RANGE: Undergraduate Research Journal (2025)

RANGE: Undergraduate Research Journal (2025) RANGE: Undergraduate Research Journal (2025) Volume 26, Issue 1 Office of Undergraduate Research University of Utah Salt Lake City RANGE: Undergraduate Research Journal (2025) Copyright © 2025 by University of Utah is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Contents Hope Through Research - An Introduction to Range: Undergraduate Research Journal 1 Annie Isabel Fukushima, Editor in Chief 1. Environmental Rating Disagreement and Corporate Greenwashing Indicator: Evidence From S&P 500 Stocks 7 My Bui 2. Research Reflection by My Bui My Bui 3. Universal Savings Accounts: Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Proposed TaxAdvantaged Savings Vehicle 64 66 Gabriel Pinna 4. Feeling Safety Through Friendship and Memory: Crossing (In)Between Safe and Non-Safe Spaces Within (Living) Colonial Systems 89 Brittney Mellin 5. Research Reflection by Brittney Mellin Brittney Mellin 151 6. US and British Imperialist Destabilization in Guatemala and Jamaica Through the Banana Trade 153 Gabriela Merida 7. Research Reflection by Gabriela Merida Gabriela Merida 8. Empowering People With Menses Talea Steele 9. Research Reflection by Talea Steele Talea Steele 10. Queer and LDS: Oral Histories of Organizations Supporting This Intersectional Existence 219 222 230 232 Amelia Strunk 11. Tilt Boards and Snow Fracture Mechanics 269 Dominic Alei-Gonzalez and Jack Eskeland 12. Optimization of Smart Hydrogel Structures for Improved Glucose Response 304 Bryson Anderson and Lars Laurentius 13. Smoke Signals: Exceptional Event Reporting for Fire Detection Tobias Armstrong 350 14. Automating Three-Dimensional Analysis of Talus Morphology in Tibiotalar Osteoarthritis 356 Annika Bachman 15. Construction of a Steady State, SemiEmpirical Tire Model to be Used in the Development of an FSAE Vehicle 379 Alex Cantrell 16. Developing Teaching Tools for Formaldehyde Electrochemical Sensors 439 Andrew Coda 17. Graph-Based Optimization for Robotic Inspection Planning 443 Daniel Coimbra Salomao; Blair D. Sullivan; Matthias Bentert; Alex Crane; Pål Grønås Drange; Alan Kuntz; and Yosuke Mizutani 18. Research Reflection by Daniel Coimbra Salomao 450 Daniel Coimbra Salomao 19. Quantification and Characterization of Microplastics in Biosolids and Soils Across the Wasatch Front 452 Aspen Dalby and Jennifer Weidhaas 20. Research Reflection by Aspen Dalby Aspen Dalby 511 21. Identifying Drugs to Target Dysregulated Lipid Metabolism in Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Zebrafish 513 James Harris 22. Image Processing of X-rays of the Spine and Spinal Cord Stimulation Implants 542 Chimdi Ihediwa and Ashley Dalrymple 23. Research Summary: Vorticity's Impact on the Reynolds Stress Gradients in Atmospheric Turbulent Boundary Layers 582 James Karr and Eric Pardyjak 24. Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Fracturing Using 2D Digital Image Correlation (2D-DIC): Methodology, Results, and Implications. 584 Sunghyun Kim 25. Research Reflection by Sunghyun Kim Sunghyun Kim 26. Reverse Total Shoulder Arthroplasty Alters the Resting Orientation of the Scapula 601 603 Peyton King; Jared Zitnay; Peter Chalmers; Robert Tashjian; and Heath Henninger 27. Axon Geometry Impacts Activation Threshold: Implications for Deep Brain Stimulation Madison Lodico and Alan D. Dorval 611 28. Distal Tibial Long Axis Coordinate System Recommendation 618 Erika Muhlrad and Amy Lenz 29. The Effect of Lung Tumor Outgrowth on Strain Distributions in Nearby Alveolar Walls 622 Sylvia Pack; Jeffrey Weiss; Michael Herron; and Steven Labelle 30. Protein Z as a Potential Anti-Fibrotic Therapeutic for Cardiovascular Fibrosis 635 Georgiy Polishchuk; Thirupura Shankar; and Stavros Drakos 31. GJA1-20K Therapy Increases Renal Corical ATP Concentration in Pig Model of Severe Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury 667 Ryleigh Smith 32. Examining Compositional Behavior in Large Language Models 725 Jordan Tan and Vivek Srikumar 33. Higher Wall Shear Stress in AVFs Reduces Neointimal Hyperplasia Compared to AVGs: Insights from Porcine Models 780 Nicholas Thomson 34. Research Reflection by Nicholas Thomson Nicholas Thomson 806 35. Effects of the Receptor for Advanced Glycation End Products on Successful Arteriovenous Fistula Maturation 809 River Tobias and Yan-Ting Shiu 36. Research Reflection by River Tobias River Tobias 37. Research Summary: Investigation of the Representative Volume Element in Fibrous Porous Systems 849 851 James Walker; Pania Newell; and Mikhail Kuts 38. Research Reflection by James Walker James Walker 39. Circadian-Based Interventions to Improve Cardiometabolic Health in Adults With Habitual Short Sleep Duration 854 857 Katelyn Ballard; Christopher Depner; Audrey Stegman; Michelle Kubicki; and Grace Zimmerman 40. The Effect of High-Intensity Interval Training on Visceral Adipose Tissue in Type 2 Diabetes: A Literature Review 875 Ivan Delgado 41. Burnout Among EMS Providers in Utah London Gay; Caden Williams; and Cambrie Jessee 887 42. Exploring the Relationship Between Muscle Strength and Knee Joint Biomechanics in Patients With Knee Osteoarthritis 896 Maddie Hopkins 43. Perceptions of Lifesyle Behavior and Psychosocial Screening of Hispanic/ Latino Community Members Visiting a Mobile Health Unit 921 Alejandra Huerta Hernandez; Paul Estabrooks; Mickey Bolyard; Megan Miller; and Alex Hernandez 44. Relationships Between Total Knee Arthroplasty Preoperative Clinical Factors on Postoperative Recovery 954 Aubrey Jacobson and Jesse Christensen 45. Research Reflection by Aubrey Jacobson Aubrey Jacobson 46. Effects of Nitric Oxide Gel on Collagen Organization After AVF Creation 966 968 Kevin Pan 47. Research Reflection by Kevin Pan Kevin Pan 48. Weight Regain Following Planned Weight Loss: A Qualitative Research Analysis of Influential Factors Katherine Walker; Tanya Halliday; Selene Tobin; Victoria Miranda; Patrick Galyean; and Tatum Anderson 986 989 49. Atrapadxs en un Hoyo: Reproductive Justice and Environmental Health of Latina Mothers and Children in Salt Lake City Utah 1023 Jasmine Aguilar Lopez and Leandra Hernández 50. Research Reflection by Jasmine Aguilar Lopez 1075 Jasmine Aguilar Lopez 51. Research Summary: Ethical Considerations Surrounding Xenotransplantation 1078 Jessica Ann Davis and Matt Haber 52. Research Reflection by Jessica Ann Davis Jessica Ann Davis 53. The East Idaho Ethnic Minorities Oral History Collection 1080 1082 Sujata Gandhi 54. Cultivating Empathy in the Age of AI: A Student-Editor's Philosophy 1087 Zabrina Le 55. Research Reflection by Zabrina Le Zabrina Le 56. The Marginalization of Non-Black Women of Color (NBWOC) in Media, Academia, and Professional Spaces Alisha Ruiz 1098 1100 57. Prized Possessions in Elderly Populations Anna Jo Short 58. Research Reflection by Anna Jo Short Anna Jo Short 59. Understanding Autism in Children With Congenital Myotonic Dystrophy 1120 1146 1149 Heba Alhamdani 60. The Relationship of Demographics to Adverse Events Following Immunization Within the Utah BEEHIVE Study Population 1158 Tyler Allison; Danika Nakai; Feiyun Yan; Joshua Griffin; Jacob Mckell; Hongwei Zhao; Andrew L. Phillips; German L. Ellsworth; Matthew S. Thiese; and Sarang K. Yoon 61. Role of the Oncogene E26 Transformation-Specific Sequence-1 in Arteriovenous Fistula Maturation Failure 1164 Emma Breen 62. Does Endothelial Cell Specific Knockout of EphA2 Protect Against Experimental Cerebral Malaria? 1169 Nia Brooks; Tracey Lamb; and Marshall Roedel 63. Research Reflection by Nia Brooks Nia Brooks 1183 64. Fecal Microbiota Transplant Increases Fecal Microbiome Diversity 1188 Tatum Heiner; Daniel T. Leung; Mary Vallecillo-Zuniga; Ann Flynn; Marco Marchetti; and Ali Akeefe 65. Alterations in Alzheimer's Disease Phenotypic Features After Biodegradable Paclitaxel-Conjugate Treatment 1193 Lana Hua; Donna Cross; Jiyuan (Jane) Yang; Shannou Li; Hasan Al Faruque; Raghad Aljassimi; Ashton Jensen; Jindřich Henry Kopeček; and Satoshi Minoshima 66. Impact of Social Instability Stress on Hippocampal Oxytocin Receptor Expression 1205 Leya Joseph; Moriel Zelikowsky; and Donzelle Taylor 67. Placental Lipid Droplet Accumulation in Uteroplacental Insufficiency: Preferential Trapping of DHA- Containing Triglycerides 1209 Kiera Kearns; Lisa Joss-Moore; Amara Finch; Wesley Chidester; Bridget Raymundo; James Cox; and Alan Maschek 68. Inhibiting CDK9 and Autophagy in Pancreatic Cancer Isabella Scalise; Conan Kinsey; and Mark Silvis 1221 69. The BASIC Trial: An ESKAPE from Transmission 1225 Alayna Stoddard; Harriet Hopf; Tommy Brower; and Seth Evans 70. Research Reflection by Alayna Stoddard Alayna Stoddard 71. Evaluating a Social Anxiety Neural Pathway: Silencing BNST To NAc Projecting Neurons Before Behavioral Assay 1245 1247 Caitlin Tweed and Moriel Zelikowsky 72. Research Reflection by Caitlin Tweed Caitlin Tweed 73. Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Surge and Altered PPARγ Isoform Ratios Precede Alveolar Formation in the Developing Rat Lung 1285 1287 Daniel Wray; Lisa Joss-Moore; Wesley Chidester; and Sofia Leveratto 74. Research Summary: Supporting the Operations and Maintenance of the UUNET Weather and MEOP Air Quality Platforms in Northern Utah Brett Botkin 1303 75. Precocious Scaphites and the Hydrodynamic Consequences of the Development of Ribbing 1307 Garrett Butler; Kathleen Ritterbush; Nicholas Hebdon; Mikelia Heberer; David Peterman; and Junji Choi 76. Research Reflection by Garrett Butler Garrett Butler 77. Model Reconstruction of the Santa Fe Ice Cap During the Last Glacial Maximum 1332 1334 Rachael Noble 78. Key Climate Drivers for Winter Precipitation over the Southwestern U.S. 1342 Nate Stovak and Thomas Reichler 79. Evaluating Spatial Relationships of Orographic Precipitation Gradients to Apply in Training a Convolutional Neural Network 1346 Annabelle Warner 80. Research Summary: Goal Setting Among Women with BMI ?25 Planning a Pregnancy Involved in MAPS Coaching 1351 Maren Busath 81. Research Summary: The Caregiving Experience for Children Diagnosed with Cancer: A Secondary Analysis Sofia Flowers 1355 82. Research Reflection by Sofia Flowers Sofia Flowers 83. Developing an American Sign Language Glossary of Cardiometabolic/ Cardiovascular Terms 1358 1360 Krystal Nguyen and Michelle Litchman 84. Onset and Offset Dynamics in Animal Models of Epilepsy: Response to Valproic Acid and Phenobarbital 1367 Kishore Jay 85. Research Reflection by Kishore Jay Kishore Jay 86. Effect of Great Salt Lake Dust on Transient Receptor Ion Channels and Lung Epithelial Cells 1391 1393 Caitlin Pham and Christopher Reilly 87. Histone Lactylation: Identification of Reader Proteins 1447 Zhenyu Yang; Garrison Nickel; Nicholas Pederson; and Katharine Diehl 88. Research Reflection by Zhenyu Yang Zhenyu Yang 89. Characterizing the Ability of Woodrat Gut Microbes to Detoxify Plant Toxins Sahana Balaji 1454 1457 90. Elucidating the Effect of Light Quality on Plant Immunity 1461 Akila Chalapathi and Heejin Yoo 91. Mathematical Modeling of Metabolic Interactions in the Citric Acid Cycle 1475 Isaac Clark 92. Establishing a Sample Preparation Protocol for Nanoscopic Fluorescence Electron Microscopy (nano-fEM) 1508 Sophia Dahlen; Brittany Graham; Brian Mueller; and Erik Jorgensen 93. Enhancing Models of Optimal Polar Bear Movement in the Arctic Through Advanced Data Science and Image Processing 1540 Rylie Gagne 94. Research Reflection by Cooper Gangi Cooper Gangi 95. Research Summary: Probing the Mechanism Of Colossal Magnetoresistance in EuCd₂P₂ Via HighPressure Transport Measurements 1550 1556 Audrey Glende 96. The Sperm Racetrack: A Novel Microfluidic Method for Motility-Based Sperm Separation Lauren Hulse and Nitin Phadnis 1559 97. Supermassive Black Hole Growth via Tidal Disruption Events 1594 Aubrey Jones and Ben Bromley 98. Explicating the Substrate-engaged Signals for Type 3 secretion of FlgJ in Salmonella enterica 1597 Julianna Matteis; Kelly Hughes; and Fabienne Chevance 99. Research Summary: Using Data Science Tools to Understand Inhibitor Structure Impact on Non-Proportional Bifurcated FROMP Rates with Cleavable Comonomer DHF 1637 Rachel Muhlestein; Matthew Sigman; and Timothy McFadden 100. The Effects of Smoke Intensity on Ponderosa Pine Physiology 1639 Ainsley Nystrom and William Anderegg 101. Utilizing Climate Models and Remote Sensing Data to Characterize Future Vegetation-Climate Feedbacks in Western US Ecosystems 1649 Makayla Patrick; Jiaming Lu; Marysa M. Lague; and Jonathan A. Wang 102. Research Reflection by Makayla Patrick Makayla Patrick 1654 103. Rationality of Spider Web Construction: Caloric Consideration 1658 Madison Pearce; Andrej Cherkaev; Charles Godfrey; and Kaylee Pho 104. Searching for Planet Hosts Among Stars With Cold Debris Disks 1684 Elisabeth Penderghast; Ben Bromley; and Scott Kenyon 105. The Impact of Single Amino Acid Substitutions in the CheA Linker 3 Sequence on the Chemotactic Signal Transduction Pathway of Escherichia coli 1686 Savannah Romney 106. Factors Impacting Students' Level of Belonging Uncertainty Within General Chemistry 1716 Jocelyn Tucker and Regina Frey 107. Mathematical Models of SARS-CoV-2 Testing: Explaining Differences in Test Results Among Patients 1720 Muskan Walia and Frederick R. Adler 108. Research Reflection by Muskan Walia Muskan Walia 109. Ant Empire: Mathematical Modeling of Supercolonial Invasions Saya Zeleznik; Frederick R. Adler; and Patrick Talley 1750 1752 110. Illness and Healthcare Experiences Among Uninsured Free Clinic Patients 1777 Danaya Amornnimit and Akiko Kamimura 111. Research Reflection by Danaya Amornnimit 1781 Danaya Amornnimit 112. Research Reflection: Conducting Eyewitness Identification Research 1783 Karina Cedeno Hernandez 113. Exploring County-Level Disparities in Child Food Insecurity and Meal Participation in Utah 1788 Holden Cheney 114. Paleoecological Coprophilous Spore Analysis Reveals Disturbance of Pastoralists in the Fynbos Biome, Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. 1841 Bennett Davenport; Stella Mosher; and Mitchell Power 115. Assessing the Impact of the Genomic Summer Research for Magnificents (GSRM) Internship Program 1855 Isabella DiNardo; Akiko Kamimura; Rebecca Adams; H. Joseph Yost; Maija Holsti; and Gloria Slattum 116. Research Reflection by Isabella DiNardo Isabella DiNardo 1862 117. A Test to Determine Whether Surface Sediments Contaminate Ancient, Cultural Starch Residues Recovered From Ground Stone Tools in Buried Contexts 1864 Caston Draper and Stefania Wilks 118. Research Reflection by Caston Draper Caston Draper 119. Understanding Aincent Granary Distributions in the Grand Staircase Escalante National Monument 1869 1872 Matthew Eisenberg 120. Research Reflection by Matthew Eisenberg 1894 Matthew Eisenberg 121. Strength of Children and Adult's Memory in Realistic Conditions 1896 Brock Epperson 122. Examining Program Quality as a Predictor of Developmental Growth Among Youth Participating in a SchoolBased Camp Program 1900 Sarah Herring 123. Research Reflection by Sarah Herring Sarah Herring 124. Improving Law Enforcement's Response Towards Victims of Sexual Violence: The Impact of Traumatic Memory Naomi Hill 1953 1956 125. Research Reflection by Naomi Hill Naomi Hill 126. Rewriting Reality: Cognitive and Affective Relationships of Counterfactual Thought 1998 2000 Petr Horgos 127. Research Reflection by Petr Horgos Petr Horgos 128. Specialty Courts: Resources, Outcomes & Success of Family Recovery Court 2076 2078 Annia Hungerford 129. Research Reflection by Annia Hungerford 2176 Annia Hungerford 130. Associations Between Parents' Emotion Regulation, Anxiety, and Stress and Their Real-Time Emotion Socialization Efforts: A Cross-Sectional Analysis 2178 Sang Ho Kim and Marissa Diener 131. Effect of Cellphone Usage on Stress Physiology in a Nature Environment 2218 Whitney Lang; Amy McDonnell; and Colleen Lasko 132. Virtual Reality and Study of the Effect of Duration and Age on the Confidence/ Accuracy Relationship: An Introduction to the Research Topic Hannah Lawrence 2231 133. Research Reflection by Hannah Lawrence 2243 Hannah Lawrence 134. Assessing the Impacts and Adaptive Strategies of Traditional Ranchers During the 2020-2022 Drought in Baja California Sur. 2245 Juliana Moyano and Shane Macfarlan 135. Understanding Well-Being in Adult Survivors of the Troubled Teen Industry: The Roles of Moral Injury and MeaningMaking 2259 Jenny Nguyen; Ava Alexander; and Patricia Kerig 136. Reconstruction of Tropical Dry Forest Disturbances Over the Last Seven Centuries 2319 Ângelo Bueno Perillo III and Susana Velásquez-Franco 137. Gender and Sexuality in Agriculture: Comparing U.S. and Salt Lake City, UT Experiences 2336 Melissa Phelps; Talula Pontuti; and Adrienne Cachelin 138. Comparing Alpha Power During InNoise Listening Task as a Parameter of Listening Effort in Young versus Older Adults McKenzie Price 2364 139. Research Reflection by McKenzie Price McKenzie Price 140. Pilot Study to Test the Use of Fitness Trackers to Monitor the Well Being of People Experiencing Homelessness 2374 2376 Zoha Riaz and Aubrey Hampton 141. Hindutva: Transforming India into a Hindu Civilization State 2382 Zachary Silva 142. Research Reflection by Zachary Silva Zachary Silva 143. Does Maternal Sensitivity Mediate the Intergenerational Impact of Maternal Emotion Dysregulation? 2400 2402 Thea Wulff 144. Research Reflection by Thea Wulff Thea Wulff 145. Reconstructing Ice-Age Climates of the Great Basin Using Paleoclimate Proxy Data 2435 2437 Ellie Ziemer 146. Edible Campus Gardens Impact and Engagement Study 2443 Elisabeth Diaz and Colleen James 147. Research Reflection by Elisabeth Diaz Elisabeth Diaz 2447 148. Enrichment and Expansion of Individual Identity Through the Formation of Place 2449 Dallen Calder 149. Research Reflection by Dallen Calder Dallen Calder 150. Social Support Across the Cancer Care Continuum in Malawi: Narratives of Cancer Survivors 2469 2471 Abhilasha Khatri; Melissa Watt; Nehal Bakshi; Stephen Kimani; Gita Suneja; Agatha Bula; Mercy Tsidya; Olivia Hanson; Aparna Mangadu; Melissa A. Stockton; and Brandon A. Knettel 151. Motivations, Expectations, and Experiences of Parents Who Take a Child to a Village Doctor With a Complaint of Diarrhea: A Qualitative Study in Rural Bangladesh 2545 Jane Putnam; Melissa Watt; Aparna Mangadu; Jyoti Bhushan Das; Sarah Dallas; Olivia Hanson; Daniel T. Leung; and Ashraful Islam Khan 152. Research Reflection by Jane Putnam Jane Putnam RANGE: Undergraduate Research Journal 2596 2599 RANGE Hope Through Research - An Introduction to Range: Undergraduate Research Journal ANNIE ISABEL FUKUSHIMA, EDITOR IN CHIEF Research institutions are anchors for communities, industries and regions, to address social problems, where “teaching undergraduates in a research environment is good for the development of knowledge because students help make our campuses better anchors and better hubs” (Owen-Smith 2021, p. 50). Think about how most people interact with universities: it is through their own undergraduate education. It is ever more 1 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH pressing to consider how our students may love, build community, become thought leaders, and are prepared for tomorrow’s workforce because of the experiences they have in higher education. And as the research reflections illuminate in this issue of Range, the range of experiences are dynamic and incredibly meaningful. The students whose contributions appear in this publication are due to a range of opportunities, thanks to the faculty, staff, and student partnerships. These opportunities look like internships, funded research (UROP, SPUR, grants, research scholarships or faculty funds) , independent study / course credit, volunteer research, experiencing research development (i.e., methods courses / research fundamental classes or research workshop with the OUR Education Series, VPR RED, and with research dissemination (Presenting or publishing). The last issue of Range, I reflected on change. And for this one I turn to hope. Research has been a vital thread of hope in a sea 2 RANGE of change. As the US experienced the recession of 1958, the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the first Undergraduate Research Participation Program and NASA was formed that year. As Civil rights movements and the Third World Liberation organized in the 1960s, Undergraduate Research Opportunity Programs proliferated throughout the US, with the first in 1967 with MIT. Who was doing research, what is considered research, how research is accomplished has always bent with and count to the changing tide of the political landscape. As the Berlin Wall fell in 1987, NSF resumed funding through the NSF Research Experiences for Undergraduates (Barney 2017). And, that same year OUR was formed as the Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (since then, having grown into an Office). Between 2002 and 2017 NSF supported thousands of undergraduates – $1.12 billion. Our hope is in the future of researchers, workforce, and leaders – undergraduates. The Office of Undergraduate Research is committed to supporting faculty and students with high impact experiences in higher 3 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH education where researchers are anchors for our communities, solving problems that shapes our collective future. We do this work in collaboration with mentors, research teams, and the enthusiasm of our students. This publication reflects this commitment across the disciplines. Annie Isabel Fukushima, Ph.D Associate Dean, Undergraduate Studies ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Special thanks to the journal student editors America Cox and Kishan Thambu. I also appreciate the Office of Undergraduate Research team who are vital to supporting student success with research: Cindy Greaves (Associate Director), Shelly Parker (Academic Program Manager), Angie Leiva (Academic Program Coordinator), Sara Cody (Academic Program Coordinator), and Bradley De Boer (Academic Outreach Coordinator). OUR’s team also comprises of undergraduate leaders who serve as ambassadors for the office, in addition to America and Kishan during 2024 – 2025 academic year: Sofia Flowers, Kalista Leggitt, Megan McCormick, Ali Nopper, Isabella Scalise, and Abigail Stringfellow. 