From Refugee Camps to American Public Schools: Understanding Parental Involvement of African Refugee Parents

Three families from Somalia and one family from Sudan participated in this study. All participants were single mothers whose husbands were pronounced missing during the civil wars in Somalia and Sudan. The qualitative study gathered data about the parent-school relationship using semi-structured interviews and field notes. Regardless of differences in age, country of origin, household size, and other characteristics, three themes emerged: cultural capital, social capital, and lack of formal education. All mothers demonstrated high expectations for their children such as successful completion of high school followed by a college education. The lack of previous formal education and illiteracy in mothers' native language were identified as the main causes of parents' slow integration into a new environment and an obstacle in parent-teacher communication. The blame for students' low achievement in schools is usually related to the language barrier, inadequate schooling, and low parent involvement in their children's education. There is a very limited amount of research that recognizes refugees' culture and parent-children bond as an asset. I believe the findings from this study will help all local community organizations and educators better understand the role of the family in the process of refugee youth's adaptation to the American school system.

FROM REFUGEE CAMPS TO AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS: UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS by Nerima Pasic Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Community Leadership Westminster College Salt Lake City, Utah April, 2014 APPROVAL of a thesis/project submitted by Author's Name: Nerima Pasic School Department: School of Education Title of Thesis/Project: From Refugee Camps to American Public Schools: Understanding Parental Involvement of African Refugee Parents The above named master's thesis/project has been read by each member of the supervisory committee and has been found to be satisfactory regarding content, English usage, format, citations, bibliographic style, and consistency, and is ready for submission to the Westminster College Library. ______________________ ________________________________________________ Date Thesis Advisor Approved for the School ______________________ ________________________________________________ Date Dean, School STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO DUPLICATE THESIS & DEPOSIT/DISPLAY IN THE INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORY Name of Author(s): NERIMA PASIC________________________________________ School/Department: SCHOOL OF EDUCATION______________________________ Title of Thesis: FROM REFUGEE CAMPS TO AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS: UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS. With permission from the author(s), on the basis of an occasional and individual request, the staff of the Giovale Library of Westminster College has the right to make a copy of the above named thesis. The Giovale Library staff also has the right to mail or otherwise disseminate a copy to the requesting party and to be reimbursed by the requesting party for the cost of duplicating and mailing the thesis. I hereby give my permission to the staff of the Giovale Library of Westminster College to duplicate as described the above named thesis. Signature of Author(s) Date With permission from the author(s), the staff of the Giovale Library of Westminster College has the right to deposit and display an electronic copy of the above named thesis in its Institutional Repository for educational purposes only. I hereby give my permission to the staff of the Giovale Library of Westminster College to deposit and display as described the above named thesis. I retain ownership rights to my work, including the right to use it in future works such as articles or a book. Signature of Author(s) Date The above duplication and deposit rights may be terminated by the author(s) at any time by notifying the Director of the Giovale Library in writing that permission is withdrawn. Abstract Three families from Somalia and one family from Sudan participated in this study. All participants were single mothers whose husbands were pronounced missing during the civil wars in Somalia and Sudan. The qualitative study gathered data about the parent-school relationship using semi-structured interviews and field notes. Regardless of differences in age, country of origin, household size, and other characteristics, three themes emerged: cultural capital, social capital, and lack of formal education. All mothers demonstrated high expectations for their children such as successful completion of high school followed by a college education. The lack of previous formal education and illiteracy in mothers' native language were identified as the main causes of parents' slow integration into a new environment and an obstacle in parent-teacher communication. The blame for students' low achievement in schools is usually related to the language barrier, inadequate schooling, and low parent involvement in their children's education. There is a very limited amount of research that recognizes refugees' culture and parent-children bond as an asset. I believe the findings from this study will help all local community organizations and educators better understand the role of the family in the process of refugee youth's adaptation to the American school system. Dedication I dedicate my thesis to my family because of their love and endless support. I hold a special feeling of gratitude for my loving mother Enisa, whose words of encouragement helped me through all of my struggles. I also dedicate this work and give special thanks to my wonderful daughter Ena for being there for me throughout the entire Master of Arts program. Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the South Salt Lake Promise Center and Catholic Community Services for their commitment to refugees and for offering assistance in completing this project. I would like to give a special thanks to Westminster College and my professors for providing the resources and support needed to accomplish this project. I would also like to express my gratitude to participants from the African refugee community who dedicated their time to provide invaluable information about their personal experiences. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: Topic and Purpose ............................................................................................. 1 The Issues and Concerns ............................................................................................... 3 The Purpose.................................................................................................................... 4 Root Causes .................................................................................................................... 5 Partner Organization .................................................................................................... 6 Significance.................................................................................................................... 7 Chapter 2: Review of Literature ......................................................................................... 9 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 9 Cultural Differences ...................................................................................................... 9 Theories of Social Reproduction ................................................................................ 12 School Culture.............................................................................................................. 14 Importance of Social Capital ...................................................................................... 15 Language Barriers ....................................................................................................... 16 Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................... 18 Context and Population............................................................................................... 18 The South Salt Lake Promise Center ........................................................................ 18 Participants .................................................................................................................. 19 Interviews ..................................................................................................................... 19 Observations................................................................................................................. 21 Ethical Awareness........................................................................................................ 21 Subjectivity ................................................................................................................... 22 Analysis and Validity................................................................................................... 23 Risk and Benefits of Participants ............................................................................... 24 How Results Will Be Used........................................................................................... 25 Chapter 4: Findings ........................................................................................................... 27 Results ........................................................................................................................... 27 Theme 1: Cultural Capital .......................................................................................... 27 Theme 2: Social Capital .............................................................................................. 33 Theme 3: Communication Barrier ............................................................................. 37 Chapter 5: Discussion and Recommendation ................................................................... 42 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 42 Limitations ................................................................................................................... 43 Learning Objectives .................................................................................................... 44 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 45 References ......................................................................................................................... 47 Appendix A ....................................................................................................................... 51 Appendix B ....................................................................................................................... 53 Appendix C ....................................................................................................................... 