Economic man in cross-cultural perspective: behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies

Since "Selfishness examined . . ." (Caporael et al. 1989) appeared in these pages, more than 15 years ago, many additional experiments have strongly confirmed the doubts expressed by Caporael and her collaborators concerning the adequacy of self-interest as a behavioral foundation for the social sciences. Experimental economists and others have uncovered large, consistent deviations from textbook predictions of Homo economicus (Camerer 2003; Fehr et al. 2002; Hoffman et al. 1998; Roth 1995). Hundreds of experiments in dozens of countries, using a variety of game structures and experimental protocols, have suggested that in addition to their own material payoffs, students care about fairness and reciprocity and will sacrifice those who act prosocially and punishing those who do not. Initial skepticism about such experimental evidence has waned as subsequent studies involving high stakes and ample opportunity for learning have repeatedly failed to modify these fundamental conclusions.