4 RANGE BIBLIOGRAPHY Barney, C.C. (2017). “An Analysis of Funding for the NSF REU Site Program in Biology from 1987 to 2014.” Council on Undergraduate Research 1, 1, https://www.cur.org/journal-article/an-analysis-offunding-for-the-nsf-reu-site-program-in-biologyfrom-1987-to-2014/ Owen-Smith, J. (2018). Research Universities and the Public Good: Discovery for an Uncertain Future. California: Stanford University Press. 5 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 6 RANGE 1 Environmental Rating Disagreement and Corporate Greenwashing Indicator: Evidence From S&P 500 Stocks MY BUI Faculty Mentor: Karl Lins (Finance, University of Utah) A Senior Honors Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of The University of Utah In Partial 7 Fulfillment of the OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Requirements for the Honors Degree in Bachelor of Science In Finance ABSTRACT This paper explores the impact of Environmental Rating Disagreement (ERD) on corporate greenwashing, focusing on S&P 500 stocks rated by Bloomberg and Refinitiv in 2023. By examining discrepancies between the Environmental ratings from these two agencies, this study investigates whether ERD indicates greenwashing behavior, in which companies may exaggerate or misrepresent their environmental commitments. The analysis highlights how methodological differences between rating providers contribute to divergences in scores and how these discrepancies could signal potential greenwashing practices through Refinitiv line items. The findings reveal a strong correlation between NonMaterial Ratio and ERD, suggesting that firms may emphasize superficial or irrelevant metrics to inflate their ratings. Sector-specific analyses further demonstrate that the drivers of ERD vary across industries, highlighting the influence of methodological inconsistencies. The findings emphasize the need for transparency in line items for Environmental rating calculation in the 8 RANGE Refinitiv system and suggest that investors should consider rating disagreements and vague descriptions for methodology as potential red flags for corporate environmental misrepresentation. INTRODUCTION Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) ratings have become an essential tool for evaluating corporate sustainability performance and influencing investment decisions, regulatory policies, and corporate strategies. Investors increasingly rely on ESG ratings to assess risks, ensure regulatory compliance, and align their portfolios with sustainable objectives. However, substantial discrepancies between ESG rating providers raise concerns about the reliability and comparability of these assessments, particularly in the Environmental dimension. These discrepancies arise from differences in rating methodologies, weightings, and data sources, making it possible for companies to selectively disclose favorable ESG information while downplaying less favorable aspects. This misalignment creates an opportunity for greenwashing, which is a practice where firms overstate or misrepresent their environmental commitments to appear more sustainable than they truly are. 9 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH This study investigates whether ERD serves as an indicator of corporate greenwashing, focusing on S&P 500 companies rated by Bloomberg and Refinitiv in 2023. By measuring the absolute differences between Environmental ratings from these two agencies, this research examines whether firms with higher ERD scores exhibit a stronger tendency to report “NonMaterial” environmental disclosures that contribute little to real environmental performance but enhance a company’s ESG image. The results reveal a significant relationship between ERD and Non-Material Ratio, suggesting that companies with higher discrepancies in Environmental ratings tend to emphasize “Non-Material” environmental disclosures over “Material” ones. This pattern implies that firms may be using superficial sustainability claims to mask environmental shortcomings, thereby misleading investors, and other stakeholders. Moreover, sector- specific regression analyses indicate that the relationship between ERD and Non-Material Ratio varies by industry, with certain sectors showing a stronger tendency toward rating manipulation. 10 RANGE LITERATURE REVIEW To analyze this phenomenon, this study employs an Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression model to determine the key factors influencing ERD, controlling for firm size, financial performance, leverage, and sector classification. The study reveals a significant correlation between ERD and “Non-Material” disclosure tendencies, suggesting a potential link to greenwashing practices. The findings contribute to the broader ESG literature by identifying ERD as a potential red flag for greenwashing and reinforcing the need for greater standardization in ESG assessment methodologies. This research provides critical insights for investors, regulators, and policymakers, helping them navigate the complexities of ESG ratings and minimize the risks of misleading sustainability disclosures. In recent years, environmental responsibility has emerged as a critical issue for corporations worldwide, driven by rising global efforts to mitigate climate change and promote sustainability (Edmans and Kacperczyk, 2022). Stakeholders, investors, consumers, and regulators increasingly expect companies to demonstrate genuine commitments to reducing their environmental impact. To meet these expectations, Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) ratings have become 11 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH indispensable tools in evaluating a company’s sustainability efforts and guiding investment decisions (Friede, Busch, and Bassen, 2015). Initially introduced through collaborations between the United Nations and financial institutions, the term ESG was coined to integrate non-financial factors into investment analysis (Pollman, 2024), which could be interpreted as ESG is thus not a financial factor. However, many academic papers find that E, S, or G can be financially relevant. For example, the Social (S) dimension is financially valuable, as demonstrated by Lins, Servaes, and Tamayo (2024). Their research shows how social issues, particularly those amplified by the Harvey Weinstein scandal and the #MeToo movement, significantly affect firm valuation by influencing stakeholder trust, consumer sentiment, and investor behavior. Regarding Governance (G), strong governance practices contribute to enhanced corporate accountability, improved strategic decision-making, reduced operational and financial risks, and increased investor confidence. These factors collectively foster stable earnings growth, lower capital costs, and sustained market valuation, as supported by empirical research (Gompers, Ishii, and Metrick, 2003). ESG ratings are now widely adopted, with trillions of dollars flowing into ESG-labeled products. However, the reliability of these ratings has 12 RANGE been called into question due to significant discrepancies between different rating providers (Gibson, Krueger, and Schmidt, 2021). Discrepancies in ESG ratings carry significant implications, as they can lead to disagreements among stakeholders, complicate cross-company comparisons, and impact investment decisions. ESG rating disagreement refers to discrepancies in the scores assigned to a company by different rating providers. Several studies have identified reasons behind ESG rating disagreement; for example, some agencies may place more weight on carbon emissions, while others focus on environmental policies, leading to substantial variations in ratings for the same company. Berg, Kölbel, and Rigobon (2022) point out that differences in scope, measurement, and weightings of ESG criteria are the key drivers, measurement accounts for approximately 56% of the total rating disagreement, followed by scope (38%) and weight (6%). While some scholars argue that the disagreement merely reflects differences Kacperczyk, in assessment 2022), criteria others (Edmans suggest that and such discrepancies may indicate deeper issues related to corporate transparency, particularly concerning greenwashing (Delmas and Burbano, 2011). These 13 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH inconsistencies undermine the credibility of ESG ratings as a reliable measure of corporate sustainability, making it more challenging for investors to evaluate companies and increasing the risk of greenwashing. The disagreement between ESG ratings significantly impacts corporate stock performance and environmental practices. Gibson, Krueger, and Schmidt (2021) find that companies with higher levels of ESG rating disagreement tend to experience higher stock returns, indicating that investors may perceive these discrepancies as an additional risk, which in turn increases the firm’s cost of capital. Their study highlights that rating disagreement is particularly pronounced in the Environmental Environmental dimension, ratings are more suggesting susceptible that to manipulation and greenwashing practices. Furthermore, when rating agencies provide divergent assessments, companies can exploit these discrepancies by selectively promoting favorable ratings, thereby obscuring less favorable environmental practices (Delmas and Burbano, 2011). The increase in ESG-related marketing and advertising has intensified the prevalence of greenwashing, with many firms making exaggerated claims that do not reflect substantive environmental action. Delmas and 14 RANGE Burbano (2011) initiate the discussion by identifying the drivers of greenwashing, which they define as “the intersection of poor environmental performance and positive communication about environmental practices.” They argue that external pressures, such as market demands and regulatory inconsistencies, serve as major enablers of greenwashing. The authors suggest that lax regulatory environments exacerbate greenwashing by reducing the punitive risks associated with misleading claims. Dumitrescu, Gil-Bazo, and Zhou (2022) extend this discussion by examining greenwashing in the context of mutual funds. They describe how asset managers often label their funds as “green” to attract investments, even when their portfolio holdings lack strong ESG ratings. Their research finds that around 29% of ESG- labeled funds in the U.S. engaged in greenwashing from 2016 to 2022, suggesting that investors should approach ESG claims with caution. They echo Delmas and Burbano’s point about regulatory gaps, noting that the absence of clear ESG standards enables such practices. Bingler, Kraus, and Webersinke (2024) further explore the role of disclosure frameworks and the quality of corporate climate commitments. They emphasize the prevalence of “cheap talk” in climate disclosures, highlighting how companies often use vague language to evade scrutiny 15 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH while claiming alignment with climate initiatives. Their study reveals that voluntary climate initiatives, such as the Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures (TCFD), may inadvertently encourage superficial commitments, as companies face minimal regulatory pressure to ensure actionable outcomes. Discrepancies in ESG ratings, Environmental assessments, particularly highlight both in the challenges of evaluating corporate sustainability and the risk of misinterpretation, as companies may appear more environmentally responsible depending on rating criteria and assessment methodologies. Berg et al. (2022) find that variations in ESG ratings, especially in the measurement of environmental factors, stem primarily from differences in how agencies evaluate corporate actions. This performance, divergence making it can difficult obscure to actual distinguish genuinely sustainable firms from those engaging in symbolic environmental practices. Moreover, Edmans and Kacperczyk (2022) argue that while ESG ratings are intended to capture long-term value creation, their inconsistency can foster an environment where companies prioritize managing perceptions over actual performance. This contributes to what has been termed “competence greenwashing,” wherein firms appear to 16 RANGE demonstrate environmental competence based on specific rating criteria yet fail to deliver meaningful environmental outcomes, ultimately enabling them to manipulate their perceived environmental performance. When companies receive varying ratings from different agencies, they may exploit these discrepancies by emphasizing higher ratings while downplaying the lower ones, thereby misleading stakeholders. Given the challenges posed by greenwashing, the role of ESG rating providers becomes critical. While these agencies offer independent evaluations of corporate sustainability efforts, methodological divergence can inadvertently contribute to greenwashing if not carefully analyzed. Furthermore, studies show that rating discrepancies can influence stock prices, particularly when ESG news triggers different responses from investors depending on the rating agency they follow (Serafeim and Yoon, 2020). This dynamic may incentivize firms to strategically manage their ESG disclosures and engage with different rating agencies to maintain or improve their ESG ratings. By reviewing these papers, this study focuses on discrepancies in Environmental ratings within ESG assessments, as this area is most relevant to greenwashing, unlike the social or governance aspects 17 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of ESG ratings. To address this, I analyze a sample of S&P 500 companies to examine how ERD relates to potential greenwashing behaviors. Unlike broader ESG rating disparities, Environmental rating discrepancies are particularly relevant to greenwashing, as firms aware of such inconsistencies may strategically emphasize favorable Environmental scores while downplaying unfavorable ones. The core empirical question explored in this study is whether discrepancies between Environmental ratings directly correlate with the likelihood of firms reporting “Non-Material” environmental line items in the Refinitiv system, a pattern that may indicate strategic misrepresentation. Given existing concerns about “cheap talk” in corporate sustainability disclosures, excessive “Non-Material” environmental claims may serve as a red flag for potential greenwashing. By providing a more targeted approach to identifying greenwashing risks, this research contributes to the ongoing discussion on ESG rating transparency and accountability, reinforcing the need for standardized Environmental assessment methodologies to improve investor and stakeholder decision-making. CASE STUDY: TESLA INC. In early 2022, Tesla Inc., the electric vehicle 18 RANGE manufacturer, faced significant scrutiny after being removed from the S&P 500 ESG Index. S&P cited several reasons for this decision, including Tesla’s perceived lack of a comprehensive strategy for reducing and reporting carbon emissions, inadequate business conduct policies, allegations of racial discrimination and substandard working conditions at its California factory, and concerns over the company’s handling of a federal investigation into autopilot-related accidents1. Despite being excluded from the S&P 500 ESG Index, Tesla remained included in other ESG indexes, such as those managed by Sustainalytics and Calvert Research and Management.2 This highlighted the inconsistencies among ESG rating providers, as the same company received varying evaluations depending on the methodology used. The Tesla case underscores several challenges in the ESG ratings industry. First, ESG rating providers employ different methodologies, often resulting in significantly varying ratings for the same company. These discrepancies make it difficult for stakeholders to draw consistent conclusions about a company’s ESG performance. Second, ESG ratings often aggregate diverse Environmental (E) and Social (S) factors or combine multiple issues within each category. This 19 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH aggregation can obscure the specific reasons behind a company’s ESG score, limiting the clarity and utility of such ratings. Third, the lack of transparency in rating processes raises concerns, as stakeholders often have little insight into how scores are determined. Finally, studies reveal a low correlation among ESG scores from different providers, raising questions about the reliability and usefulness of these ratings for investment decisions and corporate assessments (Halper et al., 2022).3 The example of Tesla illustrates the broader challenges faced by the ESG ratings industry, including the need for greater standardization, transparency, and clarity in evaluating corporate sustainability performance. These challenges have sparked ongoing debates about the effectiveness of ESG ratings in providing accurate and actionable insights into companies’ ESG practices. BLOOMBERG AND REFINITIV Refinitiv Methodology4 The Environmental score in the Refinitiv (LSEG) ESG Scoring Framework evaluates a company’s performance in managing its environmental impact, emphasizing accountability and transparency. This score is built upon three critical categories: Resource Use, Emissions, and Innovation. Each category reflects the company’s 20 RANGE policies, actions, and disclosures in managing environmental challenges. For instance, the Resource Use category assesses metrics such as water and energy efficiency, where higher recycling rates positively influence scores, and excessive consumption results in penalties. The Emissions category focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and waste, with lower emissions considered favorable. Finally, the Innovation category highlights efforts to develop sustainable solutions, such as investments in green research and environmentally friendly products. To ensure relevance, the methodology incorporates industry-specific materiality, calculated using the LSEG Materiality Matrix. This framework assigns category weights based on industry medians for numeric metrics and transparency levels for Boolean data points. The calculation involves aggregating category scores using a percentile-rank methodology, which benchmarks companies relative to peers. These scores are normalized and combined into an overall Environmental Pillar Score, ranging from 0 to 100. Importantly, the scoring mechanism integrates ESG controversies, ensuring that environmental controversies, such as lawsuits or fines, reduce the overall score. Severity weight adjusts the impact of controversies based on company size, 21 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH addressing biases associated with media attention on larger firms. The Environmental score is updated weekly to incorporate new data and controversial developments, ensuring real-time relevance. It provides percentile rankings and letter grades (D- to A+) for ease of understanding and benchmarking. These scores are used extensively by investors and analysts in tools such as LSEG Workspace, Eikon, and quantitative models, offering a robust foundation for performance assessment across industries. 