54 UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 1 Chapter 1: Topic and Purpose During my eleven years of employment with the Salt Lake School District (1996- 2007), I have had the opportunity to work with many adults and high school aged African refugees. Regardless of their various backgrounds, it became quickly apparent that the lack of English language skills was their greatest challenge to a quick and successful integration. This was especially true for the youth. From 2000-2006 the main focus of my work was based in the Adult General Basic Education Program at the New Hope Center. There I worked with refugees and immigrants from all around the world. My primary goal was to help them improve their computer and math skills. Working with them was a privilege. I learned a great deal about them, their life experiences, and their rich cultural heritage and customs. What most impressed me was their dedication and hunger for learning. They worked tirelessly to build a better life for themselves and especially for their children. These individuals came to the realization that without education and adequate life skills, it would be difficult to live a stable life in America. Before going further into the topic and purpose of this paper, I want to make a clear distinction between refugees and immigrants. Often the terms refugee and immigrant are used interchangeably as if they are one and the same; this is inaccurate. An immigrant is an individual who leaves one's country to settle in another. An immigrant moves by choice inspired by a promise of a better life (Amnesty International, 2014). Refugees are displaced individuals who are fleeing oppression from within their native countries. These individuals have often experienced, witnessed, and lived through violence upon themselves as well as upon family and community members (United Nations High Commissions of Refugees, 2000). The Refugee Resettlement Program UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 2 (RRP) offers tens of thousands of refugees, each year, the opportunity to begin a new life in the United States. Approximately 70,000 refugees were resettled in the United States during the fiscal year of 2013 (Office of Refugee Resettlement, 2013). According to the Refugee Service Office Report, there are close to 30,000 refugees in Utah. The majority of refugees are from Somalia, Sudan, and Iraq (State of Utah Refugee Office, 2012). The United Nations defines a refugee as, Any person who is outside any country of such person's nationality or, in the case of a person having no nationality, is outside any country in which such person last habitually resided, and who is unable or unwilling to return to, and is unable or unwilling to avail himself or herself of the protection of, that country because of persecution or a particular social group, or political opinion. (UNHCR, 2012) Refugees often spend years living in temporary accommodations, such as refugee camps, where living conditions are usually poor. The refugee camps are mostly overcrowded and undersupplied. Resettlement to a third country, when refugees cannot deport or cannot remain in their country, is another practical option (Save the Children, 2013). Camps with over a hundred thousand people are common, but as of 2012 the average camp size is around 11,400 (UNHCR, 2012). Orientation provided before resettlement is often inadequate. Cultural orientation provided during displacement is in some camps very poor and does not set the right expectations for adaptation upon arrival in the new country. According to Kanu (2008), Due to the country of origin, lack of power base in Western countries, this particular group of refugees is more likely to spend between five to eight years in UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 3 refugee camps, where they receive extremely poor support and live in conditions that contribute to significant and often chronic ailments (p. 917). Support from the local community is extremely important for this refugee group as they have experienced traumatic events and loss. To help them heal and ease their adaptation into new environment, social support is the key element of integration process. The Issues and Concerns Last year, I volunteered for Catholic Community Services as a mentor to newly arrived refugee families (newcomers). For ten months, I worked with families from Somalia and Sudan. Being a mentor to these families gave me an opportunity to see firsthand the issues they faced as they struggled to adjust to Western culture. It was clear these families were wholly unprepared for their new environment and that their minds, understandably, were in survival mode due to the lack of preparation they were given. They had to learn every basic element of living in the United States, from how to live in an apartment and use electrical appliances to using public transportation and understanding Western medical practices; the list is endless. Learning a new language is one of the top priorities for these families (Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2006). Because of this, English as a Second Language (ESL) classes may be the most valued service for new immigrants and refugees. Without the ability to communicate in English, these families are left to depend on government assistance and work at some of the lowest paying jobs with no hope of bettering their lives. Refugee children are the biggest victims of war (Huyck & Fields, 1981). Nearly half of the thirty four million people, with whom the United Nations Refugee Agency is concerned, are children (Refugees, 2012). All of them are carrying emotional traumas UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 4 that come with being detached from their homes, families, and friends and experiencing the horrors of violence (Huyck & Fields, 1981). During war, their schooling is interrupted or in some cases they never have a chance to attend school (Kanu, 2008). The majority of African high school age refugees have not had an opportunity to receive a proper education in the refugee camps while waiting for their final resettlement destination. Often, these young people, who do not know how to write and read, are placed in high school upon arrival without any transitioning programs. The African youth population is typically placed in the U.S. public school classrooms based on age, not the level of the educational background or experience (Roxas, 2008). The majority of students from Africa come from communities with predominantly oral language traditions (Roxas & Roy, 2011). Transition to a school context that is based on the written word is very challenging especially for teens without previous education. In order to adapt well, refugee youth need support from peers and the local community. In addition, these refugee children need a high quality education, including extra support from their teachers and school officials, in order to overcome the obstacles they face. According to Bigelow (2007), refugee children rarely receive academic support at home due to their parents' lack of cultural understanding. More often than not, these children are left on their own to navigate the American school system. Since the majority of their parents are illiterate, it is often assumed that the refugee student's parents are one of the obstacles to their education, rather than a valuable asset (Bigelow, 2007). The Purpose Three families from Somalia and one family from Sudan were chosen to participate in this study. The majority of the refugee families from Africa in this UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 5 neighborhood are single mothers whose husbands were pronounced missing during the civil wars in Somalia and Sudan. The qualitative study gathered data about parent-school relationship using semi-structured interviews and field notes. The goal was to better understand refugee students' families, their relationships, and the role of their families in their education process. The findings from this study will help our local community organizations and public school educators better understand the role of the family in the process of refugee youth's adaptation to the American school system. The research questions explored in this study are: How are African refugee parents of high school age children currently involved in their children's education? How does social and cultural capital affect the academic success of African refugee youth in public schools? After completing the field work it became clear that mothers show interest in their children's education and communicate their expectations that children do well in school. The participants expressed high gratitude toward opportunities for building a new life in Utah. However, a communication barrier was identified as a key obstacle to their full adaptation into the new environment. Root Causes Most education studies related to the schooling of refugee teens from Africa focus on the deficits this student group brings with them to school. The blame for students' low achievement in school is usually related to the language barrier, inadequate schooling, and low parent involvement in their children's education (Kanu, 2008; Roxas, 2008; Roxas & Roy, 2011). There is a very limited amount of research that recognizes refugees' culture and parent-children bond as an asset. UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 6 One of the major issues interfering with African youth's ability to complete a healthy adjustment of their cultural identity is cultural intolerance in local communities. The cause of this problem can be linked to the mainstream media, ignorance, and absence of community organizers who will promote African culture in a positive way. Very often, refugees are presented in our media only by horrors of international conflicts, not by strong religious, cultural, or national heritage (Steimel, 2010). Instead of framing the refugee communities as a continuous burden for society, a positive attitude toward the refugee community should be implemented. The African refugee community should be seen as an asset to our society. Communities should celebrate the richness of diverse traditions, cultures, languages, and life experiences. Partner Organization This study was completed in collaboration with the Family Liaison Coordinator of the Promise Center, Mary Brown. During my project, Ms. Brown provided guidance and qualitative feedback related to the validity of my investigation and final discoveries. The Promise Center is one of several in South Salt Lake that provides assistance to refugee parents. The main goal of the center is to integrate refugee families into their new life in United States. Programs include English as a Second Language (ESL) classes combined with life skills courses for parents. The center also provides early childhood programs, out of school programs for youth and teens, and community outreach. The process of successful integration of refugee families is developed by facilitating access to resources, expanding networks and layers of service, creating opportunity for leadership, and providing relevant responsive services and support. The mission of the program is to help refugee youth succeed academically and achieve post-secondary education. Among other UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 7 education initiatives, the Promise Center's goal for refugee integration is to create cohesive communities and address Utah's changing demographics. The main goal is to increase levels of trust and compassion within a broader community. The center uses a very unique model that requires the interconnectedness of all local business, schools, nonprofit agencies, programs, and interaction that directly or indirectly contribute to the success of the local community. The mission focuses on centering its work around youth, families, and community members to make education and a better quality of life accessible to everyone (United Way, 2014). Significance The data collected shows that the communication barrier is the biggest obstacle to the refugee mothers who lack literacy in their first (native) language. The results of this study will help the center and local schools to identify where gaps lie regarding parent-teacher communication. The data collected supports that traditional instruction in the ESL classroom is not sufficient for adult learners (African parents) who have limited reading abilities in their native language. After attending traditional ESL classes and living more than four years in Utah, a mother from Sudan who participated in the study is still not able to communicate in English. The result of this study can be used for grant purposes. The Promise Center can apply for grants to develop an ESL program to specifically address the needs of women from Somalia, Sudan, and other countries who do not have any previous basic education. Support from the local community agencies and the local school was identified as a valuable asset for this refugee group. Upon completion of this study, it was evident that strategies such as close interaction with school counselors, a students' progress tracking UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 8 system, and after school homework help offered by the Promise Center have a