| Description |
Counterfactual thinking (CFT) is the mental process of imagining alternative outcomes to past events by considering how things might have turned out differently. These imagined alternatives can vary in direction: upward CFT (uCFT) involves thinking about better outcomes, while downward CFT (dCFT) involves imagining worse ones. uCFT often evoke regret or motivation to improve, whereas dCFT tend to elicit relief or serve to justify past actions. CFT may become distorted or dysregulated during periods of heightened negative affect. Increased CFT has been linked to greater symptom severity in mood-related mental health conditions. Since CFT relies on reflecting on past experiences, most research has focused on its connection to negative events. However, individuals may differ in their general tendency to engage in CFT, regardless of context. This study examined how dispositional CFT directionality relates to psychological distress, rumination, and affect. A sample of 314 participants completed self-report measures assessing CFT frequency and directionality, depression, anxiety, stress, rumination subtypes, and positive and negative affect. Correlational analyses showed that both uCFT and dCFT were significantly associated with psychological distress and negative affect, with uCFT showing stronger correlations. Rumination, especially brooding and depressive thinking, had the most robust associations with both CFT directions. Regression analyses identified brooding as the strongest predictor of uCFT, while dCFT was best predicted by uCFT and anxiety. When rumination was statistically controlled, distress measures no longer significantly predicted CFT. These findings highlight cognitive style, particularly rumination, as a key factor in counterfactual thinking. |