22 environmental RANGE *No data points available that may be used as a proxy for ESG magnitude/materiality. Source: LSEG. (2023). Environmental, social and governance scores methodology. London Stock Exchange Group. Bloomberg Methodology5 The Environmental score in the Bloomberg Terminal incorporates six primary areas of evaluation: Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions Management, Air Quality, Climate Exposure, Waste Management, Water Management, and Sustainable Products. The GHG Emissions Management category assesses a company’s ability to reduce carbon emissions through strategies like renewable energy adoption and compliance with global climate agreements, with scores normalized based on revenue or production. The Air Quality category 23 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH measures pollutant management, such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and companies nitrogen that oxides invest in (NO⯑), rewarding pollution reduction technologies. The Climate Exposure category evaluates a company’s adaptation strategies to address risks such as extreme weather events and regulatory shifts, focusing on resilient infrastructure and mitigation policies. The Waste Management category considers metrics like waste intensity and recycling rates, while the Water Management category evaluates water efficiency and sustainable sourcing, particularly for industries with high water usage. Finally, the Sustainable Products category emphasizes innovation, assessing revenue from environmentally friendly products and green technology investments. Scores for each area range from 0 to 10 and are derived from company-reported data. The Bloomberg’s methodology places strong emphasis on materiality and industry- specific factors, tailoring metrics to the unique risks and opportunities faced by companies. For instance, GHG emissions and energy efficiency are prioritized in manufacturing and energyintensive sectors, while water management and waste reduction are more critical for agriculture and mining. The framework also accounts for national and ecological contexts, such as local climate policies, flooding risks, 24 RANGE and air quality. Companies operating in regions with stricter environmental regulations or higher vulnerability to climate risks may have these factors reflected in their scores, ensuring a comprehensive evaluation. The scoring system determines the weightings of environmental issues by assessing the probability, magnitude, and timing of financial impacts in three parts. The Disclosure Factor further promotes transparency by penalizing companies for incomplete or poor- quality data. This approach encourages companies to adopt robust reporting practices and provide comprehensive disclosures that improve the reliability of their scores. Environmental scores are updated regularly to reflect new disclosures and validated through rigorous quality checks, including statistical and heuristic reviews, to ensure accuracy and consistency. These scores are integrated into the Bloomberg Terminal and Data License products, performance across allowing users industries to benchmark through percentile rankings. As part of Bloomberg’s overall ESG scoring system, the Environmental score provides investors, regulators, and analysts with a standardized framework 25 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH to assess a company’s environmental management and alignment with sustainability objectives. METHODOLOGY This study analyzes S&P 500 companies (n=495), excluding those without complete Environmental scores in either Bloomberg or Refinitiv. The ERD is measured as the absolute difference between Bloomberg and Refinitiv Environmental scores for each company. Companies exceeding the median discrepancy of 23.67 are classified as having a “Large ERD.” Large discrepancies arise from selective disclosure, inconsistent frameworks, or differing weighting methodologies applied to environmental factors. While Bloomberg and Refinitiv employ distinct methodologies, the consistent finding of notable discrepancies raises concerns about reporting consistency and potential greenwashing. A significant discrepancy suggests that a company’s environmental narrative or reported performance data may not be consistently verifiable. When two independent rating systems produce a large gap, selective disclosure may be at play. This allows a company to achieve a higher score on one platform, potentially signaling greenwashing. For this study, 74 line items are collected: 73 True/ 26 RANGE False disclosures and one numerical disclosure from the Refinitiv database. These line items are derived from the following studies: 1. Dyck, I. J. A., Lins, K. V., Roth, L., & Wagner, H. F. (2019). Do Institutional Investors Drive Corporate Social Responsibility? International Evidence. Journal of Financial Economics Volume 131, Issue 3, March 2019, Pages 693-714. 2. Dyck, I. J. A., Lins, K. V., Roth, L., Towner, M., & Wagner, H. F. (2024). FamilyControlled Firms and Environmental Sustainability: All Bite and No Bark. Finance Working Paper N° 983/2024. European Corporate Governance Institute (ECGI), Appendix A1, A2, 43-46. Each of these 74 items is categorized as either “Material” or “Non-Material,” depending on whether it represents a measurable, practical factor with direct environmental impact (e.g., energy consumption, waste management) or is merely tied to policies, future targets, or broad commitments lacking clear, quantifiable outcomes. “Material” refers to a measurable and practical factor that contributes to the Environmental score. Items that fall 27 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH under the “Material” category must have a significant and direct impact on the environment, focusing on actual outputs rather than vague policies or goals that serve to fulfill formalities or claim environmental friendliness. The description of a “Material” item includes factors tied to ongoing, measurable activities with tangible outcomes, rather than speculative initiatives, targets, or objectives that rely on uncertain actions and future results. If a factor meets these criteria, it is considered “Material” (“Yes”); otherwise, it is classified as “Non- Material” (“No”) (Figure 1). The table below shows the number of items within each category: Material Items NonMaterial Items Numerical Item Total Emission Category Environmental Innovation Category ResourceUse Total Category 5 7 5 17 11 19 26 56 1 0 0 1 17 26 31 74 For 73 True/False disclosures, responses are translated into indicator variables. For questions with a positive direction (“True”), answers are assigned 0 for “False” 28 RANGE and 1 for “True.” After this transformation, items are categorized into two groups: “Material” and “NonMaterial.” To quantify reporting tendencies, the Material Ratio is calculated by summing the number of reported “Material” items and dividing it by the total number of “Material” items. Similarly, the Non-Material Ratio is determined using the same method. This approach provides a structured and systematic way to measure the extent of disclosures across different categories. This distinction is crucial because “Material” items offer stronger evidence of real-world environmental impact, whereas “Non-Material” items (e.g., aspirational policies or distant targets) may serve as “green PR” or “check-the-box” commitments for marketing if they lack measurable progress. Consequently, a company emphasizing numerous “Non-Material” disclosures but comparatively few “Material” ones could indicate potential greenwashing, relying on vague or feel-good commitments rather than presenting actual impact data and trackable results. The numerical item “GHG Emissions Scope 1, 2, and 3 Estimated Total to Revenue USD in Million” measures the extent to which a company’s operations produce greenhouse gases relative to its revenue stream. A larger GHG emissions-to-revenue ratio suggests that a 29 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH company’s operations generate significant greenhouse gases in relation to its revenue. This metric ensures comparability across industries and company sizes. High emissions intensity is a clear indicator of environmental impact, emphasizing the need for monitoring and mitigation. If a company claims strong environmental performance, one would expect to see a reduction in this measure over time as a reflection of genuine environmental responsibility. On the other hand, when an organization exhibits high or growing emissions intensity while marketing itself as environmentally responsible, it raises concerns about potential greenwashing. This is particularly evident when a company prioritizes “Non-Material” or superficial disclosures instead of addressing the core issues that significantly impact its environmental footprint. This ratio is selected because, among the various environmental factors, carbon emissions are particularly significant for companies, including family-controlled firms (Dyck et al., 2024). The authors argue that carbon emissions represent an existential risk that firms must manage effectively. This underscores that the GHG emissions-to-revenue ratio is the most important metric for evaluating environmental sustainability, as it directly reflects a company’s contribution to climate change. Dyck et al. (2024) further suggest that other qualitative 30 RANGE environmental metrics, such as policies and targets, are less effective for addressing immediate climate risks. Their study indicates that not only family-controlled firms but also all companies should prioritize reducing carbon emissions as a fundamental aspect of their sustainability strategy. Data on firm characteristics are collected from WRDS. Firm size is controlled using the natural logarithm of total assets, as it captures the effects of scale economies and market power associated with a firm’s size. Return on assets (ROA) is calculated as net income divided by total assets, reflecting a firm’s efficiency in generating profits from its assets. Return on equity (ROE) is calculated as net income divided by common shares outstanding multiplied by the closing price, reflecting shareholder profitability. Leverage is defined as total liabilities divided by total assets, representing a firm’s financial risk and capital structure decisions. To investigate the drivers of ERD, an Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression model is employed. The dependent variable is the ERD, representing the absolute discrepancy between Bloomberg and Refinitiv Environmental scores. Independent variables include firm characteristics and disclosure metrics, categorized as Material Ratio, Non-Material Ratio, and GHG 31 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Emissions to Revenue, along with control variables for firm size, financial performance, and industry classification. The regression of the as follows: Where: • ERD measures the absolute Environmental score discrepancy. • Material Ratio is the proportion of “Material” disclosures to total “Material” items. • Non-Material Ratio is the proportion of “Non-Material” disclosures to total “NonMaterial” items. • GHG Emissions to Revenue is the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions to revenue in USD millions. • Firm Size is the natural logarithm of total assets. • ROA reflects efficiency in generating profits 32 RANGE from assets. • ROE captures shareholder profitability. • Leverage measures financial risk as the ratio of total liabilities to total assets. • Industry Dummies represent eleven sectoral classifications for controlling industry-level effects using Global Industry Classification Standard (GICS). This study also conducts industry-specific OLS regressions to further analyze the drivers of ERD. This approach examines how the relationships between independent variables and ERD vary across different industry sectors. Eleven regressions are performed, one for each industry classification, using the same dependent variable and independent variables as in the full model regression. For each industry, the regression model is structured as follows: Where: 33 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH • ⯑ indexes individual firms, and ⯑ represents the industry. • The independent variables and controls remain consistent across all regressions to ensure comparability. These industry-specific regressions are conducted to capture potential variations in the explanatory power and significance of the independent variables across sectors. For instance, the role of “Material” and “NonMaterial” disclosures or the intensity of GHG Emissions to Revenue might differ between industries with different environmental impacts. Each regression analysis is conducted using Python in Google Colab, a cloud-based notebook platform that enables seamless integration of Python libraries and supports collaborative work. Robust standard errors are applied to address heteroskedasticity concerns, and multicollinearity among independent variables was assessed using Variance Inflation Factors (VIFs). Diagnostic tests, including residual analysis and checks for multicollinearity, are repeated for each industryspecific regression to ensure the validity of the results. This approach provides deeper insights into sectorspecific drivers of ERD and highlights the heterogeneity 34 RANGE across industries. The inclusion of dummy variables for industry classifications helps account for unobserved heterogeneity across sectors. This methodology ensures that the relationships between disclosure metrics, firm characteristics, and ERD are rigorously evaluated, leveraging the computational power and collaborative features of Google Colab for efficient data analysis. LIMITATION In Figure 1, the categorization of whether a line item is “Material” inherently involves personal judgment, introducing subjectivity. This limitation could impact the reproducibility of the results. Incorporating interrater reliability assessments in future iterations of this research would provide a more robust evaluation of the classification process, ensuring consistency across different evaluators. RESULTS This section discusses the results of the study. Figure 2 presents a summary table of key descriptive statistics, highlighting significant variation across the main variables of interest. The average ERD between Bloomberg and Refinitiv is approximately 26.5 points, with a standard deviation of 18.1 and values ranging from near zero up to almost 80. This indicates that some 35 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH firms are evaluated nearly identically by the two rating agencies, whereas others receive drastically different scores, potentially confusing investors who seek consistent assessments of a company’s environmental performance. Turning to the Material Ratio, firms range from as low as 0.176 to as high as 0.824, suggesting that while some companies prioritize “Material” environmental disclosures (such as operational emissions or resource usage), others emphasize different factors. The Non-Material Ratio also exhibits wide variation (from 0.185 to 0.661), implying that for some firms, nearly two-thirds of their environmental disclosures are not closely tied to core operations. Further highlighting this variability, the Material Ratio’s 10th and 90th percentiles range from 0.353 to 0.647, while the NonMaterial Ratio’s percentiles range from 0.214 to 0.482. Such dispersion underscores significant heterogeneity across firms regarding their prioritization of “NonMaterial” versus “Material” environmental information. Overall, these broad ranges and percentile values illustrate considerable differences among firms in both their financial and disclosure characteristics, setting the stage for the OLS analysis. This underscores that realworld disclosure practices can differ substantially across companies, potentially opening 36 the door to RANGE “greenwashing” if less relevant (“Non-Material”) metrics inflate apparent sustainability. Building on these descriptive insights, the following section presents empirical findings from an OLS regression analysis designed to further investigate the determinants of ERD between Bloomberg and Refinitiv scores. The analysis focuses on both firm-level and sector-specific variables, including the roles of the Material Ratio and Non-Material Ratio, financial characteristics, and industry classification. The results are structured to first describe the overall model performance and key predictors, followed by an indepth examination of how these relationships vary across different industry sectors. The findings offer key insights into the drivers of inconsistency in ESG evaluations and raise important implications for investors, rating agencies, transparency and and policymakers concerned accountability in with sustainability reporting. The analysis begins by examining the overall model performance. The OLS regression model (Figure 3) evaluates the determinants of ERD, aiming to uncover the underlying drivers of discrepancies between Bloomberg and Refinitiv scores. The model is an overall fit, as 16.4% of the variation in ERD is explained by 37 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the included predictors. Moreover, it is statistically significant, with a Prob (F-statistic) of 2.97e-11, suggesting that at least one of the predictors meaningfully explains the variation in ERD. Among the predictors, the Material Ratio affects ERD, with a positive coefficient of 18.7555 (p = 0.036). Practically, this means a firm increasing its emphasis on “Material” disclosures from 10th percentile to 90th percentile would experience an average increase in ESG rating discrepancies of about 5.516 points (Figure 2). However, the Non-Material Ratio exhibits a stronger and highly significant relationship with ERD. For a firm moving from the 10th to the 90th percentile of the Non-Material Ratio, the estimated ERD increases by about 12.004 points, based on a coefficient of 44.8155 (Figure 2). Compared to the overall distribution of ERD numbers across firms, that is a very large and economically meaningful increase, indicating that “Non-Material” factors substantially drive discrepancies between Bloomberg and Refinitiv Environmental ratings. Such a large difference raises concerns about potential greenwashing practices, as companies might exploit “Non-Material” disclosures to appear more sustainable without making substantive improvements. “Non-Material” items, often less directly tied to 38 RANGE environmental or operational performance, may signal potential greenwashing practices. Firms may leverage these metrics to inflate their Environmental scores without implementing substantive sustainability initiatives. This finding is particularly concerning, as it suggests that companies emphasizing “Non-Material” environmental metrics are prone to much larger discrepancies in their ratings so investors should therefore closely analyze the description of environmental metrics to better assess true sustainability performance. The full model regression analysis identifies the Financials