positive impact on refugee youth's education success. The significance of the center's location was underlined in the study. The center occupies one apartment unit in the refugee apartment complex. The majority of apartment units are occupied by refugee families from all parts of the world, including Thailand, Burma, Somalia, and Sudan. The various cultures and languages bring rich diversity to the Promise Center where working together minimizes language barriers. Even though the parent-teacher relationship is a very important factor in student success, it remains overlooked among refugee families in the United States. Since there is not enough research material related to parental involvement of African refugee parents, this study will be a small contribution in providing deeper understanding of the root causes of insufficient parent-teacher relationship of this particular group. UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 9 Chapter 2: Review of Literature Introduction According to the Multicultural Affairs of Utah (2011), Utah's overall population was the third fastest growing, increasing by 23% between 2000-2010. The foreign-born population of Utah changed by 40.3% between 2000 and 2010 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2011). In 2010, Iraq, Nepal, and Somalia were the largest groups by nationality. As statistics show, Utah's population is changing very rapidly and bringing a new richness of cultures to Utah. A new wave of settlement by refugees from Africa brought to Utah ethnic traditions and lifestyles that are very different from those of the local population. The primary focus of the literature review is to determine and document the key points for this study and to help local community organizations and schools better understand the role of the family in the process of refugee youth's adaptation to American schools. Cultural Differences One of the concerning home-school communication barriers for ESL parent involvement in schools is defined as cultural differences. Parents of African refugee students are expected to adapt to the norms of North America such as attend parent-teacher conferences after receiving the school invitation notice. They are also expected to be fully engaged in their children's homework assignments and participate in their children's after school activities (Delgado-Gaitan, 1990). According to Lukes (2011) schools often assume that every parent has the responsibility to academically support his or her child, not taking into consideration that some refugee parents do not possess skills that will allow them to help their children with homework. Lukes (2011) argues that UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 10 some low-income children start off educationally disadvantaged since their parents are pressured by school administrator and teachers to speak English at home with their children which produces deficiency in their children's English and literacy skills. Kanu (2008) calls for "clearer dialog" between parents and teachers of refugee students to better understand "what the other party is equipped to provide to support the learning of African refugee students" (p. 929). The limited English language proficiency and the cultural differences were the key obstacles in preventing parents from being more involved in their children's schooling. The interviews by students in Kanu's study point to academic challenges such as: lack of academic support at home, cultural differences which including academic dissonance, and acculturation stress (Kanu, 2008). Some personal barriers for parents are their inability to assist their children to be academically successful due to preoccupation with financial survival such as often balancing more than two jobs (Kanu, 2008). The challenges students identified during their interviews signal that teachers didn't make a strong enough effort to connect to and understand this particular group of student population. Teachers and educators who take time to learn about African families' backgrounds will be able to understand that due to the limited access to formal schooling and predominantly oral language tradition, these students were not able to make successful academic transitions (Kanu, 2008). In Kanu's (2008) study, one principal suggested opening a refugee transition center and sought more funding for teachers to attend workshops on war-affected refugee students. He also recommended development for after-school programs for parents, students, and other community members. The principal suggested job openings for two UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 11 Arabic-speaking Sudanese educational assistants and a partnership with the Needs Center for Refugee and International Center for New Immigrants. Another principal described the interaction between school and home communities of his students as crucial because these skills build parents' confidence, strengthen family and community capacity, and directly support the school's effort to bridge refugee students' educational gaps (Kanu, 2008). According to Kanu (2008), during interviews, principals also clarified that these initiatives were only possible by applying a "strenuous resource re-allocations" rather than new funding provided by government (p. 928). Principals felt that the key decision makers and policy makers must be "made aware" of the challenges involved in refugee educational process so that more funding can be provided in order to support programs for academic success of these students (Kanu, 2008, p. 927). Evidently, untreated psychological stress, as well as academic and economic challenges affected the ability of the African refugee students to adapt and acculturate into their host country. When these challenges are combined by real attitudes of prejudice and racism from fellow-students, teachers, and administrators, the refugee students' confidence and self-esteem are severely challenged and the stage is set for feelings of rejection, inadequacy, and dropping out even when dropping out is not planned (Kanu, 2008). Roxas (2008) gives an overview of root causes that are closely related to the academic failure of students from Somalia and their slow integration into U.S. public schools. This study focuses on bringing greater attention to the specific needs of refugee students for teachers and administrators, who are in close contact with refugee teen-age UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 12 students in their schools, and for educational policymakers. According to Roxas (2008), "Families struggle to know where to even start to help their children or who to ask for help in school or in the local community" (p.7). He argues that the previous experience of Somali Bantu parents with formal schooling matters and calls for greater attention to the needs of recently arrived refugee students from teachers, administrators, and educational policymakers (Roxas, 2008). Theories of Social Reproduction This part of the literature review analyzes Pierre Bourdieu's, James Coleman's and Robert Putnam's theories of cultural and social reproduction. Social reproduction theory argues that schools are not institutions of equal opportunity but mechanisms for preserving social inequalities. For Bourdieu (1986), culture of dominant groups forms the knowledge and skills that are most highly valued, and the basis of what is taught in schools. Thus, those students coming from different cultures are marginalized since their values and ideologies go unrecognized and unrewarded. Refugee students and their parents in general may need more time to learn English and the local culture, and current educational institutions might not accommodate these needs which in return create a communication barrier between refugee students, their parents and schools. According to Coleman (1988), social capital, just as physical and human capital, facilitates productive activity. He argues that a group within which there is extensive trust and trustworthiness is able to accomplish much more than a group without. Robert Putnam (2000), one of the pioneers of the idea of social capital, defines social capital as "connection among individuals - social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them" (p. 19). In his work Bowling Alone, Putnam (2000) examines the United UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 13 States and the evidence that schools, neighborhoods, economy, democracy, and happiness depend on adequate stocks of social capital. Putnam's main argument is that a well-connected individual in a poorly-connected society is not as productive as a well-connected individual in a well-connected society. Even though the differences in standpoints on what social capital consists of exist among Bourdieu, Putnam, and Coleman, they all point to the importance of social networks that lead to beneficial outcomes. According to Bourdieu (1986), the individual's amount of social capital depends on how big of a network a particular individual is able to mobilize and on the amount of capital (economic or cultural) each member of the network possesses. The main point of his theory is the role social capital plays in the process of preserving and reproducing class structures within society (Bourdieu, 1986). Bourdieu (1986) claims that the educational system is silently approving social inequalities by playing a "key role" in continuing the status quo position. Even though Bourdieu can receive some critiques for not being clear enough about social class effects, Swartz (2003) admits that in general, it is possession of cultural capital that lead to success and in general cultural capital has some impact on educational achievement . In his article, Sullivan (2002) also examines Bourdieu's theory of education. According to Bourdieu (1986), the cultural capital is closely linked to understanding of how dominant culture works in a society and ability to use ‘educated' language. He argues that the ‘possession of capital' depends on which social class individual student belongs to. If a student belongs to the lower social class it is a high possibility that he/she will not be able to understand the main message that his/her teacher is trying to send in the classroom (Sullivan, 2002). UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 14 Roxas (2008) and Kanu (2008) reported similar findings that the previous experience of refugee families with formal schooling matters. Bourdieu (1986) and Coleman (1988) argue, that the academic success for this student group is highly contingent on their parent's and other caregiver's previous experience with formal schoolings, knowledge of what is valued in U.S. public schools, and ability to build networks with others in the community who can help with access to educational resources and academic report. According to Bourdieu's theory of cultural capital, those who are poor or racially downgraded, such as African refugee youth, do not have the ability to succeed in public schools since the school system promotes values that lead to success using the ‘educated' language that this particular group does not understand. School Culture Gitlin, A., Buendia, E., Crosland, K., & Doumbia, F. (2003) investigated parents' motivation and interests and applied critical theory in their findings. According to their findings, refugee students' parents often were "motivated by family cohesion, a 'good parent' discourse, safety concerns, and the wish for economic and academic opportunities" (p.110) but were not able to make productive relationships with the school administrators or parents of white student populations. According to the critical theorist, Michael Apple and his label "official knowledge," schools pretend to be neutral institutions. Apple (1993) argues that this misconception of "neutrality" helps to disempower students who need help and support the most. If the school administrators and teachers support the ‘white only' culture in the school setting, there is a small chance that parents of the minority group students will feel welcome to participate in school UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 