autonomy ................................................................38 CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 4 How a prepared environment affects student engagement ...................39 Adjust degrees of student autonomy ....................................................41 Quest for integrating methods for optimal engagement .......................42 Theme 3: Competence in an Early Childhood Classroom ........................45 Wandering or watching? ......................................................................45 Increasing persistence and teacher-assisted goal setting ......................46 Assessment and unexpected results ......................................................50 Discussion and Findings ...........................................................................55 Chapter V: Action Plan Introduction ...............................................................................................57 Summary of Findings ................................................................................57 Recommended Action Plan .......................................................................59 My practice ...........................................................................................59 Building relationships ......................................................................60 Building autonomy ..........................................................................60 Building competence .......................................................................60 My community of practice ...................................................................61 Further application or research .............................................................61 Conclusion ................................................................................................62 References ....................................................................................................63 CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 5 Chapter I: Introduction Overview Even though my parents were educators and all of my siblings have graduate degrees, I was the epitome of an unengaged student, just going through the motions, getting passing grades while impatiently waiting for High School graduation. I was certain that I wasn't college material. Ironically, as an adult, my interest in education has become so compelling that I have nearly completed a Master's Degree in Education as well as my second year of teaching. I am eager for my students to have a more fulfilling school experience than I had, and I want to provide a learning climate that engages my students, academically as well as socially. I have been curious about the current research-driven methods that can help create a stimulating, enriching, and solid foundation for my pre-kindergarten students. Researcher Statement I will soon hold credentials from the American Montessori Society (AMS) to teach early childhood through third grade. I have searched for proactive, research-based, and best practice methods to engage students and spur their interest to better create an optimum learning experience. For me, learning how to motivate others has been a lifelong interest and one that is especially pertinent to education. It seemed natural to start this action research by examining motivation, student engagement, and the Montessori Method. My personal framework is aligned with critical humanism (Rossman & Rallis, 2012) because of my interest in human potential and empowerment. To affect CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 6 change, my focus was at the individual or local level rather than on a large, abstract, or impersonal scale. Topic and Purpose Young children seem to be learning something every minute (Carlton & Winsler, 1998). Even though my students were only two-and-a-half to five years old, their early education is a foundation for life (Carlton & Winsler, 1998). Engagement in the learning experience is key to each student's optimum development (Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, & Turner, 2004). The social context in the classroom is critical to both academic and social learning (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Children need to connect with peers (Luff & Webster, 2014) and teachers as a context for developing responsibility and autonomy (Koh & Frick, 2010; Stefano et al., 2004). Even at this early age, it is not too soon for children to learn how to meet their personal needs, while also learning to contribute to the needs of a group (Rightmyer, 2003). Since engagement was the goal, my study attempted to determine effective elements and methods to promote it. I have examined ideas both inside and outside of the Montessori environment to fully engage students in the learning process. Dr. Montessori developed methods that helped to generate self-discipline (Lillard, 2007; Rambusch, 2010) and responsible autonomy (Koh & Frick, 2010) with students in early childhood education. Educators outside of the small Montessori environment have also examined inherent motivation and methods for engaging the child (Carlton & Winsler, 1998; Stefanou et al., 2004). The literature discussed the importance of building a classroom climate of relatedness (Kohn, 2005; Vitto, 2003), autonomy, CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 7 participation (Luff & Webster, 2014; Rightmyer, 2003), and competence (Carlton & Winsler, 1998). The purpose of this study was to examine current literature and implement effective elements and methods in my classroom as well as to determine how the Montessori Method affected student engagement. I have examined research-based literature regarding cultivating engagement from both inside and outside the Montessori world. Research Framework and Questions This action research project was conducted with a qualitative study design. Qualitative research was the best method because the study took place in a natural setting (my classroom), with a small class size, and in a limited length of time. The focus was contextual rather than numerical; the data was rich and provided depth; I was a teacher-researcher; and the data could not speak for itself, therefore requiring interpretation (Rossman & Rallis, 2012). My study focused on effective elements and methods to engage children in the learning process. I used a critical humanism framework (Rossman & Rallis, 2012). Woven through the literature were themes of empowering and emancipating the whole person. The literature expressed the need for education to be individualized, take place in a cooperative environment as well as to allow freedom, dignity, and development of potential. The predominant basis for this research was self-determination theory proposed by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci (2000). This theory recognized a person's natural, intrinsic motivation along with tendencies of autonomy, relatedness, CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 8 and competence that help to explain components in an optimal learning environment (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Their research focused on motivation and studied a range of ages, from young children to adults, as well as diverse fields, from education, business, and psychology. This research study was intended to answer the following questions: • What are effective elements and methods for cultivating student engagement in my Montessori early childhood classroom? • How does the Montessori Method and its prepared environment affect student engagement in the learning process? Potential Significance and Limitations The significance of my study was that I added to the research of Edward Deci and Richard Ryan regarding motivation and engagement. Unlike any of the literature studies I have cited, I focused solely at the early childhood level, specifically with three-year-olds, and exclusively in a Montessori classroom. I found no other studies that fit these criteria. One limitation of this study could be that because I am a novice teacher, I may not have the perspective of a more seasoned, experienced teacher. Other limitations were that it was conducted in a specific circumstance, a small-scale classroom of nineteen students, where the primary focus was four students within the three-year-old age group. Consequently, this research may not be fully applicable to other schools or grades. My personal application of methods may be unique to me and the results may not be appropriate for wide generalization. Moreover, this research is not exhaustive on the field of student engagement in or out of a Montessori classroom. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 9 Chapter II: Literature Review Introduction Traditional education has been primarily concerned with developing students with high academic achievement whose success is measured symbolically, with good grades, or, in early childhood, with smiley faces, gold stars, etc. This study, alternatively, examined current literature showing that, for students to be the most enduringly engaged in the learning process, they should be intrinsically motivated (Carlton & Winsler, 1998; Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, & Turner, 2004). When grades and extrinsic rewards are used to try to motivate, the result can be counter productive-often backfiring by causing reluctance and disengagement (Ryan & Powelson, 1991; Stefanou et al., 2004). The question was then, if traditional methods are not the most successful to engage students, what was more effective? The purpose of this literature review was to examine current and relevant literature related to engaging the whole child in an educational setting. This chapter begins by examining ways to achieve engagement that include elements of relatedness and autonomy. Following will be literature that examines the Montessori Method, especially in an early childhood classroom. Next, there will be an examination of the conceptual framework of critical humanism because of its focus on empowering and emancipating people from traditional educational systems that can compromise our students. This chapter concludes with a short discussion on data collection methods and what I thought this study might reveal. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 10 Approaches to Motivation and Engagement If we as educators are to engage our children in the learning process, it seems important to explore the elements involved that either help or hinder student motivation. Literature discusses "intrinsic motivation" which means to be involved in any activity that is interesting and engaging for its own sake-the process which motivates one to continue any given activity with interest, concentration, and exploration (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The opposite is called extrinsic motivation, or doing something mainly for the attached reward, which sometimes has been shown to be counter-productive. Ryan and Powelson (1991) explain that extrinsic motivators such as grades are "generally ineffective for sustaining much excitement and passion for learning over the long haul" (p. 50). Not all researchers agree that extrinsic rewards can be negative. Cameron, Banko, and Pierce (2001) published an updated meta-analysis seeking to refute earlier criticisms of learning with extrinsic rewards. Their findings continued to assert that extrinsic rewards are not detrimental and can have positive uses, but state that more research is warranted. There has been continued research about optimizing motivation and student engagement. Patall, Cooper, and Robinson (2008) analyzed 41 studies from 1974- 2004 regarding learning, motivation, and choice which showed that inherent motivation, choice, and participation support learning and contribute to applied effort and accepting challenges. Carlton and Winsler (1998) discussed motivation in children from birth to five years old, suggested that we were born with a natural inquisitiveness and discussed developmental stages and ways to enhance engagement CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 11 in a child. Koh and Frick (2010) studied an upper elementary Montessori classroom and specifically discussed autonomy-supportive strategies the teachers could use, which contribute to engagement and sparking the student's own motivation. Even though Carlton and Winsler (1998) and Koh and Frick (2010) studied different age groups, they both recognized the value of