sector as having a strong and statistically significant positive effect on ERD, suggesting that firms in this sector experience greater ERD, possibly due to the complex nature of financial firms’ environmental disclosures. This reflects the unique challenges in assessing environmental performance for financial institutions. Unlike industries such as Energy or Materials, where environmental measured through tangible performance metrics like is carbon emissions and waste management, financial firms’ environmental impact is largely indirect, tied to factors such as responsible lending practices, investment policies, and green bond financing. Key factors 39 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH influencing financial firms’ Environmental ratings include the issuance of green bonds, sustainabilitylinked loans, and climate-focused funds, as well as policies restricting financing for fossil fuel projects and other high-emission industries. Additionally, financial institutions are assessed based on the carbon footprint of their own operations, including their transition to renewable energy, energy efficiency investments, and paperless initiatives. A major component of their Environmental rating is climaterelated financial disclosure, where adherence to frameworks like the TCFD and regulatory requirements such as the EU Taxonomy or SEC Climate Disclosure Rules can influence scores. Furthermore, discrepancies arise due to methodological differences among ESG rating agencies. For instance, Bloomberg may assign a lower Environmental rating to a financial institution due to its high exposure to fossil fuel financing, whereas Refinitiv may place greater emphasis on green bond issuances and sustainable investment offerings, leading to variations in ERD. These differences in rating methodologies contribute to the statistically significant effect of the Financials sector on ERD, as observed in the regression results. This finding underscores the need for tailored ESG evaluation approaches that better reflect 40 RANGE the unique environmental impact of financial institutions and enhance comparability across rating agencies. On the other hand, GHG Emissions to Revenue and standard financial metrics, including Firm Size, ROE, ROA, and Leverage, generally show limited or no statistical significance discrepancies. For in explaining example, GHG ESG rating Emissions to Revenue, despite its theoretical relevance in evaluating environmental performance, exhibits no significant relationship with ERD (coefficient = –0.0002, p = 0.882). This suggests that discrepancies are less influenced by objectively measurable environmental or financial performance indicators and more by methodological differences and subjective assessments in environmental evaluations. To explore specific drivers of ERD in greater detail, the following part presents the results of regression analyses of ERD, each corresponding to a distinct industry sector. This approach provides valuable insights into how the determinants of ERD vary across industries. One of the most salient findings is the significant positive association between the Non-Material Ratio and ERD in the Industrials sector (Figure 4) and the Real Estate sector (Figure 5). A marginally significant 41 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH association is also observed in the Consumer Discretionary sector (Figure 6) and the Information Technology sector (Figure 7). This pattern indicates that greater reliance on “Non-Material” disclosures tends to exacerbate disagreements between Bloomberg and Refinitiv. In the Industrials sector, although firms increasingly signal a strategic shift toward greener operations, such as transitioning to renewable energy or adopting cleaner technologies, these initiatives are often part of longterm plans rather than current operational practices. Consequently, a temporal mismatch arises between reported commitments and realized environmental performance. The question of when such transitions will actually be implemented introduces uncertainty, and rating agencies may differ in how they account for forward looking disclosures versus present realities, thereby contributing to ERD. Additionally, both Firm size and GHG Emissions to Revenue are significant predictors in this sector, indicating that larger firms with more standardized disclosures and firms with measurable emissions intensity may elicit more consistent ratings. Within the Real Estate sector, green building practices are frequently promoted as evidence of environmental responsibility. However, such 42 developments are RANGE associated with significantly higher initial costs due to the premium pricing and limited availability of sustainable materials. Estimates suggest that green construction may increase costs by approximately 10% to 20%, requiring design compromises or increased budgets. Although these upfront expenses are often justified by anticipated long term savings and health benefits such as reduced energy and water usage, the actual realization of such returns remains inconsistent6. Both “Material” and “Non-Material” disclosures are significantly associated with ERD, suggesting that agencies may diverge in how they assess the cost benefit tradeoffs of sustainability claims in this capital-intensive sector. In the Consumer Discretionary sector, particularly in the context of fast fashion, companies frequently highlight the use of recycled or environmentally friendly materials and supply chain sustainability as part of their sustainability strategies. Nevertheless, such initiatives are often implemented within a broader business model defined by rapid production cycles, high volumes of consumption, and short product lifespans. While these “Non-Material” disclosures may enhance environmental profiles, they do not necessarily address the sector’s underlying environmental impact. The 43 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH marginal significance of the Non-Material Ratio implies that agencies may apply varying levels of skepticism or approval depending on the importance they assign to such disclosures, leading to inconsistent Environmental ratings. In Information Technology, the Non-Material Ratio is also marginally associated with ERD. Given the sector’s reliance on intangible assets like software and intellectual property, environmental metrics that lack clear operational ties may be more difficult to interpret uniformly. This reinforces the concern that traditional ESG frameworks may struggle to capture meaningful differences in sustainability performance in digital or innovation-based sectors. Across most sectors, firm specific financial metrics such as Leverage, ROE, and ROA have limited influence on ERD. In contrast, within the Financials sector (Figure 8), profitability metrics such as ROE and ROA are significantly associated with ERD. The positive relationship with ROE and the negative relationship with ROA suggest that rating agencies may interpret profitability differently when assessing ESG performance in financial firms. This discrepancy may reflect how certain profitability indicators are used to signal financial strength 44 and attract investment, RANGE potentially leading to upward bias in ESG scores when agencies place disproportionate emphasis on returnbased metrics. A particularly noteworthy case is the Energy sector (Figure 9), where the core business model is inherently linked to environmental impact. Despite this, the regression results reveal an absence of statistically significant ESG variables. For instance, no ESG metrics are statistically significant in the Energy sector, including GHG Emissions to Revenue. This raises concerns about the consistency and robustness of Environmental assessments in industries where emissions are central to operations. Overall, the results of this study reveal that discrepancies between Bloomberg and Refinitiv Environmental ratings are primarily driven by differences in how “Non-Material’ disclosures are weighted and interpreted across sectors. The Non-Material Ratio emerges as the most consistent and economically meaningful predictor of ERD, particularly in the Industrials and Real Estate sectors, and to a lesser extent in Consumer Discretionary and Information Technology. These findings suggest that ERD are less influenced by objective, performancebased indicators and more by the methodological subjectivity inherent in ESG frameworks. In contrast, 45 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH traditional financial metrics such as ROE, ROA, Firm Size, and Leverage demonstrate limited explanatory power for ERD across most sectors, with the notable exception of the Financials sector, where ROE and ROA significantly affect score differences. This reflects the complexity of evaluating sustainability in sectors with intangible environmental impacts and highlights how profitability metrics may contribute to divergent Environmental assessments. Perhaps most critically, the lack of significant environmental predictors in the Energy sector, despite its high emissions intensity, raises important concerns about the reliability and consistency of environmental evaluations of Refinitiv in emissionheavy industries. These findings emphasize the urgent need for more transparent, standardized, and materiality focused Environmental assessment frameworks that can reduce ambiguity, improve comparability, and support informed decision-making for investors and stakeholders across diverse industries. CONCLUSION This study investigates the determinants of ERD between Bloomberg and Refinitiv, focusing on whether such discrepancies can serve as indicators of corporate greenwashing within S&P 500 companies. By combining firm-level analysis with sector-specific 46 RANGE regressions, the study provides compelling evidence that ERD is significantly influenced by the extent of “NonMaterial” environmental disclosures. This pattern suggests that companies may strategically highlight aspirational, policy-oriented sustainability information to enhance their Environmental ratings, without necessarily committing to measurable or impactful environmental action. A key contribution of this study lies in identifying the Non-Material Ratio as the most economically and statistically significant driver of ERD across several industries, particularly Industrials, Real Estate, and, to a marginal extent, Consumer Discretionary and Information Technology. This finding reinforces the concern that superficial sustainability disclosures, which are not clearly tied to operational performance, are more prone to subjective interpretation by rating agencies, thereby widening score gaps, and potentially enabling greenwashing behavior. The regression analysis also reveals that conventional financial indicators, such as Firm Size, Leverage, ROE, and ROA, exert limited influence on ERD in most industries. Notably, the Financials sector stands out as an exception, where profitability metrics significantly affect ERD potentially reflecting diverging interpretations of 47 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH financial strength and environmental responsibility. Even more concerning is the Energy sector, where GHG Emissions to Revenue are not statistically significant. This absence of meaningful predictors in a sector intrinsically tied to emissions raises questions about the robustness and consistency of environmental evaluations in high-impact industries. In conclusion, the results suggest that ERD is less about what firms do in practice and more about how rating agencies interpret the disclosures, particularly when these disclosures are vague, “Non-Material”, or inconsistently weighted. These findings highlight a pressing need for stronger standardization and transparency in Environmental rating methodologies. Investors, regulators, and stakeholders should treat large ERD as potential red flags, especially when accompanied by an overemphasis on “Non-Material” disclosures. Ultimately, this research advances the understanding of greenwashing risk by quantifying the relationship between ERD and disclosure practices, offering a concrete step forward in improving the accountability and comparability of Environmental ratings. As ESG continues to shape the future of finance, ensuring that Environmental scores reflect genuine performance 48 RANGE rather than marketing spin is essential for building trust and driving real sustainability. FIGURES Figure 1. Environmental Indicator Variables 49 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 50 RANGE 51 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 52 RANGE 53 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2. Summary Statistics Table 54 RANGE Figure 3. OLS Regression Result for the Full Model Figure 4. OLS Regression Result for the Industrials sector 55 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 5. OLS Regression Result for the Real Estate sector 56 RANGE Figure 6. OLS Regression Result for the Consumer Discretionary sector Figure 7. OLS Regression Result for the Information Technology sector 57 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 8. OLS Regression Result for the Financials sector Figure 9. OLS Regression Result for the Energy sector 58 RANGE BIBLIOGRAPHY Berg, F., Kölbel, J. and Rigobon, R. (2022). Aggregate confusion: The divergence of ESG ratings. MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5822-19, 3, 8, 12, 16-17, 21. Bingler, J., Kraus, M., and Webersinke, N. (2024). How cheap talk in climate disclosures relates to climate initiatives, corporate emissions, and reputation risk. Council on Economic Policies, University of ErlangenNuremberg, and University of Zurich and Swiss Finance Institute. Financial Analysts Journal, 4-12. Delmas, M. A. and Burbano, V. C. (2011). The drivers 59 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of greenwashing. California Management Review 54(1), 4-9, 22. Dumitrescu, A., Gil-Bazo, J., and Zhou, F. (2022). Defining greenwashing. Working Paper. ESADE Business School, Universitat Ramon Llull, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, and Toulouse Business School, 6-9,11. Dyck, I. J. A., Lins, K. V., Roth, L., & Wagner, H. F. (2019). Do Institutional Investors Drive Corporate Social Responsibility? International Evidence. Journal of Financial Economics Volume 131, Issue 3, March 2019, Pages 693-714. Dyck, I. J. A., Lins, K. V., Roth, L., Towner, M., & Wagner, H. F. (2024). Family- controlled firms and environmental sustainability: All bite and no bark. Finance Working Paper N° 983/2024. European Corporate Governance Institute (ECGI), Appendix A1, A2, 43-46. Edmans, A., and Kacperczyk, M. (2022). Sustainable finance. Review of Finance, 26(6), 1309-1313. Friede, G., Busch, T. and Bassen, A. (2015). ESG and financial performance: Aggregated evidence from more than 2000 empirical studies. Journal of Sustainable Finance and Investment 5(4), 210-212. 60 RANGE Gibson, B. R., Krueger, P. and Schmidt, P. S. (2021). ESG rating disagreement and stock returns. Finance Working Paper N° 651/2020, European Corporate Governance Institute, 4-18. Gompers, P., Ishii, J., & Metrick, A. (2003). Corporate governance and equity prices. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(1), 18-29. Harford, J., S. Mansi, and W. Maxwell, 2008. Corporate governance and firm cash holdings in the US, Journal of Financial Economics, 87, 535-555. Lins, K. V., Roth, L., Servaes, H., & Tamayo, A. (2024). Sexism, culture, and firm value: Evidence from the Harvey Weinstein scandal and the #MeToo movement. Journal of Accounting Research, 1-6. Pollman, E. (2024). The making and meaning of ESG. Harvard Business Law Review, Vol. 14, 413-414. Serafeim, G., & Yoon, A. (2020). Stock price reactions to ESG news: The role of ESG ratings and disagreement. Review of Accounting Studies, 3-6, 26-27. ENDNOTES 1 https://www.bloomberg.com/professional/insights/ 61 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH markets/is-tesla-esg-many-funds-own-it-we-say-itsnot-for-everyone/ 2 https://www.morningstar.co.uk/uk/news/221629/this- is-why-teslas-esg-rating-isnt-great.aspx https://corpgov.law.harvard.edu/2022/11/10/esg- 3 ratings-a-call-for-greater-transparency-andprecision/#1b 4 LSEG. (2023). Environmental, social and governance scores methodology. London Stock Exchange Group. chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/ https://www.lseg.com/content/dam/data- analytics/ en_us/documents/methodology/lseg-esg-scoresmethodology.pdf 5 Bloomberg. (2023). Bloomberg ESG scores: Overview & FAQ. chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/ https://hr.bloombergadria.com/data/files/ Pitanja%20i%20o dgovori%20o%20Bloomberg%20ESG%20Scoreu.pdf 6 https://www.csklegal.com/newsroom/publications/ the-dark-side-of-building62 RANGE green#:~:text=In%20addition%2C%20the%20cost%20t o,and%20the%20cost%20to%20construct 63 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2 Research Reflection by My Bui MY BUI Faculty Mentor: Karl Lins (Finance, University of Utah) My undergraduate research experience has been one of the most intellectually and personally transformative parts of my academic journey. I am deeply grateful to my mentor, Professor Karl V. Lins, whose guidance and encouragement were instrumental in helping me navigate this journey. His mentorship was not about providing raw ideas or pointing me directly to answers, 64 RANGE but rather, about empowering me to think independently, to explore, and to truly engage with the research process. I believe this approach is what made the experience so meaningful and impactful. Under Professor Lins’s supervision over the past two semesters, I have learned how to take ownership of my learning. I developed critical skills in self-directed research, academic writing, and problem-solving-skills that extend far beyond the classroom. When the process became challenging, his belief in my potential helped me to push through and continue striving for a deeper understanding. This experience has not only enriched my undergraduate education, but it has also clarified my future direction. It confirmed my desire to pursue graduate school, where I can continue to grow as a researcher and contribute meaningfully to the field. Above all, I now value the importance of asking the right questions and finding purpose in the process, not just the outcome. For that, I sincerely thank Professor Lins for being a mentor who truly understands how to guide a student toward independent discovery. 