15 activities. In conclusion, the school culture encouraged by administrators, teachers, white students, and the white community, which promotes and maintains white privilege only, contributes in producing racial discrimination, thus opening doors for exclusion of minority groups and minimizing their opportunities of success. Roxas and Roy (2011) use culturally responsive theories to provide a justification for their examination of refugees' experiences prior to arrival and their experience as freshmen and sophomore high school students in America. The authors make recommendations for improving classroom instructions by involving members of the ethnic community who can help teachers understand the history of the cultural influences of the refugee group. They believe that this implementation would be a very useful strategy that will ease the transition process to the U.S. cultural settings for refugee students and their parents. They also worry about the possibility of social cost that communities will need to attend to in the future if the academic needs of refugee children are not addressed, implemented, and met in the present. Some of these future costs would be the possibility of refugee students struggling to find a job that will sufficiently support themselves and their families (Roxas & Roy, 2011). Importance of Social Capital The valuable sources of cultural capital for the African teen population are their families, especially the parents. Children see their mothers as a strong role model and the parental expectations are that their children will pursue and complete their education and one day obtain a good job (Bigelow, 2007). The best use of social capital is demonstrated when an immigrant group feels welcomed by the host community and its own co-ethnic community (Bigelow, 2007). The study shows that African mothers have strong opinions UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 16 about schooling and have their own way of interacting with their children and their respective schools (Bigelow, 2007). Using their own social network, such as interpreters from their own cultural group, parents were able to make connections with the schools and request after school programs and homework help for their children. According to Bigelow (2007), "the child does not necessary require a parent to sit with them to complete homework assignments as is often assumed" (p.15). Peers and siblings can take on this role effectively. Language Barriers The ability to read is a crucial skill that African parents lack. According to Burt and Peyton (2003), most refugees from Somalia are preliterate in their native language. This refugee group often had no previous exposure to written text and it is very difficult for them to learn English by attending traditional ESL classes. Burt and Peyton (2003) argue that it might be very difficult to understand school culture and its expectations for those who have had no previous experience with schooling. According to Lukes (2011), the participating students "bear the heavy socialized shame at being illiterate" (p.30), which is the main reason they stop participating and attending classes with instructions held only in the English language. Programs that provide a combination of native language literacy and ESL instruction meet the needs of students who are illiterate in their native language, such as African refugee parents, and help them develop literacy skills in their native language that in turn leads them to improving their literacy skills in English. Most importantly, the negative self-perceptions diminish while participation and motivation improve noticeably. Lukes (2011) also advocates more research in determining what types of instruction will be more effective in these classroom settings UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 17 and how improving skills impact students' lives over the long term. These findings challenge commonly held assumptions that refugee parents are not involved in their children's education. Schools need to provide alternatives that promote and develop new programs specially designed for refugee parents who are lacking previous formal education. To be able to understand the role of family in the education process of the African refuge students, schools need to pay closer attention to the needs of refugee parents. Bilingual programs initiated by schools, that seek to promote the support of the cultural identity of refugee groups would create an inviting environment for the refugee parents. Teachers' positive attitude toward refugee parents and their efforts to involve parents in school's programs are critical to parents' participation. UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 18 Chapter 3: Methodology Context and Population Upon arrival to the United States, the African refugee youth has difficulties adjusting to public schools. As described earlier, the lives of the young refugees are filled with traumatic events, including reasons why they became refugees and were relocated to the United States. Gitlin et al. (2003) and Kamaya (1997) have identified a number of key barriers facing refugee children in terms of success and inclusion in education. Furthermore, researchers found that a lack of English language skills was a major barrier to effective engagement with parents in the education process (Kanu, 2008; Roxas & Roy 2011). Research over the past 30 years has shown that parents are critical contributors to student achievement (U.S. Department of Education, 1994). The purpose of this study is to explore, understand, and describe the parent-school relationship of African students in our public schools and better comprehend the home culture of refugee teens and the role of their families in their education process. The South Salt Lake Promise Center This study was conducted in collaboration with the Promise Center of South Salt Lake. The Promise Center is one of several in South Salt Lake that provides assistance to refugee parents. The main goal of the center is to integrate refugee families into their new life in United States. The Center's mission focuses around: youth, families, and community members to make education and a better quality of life accessible to everyone (United Way, 2014). Since the Promise Center works closely with refugee families from Africa, the Promise Center Coordinator chose four refugee families that have at least one child currently attending public high school. UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 19 Participants For the study, I interviewed three families from Somalia and one family from Sudan. All participants were single mothers whose husbands were pronounced missing during the recent civil wars in Somalia and Sudan. One Somali mother lives with four children and the two other Somali mothers have eight children each. The Sudanese mother has four children while her mother, the children's maternal grandmother, is part of the household as well. Each family has at least one high school age child currently attending the local high school. All Somali mothers arrived in Utah with their children in 2012. The Sudanese mother and her children lived in Utah a little less than five years. The participating mothers were between the ages of 30-45 years of age. Interviews All participants, mothers from Somalia and a mother from Sudan required an interpreter during the interview process. Since all participants in the study were unable to read in their native language, interpreters translated and interpreted the consent form (Appendix A) for every participant. The qualitative study gathered data about parent-school relationship using semi-structured interviews and field notes. Semi-structured interviews served as the primary source of data collection which proved an effective method of gathering the participants' perspectives (Marshall & Rossman, 2006). The goal was to better understand culture and family life of the refugee teens and the role of their families in their education. I conducted four semi-structured individual interviews and recorded them with participants' permission. Each interview lasted one hour. Semi-structured interviews proved to be very helpful in collecting the complexities of human behavior without UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 20 imposing bias that might limit the transfer of knowledge (Fontana & Fey, 2003). This interviewing style produced spontaneous descriptions and allowed interviewees to feel comfortable, safe, and in control (Kvale, 1996; Spradley, 1979). During the interview process, applying the semi-structured format, participants were allowed to share knowledge of their life experience by providing descriptions of their own and telling their narratives (Kvale, 1996; Spradley, 1979). The standardized open-ended interview format reduced the possibility of bias that usually comes from using different types of questions for each interviewee as well as opens the possibility of obtaining more complete data from one interviewee while obtaining poor information from another interviewee (Patton, 1999). This type of interview also makes data analysis easier because it is possible to locate and organize similar questions more effectively (Patton, 1990). Qualitative data from the open-ended questions provided information on barriers and strategies to improve involvement. The purpose of semi-structured interviews with the African parents was to examine the role and importance of formal education to the families and their communities, as well as, the obstacles that students and parents have had in the schools in their native country and in the United States. The interviews started with general questions to allow participants to identify what is important to them which gave me a broader understanding of the lived experience of the Somali and Sudanese parents. Interview Protocol is provided in Appendix B. All participants were assured in advance of the voluntary nature of their participation in this study. I made sure that participants understood that either consenting or declining to participate in this research study would not have any adverse effect on participants' relationship with the Promise Center, Westminster College, nor me. The UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 21 participants were informed in advance of the purpose of the study, the benefits and potential risks, and signed the consent form before being interviewed. All participants received a gift card after the interview as a thank you gesture. Observations Field notes were taken during and after the interviews to record observations of participants' behavior and environment. Some notes were scratch notes taken during the interview sessions. The field notes recorded during interviews contained highlights that can be remembered for later development. The field notes were used as a data source to record a description of the environment and interactions that took place during interviews (Marshall & Rossman, 2006). This information provided insight into the daily life and activities of the participants' families. They proved to be very helpful during the process of gathering data and selecting the final themes for the research (Marshall & Rossman, 2006). Data obtained through participants observation served as a check against participants' subjective reporting of what they believe and do. The observation notes were also useful for gaining understanding of the social and cultural contexts in which participants lived. Ethical Awareness There is a solid foundation for being aware of ethical issues. Since every interviewing process involves human beings, researchers must take extreme care to avoid any harm to them (Fontana & Fey, 2003). My primary responsibility during the project was not to cause any harm to the participating families and the organization I worked with. Since the participants were coming from a war zone, I paid close attention to not re-traumatizing participants by asking them questions closely related to events of war and UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 22 personal, emotional episodes that would