providing various independence-promoting activities that contribute to the same result-an engaged student. Not surprisingly, both studies above used different terminology to describe independence-promoting activities. Although their methodology differed, their results were similar. Both of the previous studies also acknowledged what Ryan and Deci (2000) found, that educators who use independence-promoting strategies rather than typical controlling techniques see greater student motivation and engagement. The foundation for life is set in childhood (Lillard, 2007). Therefore, what we as educators do that promotes or impedes engagement in early childhood is crucial (Carlton & Winsler, 1998). Relatedness as central to creating a safe academic and social atmosphere. Some studies indicated that one of the elements needed to create student engagement was relationship building (Carlton & Winsler, 1998; Ryan & Powelson, 1991). Can children be truly engaged in the learning process when they do not feel a connection to their teachers and peers, with whom they may share more hours than with their own family? Such a question gained more prominence recently. Vitto (2003) published an entire textbook entitled, Relationship-Driven Classroom Management. The author laments that things like positive acknowledgement of students by educators occur only on average every 20 minutes but corrections occur CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 12 every three minutes. Another interesting note is the importance of truly connecting with children, like acknowledgement of effort instead of ability or avoiding empty praise (Carlton & Winsler, 1998; Vitto, 2003). Kohn (2005) examines "unconditional teaching" methods that provide a safe atmosphere where children are accepted for who they are as persons and not just for what they produce or how they behave (p. 20). Then, from that foundation of trust, children feel the freedom to make mistakes, which also helps them explore, learn, and succeed (Carlton & Winsler, 1998; Kohn, 2005). Children, when respected as individuals, are aided in learning successful relationships. By conducting role-playing exercises or periodically having snack time with students, the teacher can model positive conversations (Kemple & Hartle, 1997). The children can learn that they are really valued because they are listened to and trusted to try their own ideas for solving problems (Rightmyer, 2003). Teachers can model behavior they would like to see in their children (Carlton & Winsler, 1998), therefore setting high standards as well as warm, respectful relationships. Recommendations include teachers investing time every day to connect with a child (Vitto, 2003). However, that is easier said than done with all of the demands on teachers, together with possibly unlearning some habits that are not as effective. I did not find literature that recommends that a teacher should not be caring and empathetic. However, the current cultural conditions in public schools, where it is forbidden to pat or hug a student, could hinder relationship building. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 13 Peer-to-peer interaction is also a critical component of generating engagement, ownership, and motivation within a student (Carlton & Winsler, 1998; Kemple & Hartle, 1997; Koh & Frick, 2010; Rightmyer, 2003). Kemple and Hartle (1997) as well as Rightmyer (2003) state that through meetings, students learn conflict resolution as well as how to initiate and maintain successful social interactions. Challenges to classroom meetings and student-led resolutions could create tensions or misunderstandings. Therefore, it would be important for a teacher to guide the process and not abandon the students to manage the whole process alone. Autonomy, choice, and participation. Without student involvement, interaction, and participation, there is limited opportunity for decision-making and therefore less opportunity for growth, autonomy, and competence. Organizing the classroom for optimum student autonomy will provide peak social and cognitive learning opportunities (Koh & Frick, 2010). The following is a discussion about increasing student autonomy. Based on the discussion regarding relatedness, it is apparent that a positive, open classroom provides a beneficial foundation. An overbearing, authoritative leadership style in a classroom can be detrimental to the initiative, interest, cognitive skill, and healthy social development of the child (Ryan & Deci, 2000). On the other hand, they found that leadership styles (discussed below) that emphasized choices regarding social and cognitive development aided learning and engagement. Rather than a simplistic, two-value, either/or bifurcation, it seemed that there was an inherent continuum between laissez-faire or permissive classroom management versus top down, dictatorial classroom management (Carlton & Winsler, 1998; Koh & Frick, CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 14 2010). Especially in an early childhood classroom, teachers can set the tone and allow students freedom to do what works, but redirect when necessary (Kemple & Hardle, 1997). To promote motivation, create a free flowing class with a number of choices for a child to follow (Carlton & Winsler, 1998). However, giving choices is somewhat of an art, as Patall, Cooper and Robinson (2008) discuss. They explain that too many choices could be demotivating or overwhelming, but too few choices could dampen the feeling of being presented with a real choice. Therefore, in a classroom setting to help develop autonomy through choice, it is important to give several options as opposed to just one, and to give realistic selections rather than overwhelming tasks. Patall et al. (2008) noted patterns of effective and ineffective autonomy-giving activities. For practical purposes, for example, they noted in their meta-analysis that if there are extrinsic rewards attached to the choice or if external pressure is applied, a sense of autonomy could be lessened and the elimination of choices could hinder motivation. Overskeid and Svartdal (1996) studied adult students' and office workers' motivation related to feelings of autonomy, choice and rewards. They hypothesized that "If a reward can reinforce behavior, it will also increase the feeling of autonomy" (p. 328). Their conclusions about beneficial effects of extrinsic rewards were discussed in Patall et al. (2008); however, they do not seem applicable to this study because they studied adults outside of a natural setting with short timeframes and tasks, all of which differ from classroom choices, variety, and context. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 15 Another method of student participation in the classroom is collaborative interaction where students work with teachers to solve a problem. That helps children regulate their own behavior while building relatedness with teachers (Carlton & Winsler, 1998; Rightmyer, 2003). Therefore, a synergistic effect can occur, helping the individual and the classroom community. Student participation in classroom meetings encourages more complete engagement in the learning process (Kemple & Hartle, 1997; Luff & Webster, 2014; Rightmyer, 2003), because it helps the growth of the individuals and builds a real sense of community with responsibility and motivation. Another method of participation is individual goal setting, supported by teacher questions for those who are just learning to express themselves (Carlton & Winsler, 1998). Rightmyer (2003) held class meetings and used a student creation called "Book of Solutions" whereby children discussed their concerns, brainstormed solutions, and recorded them. Student-driven motivation and its link to autonomy was studied in an Upper Elementary Montessori environment (Koh & Frick, 2010). Classroom culture, routines, strategies, and methods that foster responsible autonomy were reported to help lay a foundation of self-directed engagement to last a lifetime (Lillard, 2007). Literature on autonomy or choice in the early childhood setting is scarce, showing a need for more studies. The Montessori Method and Teaching Practices in an Early Childhood Classroom Dr. Maria Montessori (1870-1952) was born in Italy and focused on pediatrics, psychiatry, and anthropology. She was the first female to graduate from CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 16 medical school in Italy and was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize (Seldin, 2008). She first started working with children who were developmentally delayed and then opened her first "Children's house" in Rome's inner city slums at the turn of the twentieth century. She had so much success that her methods have spread around the world (Seldin, 2008; Standing, 1998). All of these concepts and methods were designed to support the education of the whole person-physical, social/emotional, intellectual, and spiritual. Montessori felt that education should be more than just skill development or academics. Her central concern was that the child will one day blossom into an adult (Montessori, 1912/1964)-whole, mature, and fully developed academically, culturally, and personally ready to take on the responsibilities of an adult member of society, substantially contributing to it (Montessori, 2007). She saw education as a foundation for life (Standing, 1998). Rather than education being transient, temporary, or unique to a time or place, Montessori saw education as so integral to life that it was inseparable from a life fully and comprehensively lived. Her point was to start this educational process as soon as the child was ready to learn and then to continue adjusting the pace, intensity, and the perimeters of learning to each child's interest and ability. To accomplish all of this she designed equipment, materials, and methods that would attract a child, involve all the child's senses, and move at the child's optimum pace (Lillard, 2007). The materials and the methods were designed to allow the children autonomy to teach themselves, with control of error built into the equipment and methods (Montessori, 1914/1965). For example, with the cylinder block activity, CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 17 cylinders of varying sizes only fit in one of ten respective holes. Accordingly, a cylinder block could not be completed inaccurately. Montessori's materials and her methods were meant to be attractive and interesting to the child, almost like playing with toys, except these were educational toys-each with lessons, values, insights, and substantive information automatically imparted by the process of manipulating, experimenting, and finally solving the task inherent to the equipment (Lillard, 2007). The automatic by-product was that the child was so intrigued with the item of equipment, the challenge it represented, the variety of forms and methods the equipment took, and finally the deep satisfaction of having completed it through his or her own intensity, inquisitiveness, and creativity that intrinsic motivation was an automatic by-product (Seldin, 2008). The "prepared environment" (Rambush, 2010, p. 40) is fundamental to Montessori's method of promoting a child's autonomy, self-confidence, and a sense of competence because the materials are adapted to the child (Montessori, 1914/1965). There is a deliberate sequential order, and therefore an organized routine is set. Lillard (2007) states that, "a sense of control over one's environment has positive effects on well-being, whereas loss of such control is negative" (p. 88). Dr. Montessori was personally affected by World Wars I and II and was in exile in India for a time. Integrated into the curriculum are lessons about social skills like peaceful living, grace, and courtesy (Standing, 1998). Montessori discussed how a little child would someday become a mature adult and intended for them to be prepared to look beyond their own immediate needs and contribute to humanity (Wolf, 2009). The multi-age structure of the classroom and classroom meetings both CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 18 promote teamwork, social skills, and a sense of respect, belonging, group identity, and relatedness. She developed a method in which children, on an individual basis, had numerous choices to work with and learn about things that piqued their curiosity, leading them to autonomy. Montessori was against extrinsic rewards, even before current research was available. "Such