65 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 3 Universal Savings Accounts: Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Proposed Tax-Advantaged Savings Vehicle GABRIEL PINNA Faculty Mentor: Scott Pickett (School of Accounting, University of Utah) 66 RANGE ABSTRACT This paper examines the effectiveness and policy implications of implementing Universal Savings Accounts (USAs) as a new tax-advantaged savings vehicle in the United States. The following research evaluates past and present legislative efforts, economic modeling, and comparative case studies of similar programs in Canada and the United Kingdom. While evidence suggests that flexible, post-tax savings vehicles can improve participation rates among lowincome individuals, the paper also highlights significant fiscal trade-offs and growing concerns about regressivity. This paper concludes by arguing that any successful implementation of USAs will require careful policy calibration and bipartisan reform to balance flexibility with long-term fiscal responsibility. INTRODUCTION Tax-advantaged savings accounts were first introduced in the United States under the Revenue Act of 1978 and have grown substantially in number since. Under current law, there are at least 11 different types of taxadvantaged saving vehicles, each restricted to various rules, limitations, and regulations (Kaeding, n.d.). Most 67 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH notable among these are retirement accounts (401ks, IRAs), education accounts (529s), and health accounts (HSAs). However, in recent years, Congress has attempted to put forth new legislation creating and adding yet another vehicle to the mix. This new savings vehicle—a Universal Savings Account (USA)—is intended to simplify the Internal Revenue Code and increase savings participation among low- and moderate-income individuals. In their most current form, USAs are treated in a Rothstyle manner, where contributions are made on a posttax basis. Similarly, these vehicles are designed to be invested in various securities, where the returns accrued are exempt from further taxation. In general, USAs have a base annual contribution limit of $10,000, although this increases by $500 every subsequent year up until a maximum limit of $25,000 is reached. This new account, however, diverges from its well-known predecessors in that it allows penalty-free withdrawals at any time and for any general purpose. Traditionally, individuals who make withdrawals prior to reaching a certain age or certain qualifications (subject to certain exceptions) face penalties, generally in the form of an additional tax (Internal Revenue Service [IRS], 2023). With this more lenient structure 68 RANGE being proposed, questions as to the purpose of this account naturally arise. Legislators who are proponents of the new vehicle argue that a USA “cuts through red tape and gives every American a flexible, tax-free way to save, invest, and spend — without government interference or penalties” (U.S. Rep. Diana Harshbarger, 2025). A special emphasis is put on those of lower socioeconomic status, as the literature historically shows only a small percentage participate in currently available account options. On the contrary, critics of the account argue that USAs will ultimately increase the federal deficit and disproportionately aid those of a wealthier class in reducing their tax burden. Both arguments merit consideration and will be explored in the following sections. It is important to note that USAs are not unprecedented, and other countries have implemented similar savings vehicles into their revenue systems. The UK, in 1999, created various tax-free savings accounts called Individual Savings Accounts (ISAs), and Canada, in 2009, enacted their Tax-Free Savings Accounts (TFSAs). Both accounts will be further analyzed to provide insight into the 69 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH effects of implementing such an account in a revenue system. LEGISLATION In the past 10 years, multiple bills have been introduced to create and codify USAs. In the 114th and 115th Congresses, Rep. Dave Brat [R-VA-5] introduced the Universal Savings Account Act with Sen. Jeff Flake [RAZ] leading the companion bill in the Senate (H.R. 4094, 114th Cong., 2015). This legislation would amend the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 to allow anyone 18 years and above to open a USA and contribute up to an annual maximum of $5,500, indexed for inflation. Additionally, in the 115th Congress, Rep. Mike Kelly [R-PA-3] introduced the Family Savings Act of 2018. Section 301 of this bill contained provisions creating USAs, nearly identical in structure to the prior bills, with a few minor amendments. The annual contribution limit was reduced to $2,500, and distributions were specified to be either cash or property readily ascertained at fair market value (H.R. 6757, 115th Cong., 2018). This bill passed the House with 240 – 177 votes but made no further progress in the Senate. In the 118th Congress, Rep. Diana Harshbarger [RTN-1] introduced the Universal Savings Account Act of 70 RANGE 2024, a bill akin to those introduced in the past. This bill increased the contribution cap to an annual maximum of $10,000 (indexed for inflation) and retained the distribution provisions from the Family Savings Act of 2018 (H.R. 9010, 118th Cong., 2024). However, unlike prior legislation, this bill included provisions for phaseout thresholds for different returners based on modified adjusted gross income (MAGI): $400,000 for MFJ or QS, $300,000 for HOH, and $200,000 for all others.1 For every $1,000 of MAGI above the filing threshold limits, the annual contribution limit would be reduced by $50. The bill additionally added provisions that specified that dependents of a taxpayer cannot contribute to a USA. Recently, in the 119th Congress, Rep. Diana Harshbarger reintroduced the previous bill with Sen. Cruz [R-TX] leading the companion bill in the Senate (H.R. 3186, 119th Cong., 2025). The 2025 version of the bill, however, has been amended to no longer contain phaseout thresholds, language specifying distribution restrictions for the account, and language prohibiting dependents from contributing to a USA. Additionally, the annual contribution limit has been altered to start at an initial base limit of $10,000, increasing in increments of $500 every subsequent year, 71 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and capping at a maximum of $25,000. This structure was referenced in the Introduction. LITERATURE REVIEW While the literature focused specifically on USAs is sparse in number, many think tanks have taken the lead in the discussion. The Tax Foundation has been most vocal regarding implementing USAs, as their analysis argues an overall net economic benefit. The institution asserts that the complexity of current accounts largely disincentivizes enrollment, especially among lowerincome individuals. Data from the Congressional Research Service (CRS) analysis of the Federal Reserve’s 2019 Survey of Consumer Finances (SCF) supports this claim. Only 6.7% of individuals earning under $30,000 owned an IRA, compared to 54% of those earning over $125,000 (CRS, 2020). While one cannot directly link the complexity of the current accounts to low participation rates, the data strongly suggests a correlation. Additionally, the organization points out that because current accounts require individuals to reach a certain age (59 ½) to withdraw funds penaltyfree, the design dissuades those who cannot afford the illiquidity (e.g., lower-income individuals). 72 RANGE Source: CRS analysis of the 2019 Survey of Consumer Finances (SCF), Table 5 In their analysis, the Tax Foundation examined revenue effects by modeling Canadian TFSAs in the US revenue system and offsetting the fiscal costs by ending taxadvantaged contributions to HSAs (Table 1). Both changes were introduced at the beginning of 2025. The data showed a net gain of $110.2 B in conventional revenue or $105.6 B in dynamic revenue over the 10-year budget window (Tax Foundation, 2024). These revenue estimates, however, are frontloaded, meaning 73 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the initial gain will eventually be offset by losses in the future. Nonetheless, their analysis estimates that the replacement of HSAs would have a negligible effect on tax revenue in the long run. Furthermore, they assert the initial revenue gain could be used to make different policy changes that would benefit the economy through less traceable returns (e.g., reduce the deficit). Table 1 Source: Tax Foundation General Equilibrium Model, May 2024. On the contrary, critics of USAs state that the new account would increase the federal deficit by encouraging individuals to shift savings out of taxable accounts. Additionally, they argue that the exemption of any phaseout provisions puts into question who these accounts are intended to benefit. In support of these concerns, the Joint Committee on Taxation (JCT) estimated federal revenue would have decreased by $8.6 74 RANGE B from FY 2019-2028 if USAs from the Family Savings Act of 2018 were implemented (Joint Committee on Taxation [JCT], 2018). Further concerns regarding the taxation timing (as proposed) being frontloaded also lead many to believe those estimates are artificially lowered, and in the long run, federal revenue will decline dramatically (Duke, 2018). Source: Joint Committee on Taxation, “Estimated Revenue Effects of H.R. 6757” Comparative Analysis Given the limited literature on USAs, analyzing Canadian TFSAs and the UK’s ISAs will aid in understanding how USAs may potentially impact the economy and address the claims made in the Literature Review. Canada’s TFSAs Tax-Free Savings Accounts (TFSAs) were introduced in 75 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Canada in 2009 to encourage Canadians to save money in a flexible, tax-advantaged account. Unlike traditional retirement accounts, the TFSA is not tied to any specific purpose, and funds can be used for a myriad of reasons: retirement, education, a home purchase, emergency expenses, etc. Regarding eligibility, individuals must be Canadian residents (with certain exceptions), no less than 18 years old, and must provide a valid Social Insurance Number (SIN). Contributions to TFSAs are made on a post-tax basis, where earnings grow taxfree and contributions are capped annually at a base of $7,000 (2025), indexing for inflation (Canada Revenue Agency, 2024). TFSAs, however, do not have a maximum cap, and unused contributions and withdrawals can be rolled over from previous years. In addition, TFSAs, like USAs, are not penalized for any withdrawals and can be invested in a variety of securities. So, what are the effects of implanting such an account? From an initial glance, the data supports the claim that these accounts benefit lower-income individuals. Data from Canada’s 2016 Census found that 26.6% of lowincome (under CAD 30,000) individuals participated in TFSAs, which is substantially higher when compared to alternative retirement and pension plans (6.3% and 76 RANGE 4.2%, respectively) (Statistics Canada, 2017). Furthermore, average contributions to TFSAs are relatively uniform across all income groups, suggesting these accounts are fairly equitable (Canada Revenue Agency, 2024).2 However, equally important to note are the fiscal impacts TFSAs have had on revenue. The Parliamentary Budget Officer estimates that in 2015, the total fiscal costs of TFSAs amounted to $1.3 B or 0.06% of GDP (Office of the Parliamentary Budget Officer [PBO], 2018). By 2080, they project fiscal costs to reach 0.57% of GDP. They further note that the benefit of TFSAs will become more regressive over time, whereas those in middle to higher-income groups will ultimately benefit the most. Source: Canada Revenue Agency, “Tax-Free Savings Account Statistics (2022 Tax Year),” Table 3C 77 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 78 RANGE Source: Parliamentary Budget Officer; Figures A-2 and A-3 The United Kingdom’s ISAs Individual Savings Accounts (ISAs) were introduced in the UK in 1999 and are intended to encourage longterm, tax-efficient saving and investment among individuals. ISAs like TFSAs offer tax-free growth and penalty-free withdrawals (excluding Lifetime ISAs) and are capped at a maximum annual contribution limit of £20,000. However, differing slightly in structure from TFSAs, the UK provides four types of ISA accounts that individuals can choose from: Cash, Stocks & Shares, Innovative Finance, and Lifetime (HM Revenue & Customs, n.d.). Any interest earned from cash or income and capital gains from investments are not taxable. To be eligible for an ISA, individuals must be UK residents, no younger than 16 years old for cash ISAs, and 18 years old for stocks and shares or innovative finance ISAs. Additionally, unlike their Canadian counterpart, ISAs do not allow for unused contributions to be carried forward. Since their introduction, the participation in savings among low-income earners has increased, with 61.3% of all ISA account holders having a gross income under £30,000 (HM Revenue & Customs [HMRC], 2020). 79 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH However, as expected, these structures come with fiscal costs. In the 2023- 2024 year, ISAs cost the UK £7.7 B in revenue and are projected to cost £9.6 B in the 2024-2025 year (HM Revenue & Customs [HMRC], 2024). Source: HM Revenue and Customs Annual Savings Statistics 2024; Chart 4 80 RANGE Source: HM Revenue and Customs Non-Structural Tax Relief Statistics (December 2024); Table 1 POLICY DISCUSSION Given the data presented through comparative analysis and economic modeling, the question persists as to whether USAs should be implemented and whether these new accounts would truly be beneficial. While the data supports a correlation between lower-income participation and flexible tax accounts, the fiscal costs associated with them complicate the situation. Ultimately, the answer will remain unknown until these accounts are codified and time-series analysis can be performed. What is known, however, is that the structure of these accounts is integral to their political and budgetary implications. 81 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH USAs, in their most recent proposed form (H.R. 3186), are likely to gain little traction and bipartisan support. The increased maximum contribution limit and exclusion of income phaseout provisions alone bolster critics’ reservations towards the account. As a result, for this legislation to be successfully codified, amendments to the bill must be made to help address certain concerns from hesitant parties. One may recommend that the Universal Savings Account Act of 2024, originally introduced by Rep. Harshbarger, be used as a basis for negotiating amendments, given that the bill appears to be the most accommodating. Furthermore, potentially altering the tax treatment of USAs to follow a traditional style (pre-tax deduction) may allow the government to capture any abnormal gains in the market and help offset budgetary concerns. If the intentions of creating USAs are truly for the benefit of the people, political compromise must be at the forefront of conversations. CONCLUSION To conclude, while USAs still exist in the abstract of conversations in Washington, DC, this research serves as a tool to better understand the potential effects and considerations these accounts require. Still, much negotiation needs to be done before any hope of codification becomes realistic. Evidence from Canada’s 82 RANGE TFSA and the UK’s ISA programs reveals that structurally similar accounts can successfully expand savings participation across income levels, especially among low-income individuals who are dissuaded by current savings vehicles. However, these gains come with measurable fiscal trade-offs, as both countries have experienced rising revenue losses associated with their implementation. To make USAs viable and equitable, future proposals must balance flexibility with fiscal responsibility. Above all, the success of USAs as a tool for financial security and tax simplification depends not only on policy design but also on the willingness of legislators to engage in meaningful, bipartisan reform. FOOTNOTES 1 MFJ: Married Filing Jointly; QS: Qualifying Surviving Spouse; HOH: Head of Household 2 Certain types of income are not included in total income assessed because they are non-taxable, so true economic income may be understated. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kaeding, N. (n.d.). Universal Savings Accounts: A flexible, simple way to promote financial security. Tax Foundation. 83 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH https://taxfoundation.org/research/all/federal/universalsavings- accounts-financial-security/ Internal Revenue Service. (2023, December 14). Hardships, early withdrawals and loans. U.S. Department of the Treasury. https://www.irs.gov/retirement-plans/ hardships-early- withdrawals-and-loans U.S. Senator Ted Cruz. (2025, May 6). Sen. Cruz, Rep. Harshbarger introduce USA Act. https://www.cruz.senate.gov/newsroom/pressreleases/sen-cruz-rep-harshbarger-introduceusa- act H.R. 4094, 114th Cong. (2015). https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/ house-bill/4094 H.R. 6757, 115th Cong. (2018). https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/ housebill/6757/text#tocH3D0A803B6C0C441384C15A3D6B30995E H.R. 9010, 118th Cong. (2024). https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/ housebill/ 84 RANGE 9010?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%22hr9010%2 2%7D&s=7&r=1 H.R. 3186, 119th Cong. (2025). https://www.congress.gov/bill/119th-congress/ house- bill/3186?s=2&r=1 Congressional Research Service. (2020, December 3). Saving for retirement: Household decision making and policy options (CRS Report No. R46635). https://www.congress.gov/crsproduct/R46635 Tax Foundation. (2024, February 14). Universal savings accounts: Improving financial security for all Americans. https://taxfoundation.org/research/ all/federal/universal-savingsaccountsfinancial-security/ Joint Committee on Taxation. (2018, September 12). Estimated budget effects of the “Family Savings Act of 2018” (JCX-75-18). https://www.jct.gov/publications/2018/ jcx-75-18/ Duke, B. (2018, August 14). “Universal Savings Account” proposal in House Republican tax 85 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH framework is ill-conceived. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. https://www.cbpp.org/ research/federal-tax/universal-savings-accountproposal-in-house- republican-tax-frameworkis-illCe Canada Revenue Agency. (2024). Tax-Free Savings Account (TFSA), Guide for Individuals (RC4466). Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/revenue-agency/ services/formspublications/publications/ rc4466/tax-free-savings-account-tfsa-guideindividuals.html Statistics Canada. (2017, September 13). Census in Brief: Household contribution rates for selected registered savings accounts. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 98-200-X2016013. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/censusrecensement/2016/as-sa/98-200-x/2016013/ 98-200- x2016013-eng.cfm Canada Revenue Agency. (2024, January 15). Tax-Free Savings Account statistics (2022 tax year). Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/revenue-agency/ 86 RANGE programs/about- canada-revenue-agency-cra/ income-statistics-gst-hst-statistics/tax-freesavings-accountstatistics/tax-free-savingsaccount-statistics-2022-tax-year.html Office of the Parliamentary Budget Officer. (2018, October 16). Costing note: Revenue effect of the Tax-Free Savings Account. https://distributiona617274656661637473.pbodpb.ca/ 68a1514c053cbb965758d718c99ae6b85f2893ed febdcf48c2f488e2079ccc9d HM Revenue & Customs. (n.d.). How ISAs work. GOV.UK. https://www.gov.uk/ individual-savings-accounts/how-isas-work HM Revenue & Customs. (2021, June 8). Commentary for annual savings statistics: June 2021. GOV.UK. https://www.gov.uk/ government/statistics/annual-savings-statistics/ commentary-for-annual-savings-statisticsjune-2021 HM Revenue & Customs. (2024, December 5). Non-structural tax relief statistics (December 2024). 