invoke painful memories and produce emotional distress. Ensuring the confidentiality of participants is extremely important for the study. The Promise Center coordinator and interpreters were informed of the need of the participants to have anonymity so that their identity is protected. In order to protect participants' identity and their responses during interviews, all participants have been assigned pseudonyms. All participants' names and locations mentioned during interviews have been changed. Subjectivity During the interview process I was trying to establish rapport with participants in such a way that it would not undermine my neutrality concerning what the participants told me. Neutrality means that the person being interviewed can tell me anything without creating either my favor or disfavor with regard to the content of her response. Rapport means that the basic sense of trust during the interview has developed that allows for the free flow of information (Spradley, 1979). The problem that came up during the project was the communication issue. Since my participants did not speak English very well, I needed interpreters during my interviewing sessions. Ms. Brown from the Promise Center provided interpreters. The interpreters were experienced and professional since they had been providing interpreting services for the Promise Center on an as-needed basis. The female participants were comfortable with the male interpreters since they used the same interpreters when they needed interpreter's service for their own personal matters. Ms. Brown carefully chose interpreters that could be trusted with confidential information, so the female participants felt comfortable during the interviews. All interpreters were compensated an hourly wage for their time. UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 23 Analysis and Validity Creswill and Miller (2000) stated that the strength of the qualitative study depends on the accuracy of the results in view of the researcher, participant, and the readers. Validity and reliability are general terms used in quantitative research but are considered important enough in all studies. Validity and reliability in this study were achieved by certain measures employed by myself. There are several threats of validity that prove or raise issues about the accuracy of the results. Some of them might be internal threats and some might be external validity threats. Regarding internal threats I paid close attention to the way data was recorded and analyzed. Regarding external validity, there was a concern whether the results given by the study would be transferable to other refugee groups. To prevent this dilemma, a data triangulation method was implemented to control bias and to establish valid propositions. Creswill and Miller (2000) defined data triangulation as the formation of categories using a validity procedure for connecting multiple and different sources of information together. In this study, my personal observational notes and tape recorded interviews have been used. I did not offer personal opinions or ideas about the phenomenon during the interviews but was a listener and questioner and recorded the thoughts and statements of the person being interviewed. I personally transcribed each recorded interview. Since one interpreter was used for each language, I was not able to consult the participants on the interpretation of the data to insure their experience was expressed accurately and the research was credible (Creswill & Miller, 2000). ). It is possible that the data might be biased. The respect for the hospitality of the host country might prevent participants from being totally honest with me. The importance of being clear in the message, knowing the cultural background UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 24 of participants, and being able to develop a trusty and friendly relationship with participants may minimize this risk. A follow up meeting with Ms. Brown was set up to determine accuracy of transcribed interviews. Since Ms. Brown communicates frequently with the participants about their children's school participation she was a valuable source for helping me with data interpretation validity. Data collected from interviews and observations were compared as a first step in data finding analysis. Descriptive codes were carefully chosen and ascribed to each line of data. Categories were then formed and a code book was created based on the most frequently used phrases among the participants. To encourage accuracy and interpretation, charts to compare categories and codes between participants were created (Saldana, 2009). Themes were developed through the comparative analysis of the participants' responses to questions. To insure accuracy of the information coded, the themes used were not predetermined. This was done to prevent imposing my own conceptual framework which would affect accuracy of findings (Creswill & Miller, 2000). All aspects of the process were peer reviewed for validity of the study (Creswill & Miller, 2000). For consistency, the process was reviewed over time and throughout the study. Changes to the study were made according to the feedback that was provided. The final findings of this study were reviewed with Ms. Brown, the Promise Center Liaison Family Coordinator and my project supervisor, during our supervisory meetings. Since all participants needed interpreters during our interviews, feedback and validation from Ms. Brown was a very valuable clarification of the validity of my findings. Risk and Benefits of Participants UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 25 There were no foreseeable side effects or risks associated with this project, other than the possibility of the discomfort of sharing personal heritage, beliefs, and values during the interviews. Participants were instructed to let me know if they did not want to answer a particular question during the interview process and that their request would be respected. Ensuring the confidentiality of participants in this study was my priority. In order to protect the identity of the individual interviewees and their families and the information they provided, all the participants have been assigned pseudonyms. The identity of each participant was kept confidential and interpreters agreed to not share the information gained during the interview sessions. The participants understood that all information shared with the interpreter will be kept confidential. The interpreters were compensated for their time spent during the interviews. The participants of this study were individuals with unique experiences, cultural heritage, and religious expectations that were shown a high level of respect during the study. The language employed during this final paper was carefully selected and applied to respectfully represent opinions of the selected participants. The final paper does not present the participants as representatives of the entire Somali or Sudanese refugee population in Utah. Audio tapes of the interviews and transcripts will be kept in a safe place in my home for five years following the interviews' conclusion, after which the transcripts will be shredded and audio recording deleted and disposed of. This study provided opportunities for parents to suggest other alternatives that might improve the parent-teacher communication. How Results Will Be Used UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 26 After completing the field work, it became apparent the communication barriers were a key obstacle slowing down the full adjustment of African parents into their new environment. The lack of previous education and inability to read or write in their native language were both identified as major obstacles that prevented parents from interacting more with teachers and school officials. Upon completion of this study, it was verified that mothers clearly support their children's education and expect their children to pursue higher education upon completing the high school requirement. The result of this study can be used for a grant purpose. The Promise Center can apply for grants to develop an ESL program to specifically address the needs of parents, especially single mothers from Somalia, Sudan, and other countries, who do not have any previous basic education. This research study will serve as a reference tool that the Promise Center can use for its strategic planning in building partnerships among refugee communities and public schools. Westminster College will deposit and display an electronic copy of the above named project in its Institutional Repository for educational purpose. I hope the findings from this study will help all local community organizations and public school educators better understand the role of the family in the process of youth's adaptation to the American school system. UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 27 Chapter 4: Findings Results Qualitative information from the open-ended questions and field notes provided data about parent involvement at home, parent-teacher contact, and barriers and strategies to improve parent involvement. Regardless of differences in age, country of origin, size of households, and other characteristics, three themes emerged during the process of data analysis: Cultural Capital, Social Capital, and Communication Barrier. All participants expressed high gratitude about opportunities for building a new life in Utah. However, a communication barrier was identified as a key obstacle that is slowing down their full adaptation into the new environment and their communication with schools. The interviews revealed that all interviewees, single mothers whose husbands were pronounced missing during the civil wars in Somalia and Sudan, have strong opinions about education and demonstrated their own ways of interacting with schools and teachers. All mothers demonstrated a high interest in their children's schooling, setting up high expectations for their children such as successful completion of high school and college education. Their strong opinions about schooling clearly represent a valuable source of cultural capital that is transformed into social capital through the educational achievements of their children. Support from the local community agencies and the local schools is identified as a valuable asset of social capital for this refugee group. Lack of previous formal education, illiteracy in their native language, and English insufficiency were identified as the main causes of parents' slow integration into a new environment and an obstacle in parent-teacher communication. Theme 1: Cultural Capital UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 28 According to Bourdieu (1986), cultural capital consists of familiarity with the dominant culture in a society and especially the ability to understand and use ‘educated language.' According to Guo (2006), for parents, cultural capital in education exists in the following forms: the ability to help children with homework and familiarity and active engagement with educational practices in schools such as school volunteering, parent-teacher conferences, and after school activities. Parent participants in this study indicated during interviews that the school system provided in Utah public schools works well for them. They did not have any complaints or recommendations regarding the improvement of their children's school. From their point of view, they receive enough information during parent-teacher conferences and do not need any more interaction with schools. When asked if she would like to be more involved in some activities in school, Jamila responded, "The parent teacher conferences are enough. I would not like to be more involved. It's not necessary. The school calls if my child is not in school. That is enough." Jamila's response can be interpreted in two ways. Somebody with a little or no knowledge about Sudanese culture might describe Jamila as a parent who does not value education enough and does not set high expectations for her children. On the other hand, someone who is familiar with Sudanese culture would