prizes and punishments are…slavery for the spirit...The prize and the punishment are incentives toward unnatural or forced effort, and, therefore we certainly cannot speak of the natural development of the child in connection with them" (Montessori, 1912/1964, p. 21). One might say that for Dr. Montessori, training was about knowledge- education was about wisdom. "Education should no longer be mostly imparting knowledge, but must take a new path, seeking the release of human potentialities" (Montessori, 2007, p. 1). Even though Montessori died nearly 60 years ago, she was focused on engaging the child and developed a method and a classroom environment that is still relevant today. Conceptual Framework of Research While literature in education seems to be largely constructivist and humanist, the framework that appears most frequently in the literature cited here is "critical humanism" (Rossman & Rallis, 2012, pp. 43-44). Woven through the literature are themes of empowering and emancipating the whole person. Additionally, the literature holds that a student's education should be individualized, allow autonomy in a cooperative environment, provide respect, and further development of one's own potential. Regarding theories within Humanism, Csikszentimihalyi's flow theory is referenced often when discussing intrinsic motivation and engagement. While there CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 19 might be overlap with Csikszentimihalyi, the predominant theory for this research is self-determination theory proposed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. It recognizes a person's natural, intrinsic motivation along with tendencies of autonomy, relatedness, and competence that help to explain elements in an optimal learning environment (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Their research also investigates conditions that nurture rather than hinder optimal motivation, self-regulation, and explores innate human psychological needs. Research has occurred in the fields of education, sports, business, and psychology (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Summary To achieve the child's engagement, it is useful to include student-driven motivation (Carlton & Winsler, 1998) as a guiding principle in a classroom atmosphere of relatedness (Ryan & Powelson, 1991; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Vitto, 2003), autonomy, and participation (Luff & Webster, 2014; Rightmyer, 2003). While there is literature on inherent motivation in students from ages two to six years old, it is scarce, and academic literature is especially limited when specifically looking at a Montessori classroom. The only Montessori study listed took place in an upper elementary classroom. Two studies took place in an early childhood environment, but not a Montessori school. Several more studies took place either in an elementary or mixed age group including elementary up to college age students, all outside of a Montessori setting. I hoped to fill the gap by finding methods that support student engagement specifically for an early childhood classroom that could be used either inside or outside of the Montessori environment. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 20 Using Ryan and Deci's (2000) self-determination theory as a foundation, I planned to examine effective elements and methods for cultivating student engagement. Furthermore, I planned to investigate the Montessori Method to see how it affected student engagement. I used field notes, observations, student artifacts, recordings, interviews, and other holistic means to collect data that could be woven into a rich narrative, all within the context of my own early childhood classroom. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 21 Chapter III: Methods Purpose and Overview The purpose of this qualitative action research project was to examine current literature to determine the effective elements and methods for cultivating student engagement in my Montessori early childhood classroom. Additionally, I planned to explore how the Montessori Method and its prepared environment affected student engagement. This chapter discusses my methods and rationale for gathering and analyzing data. Then it describes the study setting and participants. The chapter will conclude with statements about validity, trustworthiness, and ethical considerations. Study Design, Approach, and Rationale I wanted to understand more about my teaching methods and find ways to improve my effectiveness. I used a qualitative action research design toward that objective (Mills, 2014). This study was small in scale and took place in a natural setting, my own classroom. True to the nature of qualitative research, it was personal and subjective rather than quantitatively documented with statistical data. A qualitative study design was best for my classroom because it provided a depth of understanding with rich descriptions over a limited timeframe, and the study was able to be flexible and was adapted as new knowledge emerged. Rossman and Rallis (2012) state that qualitative researchers must have "… respect for the individual in context [that] draws them to look at social worlds holistically, as interactive, complex systems rather than discrete variables that can be measured and manipulated statistically. They describe and interpret rather than measure and predict" (p. 9). CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 22 Setting and Participants The setting for this action research was a private Montessori early childhood school located in a large city in the Intermountain West. A 1930s era Craftsman bungalow home was thoroughly remodeled and updated for exclusive use as a school. The building had a large entry with student cubbies, aquarium, and bulletin board. To the left was the single classroom, down the hall to the right was the office, and at the end of the hall was the lunch/activity room. The playground in the rear was newly landscaped with sandboxes, garden beds, and a playhouse. The school had hardwood floors throughout and original wood trim and doors, which added to the charm and beautiful aesthetic feel of the school. The classroom itself had an inviting oval rug for children to gather for community circle time three times daily. There were typical Montessori curriculum centers located around the large room that contained: math, sensorial (five senses activities), cultural, peace, language, practical life, art, and snack areas. For workspaces there was a typical mix of tables/chairs and floor mats. The study took place during the first academic year at this American Montessori Society (AMS) accredited school; so all students were brand new to this school. However, the owner formerly worked with ten students in a daycare setting with some Montessori materials. One of the students had previously participated in a full Montessori program. Regarding the teaching faculty, the co-owner/director/co-teacher had been AMS certified for 10 years and was in the school full time. Additionally, there was one full-time teacher and one afternoon teacher, neither of whom had Montessori training but both had previous experience working with children of varying ages. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 23 Finally, I was the morning teacher, from 8:30 a.m. to 12:30 p.m. With this combination there were typically two to three co-teachers in the room. In traditional early childhood Montessori classrooms, the students are multi-aged, typically three to six years old. Because our school was brand new and just building its program, our multi-aged class was a little younger, from two-and-a-half to five years old. In the class there were eight girls and eleven boys. Of the nineteen students, only eleven attended on a daily basis. Because it is a pre-kindergarten setting, some students attended only a few days each week. For example, five students had a three-day schedule: Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, and three students attended Tuesdays and Thursdays. All students attended full day and were English speaking. Unlike a public school, student socio-economic data is not required, recorded, or maintained at our private school. For this study, based on purposeful sampling (Rossman & Rallis, 2012), I selected four students, only from those enrolled in the daily Monday through Friday program, because the daily routine tends to create consistency, which provides more reliability for this study. Next, I wanted to study one age group to keep age related and developmental differences to a minimum. Gender was not a consideration for this study. Furthermore, based on assessments in part from the Child Development Checklist (Beaty, 2014) and The National Center for Montessori in the Public Sector's Observing Work Engagement (n.d.), my co-teachers and I assessed all students in the classroom. From that assessment, I decided to study the three-year-old- age group (Kindergarten in 2017) because they tended to wiggle, wander, or interrupt other students most often, appearing off-task or unengaged, thus, CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 24 necessitating more teacher time and guidance. The following is a brief summary about the four students. Student 1. Oliver was a male who displayed fondness for his two special friends. He preferred to work with them instead of being able to work independently. When at community circle, he usually did not participate and was often distracted and poking his neighbor. He was learning to verbalize appropriately using more than single words. He enjoyed working with tangible items like blocks and play dough and often pretended they were things like dinosaurs. Student 2. Jack was an active male who smiled often and loved to talk with others. He had a best friend with whom he preferred to work. He enjoyed working with concrete materials like blocks and often sang or talked while doing so. He was verbal for his age and expressed his desires easily. Maintaining focus on productive activities was a challenge. At community circle he had a challenge keeping his wiggly body from interrupting others. Student 3. Noah was a quiet male. He had a best friend with whom he selected to work. He enjoyed working with the shapes, puzzles, and animal books. He was learning how to express himself and manage redirection. He often found it challenging to self-choose an activity and was often seen wandering, watching others, or touching others' work instead of engaging in his own activities. Student 4. Maddy was a bubbly, enthusiastic, and expressive female for her age. She enjoyed keeping an eye on the whole classroom and preferred to work with a partner rather than working independently. She enjoyed socializing rather than choosing a task. She tended to enjoy practical life lessons over academic ones. She CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 25 was frequently in motion and had a hard time sitting still and focused enough to maintain concentration either during a task or at community circle. Data Collection Methods and Rationale My rationale for using a qualitative action research project was that I am committed to cultivating engaged students. I aligned with Mills (2014), who said, One of the outcomes of action research is that it satisfies the desire of all teachers to increase the predictability of what happens in their classrooms-in particular, to increase the likelihood that a given curriculum, instructional strategy, or use of technology will positively affect student outcomes (p. 15). Starting in September and throughout the study, I used multiple data collection methods to promote validity, which provided a rich context and depth of understanding at the individual student level. I gathered data on members of the whole class and then in December, I selected the four students for this study. From then on I mainly focused data collection efforts on them. As a participant observer/teacher I maintained meaningful data in a way that did not detract from quality instruction for the whole class. Mills (2014) called this process "manageable observations" (p. 84). The following is a description of each of the data collection methods I used during this study. Reflective journal. As a general tool to add thick description and context, I maintained a reflective journal before, during, and after the study. I wrote notes, questions, and analyzed the data as I went along, making data collection or instructional adjustments