87 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH GOV.UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/ statistics/main-tax-expenditures-andstructural-reliefs/non-structural-tax-reliefstatistics-december-2024 88 RANGE 4 Feeling Safety Through Friendship and Memory: Crossing (In)Between Safe and Non-Safe Spaces Within (Living) Colonial Systems BRITTNEY MELLIN Faculty Mentor: Annie Isabel Fukushima (Ethnic Studies, University of Utah) 89 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH RECONOCIMIENTOS Dedico esto para mi familia, realmente no sé dónde estuviera sin todes ustedes. Los amo y los quiero lo mejor que pueda, y ojalá lo pueden sentir. Ojalá en estos sistemas violentas en cuáles vivimos, puedo intentar ser un lugar seguro para ustedes. Con todo mi corazón, los quiero. Para mis amiges, a los que se sienten como almas gemelas y los cuales es un milagro poder pasar tiempo juntos; gracias por estar aquí conmigo. Aunque lo sepan o no, han añadido sus piezas de ser a mi mente y cavado un lugar en mi corazón. Los quiero y espero que lo pueden sentir. A mis conexiones académicas y mis mentoras de este proyecto. He aprendido y desaprendido mucho durante estos últimos cuatro años. No puedo explicar cuanto agradezco todo el apoyo, cariño, y conexión que he tenido el privilegio de sentir. Un privilegio en cuál a veces no siento que lo merezco, pero siempre lo mantendré querido. Para los que no he mencionado, por favor entiendan que no lo hago para olvidar o ignorar sus presencia e impacto en mi vida. No pudiera imaginar este proyecto 90 RANGE sin toda la gente cuales he podido querer, les aprecio más que pudiera demostrar. A la comunidad palestina, siento la mayor tristeza y dolor por la brutalidad, violencia, y el genocidio, que han tenido que resistir por generaciones. Pero, igual siento admiración por los esfuerzos en todas las luchas que han tenido que confrontar cotidianamente. Me han enseñado el más alto nivel de no rendirse, aunque el mundo, día tras día, los ignora y los dejan para muertos. ¡Pero, siguen con la resistencia! En mi vida está la lucha cotidiana para que mis identidades serán reconocidas y para, no nomas sobrevivir, pero para prosperar con ellas. Difícil cuando siento que todo lo que conoce mi gente es la violencia. Pero si no fuera por mi proyecto, el sistema de apoyo de mis mentoras, amiges, y familia, no hubiera sentido toda la motivación y esperanza que sentí. Aprendiendo y analizando como me siento y como existo en espacios seguros, aprendí que la gente alrededor de mi estaban cometido para la lucha. Así que, en una manera este proyecto es para todes elles como para mí. Para los que siguen luchando, gracias. Ojalá este proyecto se siente como una letra de amor, para la 91 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH resistencia y sus esfuerzos. Es un camino duro, brutal, y largo, pero seguimos luchando. Luchando, y luchando, y luchando. Pero igual amamos, nos cuidamos, y permanecemos conectados. La multiplicidad de nuestras vidas, de nuestra sobrevivencia, y como prosperamos, necesita ser reconocido y apreciado. De lo más profundo de mi corazón, ¡gracias! Finalmente, dedico este proyecto para mí. A la niña que fui y para la adulta en el que me estoy convirtiendo, con este proyecto prometo a mí mismo de luchar para poder prosperar en esta vida. Para nosotres. Brittney Serenna Mellin Gutiérrez (ella/elle) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I dedicate this to my family, I truly would not know where I would be if it were not for all of you. I love you as best as I can, and I hope that it is felt. I hope that within the violent systems we live in, I can attempt to be a safe space for you. With all I have in my heart, I love you. To my friends, to those that feel like soulmates and to 92 RANGE those where seeing each other is a miracle, thank you for being there. Whether you know it or not, you have added your pieces of being to my mind and have dug your way into my heart. I love you and hope you can feel it. To my academic connections, and most importantly my mentors, I have learned and unlearned the most in these past four years. I cannot explain how much I appreciate all the support, care, and connection I have had the privilege of feeling. A privilege, I sometimes feel I do not deserve but will always hold dear. To those left unmentioned, please do understand I do not do so to forget or ignore your presence and impact in my life. I could not imagine this project without all the people I have been able to love; I am thankful for all of you more than I could ever hope to show. To the Palestinian community, I feel the greatest sorrow and pain for the brutality, violence, and genocide, that you have had to endure across generations. Yet, I admire the fight, the struggle, and the battle you all push through every day. You all have taught me the highest level of not giving up, even as the world turns away from you and constantly leaves you for dead. And yet, you survive! 93 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH In my life there is the daily fight for my identities to be acknowledged and not only to survive, but to thrive in them. Difficult, when it feels that all my people ever encounter is violence. If it were not for the work of my project, the support system of my mentors, friends, and family, I do not think I would have felt the hope and motivation I did. By learning and analyzing my feelings and existence within safe spaces, I learned that those around me were committed to the fight. So, in that way, this project is not only for me but for them. To those continuing the fight, thank you. I hope in a way this feels like a love letter, to the fight and for all our efforts. It is a hard, brutal, long road ahead, and yet, we fight. We fight, we fight, and we fight. But we love, we care, and we remain connected. The multiplicity of our lives, of our survival, and how we thrive, must be acknowledged and cherished. From the bottom of my heart, thank you! And lastly, I dedicate this to myself. To the child I was and to the adult I continue to become. With this project, I make the promise to myself to continue to fight to be able to thrive in this life. Here’s to us. 94 RANGE Brittney Serenna Mellin Gutiérrez (she/they/ella) ABSTRACT I use the autoethnography method, to contextualize my experiences as a Queer Chicane seeking safe spaces within (living) colonial systems. The intersectionality of being Queer Chicana within (living) colonial systems violently limit the ability of my community to engage in the creation and maintenance of safe spaces. The creation and maintenance acts as an acknowledgment that safe spaces do not exist as a singular event within colonial systems but that as individuals and as a community we can aim to create these safe spaces, to maintain them in a continuous process of always seeking safety. This thesis tackles where I feel safety, with whom, and how I navigate these safe spaces as a resistance to (living) colonial systems. INTRODUCTION This research project answers: How do Queer Chicanes navigate safe spaces and non-safe spaces? How can this navigation be represented when we focus on friendship and memory? And how might one create safe spaces as a form of resistance? To answer these questions, memory became the focus of my research because it 95 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH was through revisiting events retrospectively that I identified my safe spaces. Through the analysis of revisiting memory, of safe spaces as a form of resistance, and of how friendships are creating and maintaining safe spaces, this personal navigation of safe spaces demonstrates how we connect the ways we resist (living) colonial systems to our friendships and through revisiting memories. The research centers my experiences of navigating safe spaces as a Queer Chicane and non- safe spaces within (living) colonial systems through the method of reflecting on key memories within friendship as a reflection of safe spaces, and the emotions within them. In this research, the memories are shared through excerpts and through an analytical reflective process, which contextualize my experiences as a Queer Chicane who navigates multiple spaces by crossing (in)between them as my queerness and chicanidad are intertwined with each other affecting the ways they are developed (Anzaldúa, 1987; Galarte, 2021). My autoethnography reflects the use of memory and friendship to cross (in)between non-safe spaces to safe spaces. Friendships within this project are centered as a method to resist oppressive structures and connect by feeling safe with each other whilst navigating (living) 96 RANGE colonial systems (Basarudin and Bhattacharya, 2016). Spaces are used to signify the connections developed with other people through emotions, a safe space is fostered by intentional communication practices and committed care, as the feelings and identities become integral to reclaim solidarity and resistance with each other (Bernal et al., 2012). (Living) colonial systems relate to the dynamics formed through colonization, and continuing through colonial constructs/structures, of gender, race, queerness, socio-economic class, and other intersecting identities (Taylor-García, 2012). These dynamics impact our everyday relations and how we move across spaces, including but not limited to the cultural, social, educational, and material (TaylorGarcía, 2012). The context behind answering these questions is multiple; it existed within the reality that the 2024 legislation session in my home state (Utah) had passed an anti-DEI bill (HB 261), which banned and penalized any efforts, wording, and organization structures that supported DEI progress across public universities, colleges, K-12 schools, and government offices. Within the same session, HB 257, an anti-trans bathroom bill passed; HB 257 bans transgender Utahns from using the bathrooms and locker rooms that correlate with 97 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH their gender identity within government buildings (Tanner, 2024). These bills led to closures of centers and organizations, all of which were physical safe spaces on- campus at the University of Utah. I also reflect on conversations from a living room in San Francisco, California for the Fall 2024 Queer Advocacy Alternative Break through the Bennion Center at The University of Utah. I had decided to be part of the Fall 2024 Queer Advocacy Alternative Break, where I would use my fall break to go to San Francisco for close to a week with a group of students and a couple of faculty/staff. The alternative break would focus on community engagement and experiential learning based on Queer Advocacy. Yet, this alternative break was having to shift into censoring the ways advocacy materials were taught and the types of conversations faculty/staff had because of the restrictions placed by the legislation bills mentioned above. With these physical references of safe spaces stolen from already oppressed communities and advocacy programs being restricted/censored, I asked, “Where are our (my) safe spaces?” and “Without the physical space, how do we still feel safe?” 98 RANGE BEING QUEER CHICANE Brittney Mellin’s Nametag (she/they/ella pronouns) D e c e m b e r 2 0 99 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2 4 I only recently felt my skin tighten when I uttered the words “she/her/ella,” it felt as if all eyes stared down my soul unkindly. As if at a moment’s notice, anyone, maybe everyone, would have called me out on my “lie,” the one that had made my skin crawl with the unknown. I still did not acknowledge why uttering such words made me break a sweat. I knew why but the words were not on my tongue, yet. I thought the eyes kept staring heartlessly, my heartbeat had kept rising, and rising, and rising, and still there had been more staring. Until the silence was louder than my heartbeat and cleared up my confusion. No one was staring me down. No one paid attention to my words as if I were spitting out lies. It seemed that those in the room did not even know or see the discomfort laid on my soul when those words came out of my mouth, contorting who I was. It was not until I went back home after that last class of 100 RANGE the semester and looked at the pronouns listed in my school profile. They stared back brightly, as if they were trying to blind me. I hadn’t felt ready, but I felt tired. And that day I decided I was tired of feeling tired. I decided to be true to myself, and I went for it. “She/They/Ella” Inés Hernández-Ávila, Manifesto (Re)Living the Movement without Blinking si no conformo Eso es No estoy conforme Así que cómo me puedo conformar? ... y d o y g r a 101 de Memoria: OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH c i a s q u e m i l e n g u a e s m í a y e s l i b 102 RANGE r e y g r i t a y l l o r a y c a n t a y d e m a 103 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH n d a y r e c l a m a p o r l a j u s t i c i a v 104 RANGE e r d a d e r a y l a j u s t i c i e r a p a z While the path of being Queer Chicane is rocky and 105 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH difficult, it can also be full of love and joy. The difficulty of coming into my queerness meant “finding community in the practice of navigating these identities in supportive spaces” (Orozco, 7) and finding these supportive spaces meant finding where I felt safe. Within the journey of my queer chicanidad, I am developing and expanding my identities across and (in)between spaces, which include but is not limited to, cultures, languages, nationalisms, borders, and histories (Cotera et al., 2018). Being Queer Chicane for me, has meant the bridging of all my identities to result in a whole entity that impacts my development and existence. My identities show up as being queer through my sexual orientation and gender identity, by identifying as pansexual and genderqueer with my use of she/they/ella pronouns. As well as, being the daughter of Mexican immigrant parents, being born and raised in the United States, growing up within a cultural space that integrated the lives that came before me and the current experiences I faced in the US. Being Queer Chicane, means that my queerness is situated within my chicanidad, and vice versa, I cannot be who I am without my queerness or my chicanidad, I cannot (and dare not) to separate these identities, for that would leave my soul distorted and fragmented. 106 RANGE As of right now, my experience of being Queer Chicane has meant that only a couple of my family members know of my queerness as I have confided in them to do their best to understand and care for these identities. Being Queer Chicane has meant that the friendship group I speak of within this research, is my first and only group in which my Queer Chicanidad is not made an oddity or exception that is treaded around. My queerness has typically been treated as if it is too abstract and incomprehensible, yet, coupled with my chicanidad it has meant combatting perceived notions of my sexuality as a person of color. My experience has meant I am in the process of learning how to communicate to my mother of my queerness in Spanish so that I can do so when I am ready. Yet, most of my queer development has occurred in English-based environments and sometimes I feel lost in how to explain who I am. Being Queer Chicane means I am navigating feelings of shame, guilt, and the fear of “exposure”, alongside, the joy, determination, and pride I feel when I am in safe spaces that care for who I am, in all its entirety. Even though this journey of being Queer Chicane is difficult, it protects me, loves me, and cares for me against colonial violence, which “can lead to our 107 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH death, socially and physically” (Fukushima, 146). When I resist colonial violence, I resist against the death sought by (living) colonial systems. I would be left soul-less by this death. Through my resistance I have sought and found community at The University of Utah, with friends, in family, and in Salt Lake City, Utah. As I find these communities, I must ask myself again, and again, am I safe here? Am I safe there? With whom do I feel safe? Is this space safe enough? As Inés Hernández-Ávila writes, “mi lengua es mía…y demanda, y reclama, por justiciera verdadera” (365) – my voice is mine and it demands and calls out for true justice (my translation) – my voice resists the silencing commands of oppression and it cries out, it fights back, it screams, and furthermore, it cares, loves, and seeks out my community. Being Queer Chicane, has meant that my sexuality and gender identity are “woven into [my] Chicanidad” (Cotera et al., 26). I cannot isolate any part of who I am and that reality means finding a space, one safe enough that pushes me to develop, explore, and care for my soul. To be Queer Chicane, is to a nepantlera, a soul and body caught (in)between spaces, and that lives a journey of navigating these spaces, from within and across. A nepantlera lives this journey by thriving in the 108 RANGE ambiguity of all the spaces they inhabit (GutierrezPerez, 2018). Yet, to be a nepantlera means “to live in constant danger as [I, we] continuously move and disrupt geographic, psychological, and symbolic borders between the known and unknown” (Gutierrez-Perez, 362). My body and my soul, journey across spaces, I move (in)between safe and non-safe spaces daily. I seek out safety and do so by creating and maintaining safe spaces and finding those who may share a similar journey with me. For being Queer Chicane (a nepantlera) means resisting a dangerous, lifeless, and soulless existence, where (living) colonial systems fight to erase me in death. LITERATURE REVIEW NAVIGATING OPPRESSION This research centers my experience of living with(in) and (in)between Queer Chicane safe spaces, to highlight the creation and maintenance of these spaces within (living) colonial systems. I use the terms creation and maintenance to describe the continuous process of building safe spaces and maintaining their safety. Within these safe spaces, there is the constant struggle and resistance against oppression, to keep the safe space 109 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH alive. By highlighting the continuous resistance that is the safe space and those maintaining it, is to contextualize how “oppression is intimate” (Verhage, 111) and works within the most intimate of spaces, creating spaces that are unsafe and without love. Oppression acts through every crevice and corner of our lives, it is intertwined into all the spaces we exist in, yet safe spaces resist by actively transforming the fear and violence of oppression into the safety, love, and care that support the creation and maintenance of safe spaces. Oppression through its intimacy seeps into our lives in an ongoing process, it impacts our lives through different forms of oppressive systems such as, queer antagonism, racism, “patriarchy and misogyny [that show] their suffocating reach over and over again in daily life” (Hernández Ávila, 363-364). Oppression is intimate and we live with it, it breathes next to us, near us, and around us. It breathes life into the systems and institutions that we walk on, we work in, we study in, and we live in. Individual and systemic oppressive acts keep the lungs of this system breathing. In the same way that oppressive systems have existed in the past, continue to live on and oppress, and impact our future paths; memory, friendship, and safe spaces, are as intimate and as fluid across our generations 110 RANGE and experiences. “To understand oppression as an intimate experience, or as “intimate terrorism” (Anzaldúa, 2012: 42), helps understand its affective dimension, its suffocating strength and deeply hidden roots, its inhabiting and restructuring of the body” (Verhage, 112), and this affects the way that safe spaces are created and maintained as the intimacy of oppression impacts our spaces and bodies. Being Queer Chicane means that I am tackling multiple oppressive systems daily and my identity’s development is intertwined with these experiences where Roberto C. Orozco states “[f]or queer Latinx/a/o college students, having multiple minoritized identities entangles their identity development while working to resist systems of oppression including, but not limited to, queer antagonism, racism, sexism, and patriarchy” (Orozco, 2). The intersectionality of my lived oppression is a crucial point of understanding, of why it is important to acknowledge the existence of safe spaces centered around the inseparable identities of Queer Chicane. Of why, being Queer Chicane, navigating safe spaces and lack thereof, means living as my identities are oppressed and my existence represents resistance. 