conclude that Jamila's response clearly demonstrate cultural differences related to the school system. Not knowing the school system means not knowing the school's and teachers' expectations. According to Lopez (2001), parents who are not familiar with educational practices such as volunteering in school, fundraisers, and "back to school" nights are often identified by school officials and teachers as parents who are lacking concern about their children's UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 29 education. If parents are not convinced that more school involvement would benefit their children's educational growth they will continue to apply the norms and the cultural capital brought from their home countries believing that their interaction with schools and administrators is the proper one. The absence of cultural capital such as a language barrier and inexperience with the school system, were part of Sahra's response, I just attend parent-teachers conferences. I don't have time to go to school because I go to school myself. I am taking English classes in the morning. I have eight children and I have to take care of them, I have to cook, wash, and clean. I don't have time to go to school and check more often on my children because of time. The mothers' responses highlight the obstacles refugee parents have related to their engagement in their children's schooling. Ngo (2008) argues that not knowing how schools work in the United States can be translated to not knowing what the right thing is and how and when to intervene with the school officials. However, the participants from this study indicated that they care about their children's education. Mothers in this study clearly showed interest in their children's education and communicated their expectations that children do well in school. According to the Promise Center Coordinator, Ms. Smith, this community of African single mothers, supports one another, and collectively sets standards for their children, creating a positive ‘peer pressure' between teens. They gather together with their kids in front of the apartment complex and share their children's school accomplishments. They praise kids who do well at school and critique ones who do not, creating competition between youth. According to Bigelow (2007), Somalis gain strength from group UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 30 membership and group activity. Mothers set clear expectations for behavior. They strongly believe that only good education leads to success. Even though Somali culture is male-centered (www.cdc.gov), mothers were able to gain control in their households due to the great respect their children have for them. The participating mothers survived and sacrificed much to guarantee their children safety and an opportunity to live a better life in the United States.The family is deeply valued in Somali culture, as are family honor and loyalty (www.cdc.gov). The cultural difference issue has been identified during the interviews with mothers when the parent's involvement in their children education was discussed. Fazilah describes a different schooling system as follows: There was no high school in Africa. In the camp, there was no high school education. At home, schools teach only up to sixth grade. Education offered in Africa and in the camps is the same, up to the sixth grade….The school isn't the same; different rules. In Africa I will go every time when teacher calls and check on my child. I would never go to school if teacher doesn't call. Fazilah' response might be interpreted as parent inexperience with the school system and schools' expectations. Many refugee parents are unaware that in United States, schools expect parents to visit child's school more often during various events and meetings. The school culture in Sudan is described by Jamila in the following narrative: In Africa, we don't have parent-teacher conferences. Teachers just call the parents to let them know how students are doing in school. If a student is not passing the class, teacher calls parent to come to school to discuss the problem. Also if a student is causing any discipline problem in the school, teacher invites the parent UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 31 to come to school. It was hard at the beginning for me to go to the parent-teacher conferences because of the language. Everything was different here. The life was very different in Sudan. In many cultures, not checking in with the school indicates that everything is fine. Parents go to school only if there is a problem related to their child's behavior (Ariza, 2000). Halima's view of school and education is: Where I lived it's good to know the teacher of your kid and it's good to discuss the progress of your kid. But to say that teacher is responsible for the learning progress of my child is not true. The grades depend on how hard my daughter is studying. If my daughter didn't pass a class that means that she didn't study enough to get good grades. It is not a teacher's fault. If they study hard they will complete high school. I think my daughter, 11th grader, she might graduate. But graduation depends on how hard she studies. I will be very happy to see all my children attending college and finishing it. That will depend on how hard they will study. Since this kind of parental approach contradicts the parent involvement norm in the United States, Halima's view of education can be interpreted as ‘careless' and sends the wrong message to school officials in regards to her school involvement. Not knowing that parent engagement is not a norm in Somalia and Sudan, school officials might frame African refugee parents as unconcerned due to their minimal participation in school activities. Holding children responsible for their learning is Halima's way of parental involvement in her children's education. By highly endorsing education and providing a safe and protective environment for her children, Halima creates a family culture where UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 32 all family members feel responsible for their future success. When asked about her opinion about allowing her children to go to college after high school completion her response was, "That would be my dream. I would love to see that all my children attend college. I don't want them to be like me. I want them to have a good job." Halima's narrative clearly shows how much she values and embraces educational achievements. This phenomenon challenges commonly held assumptions that refugee parents are not involved in their children's education and do not value education enough (Lopez, 2001). The parents' narratives demonstrate the cultural differences related to the home-school relationship. The parent involvement norm in North America means active parent communication with schools. Parents are expected to volunteer at school functions, help their children with homework, and initiate parent teacher meetings if they have any concerns related to their children's school progress (Delgado-Gaitan, 1990). In Somalia, parents were not often involved in their children's schooling. Parents highly valued their children's education but did not work closely with schools. It is often described as a bad thing for parents to visit a school since that almost always meant that their child was in trouble for something (Guerin, Guerin, Abdi, & Diiriye, 2003). Most refugee and immigrant parents believe that they are responsible for educating their children at home not at school (Guo, 2006). These findings demonstrate parents' unfamiliarity with American culture and inability to understand and use ‘educated' language (Bourdieu, 1977) adopted by the schools' system in America. The lack of cultural capital makes it very difficult for African parents to understand the parents' active role in their children education. American society assumes that the parent involvement is closely related to the parents' UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 33 direct interaction with the school officials and teachers. African mothers assume that setting up the high expectations, tracking the school progress report by attending the parent-teacher conferences is enough involvement in their children's school performance. Theme 2: Social Capital Robert Putnam (2000,) one of the pioneers of the idea of social capital, defines social capital as "connection among individuals - social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them" (p. 19). Social capital is optimized when a refugee group receives support from their local community. In this case study, according to the mothers' and Ms. Smith's responses, the children from all participants are doing well in school with the help of community organizations, and mothers are confident that they will successfully complete their high school education. All participants in the study expressed a great gratitude toward local organizations such as Catholic Community Services (CCS) and the Promise Center and their efforts to ease the hardship of the transition and integration process. Local community agencies played the most important role in the families' community and school integration process. Without their involvement, the integration process would be much harder for the African refugee families due to the significant differences in the living style prior to their arrival to the United States. These families needed a basic day to day training to learn how to get around the city, how to buy groceries, how to seek medical help, and how to enroll their children in school. Halima, like the other mothers expressed her gratitude through the following statement: When we came here we got a lot of help from the community centers. It was hard at the beginning. We didn't have transportation. We didn't know how to go to buy UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 34 a food, how to use the fast trains or busses. In Africa we didn't have traffic lights. We got support from the CCS and from the Promise Center. CCS has interpreters that speak Arabic. They helped us a lot. They taught us how to cross the street and how to ride a bus and a fast train. I was grateful because I received help from CCS and they helped me to enroll my children in school. Fazilla was very grateful for the baby sitter services she receives from the Center. Volunteers come and stay with her children so she can go to school to learn English. By helping refugee families feel less foreign and isolated, giving them information about how to solve problems and access services in new environment, CCS is building social capital among refugee families (UNHCR, 2010). The Promise Center plays a very important role in the participant's children's school success. Upon completion of my interviews with the parents, I conducted an interview with the Promise Center Refugee Coordinator, Ms. Smith, to discuss my findings and validate the parents' responses related to their children's school performance. From Ms. Smith, I learned about the after school programs and the center's close relationship with the local high school counselors. The Promise Center has developed a very effective attendance and performance tracking system. The Center is notified by the school attendance tracker of any absences that occur for any refugee student from their neighborhood. The Center is also notified about low learning performance or any issues related to the improper school behavior of any neighborhood refugee child. Ms. Smith: The Center developed a very good relationship with the local high school especially with the school counselors. If a student missed the class, or is not UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 35 performing well academically, we receive a phone call from the school's counselors or the school tracker. Upon receiving a warning from the school we develop a plan of action. The first step is to notify a parent about the incident or low school performance. The second step is to work with the child in our after school program in the areas that need improvement. We make sure that child completes all homework assignments and