as necessary. This was a "narrative account…of what [was] happening" in my classroom and contained both "observations" and my "feelings" CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 26 (Mills, 2014, p. 95). It was a broad method of systematically reflecting on what was working or not working in my classroom teaching. Field notes/observations. To assess engagement I used multiple observation tools. During the course of this study, to get the unique data, I customized my own rating system, using as a guide the National Center for Montessori in the Public Sector's document "Observing Work Engagement: Primary/3-6 Classroom" (n.d.) as well as Epstein's discussion and chart regarding work habits (2012, pp. 98-100). My Engagement Rating Scale observed on-task performance at both community circle group time and student-centered work time. In Montessori it is referred to as the work-cycle. It noted degrees of attentiveness, interruptions, concentration, autonomy, and time-on-task. I used narrative accounts, also known as anecdotal record, to broadly reveal patterns, context, and a bigger picture (Beaty, 2014, p. 28). In addition, I used running records and rating scales. These multiple methods of observation have broadened my understanding and informed me in various ways adding to the quality of the research sample. After I observed, I reviewed, reflected, and filled in the gaps in order to "look for contradictions or paradoxes" and "unintended consequences" (Mills, 2014, pp. 87-88). Finally, my co-teachers participated in observations for more depth of understanding and to add multiple perspectives. Audio/video recording. These methods were invaluable and enhanced my written observations by capturing students' own voices and actions. Starting in October and ending in February, I was able to record 61 video clips. Of those, I was able to use 17 samples from community circle and 34 samples during student- CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 27 centered work-cycle. This proved helpful, because I was able to analyze and reanalyze events. I also used this in part to help validate the data I had collected for the Engagement Rating Scale. In the next section, the Engagement Rating Scale data shows on-task performance, both at community circle and the work-cycle. Mills (2014) states that recordings could provide teachers with "another data source when the teacher is fully engaged in teaching but still wants to capture classroom events and interaction" (p. 97). Teacher interviews. Given that I shared the classroom with three other teachers, gaining input and feedback from my co-teachers was important. I was in the classroom from 8:30 a.m. to 12:30 p.m. Monday through Friday. However, school hours were 9:00 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. Other co-teachers' perspective and insight added deeper meaning and perspective. The interview protocol was face-to-face, informal, and ethnographic. Student artifacts/portfolios/photo journals. Artifacts are qualitative in nature and illustrated an individual learning journey rather than just displaying impersonal statistics; in addition, artifacts are considered an "authentic assessment" (Mills, 2014, p. 98). I noted the materials and the curriculum areas that the students worked with repeatedly. For the photo journals, I randomly snapped a photo during the morning to see work choice and progression, work habits and partners, or classroom location. I was able to collect over 400 photos, which provided an illustrated guide to student work. It illustrated well the story of the students' development in language and math skills. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 28 Assessments. Our classroom assessments and progress reports used Beaty's (2014) Child Development Checklist as a guide. Assessment areas ranged from cognitive and language development to social/emotional skills, all within an age-appropriate developmental context. Data collection summary. I have used multiple methods to ensure validity, true to the nature of qualitative action research. I have relied heavily on observation as it focuses on patterns and is "fundamental to all qualitative inquiry" (Rossman & Rallis, 2012, p. 192). As Mills (2014) discusses, "each time we teach, we monitor the effects of our teaching and adjust our instruction accordingly" (p. 85). I have examined the data to provide a holistic context for understanding multiple elements, such as verbal and non-verbal behavior as well as environmental factors. Data Analysis Using the constant-comparison method of data analysis, nearly from the time I started collecting data I also began the analysis process (Lichtman, 2010). I continued to compare and contrast the data for deeper meaning, patterns, key issues, and activities. I began to see elements and categories emerge but continually looked for the new and unexpected. When I met with my cohort and critical friends, they gave me new data collection and analysis ideas that I implemented, thus strengthening my data collection and increasing its validity (Rossman & Rallis, 2012). Finally, I began to see patterns and started to code, categorize, and organize all of the incoherent bits of data. I used the a-priori method when starting to code. I was thoroughly immersed in the process and slowly the data began to unify into meaningful categories. Rossman and Rallis (2012) call this process of synthesizing CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 29 data into meaningful pieces "data condensation" (p. 274). They go on to emphasize that this whole process requires a researcher's good judgment because in the initial data gathering process, some data that may seem irrelevant at the time, can be very useful later. I found that to be the case. Finally, I have organized the data and have linked it to my conceptual framework and literature review (Rossman & Rallis, 2012, pp. 282-283). Validity and Trustworthiness I have used multiple recommended methods to ensure validity and trustworthiness in this action research project. I have relied heavily on the triangulation data gathering technique given that experts, Rossman and Rallis (2012) suggested that this was an effective way of gathering data because it used multiple methods to create a real context for understanding. Triangulation incorporated many elements at a personal level, called a thick description. All of these data gathering techniques were sound practices and created validity (Mills, 2014; Rossman & Rallis, 2012). Addressing the credibility of this study was also important. Because this study occurred in my classroom, I had daily interaction with the students and had a legitimate basis for creating a contextual understanding that might not be obtained in only a brief encounter (Mills, 2014, p. 117). Mills (2014) addressed the need for peer review in order to provide further credibility. The Westminster College Institutional Review Board approved this study. The school where I taught provided me with a "Community of Practice" (Rossman & Rallis, 2014) by which I could communicate, collaborate, and receive feedback from CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 30 my co-teachers (p. 69). In addition, I had peer review opportunities from critical friends such as my professors in the Master of Education program as well as the Montessori program, together with other colleagues and cohorts in the Master of Education program. All of this provided support with reflexivity and provided sustained feedback regarding the clarity and credibility of my project. Ethical Considerations In order to build and maintain a trusting relationship, I conducted this study in a professional manner. I was sensitive to personal information, keeping data in a locked file cabinet or password-protected electronic equipment. Furthermore, all names mentioned are pseudonyms to protect my study participants, their families, and our teachers. The director of the school was briefed and consulted to ensure that she had no concerns about potential adverse impact on students, parents, or teachers. Conclusion I used qualitative action research as a practical way of gathering and analyzing data to determine effective elements and methods to cultivate engagement in my Montessori early childhood classroom. I have relied on the experts listed in the literature as credible guides from whom to learn how to conduct this study. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 31 Chapter IV: Data Analysis and Findings Introduction and Overview The purpose of this qualitative action research was to determine an answer to: What are effective elements and methods for cultivating student engagement in my Montessori early childhood classroom? Secondarily, because I was working in a non-traditional environment, the next question arose: How does the Montessori Method and its prepared environment affect student engagement in the learning process? Using a critical humanism conceptual framework, I have examined my data, analyzed patterns, created themes, and have linked my findings to the literature review. This chapter will conclude with a summary and discussion of findings. Main Themes and the Self-Determination Theory I was strongly influenced by the self-determination theory. Ryan and Deci (2000) stated, "Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function" (p. 68). Ryan and Deci (2000) identified three essential conditions or human needs as relatedness, autonomy, and competence. Those three elements are my main themes, within which I will also explore the Montessori Method. I looked to incorporate effective methods, regardless of their origin and without intending to highlight Montessori. Theme 1: Relationship Building Nearly all my literature discusses the importance of building strong relationships, especially at this transitional stage in a young person's life. There are CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 32 many possible methods to explore that connect relationship building and cultivating student engagement. The following emerged from my data collection. Positive recognition of the person. I was struck by Kohn's (2005) research that indicated "students who felt unconditionally accepted by their teachers were more likely to be interested in learning and to enjoy challenging academic tasks, instead of just doing school work because they had to while preferring easier assignments…" (p. 21). Even though I was working with young students and do not track academics per se, I was still looking at motivating forces in learning. I wanted to convey to my students that whether or not they were doing well academically or socially, I was there for them and cared about them unconditionally. A situation arose when I was working on a math lesson with several students on the floor mats. Maddy was especially wiggly and moving around, and we somehow collided. It startled me and she was nearly in tears. Even though she said she was okay, she seemed to withdraw. I felt she needed extra reassurance, emotionally. After the lesson, I said, "I'm glad you are here, I'd miss you if you weren't." A little later she sat by me and asked for a hug (Maddy, narrative record, February 2, 2016). Another illustration with Noah makes the same point. In our classroom we either do our work on floor mats or tables; however, Noah had a puzzle spread out on the floor unprotected by a mat. He was not responding to my requests to move the puzzle and was just getting upset and near tears, so I decided just to move it all to a table. Once it was there, "he started putting it together, quite adeptly, and I CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 33 complimented him and he grinned. Later, independent of what he was doing, I just mentioned, ‘Noah, do you know that I think you are terrific!' He looked at me with a big, beaming smile" (Noah, narrative record, February 3, 2016). Even though his performance, in that instance, needed adjustment, my admiration and caring for him was still intact. I think that reflects what Kohn says: "The teacher's basic affection need not be earned. Caring that has to be earned isn't real caring at all" (Kohn, 2005, p. 24). After reading Vitto (2003) I began to understand teachers could create a classroom climate where students feel that they matter, are respected, noticed, and that they can feel emotionally and physically secure so they can feel comfortable as they explore and make mistakes. An idea that Vitto (2003) stressed was that even little interactions can strengthen relationships and make students feel like they belong and they matter. I tried everyday to touch base with every student, apart from giving lessons. I would say things like, "There is Rose and her beautiful smile" or "Liam, are you feeling better today? We missed you yesterday." Then situations would arise such as when Oliver came to me out of the blue and said, "Miss Tina, I love you!" and walked away (Oliver, narrative record, January 13, 2016). Even though Kohn's (2005) and Vitto's (2003) research was not specifically oriented towards early childhood, my conclusions align with their findings that it works to support the child as a person, no matter what, and discuss their behavior or performance separately. That seems to assist in creating a safe, comfortable, learning atmosphere for cultivating student engagement. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 34 Noticing and reinforcing the positive. I was alarmed to learn from Vitto (2003) that in an average class, a teacher says "no" every two to five minutes as opposed to a positive comment every 20 minutes. I felt that this factor alone could affect the connection with a student. Therefore, in my practice, my co-teacher and I tried to find positive statements instead of negative ones. While Vitto (2003) mainly talked about "positive statements" in correlation to praise, I took it as a challenge to always try to restate negative statements such as "don't run" to a positive "can you use walking feet?" (p. 49). I found that students picked up on the vocabulary that the teachers used and then they started using positive statements, too. For example, the day after the winter break, we discussed classroom behavior. Miss Suzie, said "Remind me. What are some of the things that we practice in the classroom?" When a child said something like, "We don't run"-Miss Suzie would rephrase to "So we use our walking feet? Yes." Next student, "We don't fight." Miss Suzie restated, "We have a very peaceful school. Peace is kindness and love." The next child said, "Don't be bad but we be nice." To which Miss Suzy said, "We're kind. We have helpful hands not hurtful hands because we have a peaceful school…. A child later mentioned, "Our world is a peaceful world" (Video transcript, January 4, 2016). Based on my evidence and its alignment with Vitto (2003), I have determined that it is useful to keep in mind how to look at things in a positive light and that it can keep the tone of the classroom supportive. In addition, "caring for the person, independent of what they do" seems successful. Those methods can help create a CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 35 safe space of acceptance from which a child is free to explore. However, it is not as easy to implement and requires reflection and conscious effort. Community circle participation and social awareness. Our class typically had community circle three times a day. Below is a description of what our study participants group looked like at the beginning of the year during singing time. Jack is clapping while singing the weather song. He does a donkey kick at the end of the song and is looking all around…. Noah is just looking around but not singing or clapping. Oliver is on his knees tipping over…. When everyone is dismissed, Jack does a full circle from the sitting position, spirals upwards until he is finally standing (Video transcript, October 15, 2015). Miss Suzie and I always tried to encourage participation. As the year progressed, even some of the youngest students were learning how to raise hands and wait for their turn. Jack's contribution one day was, "Uhhh, we don't put our lunch boxes in the wrong spot." To which Miss Stacy replied, "Let's keep track of our things. Yes." By January, even Oliver and Noah were able to participate. Oliver blurted out something and was reminded to raise his hand. After which he was called on and he repeated something a boy earlier said, "I love fish, too. I have eggs at home, too." Then Noah, who was raising his hand for the first time I remember, was called on and said, "I love dinosaurs" (Video transcript, January 13, 2016). Expecting any of our pre-kindergarten students to say something relevant to the lesson seemed beyond developmental skills. At the beginning of the year, there were a number of students that expressed their frustration with not being called on CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 36 soon enough to speak. However, as the year has progressed, patience had kicked in and older students were able to contribute in a meaningful way by the end of the year. What seemed developmentally appropriate was to have social interactions like choosing classroom jobs, learning about teamwork, and taking turns. "A classroom in which children are viewed and respected as individuals can provide the basic foundation for a caring community of children" (Kemple & Hartle, 1997). Our goal was to bond with the children, let them participate, and exercise respect. So, we adapted Rightmyer's (2003) idea of participation to fit a younger age group and found that the community circle was a good way for constructive participation. Different from Rightmyer (2003), our age group was too young to implement real conflict resolution at community circle. Montessori and relationship building. In Montessori there is a peace curriculum that often includes an object like a talking stick. We use a heart-shaped peace rock, which students can use independently to help resolve conflicts without the dependence on a teacher. One day I informally asked Maddy, "If a friend poked you, what could you do?" Maddy said, "We go get the peace rock" (Audio transcript, January 27, 2016). My field notes and photo journal show a number of peace talks happening. Often, the teachers suggest them, other times children are going to them on their own. Here is one peace talk, with three-year old style. Jack was upset when Maddy said something to him about "no boys being allowed at school." So Jack asked her to a peace talk and Jack said to Maddy, "This school has to be peaceful and if only girls come then we'd miss all the boys and this is a boys school too." To which Maddy responded, CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 37 "Your lips are chapped" (Video transcript, February 1, 2016). Their conversation continued for two more minutes with no more conflict and afterward they worked together. Although, it did not seem to resolve the issue in my eyes, Jack was apparently content. For those young three-year-olds, the teachers often needed to help with what to say. We supply positive words like, "I won't do it again" and "Are you okay?" and "I'm your friend." One peace talk ended with Noah spontaneously saying, "I'm your friend." Then they both beamed with happiness and went on their way (Noah, narrative record, February 8, 2016). However, the classroom is not devoid of conflict. One day, my notes state, "Some competition is coming up between kids…address this at community circle" (Reflection journal, February 12, 2016). Kemple and Hartle (1997) assert that teachers can play an important role in helping peers manage conflict resolution by how they organize the room and engage in role-playing when necessary. Using some of those ideas and connecting it with the Montessori curriculum of peace talks, our students are learning to work out conflicts independently. My findings align with those of Kemple and Hartle (1997). An important feature in the Montessori system is that the older children have an opportunity to socially and academically mentor others. The three-year format allows flexibility for the student to learn and work with children older and younger (Rambusch, 2010). This group must mold itself into a team, a community with mutual reinforcement, or it could be the breeding ground for discontent. The CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 38 connections can be self-reinforcing over time, which seems to have a positive effect on the social skills and personal maturation. Since his new brother arrived, Jack has been more emotional. However, when he has shown others how to do things he seems to thrive. "Jack is off today but he was very good about showing Isaac how to ‘walk' to circle" (Jack, narrative record, February 5, 2016). Another situation occurred when the students were getting ready for recess. "Noah was helping Isaac take shoes off and get snow boots on" (Noah, narrative record, February 16, 2016). There are also chances for older children to practice reading skills by reading to younger children, such as when Liam read his CVC book to Kendrick, Ava and me (Reflective journal, February 8, 2016). Mentoring seemed to be empowering for the students and they were learning important skills that assist autonomy and competence. Based on the evidence, my findings indicate that relationship building is an integral part of cultivating student engagement. It helps to shape a community where children feel comfortable, cared about, and respected. From that context, they begin to feel safe to explore, ask questions, and experiment with learning. Furthermore, relationship building is developed in a number of ways in a Montessori environment, and so the Montessori Method assists in cultivating student engagement in the learning process. I have explored several methods discussed above. Theme 2: Factors in Autonomy Autonomy is another component of the self-determination theory. I have chosen it as my second main theme, discussed below. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 39 This is the scene one morning. Maddy is walking around and around the table, dusting it well. Noah is sitting by himself singing while holding a small globe, "Tell me the continents…there's North America, South America…." Two minutes later Maddy is still circling the table and "dusting" (Video transcript, February 1, 2016). One student is learning about the globe, the other student is dusting; you could wonder if they were truly learning. This is a perfect scenario for exploring engagement. However, I will get back to Maddy later in the section. How a prepared environment affects student engagement. As is typical of any Montessori classroom, in my class there is a two-and-a-half hour student-centered work time, called the work-cycle. The prepared environment, as it is known in Montessori, refers to the way in which the classroom is organized. There is a deliberate and systematic method to organizing objects on shelves. Beginning materials are displayed first and then become progressively more advanced. Within this structure, I guide the students through the curriculum. The students are free to choose any material for which they have previously received a lesson. The aim is to provide a structure for the students to maximize their autonomy and minimize their dependence on the teacher. An example surfaced of how this prepared environment affects student engagement. One morning, Jack came to me and said he really wanted to work with a material on the math shelf. "He was really focused on the Addition Strip-Board. However, it was more advanced than his achieved level…. I showed him what we needed to learn first. Even though his wiggly body and unfocused mind was having a CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 40 hard time, he was determined" (Jack, narrative record and portfolio, January 28, 2016). It was amazing to then watch the transformation. He became very attentive and settled right down. He focused on receiving lesson after lesson with practice in between, for nearly two hours. He began on the teen-board when lunch interrupted that focus. If he had waited for group lessons he could have been slowed. This long work-cycle allowed him the opportunity to learn and excel at his own pace because he was interested and not interrupting other students. The same is true with the example at the beginning of this section with Maddy dusting and Noah learning about the continents. In a Montessori school, the prepared environment is designed to maximize autonomy because there is a work-cycle where children are allowed to choose in a structure they understand, as long as they are concentrating and not bothering others. If they need assistance the teacher should step in. Other non-Montessori experts like Carlton and Winsler (1998) and Kemple and Hartle (1997) indicate that a systematically organized room helps to support autonomy. Carlton and Winsler (1998) assert that once the room is well organized and equipped with age-appropriate activities, a teacher "can step back and allow the children to pursue their own learning with guidance from the teacher when needed" (p. 164). Kemple and Hartle (1997) also echo Montessori when they state that educators can guide and shape things in the classroom like physical surrounding that also help social and cognitive development. That aligns well with Montessori and the "prepared environment." CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 41 Based on the data that has emerged, my research indicates that a systematically organized and prepared environment not only supports autonomy, but learning, and engagement, too. Thus, my findings align with Carlton and Winsler (1998), Kemple and Hartle (1997), and Lillard (2007). Montessori provides a basic structure within the curriculum. There are variables in classroom organization due to room shape, student ages, interest, or additional learning materials. How to organize the classroom is not always clear. Therefore, student observation and teacher reflection is helpful in making adjustments. Adjust degrees of student autonomy. Patall, Cooper, and Robinson (2008) in their meta-analysis conclude, "when individuals are allowed to affirm their sense of autonomy though choice, they experience enhanced motivation, persistence, performance, and production" (p. 298). However, they found variables related to this principle and concluded that giving too many choices did not equate with absolute success. Even though Patall et al. (2008) studied a variety of ages but did not include pre-kindergarten, I tried to adapt and implement their idea of suggesting two to four choices. Jack asked if we could work on his letter sounds. "We did a lesson afterwards, he continued work with the initial letter sounds [c, e, g, h, r] and small associated objects [such as a car that matches the letter c]. But, then he mostly played with the objects and they had to be removed." In my estimation, the little car that was designed to entice a student to the lesson was now being used like a toy instead of a matching lesson and the noise was disruptive (Jack, narrative record, January 19, CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 42 2016). I felt that we were on the right track with his initial interest but could explore more ideas to sustain engagement. The way I helped children choose has evolved over the year. Sometimes I would step in when there was too much wandering, watching, or sporadic activity. When Oliver was spending a lot of time looking out the window, and was apparently wandering aimlessly, I finally said, "I'm going to choose for you." He said, "I want to choose" (Reflective journal, November, 20, 2016). In retrospect, I think I stepped in too soon and could have been gentler. I now ask students if they want help choosing or what will they choose now. Another piece of literature discussed a teacher's interaction with students and the learning process. Even though the research of Koh and Frick (2010) took place in a Montessori K-12 school, they noted some specific strategy recommendations. I tried to adapt their strategies for use in my pre-kindergarten classroom. For example, during the work-cycle, the students that Koh and Frick (2010) studied were free to work when "interested and concentrating" but a teacher would step in when a student was disruptive, "unproductive and disinterested" (p. 3). Those guidelines were useful to determine effective methods for cultivating engagement; so I experimented with a variety of strategies such as who, what, when, were, and why. This is in alignment with Montessori (1965), who stated, "A teacher who provides the conditions for the child to be free, sets limits. She must guide the child…" (p. 16). Quest for integrating methods for optimal engagement. My reflective journal indicates an ongoing inquiry into how to manage the work-cycle and classroom organization so students were concentrating and learning CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 43 rather than noisily playing. The first week of school I wrote, "Seems that students like to work together, but then the noise level increases" (Reflective journal, August 28, 2015). The next week I said, "Amazing order in the classroom. A lot of walking, quiet voices, and working together nicely but not a lot of independence, yet." The next day, "Started off hectic because a child came in crying and couldn't be consoled…." By Friday I said, "Easier to get kids on track, today" (Reflective journal, August 31-September 4, 2015). Another journal entry, "Today I was able to give a lot of lessons-why? What was different? We mostly separated kids that worked together and we talked about doing ‘One-person works'. Maybe that helped?" (Reflection journal, October 19, 2015.) "Thursdays are easier. Why? I think we need to separate the two groups of three boys…. Noise level gets higher. There is a lot of playing, not a lot of ‘smart work' being done" (Reflective journal, November 10, 2015). Instead of learning quietly, groups of students seemed to be a disruptive influence. Therefore, we adjusted choices: Management of the classroom seems to work better with one-person works…. The questions involved are where are you working, with what, with whom. If kids are wandering or interrupting they are effectively saying they want me to choose because they aren't making a choice that works for everyone…. I enforced the one-person work. We also discussed things like listening, taking turns, cooperating and ‘work-partner' vs. ‘play-partner' (Reflective journal, December 4, 2015). CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 44 After the holiday break, this was my first entry: "Rarely do we have to remind about putting away works/mats. That's huge" (Reflective journal, January 6, 2016). Being responsible for your belongings is critical for obtaining independence. "The challenge with three-year-olds is determining if wandering is productive, neutral, or disruptive. Last year, [when teaching in Elementary School] I felt that wandering was avoiding and not learning. But I also think that wanderers could have benefited from gross-motor/movement activities to learn. I learn by watching" (Reflective journal, January 22, 2016). On February 2, I commented, "In light of the last couple of days feeling out of control, I feel like we need to adjust some student choices for a more productive work environment. I'm going to change it up." The next day, I indicated that location and types of materials used were a disrupting influence. I noticed students were congregating on the carpeted areas and that I wanted to limit mats there. In addition, "Can we limit…blocks or object in cultural works? Can I stand or sit near the rug to help monitor?" (Reflective journal, February 1-5, 2016). "Good day, not a lot of noise. Is it because we reduced the number of block activities or cultural jungle work that were being used like toys? Children still worked together but it was never out of control. Lots of lessons given." Next day I said, "Felt good. Wondering if the blocks made it noisy? Not a lot of reminders to be quiet…. hectic but productive" (Reflective journal, February 8-12, 2016). Last week, Miss Suzie and I mentioned how we felt there were times that "students were independently learning so well that we both felt we weren't ‘needed'" CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 45 (Reflective journal, February 18, 2016). There is a more consistent feeling of children becoming more independent and engaging in work. Now that we have reviewed "choice" from my perspective, let us refer back to the beginning of this section where Maddy was dusting endlessly. What was she exploring and why should she be allowed to do that at school? You could argue that indirectly, she was improving her gross motor skills. She was learning to choose and while it seemed to continue for a long time, it was only two minutes. She was practicing to perfection and incidentally, she now can help with the dusting, also a necessary life skill (Photo journal). Based on the data that has emerged, I have determined that autonomy is a useful element for cultivating student engagement and integrates well with the Montessori Method. The evidence supports findings by Patall et al. (2008) that choice of activities helps motivation and persistence. My findings also align with Lillard (2007) and Koh and Frick (2010); there must be appropriate limits. Adjusting limits was fluid and depended on dynamics of student personalities, time of year, and factors at home, among other things. We observed that some types of materials encouraged play and noise rather than focused, quiet learning, necessitating limitation of materials and teacher observation. Theme 3: Competence in an Early Childhood Classroom Competence was not an element of the self-determination theory that I originally intended to emphasize as a major theme in this research. However, as I was collecting and analyzing data, patterns emerged. Therefore, what follows is a discussion about the third theme or component in cultivating student engagement. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 46 Wandering or watching? My classroom consisted of two-and-a-half to five-year-old students; the youngest students (four of whom were the main subjects of this study) were just learning to choose work. During student-centered work time, the youngest group would often wander around, make noises, and touch or interrupt another student's work. I began to explore developmental skills as they related to student engagement. "One of our little boys, Oliver, was …very touchy, feely, poking, and couldn't keep hands to self. Can't dialog with him about issues and he couldn't concentrate" (Reflective journal, September 23, 2015). He was repeatedly disturbing others or standing around not engaged in any apparent activity. On a typical day, Miss Suzie asked him, "Oliver, what are you working on?" He replied, "I dunno." She said, "Are you going to read a book or what are you going to do?" They talked for a minute more, then he chose an activity (Video transcript, January 28, 2016). Not having taught three-year-olds before, this was a huge new factor that I did not research in my original literature review. I looked to Beaty (2014) who does focus on age appropriate assessments including social, emotional skills, as well as cognitive, gross, and fine motor skills. Additionally, in an informal conversation regarding the three-year-old age group, a 30-year teaching veteran and mentor explained to me that in her experience with this age group, they mostly "look like they are just wandering but they are actually learning"-orienting themselves to the classroom and familiarizing themselves with everyone and everything in it (Ms. Smith, informal conversation, November 19, 2015). With this new perspective, what initially looked like off-task wandering seemed to be on-track, developmentally. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 47 Starting in January, I redirected my students less and observed more. Then, when I felt they were truly lost and could use redirection, I would say something like, "Can I help you choose something or would you like to choose?" If they were able to find something constructive, then okay. Other times, I would say, "I have a special lesson I would like to show you," then escort them to new lesson material. For example, we had been working with Oliver on matching games. He had not gotten the idea of matching by December. In January, I followed a similar process. "I laid out cards to get him started….Then I walked away. This time he did it! He is advancing with his ability or interest in matching, which is so important to progress" (Oliver, narrative record, January 15, 2016). Under the assessment section below, I will discuss progress more fully. Meanwhile, I have changed my teaching practice and accept students "watching" if they do not touch or interrupt. I am starting to discuss this at community circle for everyone's understanding and I also implement individually. An example follows. Noah: "Miss Tina, can I play with Star?" Miss Tina: "You can watch." Star: "It's the moveable alphabet. You can't do it yet!" Miss Tina to Noah: "You are almost ready, you just need to learn the rest of your sounds. If you want to watch, ask her if you can watch." Noah: "Can I watch?" Star: "Aaaaaaaaa, no thank you." CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 48 Miss Tina to Star: "Watching is how he learns. If you don't give him a chance to watch he won't be able to learn as well. Star: "Then you can watch, unless if you don't touch it." Miss Tina to Noah: "Can you keep your hands in your lap?" Noah: "Yeah, I'm not going to touch it." Now Star gets back to her work of sounding out CVC words: "Lid. That's lid" (Video transcript, February 1, 2016). Reviewing this situation, Noah was interested in what Star was doing with the Moveable Alphabet. Incidentally, Noah, when assessed at the end of this study, was nearly ready to start CVC reading and was not yet three-and-a-half. During this research process, I noticed that Lillard (2007) discusses wandering and watching in her chapter called "The Impact of Movement on Learning and Cognition." She mentions Montessori and current researchers discussing the importance of movement integrated with cognitive learning. Consequently, my findings align with Lillard (2007) that movement is necessary in the learning process. After this evidence, I have determined that wandering and wiggly bodies are okay as long as they are not disruptive. Watching is not only acceptable; it is a vital part of the learning process and should be encouraged as long as it is not disruptive. Increasing persistence and teacher-assisted goal setting. Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, and Turner (2004) report that allowing student choice and giving positive teacher feedback increases persistence. Since my classroom includes the choice and autonomy elements they mention in their study, the research looked relevant. I translated the idea of persistence into three-year-old CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 49 language, using words like "tricky" and "practice." The words "mistake" and "master" were commonly discussed together, elaborating on the idea that is "how we learn." Oliver can be seen working on a bead-lacing activity. He has been there for a while and then I hear, "Look Miss Tina, I did it all by myself." He holds another bead and begins to try to string it. He says, "It's kinda tricky one, but I'm gonna do this one." Then continues carefully, followed by: "I did it, I did, it, I did it!" And off he went, smiling from ear to ear and so proud of himself (Oliver, video transcript, January 14, 2016). Another example of persistence happened when Noah was putting together the botany tree puzzle. He looked frustrated and said, "I need help." I replied, "Okay, do what you can and then I'll help." Just a minute or two later he was standing by the finished puzzle and he only needed one suggestion from me (Noah, video transcript, January 21, 2016). Students are learning to persist and to understand that practice makes us more capable and competent. However, my data indicates that it is not an exact thing. It is more about increasing persistence, not absolute insistence. Variables in engagement and persistence always arise, like issues at home, vacation, or just having a bad day. For example, after showing Maddy's mother that she had just started the pink reading series, I then asked Maddy if she wanted to do another lesson. Maddy replied, "No, it's too hard" (Maddy, narrative record, February 8, 2016). However, in a couple of days, we did the next lesson together and Maddy was "quick on the uptake." Lessons that had a sequence tied to a number or level seemed to provide an extra incentive for the students. Maddy liked knowing what number she was on. She CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 50 could see, for example, that there were five sets of initial sounds to master. She seemed to enjoy looking at them and could see her progress because the materials were displayed on the shelf sequentially and numerically. Jack enjoyed being able to see objects on the shelf, also. As was already noted in the Autonomy section of this chapter, he spent all morning working on math activities so he could do a more advanced lesson. He still has not achieved that original goal because there is so much to learn before he is ready for that. In addition, unlike the example with Maddy, after the initial interest, he has not retained the vision of working toward that goal. My findings regarding increasing persistence seem to agree with Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, and Turner (2004) that it is helpful for a teacher to give encouraging input about "not giving up." However, sometimes that created only initial interest. Showing students materials that are next sequentially seems to provide at least a short-term incentive. It seems that teacher-assisted goals, with a vision of "why," are helpful. Persistence and repetition are signs of engagement; however, more research in this area could be done to flesh out this idea with more detail. Assessment and unexpected results. Because of the amount of wandering and wiggling, what looked to me as "unengaged" behavior, I was genuinely surprised at the level of achievement by the end of the study. My co-teacher and director of the school, Ms. Suzie, indicated that in her 10 years of experience, there would be a surge in achievement around January. Even though, as teachers, we are doing the same things, students just seem to retain more (Reflective journal, December 9, 2015). CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 51 In Montessori, we do not give grades. However, we are constantly observing the child and noting progress or mastery of a skill-cognitive or behaviorally. Observation and assessments are used as indictors of where a child is, not the decisive authority on it. Starting in October and ending in February, I was able to record 61 video clips. Of those, I was able to use 17 samples at community circle and 34 samples during student-centered work-cycle. This proved helpful, because I was able to analyze and reanalyze, in some cases, what was happening, and use a rating scale to assess what was happening with my case-study students. I customized my own system using as a guide The National Center for Montessori in the Public Sector's document "Observing Work Engagement: Primary/3-6 Classroom" (n.d.) as well as Epstein's (2012) discussion and chart on work habits (pp. 98-100). Below, is the Engagement Rating Scale data showing the overall increase of on-task performance, both at community circle and the work-cycle. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 52 Table 1. Engagement Rating Scale Oliver Jack Noah Maddy Community Circle OCT-DEC Average 3.33 3.57 3.25 4.00 JAN-FEB Average 4.00 4.14 4.57 3.86 Average 3.63 3.86 4.09 3.92 Work-Cycle (Student-Centered) OCT-DEC Average 4.14 4.18 3.50 3.60 JAN-FEB Average 4.25 4.00 4.33 4.50 Average 4.19 4.11 4.00 3.91 Note. Engagement Rating Scale Scoring. 1=DIVERTED. Physical pushing or verbal harm. 2=INFREQUENTLY. Disruptive to others with body or voice. Could be misusing materials. Could be defiant or not following directions. 3=OCCASIONALLY. Neutral impact but body, eyes, and mouth are only occasionally on task. Not working independently or misusing materials. 4=FREQUENTLY. Eyes, body, or voice often focus. Not working independently/collaboratively or working with materials inappropriately. 5=CONSISTENTLY. Concentrating/eyes on work, mouths and body are appropriate. Working independently or collaboratively and materials used appropriately. Overall, I think this quickly captures the essence of engagement in my classroom. These rating scales are to assess the performance of the three-year-old age group and not to be compared with the developmentally different, four-year-old age group. With this type of quantitative data, there are extenuating circumstances that cannot be understood. For example, the biggest factor in low scores at community circle was: kids wiggling, falling over, and disrupting the class. Additionally, the numbers alone do not tell the story for the decline of Jack's scores. I know that just as he was making academic strides, he experienced medical and family challenges. Our classroom assessments have used aspects of Beaty's (2014) Child Development Checklist. In January's assessment, Oliver showed progress in things CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 53 like work habits (completed activity cycle like preparing and cleaning up activities on his own), focus, attention span, and handling material with care. In addition, he showed great progress in interacting with peers and adults cooperatively and resolving conflict appropriately (Oliver, Progress report, January 28, 2016). The other three students show similar progress. As noted, Oliver increased his matching skills. At the beginning of school he was not speaking in sentences and was not communicating effectively with most of the members of the class. As of January he was telling knock-knock jokes with Rose and making her smile and laugh. Rose said to Oliver, "We're friends." Oliver replied, "We're friends." Then a short dialogue ensued before they got back to work for another half an hour. That showed progress on so many levels. He was sitting, having a conversation, working with a girl, keeping his hands to himself, and making her smile and laugh (Video transcript, January 21, 2016). Earlier in Theme 2, we discussed Jack and his rapid progression with Math skills. He still seems to have very little interest in or retention for learning his letter sounds, so far. Math and the algebraic binomial cube still seem to be favorites for him (Jack, narrative record and photo journal). He is more able to control himself since the beginning of the year when we saw him do a "donkey-kick" at the end of singing at circle (Jack, video transcript, October 14, 2015). Maddy is learning her letter sounds. In November, she hardly knew the first group of five letter sounds and just was not interested in them. By February, she knew 95% of her letter sounds and was ready to start CVC words with the Montessori's Moveable Alphabet and Pink Reading (Maddy, classroom progress CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 54 report, February 10, 2016). In addition, she has a fascination with calendar, letter sounds, and development in reading. She has progressed from random display of objects to matching, organizing, and counting all kinds of things from flags, puzzle pieces, and numbers (Photo journal). With Noah, his preoccupation was learning about animals and dinosaurs. He could be seen fully engaged in difficult puzzles of dinosaurs or other animals. In addition, although he cannot really read yet, he knows most of his initial sounds and is just about ready to start CVC-Pink reading. We are working on social skills and they are progressing (Noah, narrative record and photo journal). Regarding the assessment of the whole class, a couple of things are worth mentioning. Even though this study focused mainly on four students in the three-year- old age group, it seems relevant that seven of the eight students in our group going to kindergarten next fall are already reading. In addition, our classroom received a compliment from a visiting police officer on how well mannered the children were (Reflective journal, September 25, 2015). With the variety of data sources, my findings indicate that competence is a useful element in assessing engagement. Furthermore, the element of competence works well with the Montessori Method and affects engagement in a constructive way. Specific methods are discussed in detail above. The difficult part of analyzing engagement and competence for a three-year-old is their lack of language fluency. Engagement can be happening even when they look off-task because of wiggly bodies and wandering eyes. I think it could be argued that progress is a sign of CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 55 engagement and the methods I used are effective-but not every time, every day, with every child. Discussion and Findings For this qualitative action research study, I will now discuss and summarize the findings that have emerged and have been linked to my literature review. My first question was: What are effective elements and methods for cultivating student engagement in my Montessori early childhood classroom? I have determined that my three main themes (relationship, autonomy, and competence building) are integral elements for cultivating student engagement and intrinsic motivation in my early childhood classroom. Those three elements work together and the optimum impact is harder