111 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH HEALING THROUGH THE FEELING OF SAFETY Different avenues of resistance are utilized, analyzed, and lived; Annie Isabel Fukushima (2023) conceptualizes resistance through the act of witnessing (colonial) violence against the people around us, specifically violence committed against oppressed people and communities. The resistance of witnessing violence and acknowledging the oppression by its violence, is emphasized as an act that must continue. As Fukushima (2023) says if “trauma breaks our connection to ourselves and community, the work to heal from colonial violence are connections” (147), such connections made with community can and should include safe spaces. These safe spaces support individuals and communities to (re)build connections within and throughout the community through love and care. Through this constant, daily, experience of oppression, is the coming together of people that form communities, collectives, and coalitions, which are “illuminated between bodies coming together to witness each other in time of pain, difficulty, and even, trauma, breaking the disconnection created by violence” (Fukushima, 145). Through this coming 112 RANGE together are the efforts of creating and maintaining safe spaces to resist oppression, and non-safe spaces. This creation and maintenance of safe spaces signifies the intentional efforts to build connections and maintain their resistance as oppression works against those involved and the space itself. The ways I conceptualize safe spaces in my work are intertwined with the aspect of feeling safe within these spaces, as compared to the emotions felt within the non-safe spaces. Sara Ahmed’s (2004) conceptualization of affective economies develops the ideology of emotions as agents of action and connection; therefore, emotions (of any kind) create an economy of value and action. Affective economies signify the attachment of emotions between the subject, communities, and collectives. Through the concept of affective economies, I use the understanding that emotions exist as powerful tools that (re)produce connections between individuals, communities, and ideologies. All emotions and their capability to act as agents of change in a cyclical economic fashion, pushes forward the importance of emotions, in which I highlight feeling safety as it relates to safe or non-safe spaces. Through my research, I grapple with safety as an emotion that acts as binding and protective agents of the safe space 113 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH through efforts of love and care, specified within the context of resisting oppression from a Queer Chicane experience and perspective. MEMORY AS RESISTANCE The context of photography as it relates to memory within the Chicana movimiento, contextualized within political trauma, relates to the absence of memory and history being captured or the trauma of erasure (Chávez, 2018). Marisela Chávez examines photography used during the Chicana movimiento as a method of capturing memories that represent history and their connection to the present. Within the material, Chávez connects the struggle of finding evidence of historical movements, especially as they relate to Chicanas and the movimiento, to the postmemory concept of Marianne Hirsh, of how memories are (re)lived and (re)captured by people and generations “removed” from the photographed event. Yet, the use of photography transforms sentiments of the histories recorded, their abundance or erasure, and how people “removed” from these events can use memory within photographs to validate and represent alternative “herstories” (Chávez, 326). Chávez’s material intertwines with the focus of memory being a way to navigate safe spaces and how memory solidifies, 114 RANGE validates, and “proves” the existence and resistance of safe spaces. Memory has multiple uses; both as an act of recalling lived experiences and emotions within oppression to the resistance of erasure and silence. Through AnaMaurine Lara’s (2017) work, memory provides the possibility to “remember murder, and disappearance, and violence, and loss and exile” (4) and is interpreted as powerful tools when these real, yet difficult emotions are responded by us, such as when “colonialities are met with resistance [and] memory [becomes] a site of struggle and resistance” (Fukushima, 138-139). Memory is a space in which lived experiences are documented and utilized to create and maintain a safe space; memory and safe spaces become connected to counteract the impact of oppression. Ana-Maurine Lara describes their intention behind the use of the brackets of “[Afro] [Latinx] [Queers],” they are meant to highlight the (historical) significance of the inseparable identities of Afro, Latinx, and Queer, within the context of being completely named. The intentionality is made explicit, as Lara examines the dominating systems of oppression and their impacts on our identities, our lived experiences, our histories, and our memories. 115 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Taking inspiration from Lara’s work, I use brackets throughout my research as they relate to (living) colonial systems and crossing (in)between safe, and non-safe, spaces. Colonial systems are very alive, and I intend to emphasis this by using “(living);” colonial systems are not dead but have changed methods and appearances throughout the last six centuries in the Americas. Colonial systems breathe with lungs fueled by individual and systemic acts of hate and ignorance. Similarly, as a Queer Chicane, my whole existence has been about crossing spaces and balancing a space of my own to develop my identities (Anzaldúa, 1987). Yet, I did not want this crossing to seem as if they do not interact between each other, as I cross from non-safe spaces to safe spaces, I am moving (in)between them, as I navigate my resistance within the safe space to counteract the damaging impacts of non-safe spaces. Yet, I cannot dwell permanently within the safe spaces, and I must continue the journey (in)between these spaces. IDENTITY IN SPACES Through my work of non-safe spaces, I focus on the act of crossing (in)between these spaces, of the normativity of existing within non-safe spaces, yet, crossing into safety. Gloria Anzaldúa’s reading 116 RANGE Borderlands/La Frontera (1987), de/constructs the concept of existing within the borderlands. The breakdown of a borderland existence is examined through the connection of the people that live (in)between these borderland spaces, both physically and symbolically. Anzaldúa analyzes how the borderlands/Frontera becomes a space, caused by the clash of land “borders,” a clash of people, a clash of communities, and a clash of cultures. Then, from these clashes, are “births” of new(er) cultures, communities, and identities, which are impacted by the ‘leftover’ emotions of the clashes that “created” them. Such products of these clashes include Chicanes, being Chicane has meant a life within the borderlands and (in)between spaces, identities, and communities from the beginning. Contextualizing lived experiences means understanding the identities of the self and how this impacts the development of connection to others. Mariana Ortega (2015) examines the conceptualization of the self as intertwined to identity and lived experience. Ortega emphasizes the positionality of the self as a social location based on identity and its relation to existing within the spaces that form from these identities. Ortega furthers the concept by how the self within this 117 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH context transforms, splits, and/or conforms. Similarly to the way that Anzaldúa constructs the development of the Chicane identity within the borderlands. These transformations and the development of these identities are dictated by the person of the self, the environment in which the self exists, and the collective/individual of the self. This is where the connection between the self and identity exists, how the understanding of the self within one’s social location leads to understanding the identities that are impacted by the structures of power in which the self is being navigated within and out of. As Ortega mentions, “the importance of Borderlands/ La Frontera lies not only in Anzaldúa’s multi-faceted writing that includes theory, mythology, prose, and poetry, but also in its introduction of a new kind of self, the new mestiza” (Ortega, 245-246). This new mestiza understanding focuses on the existence of the self (in)between spaces, constantly displaced from one space to another, throughout this experience the self continues to develop as it moves and transforms. Yet, this displacement and “state of in-betweenness” (Ortega, 246), leads to many possibilities of the development of the identity that has navigated a complex journey across multiple spaces, that of which it does not conform to. This development of the self 118 RANGE (in)between spaces as it transforms, highlights the development of the Queer Chicane identity as it navigates non-safe and safe spaces. METHODS This research project employs autoethnography methods, as it enables the researcher’s “ability to transform individuals and bring them into community” (Ellis and Calafell, 2020). I use autoethnography as a representation of my experiences to highlight and validate the process of seeking, creating, maintaining, and navigating safe spaces. The lived experiences I call upon within the project demonstrate the significance of connection and building community as a form of resistance, specifically safe spaces. This connects to the foundation of autoethnography as a social justice focused method as it centers on the aspect of reclaiming silenced voices and highlighting oppressed experiences (Ellis and Calafell, 2020). Autoethnography in this project is employed through retrospective memory captured through written excerpts, photographs, reflection processes, and a literature review. My autoethnography incorporates memory excerpts and photographs from the Fall 2024 Queer Advocacy Alternative Break in San Francisco, 119 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH California, from experiences with friends (i.e., in Duck Creek Village, Utah and Snoqualmie, Washington), and the experience of coming into my genderqueer pronouns in Salt Lake City, Utah. I employ reflective processes to determine emotions attached to friends within safe spaces (and non-safe spaces), alongside, a literature review based on emotions (Ahmed, 2004), space (Anzaldúa, 1987; Verhage, 2014; Ortega, 2015), memory (Chávez, 2018; Hernández-Ávila, 2018; Lara, 2017; Fukushima, 2023), and resistance (Orozco, 2024; Fukushima, 2023). The main consideration was the necessity of anonymity and maintaining humanizing factors within the memories and photos. By incorporating memories, I implemented anonymity by using pseudonyms, which provides privacy for those involved in my memory but prevents dehumanization through appropriate representation (i.e., no use of letters, initials, or numbers). Within the written aspect of the memory was the consideration of not misrepresenting the individuals or misguiding the content of the memory. This was accomplished by not using direct quotes as memory shifts across time and cannot be made accurate. Alongside the written aspect, was the necessary process of maintaining the memory excerpt 120 RANGE within the space of the memory and separate from the reflective and analytical process. This was demonstrated by thorough revisions that were constantly reviewed for the removal of any external edits that occurred during the writing process. With the autoethnography, I had to choose which memories to highlight, document, then analyze. I chose a memory that focuses on the moment when I asked myself about my safe spaces and how I feel safety, and two memories that emphasis the feeling of safe spaces through my friendships. Therefore, I analyzed the first moments of realizing I felt safe with my friends and later, when this connection of safety was deepened. Lastly, I chose a memory to show my feelings as I came into my genderqueer pronouns (she/they/ella), to highlight the experience of making my pronouns known. Yet, by recalling these memories, I must choose what is most significant within these lived experiences and how to relay them through the written excerpts. Through this project, I had to learn to be as considerate as I could be about my memories and about what I was remembering. As I wrote, it had become harder and harder to prevent my reflective thoughts coming through the memory and establishing themselves 121 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH between the lines. Yet, with much work, the memories I present show the internal thoughts, tensions, and questions I had, at the moment of the experience. Memory, or the act of remembering, is a powerful and emotional tool, which can be wielded by any person but precise “memory is neither possible nor practical, for something is always forgotten. We forget despite our best efforts, and we also forget because powerful interests often actively suppress memory” (Nguyen, 10). We counteract this suppression by retelling and acknowledging the memories within “the context of political, personal, and social transformation” (Cotera et al., 26), where we must acknowledge that our memories are impacted by the context in which they were experienced and the context in which we are remembering them. The documentation of lived experiences and memory is important to communities as it is one of many methods to keep the memory alive and to acknowledge the memory, and what it represents for the community. One’s memory can be used to relay experiences of oppression and discrimination, yet, “this form of remembering is painful because it involves remembering not just what colonization was about, but what being dehumanized mean(s) for our own 122 RANGE [culture]” (Lara, 4), furthermore, these painful experiences range from daily occurrences to intense events of hate and ignorance. Within the queer Chicane community, the context around memory must be acknowledged as tools of resistance against oppression, both in the ways they validate these experiences of living within colonial systems and the way memory can work to resist against oppressive practices that push to steal, distort, and conceal these experiences. Through my process of revisiting memories, I am documenting the memory as a representation of my experiences within safe spaces and my questioning of it, as well as, documenting my feelings within these safe spaces. Through this documentation of my memories, I am preventing them from being completely forgotten, stolen, and/or distorted. I am keeping autonomy over my interpretation of my memories, how they impacted me, and what they represent. Within this project, the powerful tool of memory, serves to revisit safe spaces through my personal lived experiences and to resist against the silencing of these lived experiences through its documentation. I resist by documenting my lived experiences, I resist by documenting them to be acknowledged, and I resist 123 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH by making sure these experiences are not erased, dismissed, and/or silenced. Through my work of revisiting my memories, I focus on the positive aspects from the experiences of asking myself about safety and identifying my safe spaces by centering on my friendships. By revisiting my memories and analyzing why friendship had become immensely important to understand my safe spaces, I documented these important memories; these memories that of which provide a perspective of how a Queer Chicane (myself) navigates her safe spaces and how they use memory to proceed with this personal navigation of her safe spaces. 124 RANGE RESULTS, ANALYSIS, & DISCUSSION AND IN SAN FRANCISCO, I ASKED MYSELF, HOW DO I FEEL IN SAFE SPACES? Brittney Mellin in San Francisco, California O c t o b e r 125 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2 0 2 4 After dinner, Mark asked us to sit comfortably in the living room. Again, I decided to sit on the steps that led into the kitchen, meanwhile others took seats on the cream fabric couch or on the floor around the glass coffee table. After a few days of having been in San Francisco, I learned to sit towards the corner to avoid the sunlight from across the room hitting me directly in the eyes. Did it work all the time? No. Did I still try it? Yes. With it being late into the night and the sunset all gone, the sun was no longer a threat to my eyes as I sat on the two steps. Kate raised their hands, and a conversation ensued. Kate reflected on the day, on how we met with organizations, how the day went, and how we connected to the different possibilities of community coming together. I reflected with Kate on how we connected to the organization of today, connected with each other, and understood that although we feel safer here, it does not always guarantee safety. Kate continued and mentioned that as queer people, we usually 126 RANGE rely on each other to build emotional safe spaces, as in the end, we navigate the feeling of non-safety all the time. Brian raised their hand and discussed how they liked the experience of meeting with community partners in San Francisco and seeing what is implemented in the community. Brian wondered why we do not have the same opportunities in Utah. We all sat with this, the feeling of knowing we will go back to a place that does not feel as safe, and where it is harder to find safe spaces like those we visited in San Francisco. I felt with the end of the break coming up that I would miss the community partners we had connected with, the variety of support systems for the queer and trans communities that are not as established in Utah, and with these thoughts, a bittersweet feeling had washed over me. Valentino, who sat on the steps near me, spoke about how they felt. They reminded us of our reality – Utah is not San Francisco. We visited places that have years of building and creating community, and they do so with lots of difficulty. Valentino had always been good with redirecting the group away from romanticizing or idolizing San Francisco. I sat with Valentino’s words and attempted 127 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH to think on what these safe spaces looked and felt like in Utah. The memory excerpt written above and titled “And in San Francisco, I asked myself, how do I feel in safe spaces?” speaks to the event in my life that acted as a catalyst to my deep thinking of where I navigate safe spaces, with whom, and how safe spaces are being created and maintained. While in San Francisco, the alternative break organizations consisted that focused of meeting their efforts with on LGBTQIA+ communities, especially to provide supportive resources and spaces. With these experiences, I witnessed the fight and struggle of these organizations to provide these resources and make them accessible to the Queer/Trans community. With these experiences and the planned end-of-day reflections, the questions of how I feel in safe spaces, flowed through my mind on those two steps that bordered the kitchen and living room in San Francisco. Later, these questions pushed me to find with whom and where, I went from surviving nonsafe spaces to thriving in safe spaces. Through the work of autoethnography, the importance of memory grew and developed into 128 RANGE symbols of my safe spaces, representing where I felt safe, with whom, and what I felt in those spaces. Through memory, came the perspective of friendships being connections of resistance and safety. By connecting safe spaces to friendships, I harnessed the power of memory; of how “memories are signs and products of power, and in turn, they service power” (Nguyen, 15). Memories are powerful, and through the act of remembering, we have an opportunity to revisit and connect back to feeling safe. The act of remembering safety does not leave it in the past, it drives forward and reconnects us back to these spaces, where we can maintain safety. We maintain safety through daily, ongoing acts of resistance, reflection, and connection through emotions. Memories transport us back to past events, to emotions that are developing throughout time, and back to the connections we have to the people within the memory. Yet, it matters what is done with the memory and how its power is harnessed and developed. Our responses to memories matter, “we can remember murder, and disappearance, and violence, and loss and exile and our response to that pain includes love, and dance, and prayer, and song, and poetry” (Lara, 4). Within these responses, I add safety, for even if the focus of my memories is 129 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH positive, they do not deny the reality of all the memories and times of being and of surviving, within non-safe spaces. For it is the reality of surviving these non-safe spaces that safe spaces are necessary, it is why they are built, developed, labored for, loved for, created, then maintained. Safe spaces are an intimate act of resistance, intimate within their emotionality and intimate within its connection between those involved, for safe spaces are not a given but an ongoing process to which people commit to. This aspect of intimacy is also reflected within oppression and how oppression lives within every corner, crevice, and detail of our lives. Oppression is an intimate process, in both how it impacts the individual and community, and how the existence of oppression within intimate spaces deepens the difficulty of removing oneself from these non-spaces to cross into safe spaces. Contextualizing how “oppression is intimate” (Verhage, 111), furthers the understanding of how oppression leaves the most intimate of spaces, unsafe and without love which people must actively counteract and resist. 