receives one-on-one help in the course that he/she has difficulty with. Ms. Smith also underlined the importance of good Center-parent relationship. She has personally developed a relationship with the mothers that were based on trust, respect, and mutual cultural tolerance. The mothers are very collaborative in regards to dealing with their children's school performance. They appreciate the effort of the Promise Center in tracking down their children's school performance. They closely follow instructions given by the Center that their children must maintain regular attendance in order to succeed in school. They also understand and appreciate the Center's efforts to help their children with homework through their after-school programs for all students in the neighborhood. Halima showed her gratitude during our interview stating: I'm very grateful we have a Promise Center in our neighborhood. The Promise Center offers the after school programs for our kids. It helps children with the homework. Also they help with translation. If I need to call the school the Promise Center finds an interpreter to help me talk to the teachers. Students who need help with the homework and do not participate in their school's after-school program come to the Promise Center and work with UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 36 volunteers and staff on their homework assignments. In its afterschool programs, the Center provides tutors for youth in 7th through-12th grades. Tutors provide daily academic assistance (language arts, math, science, social studies and history). The Center offers tutoring programs Monday through Friday. The tutoring time varies from 2 to 3 until 5:30-8:30 p.m. (South Salt Lake City, 2014). Zahra also praised the Center's effort to assure that all parents attend the parent-teacher conferences: "I go to the parent-teacher conferences with all Somali parents from this neighborhood. The Promise Center organizes the bus transportation and provides interpreters so we can communicate with teachers and ask how our children are doing in school." By helping parents with transportation and interpreters, the Promise Center did not only help parents to attend parent-teacher conferences; it helped refugee parents feel as a valuable part of the local community which is an example of creation of social capital in the new host community. Working closely with Ms. Smith on my project, I was able to observe the relationships between the refugee mothers and the Center which was very unique and full of mutual trust and respect. One day, during our supervisory meeting, I asked Ms. Smith how the Center was able to develop this unique relationship with the refugee mothers. She said that the most important step in the community building is giving the community members their cultural space. I don't knock on their door only to deliver bad news about their children's grades, attendance, or behaviors. I visit them, to check on them, to say hi, and see if they need anything. They accepted me as a part of their family, and they welcome me UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 37 in their homes on any occasion, bad or good. We work together and solve problems together. Ms. Smith visits these mothers and spends time with them, including having lunch and engaging in pleasant, relaxing conversations with them. This Center-family relation is an example of developing a social capital that may have additional benefits for refugees in helping them feel less foreign and isolated and giving them information about how to solve problems and access services in a new environment (UNHCR,2010). Parents also praised the school's effort in helping them communicate with teachers. Halima was grateful for interpreter services, "The school has some Somalis that work in the office and they can interpret for me when I come to school alone." Fatima spoke about accommodations during parent-teacher conferences: When I go to the parent-teacher conference, the school provides an interpreter so I can communicate with the teacher and ask how my child is doing. If my child needs help, I can request an after-school program that helps him with the homework. My children's school has a lot of after-school programs. It helps the children to do better in school. The social capital for this particular refugee group population is the most valuable asset. Without community and family support, these high school students would not be able to succeed in the classroom nor complete their high school education. Families, local community agencies, and the school work together in this South City neighborhood and the outcomes are very encouraging. Theme 3: Communication Barrier UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 38 Parents in this study identified their lack of English skills and their inability to write and read in their native language as the biggest obstacles in their parent-teacher communication and involvement with their children's schooling. All participants expressed similar concerns that support this argument. Halima talked about the importance of learning English, "I just need to learn English first. My English needs to improve to be more involved." Fatima echoes this by stating "The reason parents don't participate in schools is the language." For Jamila, "It is the language. I go to school but still can't talk to teachers. I can't call or go alone to school. I always need somebody to interpret for me." Halima, Fatima and Zahra are more fortunate when they go to school since the school provides interpreters for them. The school Jamila's children attend does not have Sudanese interpreters available for parents. When asked about Sudanese interpreter services availability in her child's school, Jamila responded, "No, nobody speaks Sudanese at school. If I have to call the school I need to find somebody to call for me or ask my son for help." I asked her to describe to me how she communicates with teachers. Her response was: I usually use my son as an interpreter when communicate with teachers. My son speaks English. Just for example, if Khalid is sick and I take him to the doctor I will get a letter from the doctor's office and send it with Khalid to his teacher. If my child misses school, I will receive a phone call from the school. The school leaves a message on my phone. The message is on English so I ask my son or daughter to translate for me. When my son or daughter goes back to school, they ask the teacher about the homework they missed. Then teachers tell them what they need to do. UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 39 Taking into consideration that Jamila's children attend the same school as Somali participants' children can raise a red flag about the school officials who don't provide equal services for all refugee parents in regard to translation and interpretation. I also asked Jamila about written communication from school; is it translated into the Sudanese language? She responded, "No, it's in English. My son reads it and translates for me." Jamila's narratives show obstacles that she needs to overcome in order to track her children's progress in schools. These obstacles can be interpreted as school's lack of commitment to the refugee parents from Sudan by using English in most formal school-parent communication. Using a child to translate for the parent can be classified as another inappropriate method that the school uses. This way of parent-teacher communication might create miscommunication between the teacher and the parent. To create meaningful academic relationship between refugee parents and schools, availability of bilingual services is very important. These services not only help with parental communication but create feelings of inclusion, cultural identity, and support (Ariza, 2000). When I asked what is stopping African parents from being more active in the school's volunteering programs designed for parents or helping their children with homework assignments, I received different responses. Halima responded, "The language barrier is the most difficult part. I can't ask any questions." Zahra's response was," I don't know how I can help. I can't help my son with the homework. I don't understand. I am still learning English. I also work late and don't have time to go to school more often." UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 40 Parents expressed a desire to help their children with the homework but their inability to read and write is stopping them. When asked if there is anything that the school can do to enhance their participation in school's activities, parents didn't have any suggestions. They were under the impression that they are incompetent to work with the school and the teachers because of their English skills. Halima's explanation was: I'm almost 42 years old and I can't write or read in my own language. Even if I go to my child's classroom, I can't participate. I don't know how I can help my child or the teacher in the classroom when I can't read or write in any language. I am learning English but it is still slow. Zahra's response was, "No, I don't have any suggestions. I don't have any problems with schools; I am happy with schools and with teachers. I myself go to school every morning to learn English. My English needs to improve to be more involved." Parents would like to be more involved in their children's schooling, but there is more than one reason that is stopping them. The most important one is the illiteracy issue. None of the participating mothers received any basic education in their countries. Zahra talks about her concerns regarding her inability to help her son: I worry a lot. I don't know how to read and write. I can't help him with the homework and I wish that he will be able to graduate. The school is hard. He needs help. He is in the ninth grade and he stays in the after-school program to complete his homework. I want to help, but I can't help him. To understand parents' obstacles, teachers need to educate themselves about the life experiences, cultures, and educational values of the students they teach. Communication between the home and the school is vital to increasing and sustaining the parent-school UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 41 relationship. It is also important that this communication be in the native language of the parents and in a way that is clear and understandable. During my interviews with participants I posed the question of the possibility to attend English adult classes in the local high school where their children attend. I asked if it would be more convenient for them to go to the same school and would it improve their communication with their children's teachers. The main idea was to see if attending the same school would make the parents more comfortable to go and interact with the teachers. All parents liked the idea of attending the same school as their children. They all agreed that they would attend English classes offered by the local high school but also expressed their concerns regarding their inability to attend classes all the time. They have obligations at home, to cook, clean, and take care of the younger children who don't go to school yet. Parent involvement of refugee children is often characterized as insufficient, assuming that the families of refugee youth do not value education and sometimes they might be barriers to their children education rather than an asset. There is not enough emphasis on parents' educational background. According to Guo (2006), "Instead of assuming that ESL parents do not care, educators need to understand the barriers that prevent some parents from participating in their children's education" (p.84). Educators should try to learn more about the families of their refugee children and make efforts to improve relationships UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 42 Chapter 5: Discussion and Recommendation Discussion Schools need to be more informed of the students' background and culture. According to the mothers' narratives, this refugee group, for example, culturally, does not believe that more parent school involvement