to achieve unless they are combined as three integral components of a whole. For example autonomy supports relationship building and both work together to support competence. Used together they create a classroom climate for cultivating exploration and engagement. Regarding methods that support those three elements, there are numerous possibilities; several have been examined above in detail. The study produced Ten Tools for Cultivating Student Engagement, summarized in Chapter 5. My second question was: How does the Montessori Method and its prepared environment affect student engagement in the learning process? Through the described evidence gathered and research conducted, I have concluded that the Montessori Method integrates seamlessly with the elements and methods discussed above. There is a natural unity and a mutually reinforcing synergy between the Montessori Method, its prepared environment, and relatedness, autonomy, and CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 56 competence. The Montessori Method affects student engagement and the learning process-positively and progressively. It was significant to discover that the three year-old age group's "watching" behavior, that initially looked off-task, was actually a strategy for learning about new things. Thus, students' "watching" behavior can be an observational learning strategy that should be encouraged, within boundaries. None of the cited literature discusses just the three-year-old age group. There are limitations with this study, since three-year- olds are neither fluent nor perspicacious; obtaining an accurate portrayal of engagement is challenging and requires interpretation. To conclude, as my reflective journal has shown, even when things looked hectic and messy, the data suggests I have found effective elements and methods to cultivate student engagement. In addition, the data shows that the Montessori Method and its prepared environment work well to cultivate student engagement. In the next chapter I will address my action plan to implement these findings. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 57 Chapter V: Action Plan Introduction This is the final chapter of my qualitative action research. The project's first question was, "What are effective elements and methods for cultivating student engagement in my Montessori early childhood classroom?" My second question was, "How does the Montessori Method and its prepared environment affect student engagement in the learning process?" Below I will discuss and summarize my research findings. Then I will recommend an action plan for my teaching practice, my community of practice, and beyond. The chapter will end with the conclusion. Summary of Findings Studying how to engage students in my teaching practice has been so rewarding. When I began this project, the goals were to inform my teaching practice as well as to make a positive and lasting difference in the lives of my students. I was greatly influenced by the statement, "What happens during the early years may determine the strength and type of motivation the child will have in later years. Caregivers play an extremely important role in the motivational life of the developing child" (Carlton & Winsler, 1998). Starting from the critical humanist framework (Rossman & Rallis, 2012) of empowering the child and learning from the self-determination theory about creating classroom conditions where a child is optimally motivated (Ryan and Deci, 2000), I looked for effective elements and methods for cultivating student engagement. Although I started looking for methods that might strengthen relationship and autonomy, during the data collection and analysis activity, the third element of the CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 58 self-determination theory emerged. It was apparent that "competence" was a theme that needed to be included (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Therefore, through the data collection and analysis process, my findings suggested ten methods or tools that work to cultivate student engagement. Unexpectedly, my study aligned with Ryan and Deci (2000) and determined that building relationship, autonomy, and competence were integral elements for cultivating student engagement. Furthermore, because those three fundamental elements were so complementary, I concluded that the optimum impact was achieved more easily when they were combined as integrated components of a whole. Within those three foundational elements, there could be countless ways to build relationship, autonomy and competence. My findings revealed ten methods, discussed later. To answer my next research question, based on the evidence, I have concluded that the Montessori Method integrates seamlessly to reinforce engagement when the ten methods are applied, using the three foundational elements of relationship, autonomy, and competence. One of the most promising discoveries regarding engagement was that the three year-old age group's "watching" behavior, that initially looked off-task, was actually a productive strategy for learning about new things. Thus, within boundaries, watching behavior can be an effective observation learning strategy that should be encouraged. None of the literature cited solely examines the three-year-old age group. There are limitations with this study. Since three-year-olds are neither fluent nor perspicacious; obtaining an accurate portrayal of engagement is challenging and requires interpretation. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 59 Recommended Action Plan My practice. What I have learned from this study will always be a part of me, as well as my practice. I will keep in mind the ten tools I implemented and three foundational concepts, relationship, autonomy, and competence. I have learned from experts in the field, such as Dr. Montessori, who stated how vital it is to build the teacher-student relationship. "When the teacher shall have touched…each of her pupils, awakening and inspiring the life within them…[the student] will recognize her and will listen to her" (Montessori, 1912/1964, p. 116). Regarding the elements of competence and autonomy, Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio and Turner (2004), explained that "…what teachers do and say can have powerful and pervasive effects on students' intentions for learning, subsequent learning behaviors, and academic engagements" (p. 97). I will continue to observe and reflect on my teaching practices implementing new effective tools. As my reflective journal illustrated, it is useful to remember that engagement tends to be more about progress rather than constant production. Sometimes the student's engagement looked muddled and messy. The learning process seemed to entail a series of stops and starts, interest and disinterest, reacclamation and beginning again. Finally, within the three foundational elements I have summarized my Ten Tools for Cultivating Student Engagement, which can be implemented as a checklist. They are as follows. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 60 Building relationships. 1. Start with acknowledgement and positive recognition of the person, which means supporting the child always, and supporting their performance separately. 2. Observe and reinforce the positive, stating corrections by emphasizing performance that works, more than what does not work. 3. Cultivate a classroom climate that includes student participation in developmentally appropriate ways. 4. Promote peace talks or student-lead conflict resolution meetings. Building autonomy. 5. Strategically prepare classrooms by providing developmentally appropriate learning materials, organized in a strategic way, and visible to a child. 6. Adjust degrees of individual autonomy when a child is not learning and is disruptive, assessed by the Engagement Rating Scale. Either suggest several possible choices, or state, "I will choose for you." 7. Manage classroom culture and activities. Observe and determine if your classroom needs a change of materials because they are no longer used or effective for learning. Observe who is doing what, with whom, and where. Adjust activities that are not working. Building competence. 8. Realize that "watching" can be a learning activity and allow new or young students to watch if not disrupting others. Alternatively, help them choose another activity. 9. Develop the habit of persistence by incorporating language like, "tricky, practice, master, do not give up" and "making a mistake is one way we learn." Assist students with goal setting by visually showing sequence of lessons. 10. Assess by using Engagement Rating Scale (listed in Chapter 4), with other observational tools. CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 61 My community of practice. My administrator and co-teachers have been an instrumental part of this process. With them I have learned so much, strengthening this project every step of the way. I will share my findings for continued implementation by cultivating engagement at our school. The research of Luff and Webster (2014), who in addition to studying early childhood also studied educational leadership, they indicated, "…collaborative and cooperative methods may improve the learning and life chances of pupils and increase professional confidence and positive relationship amongst staff" (p. 138). I have gained from the collaborative environment with my colleagues at my school and look forward to continuing such efforts. An informational parent session could discuss the findings so that the whole community could be aligned regarding understanding and implementing tools for engagement. Further application or research. From the triangulated data gathered, this study was promising because, although it took place in a private, Montessori early childhood setting, tools found to be effective could be studied in whole or in part, either inside or outside of a Montessori setting to validate the findings. Because many of the studies referenced originally took place in a K-12 setting, these tools could conceivably be used and adapted for other levels whether in K-12 or an infant-toddler setting. However, it is significant that no other studies were found to focus solely on three-year-olds. Because this study focused on finding effective tools for cultivating engagement, further research could validate these findings, perhaps reveal more in-depth understanding of methods discussed, and/or discover additional tools. While CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 62 this study draws much from the self-determination theory, it could be enlightening to add material from a different framework. Perhaps a constructivist view could additionally inform us, while applying Vygotsky's scaffolding, especially pertaining to three-year-old age group and "watching" as a form of learning. Conclusion How can I inspire, support, and speak to the highest potential within each child? I think that the self-determination theory was a potent foundation for this study, because of the recognition of practices that promote engagement, rather than undermining it. "…A learner is most likely to be interested, engaged, and volitional in contexts of learning characterized by autonomy support and relatedness" (Ryan & Powelson, 1991, p. 51). This study has shaped my teaching practice, broadly influencing my understanding of motivation and engagement. I plan to use these ten tools to cultivate engagement now and in the future. The entirety of this exercise has sharpened my awareness to the essence of the educational process and what it means-the daunting responsibility of guiding the lives of young children to most effectively realize their highest potential. It is clearly a vital priority to prepare children, for they are the next generation. The question remains, will we as professional educators ultimately connect with and guide students to engagement? CULTIVATING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 63 References Beaty, J. J. (2014). Observing Development of the Young Child (8th Ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Cameron, J., Banko, K. M., & Pierce, W. D. (2001). Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues. The Behavior Analyst, 24(1), 1-44. Carlton, M. P., & Winsler, A. (1998). Fostering intrinsic motivation in early childhood classrooms. Early Childhood Education Journal, 25(3), 159-66. Epstein, P. (2012). 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