is necessary for a child to succeed in school. There was also agreement that the parent-teacher conferences are enough school involvement and that children have to be responsible for their learning. To be able to communicate effectively with the parents, we have to put some effort in determining the right way of educating parents about school culture in the United States. Parents who never attended school are not able to understand the importance of the parent teacher relationships. Written translated instructions sent by teachers to the parents to inform them about school rules and parent's rights, do not work with this particular group since the parents cannot read in Somali or Sudanese and they depend on somebody (usually on their children) to read it for them. Schools should consider developing work-shops for the parents that involve interpreters and guest speakers who speaks parents' native language. These guest speakers could become inspirational speakers by telling their success stories to parents about how effective parent involvement benefits their children education. Providing different types of English as a second language classroom instruction for the adult illiterate refugee population would be another approach in building a bridge between parents and school officials. Developing a curriculum especially designed for this group of learners will speed up their English progress and provide this group with the ability to become literate in their native language and in English, which will improve their self-esteem. UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 43 Cummins (1986) argues that language minority students and their families' home languages and cultures must be viewed as resources rather than as problems. According to Cummins (1986), schools should incorporate the languages and cultures of minority students in their programs and encourage community participation in the school. The school should have a collaborative relationship with the communities of its students. It should develop programs that allow the community to participate in developing the school curriculum and policies that encourage the inclusion of different sources of knowledge and traditions (Cummins, 1986). Schools must be aware of teachers' and minority refugee parents' differing views of education. Another strategy in improving parent-teacher relationship of the African refugee parents is to acknowledge the unique ways that these parents are involved in their children's education. Even though they can't help them directly with homework, they learned how to request extra homework help from the school or from the Promise Center. Educators need to recognize students' first languages as an important component of their identity and work on modifying the school curriculum that accommodates students from different cultural backgrounds. As Shelly D. Wong (1996), states, "We [teachers] can best advocate for language minority students by collectively working on institutional policies and practices" (p. 585). Creating bilingual parent councils or cultural events will encourage refugee families to share their ideas with the school officials and make them feel part of their children's education process. Limitations The size and the length of the study are some of the research project limitations. The time allotted was insufficient for conducting thorough interviews and observing the UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 44 parents' engagement with their children. The length of the study also didn't allow for a deeper analysis of family structures within Somali and Sudanese culture after resettlement. Doing the study in a variety of places, with more participants and at different times would allow study to become more generalized. More participants will produce more generalized findings that could be applied on larger population. Future research should spend more time understanding the history, religion, and family structure of these refugee groups. Currently, parental involvement in education receives some attention from resettlement organizations and from schools. The initial refugee orientation sessions can serve as an example where refugee parents are informed about schools and encouraged to participate in their children's education. Schools with large numbers of refugee students are developing bilingual programs for these students and providing interpreters for parents who don't speak English. Even though these examples represent valuable efforts, the concern is that parental involvement in education is still not being addressed sufficiently by schools, resettlement agencies, and the community. Learning Objectives My capstone project gave me an opportunity to improve my collaborative and communicative skills. Working closely with the African refugee population, local community organizations, and their leaders, I enhanced my knowledge about Somali and Sudanese culture and how their cultural values and norms affected their integration into new communities. This study gave me an opportunity to explore, understand, and describe the parent-school relationships of African youth students in American public schools and UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 45 better understand the home culture of the refugee teens and the role of their families in their education process. I also learned about the importance of community networks and team work. Without my classmates, professors, and community leaders and their honest feedback, I would not be able to effectively research root causes related to the parent-school relationship of African refugee families and identify community assets in order to develop plans of action that address those root causes. Interviews, observations, and literature reviews helped me developed skills in research analysis and writing. This study helped me to expand my knowledge about effective and creative community organizing and to strengthen my skills in project management. I am confident that my learning objectives were met by completing this capstone project. Conclusion As we can see, social capital built on positive relationships between local community organizations and schools produces positive outcomes for the community as a whole. Without community support, refugee groups who come from a very different cultural background will not be able to show positive signs of integration into the new environment. We cannot state that all resettlement needs have been met in this integration process, but at least children with the interrupted and insufficient prior schooling in this case study received enough community support to help them overcome many obstacles in their education process and empower them to successfully meet the graduation requirements of high school. In order to improve parent-teacher relationships, the schools need to provide alternatives that promote and develop new programs specially designed for refugee parents who are lacking previous formal education. Learning more UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 46 about refugee students' home and community assets, teachers will be able to make the home -school connections more productive. By using this approach, schools can become a foundation for development of both social and cultural capital of their students and community as a whole. 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UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 51 Appendix A Form B: Consent Form for Adults Westminster College Institutional Review Board (IRB) For the Protection of Human Subject You have been invited to participate in a research study, the purpose of which is to examine parent involvement of African high school students. The main goal of the project is to better understand refugee students' families, their relationships, and role of the parents in the students' education process. You will be asked questions regarding your personal experience with your children's schooling and about the ways you have learned to deal with the challenges of communicating with your children's teachers and school officials. The study procedure(s) have been identified as: gathering personal experience about parent involvement and parent-teacher communication through interviews. The duration of the study is expected to be 6 weeks. You will be notified of any significant variance from the stated duration of the study. Benefits that may occur from participation in this study have been identified as: 1) This study will provide opportunities for parents to suggest some new alternatives that might improve parent-school communication. 2) Parents will be able to suggest how they would like to be involved in their children's education. The findings and recommendations from this study will be available to the Promise South Salt Lake (SSL) nonprofit organization. The study will help the Promise SSL agency better understand the challenges that African youth is facing in our public schools. This research project will serve as a reference tool that Promise SSL can use for its strategic planning in building partnerships among refugee communities and public schools. There are no foreseeable side effects or risks associated with this project, other than the possibility of discomfort sharing personal heritage, beliefs, and values during the interviews or discomfort working with volunteers. However, some side effects and risks may be unforeseeable. This study is entirely voluntary, and you may withdraw from the study any time you wish without any penalty. If you have any questions about this study or wish to withdraw, please contact: UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 52 Jamie Joanou 801-832-2485 Principal Investigator Phone: If you have any questions regarding your rights as a research participant, please contact: Robert Shaw 801-832-2474 Chair of IRB Phone: All personally identifiable study data will be kept confidential. However, the results of this study may be made available to you upon request or used in formal publications or presentations. If you feel that you have received a satisfactory explanation as to the risks and benefits of this study as well as your rights as a research participant and you would like to participate, please sign and date below. You will be given a copy of this form for your records. Signature of Subject Date Signature of Investigator Date UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 53 Appendix B Interview Protocol In order to improve and make suggestions about improvement strategies, I would like to ask you about your experience and personal opinions related to the parent-teacher relations in your child's school. Before we begin, do you have any questions for me? The following questions will be used for refugee participants: 1. Describe how you communicate with your child's teacher about school? 2. Did you attend any parent-teacher meetings? Who helped you with translation? Describe translation methods at parent-teacher meetings. Are you aware of translation services? 3. Do you feel there are communication barriers between you and teachers? (If yes, have them describe.) 4. What programs or activities would help you and your family to be more involved in the parent engagement in your child's (children's) schooling? 5. What is your personal opinion about parent involvement in your child's education? Do you see any benefits of being involved in your child's education? (If yes, what are those benefits?) 6. What would be your preferences about the parent-teacher relationship? Would you like to be more or less involved in your child's education? 7. Do you believe that your child will be able to successfully complete high school education? What about further education? Will you encourage your child to go to college? 8. Is there anything else that you would like to add about your personal experience related to your child's education? 9. Do you have any questions for me before we close this interview? I would like to thank you for your participation in this interview. UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT OF AFRICAN REFUGEE PARENTS 54 Appendix C IRB Approval