130 RANGE AND IN UTAH, I ASKED MYSELF, AM I FEELING SAFE WITH MY FRIENDS? Brittney Mellin in Duck Creek Village, Utah O c t o b e r 2 131 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 0 2 3 I looked out to the trees, all the types that I cannot name, and I felt the wind wrap around me. It was cold and I was shivering, yet I focused on how sad I was that this was the beginning to the end of my first camping trip. One night and two days with my friends, I had been so excited and so nervous. And now I was sad to leave the park. Another wind gust hit me, and I looked up to see two bluejays flying around each other. My friends came back from using the bathroom and came to watch the birds fly at and with each other, next to me. After seeing my friends, a bit of that sadness disappeared and was replaced with anticipation. The type that made me smile for the days we would continue to share, for when our connections would deepen, and we could depend on each other even more. It felt like the friends around me would be permanent in my life if I had anything to say about it. The white fathers told us: I think, therefore I am. The Black mother within each of us – the poet – whispers in our dreams: I feel, therefore I can be free. 132 RANGE Audre Lorde, Poetry Is Not a Luxury in Sister Outsider When I realized I was safe, it was not this switch of a mental lightbulb moment but after I revisited the conversations with friends when we went camping. These conversations consisted of our upbringings and what we wanted from our education; I noticed by my words, my actions, and the way I joked around, that these friends were safe. My mind caught up to my body and the emotions I felt. In this safety, I had an opportunity to experience joy and my queer Chicanidad to its fullest, most expansive, potential. With this trip, I realized that I was surrounded by friends to whom my queerness was not something to not talk about because they did not understand. One where my queer chicanidad was not “so different” that no one attempted to relate or connect. I was not the odd one out with my identities and that shift, that transformation 133 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH into feeling safe, was realized with this one-night camping trip experience with my friends. Safe spaces are incredibly important for the development of an individual, of a community, and the ability to survive and live within non-safe spaces (Orozco, 2024). The creation and maintenance of safe spaces is an intimate, ongoing process between the people involved, and it is difficult as well as emotional (Verhage, 2014). Even with safe spaces being an important part in the process of going from survival in non-safe spaces to thriving in our resistance, “exploring and forming queer and Latinx/a/o identities can be a fraught process that comes with multiple negotiations with self, with others, and the social world around them” (Orozco, 2). These negotiations that occur within the exploration and formation of queer Latinx/a/o identity, also occurs within safe spaces in respect to the people within the space, negotiating with intentionality to support and maintain safety. The intentionality that I speak of shows up in explicit and implicit ways with my friends as we navigate our safe spaces. The main aspect of this intentionality relies on the communication within the safe space, the acknowledgement that the safe space is being maintained between each other, and how non-safe 134 RANGE spaces impacts us differently, for oppression is not a one-size fits all. This communication shows up with our conversations which tackle how we struggle with oppression (from individual to systemic acts) and how we can show care for each other. These conversations connect us to an emotional level of pain and suffering, as well as love and care that can be explored within the safety of our space. These friendships are developed through intentional communication, committed care, and “reciprocal trust” (Basarudin and Bhattacharya, 52). This trust relies on my friends and I, to feel as though we can communicate our struggles and be cared for as we explore our emotions within these struggles, even if the struggles come from within the friend group. Through our intentional efforts towards safe spaces, we can identify the ways we all feel and experience harm, and the ways that we can come together to support each other through this harm to provide a safe space that fosters joy and resistance. Yet, these harms can manifest and occur from each other so through this friendship and our actions to maintain safety, we work towards reciprocal trust and accountability. This accountability “allow[s] us to better interrogate how power operate[s] through our friendship, name each other’s oppressive actions, and call out absences or erasures in our 135 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH resistance” (Nguyen et al., 17). If we are going to maintain the safety within our friendship, we must acknowledge the differences amongst our identities and lived experiences as they change the way our dynamics will care and/or harm each other. This reality that my friends and I experience oppression, harm, safety, and resistance differently, leads to the necessity to collectively create and maintain a safe space that is truly as safe as possible, for all of us involved. Achieving safety is an ongoing process, which requires the intentionality I have spoken of, such as communication and commitment. As well as the ability to hold each other accountable when we are fostering the development and the exploration of our identities within these safe spaces. This exploration and development of our identities, especially as Queer Chicanes, is a difficult and emotional process, yet our safe spaces can be the experiences in which we learn that “we [are] not alone and [find] courage in one another” (Nguyen et al., 16). We understand that our safe spaces are intimate and our emotional connections with others must acknowledge each other’s positionality and how we can collectivize, while holding each other responsible for one’s actions and behaviors. AND WITH FRIENDS, I ASKED MYSELF, HOW 136 RANGE ARE WE MAINTAINING SAFETY? Brittney Mellin in Snoqualmie, Washington M 137 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH a r c h 2 0 2 5 On our last night in Seattle, Washington, we all talked about how stressed we would be with our day driving back to Utah. We did not feel ready to leave Seattle, even if it had been a struggle when I felt that my bones internalized the humid and frigid weather, every single day. We had put “Twin Peaks” on the television, which had been another attempt to finish the series, the horror-like drama that took place in Snoqualmie, Washington. Yet, as we sat on the pull-out bed and extra couch, we all talked about how busy and stressed we would be back in Utah. Two of us were working on our honors Thesis, and we were anxious over the upcoming deadlines and the worry of not being able to complete it. One of us was conflicted with which majors to declare and did not want to feel as though they were wasting time and money. They felt that time 138 RANGE was up, and they had to choose, but what would they do? The last of the group still had another full year of school before graduating and as they got closer to the end there was this unsettled feeling clouding their expectations for their last year. In a natural way, our conversation that night had dived into these struggles, and we all laid them out for the group to see. During these conversations, we brought up how we could help each other, how we could stay in contact but not worry about “having” to meet up, and about how we all believed in each other to push through and succeed. We all had a conversation about how neither of us doubted the other and we all genuinely believed that we would make it past these struggles and be there for each other. When I think back to this trip with my friends, I am reminded of the emotional rollercoaster I experienced. I think back to how we supported each other in the joys and struggles of this trip, especially when it came to coming back home (to Utah). We were all feeling nervous about leaving Seattle, as it meant that the end of the semester was moving in closer and closer. The end of the semester signaled an immense change in our lives at school and a change in the dynamic of our friendship, as two of us would graduate and no longer 139 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH be undergraduate students. Gutierrez-Perez states “in higher education, there are not a lot of Chicanas/ os because systemic structures of oppression continue to hold my community within its grasp. Yosso and Solózano report that out of 100 Chicana/o students that enter elementary school less than one (.02%) will achieve a doctoral degree” (Gutierrez-Perez, 360). He continues the conversation by examining how his intersectionality of being queer, makes his existence an “anomaly” (360) within academia. These perceptions of his identity and how he navigates academia, parallels to the experiences of my educational journey and those of two out of the three in the friendship group I mention. We navigate nonsafe spaces, which includes academia, and must develop our identities in ways that keep us safe from the systemic structures of oppression. I do this through our friendship and its maintenance as a safe space. This conversation was also about making sure we were there for each other, that we would work hard to be each other’s encouragement to complete our responsibilities and complete them well. We wanted to be there for each other, and we wanted to provide adequate support for each other, since we all handle stress so differently. This conversation helped relieve 140 RANGE some of the stress of wanting to make sure I remained a good friend, even as I felt time slipping from my fingers as my graduation date approached. We communicated what each other’s support could be like during this stressful time, and I felt safe with my honesty and theirs. I felt safe to share my worries and where I struggled, and I felt safe to communicate what I could give and what I may need during this time. I felt safe. CONCLUSION: SAFE SPACES AND THE RESISTANCE TO THRIVE Com pañe ros míos yo cum plo mi papel lucha ndo con lo 141 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH mejo r que tengo * With the best that I’ve got. Maya Chinchilla, Solidarity Baby in The Cha Cha Files With a focus on oppression as being intimate, of safe spaces as an ongoing form of resistance, and how memory helps us within the creation and maintenance of safe spaces, the importance of these safe spaces from a Queer Chicane perspective lies within the connection and development between the individuals within the space. “Being in spaces that allow for the exploration of one’s multiple identities while feeling supported to question and form a more authentic reality is important in the development process of queer Latinx/a/o people” (Orozco, 2). A key aspect of safe spaces is the ability to create and hold a space that provides safety that supports 142 RANGE the development of people’s identities, in a way that helps them understand who they are, how these individuals choose to navigate their identities, and how they connect to others, especially those within their communities. The focus of my project was this internal drive of internalizing and representing how existence is resistance; when all your identities are oppressed and one must navigate this oppression, constantly surviving, they are also navigating safety and non-safety. Yet, through this highlight of existence as resistance, I aimed to push forward and understand how safe spaces foster the shift from survival to thriving. With this project, memory and friendships served as methods of accessing my ways of thriving, when all institutions and systems are stacked against me and my joy. By utilizing memory and friendships as avenues of safe spaces, I presented my personal navigation of crossing (in)between non-safe spaces and safe spaces. I presented how I develop my queer chicanidad, my joy and care, and my resistance, as I aim to thrive and not only survive. I am surviving and resisting oppression my whole life, every day is a battle against the next ignorant individual, the next policy, and the next institution, and this state of survival should be elevated into thriving. 143 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Through the research project, I examine friendships and memories as methods I recognize to be used in my own life. At the core of these methods are emotions and the focus of feeling safe. Memory and friendships help Queer Chicanes navigate safe spaces as a form of resistance. My identities cannot be broken, split, mended, partially forgotten, or stolen, and do not get oppressed separately. My life as a Queer Chicana/e, means that every corner of my life exists within the intersection of being queer in my sexuality and gender, of being chicane, of being a first- generation US-born citizen in my family, of being femme-presenting, and of being assigned female at birth. My oppression entangles every aspect of existence within my identities; my queerness and my chicanidad have furthered my understanding of oppression, of inseparable identities, and how existence can be resistance, but the resistance does not stop at existence. Through my work, safe spaces are a resistance, the emotions of safety, love, and care, are acts of resistance against everyday oppression. Safe spaces push us forward into connecting on an emotional level that moves us past survival and into thriving within our identities and the joy it can bring. 144 RANGE BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahmed, Sara. “Affective Economies.” Social Text 22, no. 2 (2004): 117–39. https://doi.org/10.1215/ 01642472-22-2_79-117. Alarcón, Wanda, Dalida María Benfield, Annie Isabel Fukushima, and Marcelle Maese. “GuestEditors’ Introduction: ‘World’- Making and ‘World’- Travelling with Decolonial Feminisms and Women of Color.” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 41, no. 1 (2020): x–xxi. https://doi.org/10.5250/ fronjwomestud.41.1.000x. Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza. San Francisco, California: Aunt Lute Book Company, 1987. Basarudin, Azza, and Himika Bhattacharya. “Meditations on Friendship: Politics of Feminist Solidarity in Ethnography.” Essay. In Dissident Friendships: Feminism, Imperialism, and Transnational Solidarity, 43–68. University of Illinois Press, 2016. Bernal, Dolores Delgado, Rebeca Burciaga, and Judith Flores Carmona. “Chicana/Latina 145 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Testimonios: Mapping the Methodological, Pedagogical, and Political.” Equity & Excellence in Education 45, no. 3 (2012): 363–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2012.698149. Chávez, Marisela R. “REFOCUSING CHICANA INTERNATIONAL FEMINISM: Photographs, Postmemory, and Political Trauma.” Chicana Movidas, 2018, 317–26. https://doi.org/10.7560/315583-020. Chinchilla, Maya. “Solidarity Baby.” Story. In The Cha Cha Files: A Chapina Poética, 3–6. Korima Press, 2014. Cotera, María, Maylei Blackwell, and Dionne Espinoza. “MOVEMENTS, MOVIMIENTOS, AND MOVIDAS.” Chicana Movidas, 2018, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.7560/315583-002. Ellis, Cassidy D, and Bernadette Marie Calafell. “Toward Praxis: Interrogating Social Justice within Autoethnography.” Journal of Autoethnography 1, no. 2 (2020): 203–7. https://doi.org/10.1525/joae.2020.1.2.203. Fukushima, Annie Isabel. “A Multiplicity of 146 RANGE Selves-in-Coalition: A Decolonial Feminist Witnessing Through Autoethnography.” Feminist Formations 35, no. 1 (2023): 134–50. https://doi.org/10.1353/ff.2023.a902071. Galarte, Francisco J. “Dolorous Proximities of Race and Transsexuality: Reading the Gwen Araujo Archive.” Brown Trans Figurations: Rethinking Race, Gender, and Sexuality in Chicanx/Latinx Studies, 2021, 23–46. https://doi.org/10.7560/322123-003. Gutierrez-Perez, Robert. “Monstrosity in Everyday Life: Nepantleras, Theories in the Flesh, and Transformational Politics.” THE POPULAR CULTURE STUDIES JOURNAL 6, no. 2 & 3 (2018): 345–68. Hernández-Ávila, Inés. “MANIFESTO DE MEMORIA: (Re)Living the Movement without Blinking.” Chicana Movidas, 2018, 355–74. https://doi.org/10.7560/315583-023. Lara, Ana-Maurine. “I Wanted to Be More of a Person: Conjuring [Afro] [Latinx] [Queer] 147 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Futures.” The Bilingual review 33, no. 4 (2017): 1–14. Lorde, Audre. Sister Outsider: Essays Speeches. Crossing Press, 2007. and Moraga, Cherríe, and Gloria Anzaldúa. This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2021. Nguyen, Nicole, A. Wendy Nastasi, Angie Mejia, Anya Stanger, and Meredith Madden. “Epistemic Friendships: Collective KnowledgeMaking through Transnational Feminist Praxis.” Essay. In Dissident Friendships: Feminism, Imperialism, and Transnational Solidarity, 11–42. University of Illinois Press, 2016. Nguyen, Viet Thanh. Nothing Ever Dies: Vietnam and the Memory of War. Harvard University Press, 2017. Orozco, Roberto C. “Entre Ser y No Ser: Identity Development Negotiations of Queer Latinx/a/o College Student Activists.” Journal of 148 RANGE Diversity in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000569. 2024. Ortega, Mariana. “Latina Feminism, Experience and the Self.” Philosophy Compass 10, no. 4 (2015): 244–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/ phc3.12211. Segura, Denise A, and Elisa Facio. “Adelante Mujer: Latina Activism, Feminism, and Empowerment.” Latinas/os in the United States: Changing the Face of América, 2008, 294–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-0-387-71943-6_19. Taylor-García, Daphne V. “Decolonizing Gender Performativity: A Thesis for Emancipation in Early Chicana Feminist Thought (1969–1979).” ProQuest Ebook Central, 2012, 107–24. Tanner, Courtney. “Gov. Cox Signs Utah AntiDEI Bill Prohibiting Diversity Efforts He Once Championed.” The Salt Lake Tribune, January 31, 2024. https://www.sltrib.com/news/ 149 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH education/2024/01/31/utahs-gov-cox-signsanti-dei-bill/. Verhage, Florentien. “Reprint of ‘Living with(out) Borders: The Intimacy of Oppression.’” Emotion, Space and Society 13 (2014): 111–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.emospa.2014.06.001. 150 RANGE 5 Research Reflection by Brittney Mellin BRITTNEY MELLIN Faculty Mentor: Annie Isabel Fukushima (Ethnic Studies, University of Utah) As a University of Utah undergraduate student majoring in Ethnic Studies, Gender Studies, and International Studies, with an Honors Integrated Minor in Human Rights and Resources, my academic work and interests 151 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH have revolved around people, identities, and communities. I am passionate about de/constructing identity formation and the concept of forming spaces (physically and symbolically) within colonial institutions, and this research centers my academic interests and personal matters of identity, community, and caring practices in the form of creating and maintaining safe spaces. Through the Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (UROP) I have gained and developed my professional research skills, as they relate to analysis and knowledge development, and my ability to bridge across invaluable connections as I set off into exploring opportunities for a career postgraduation. My research and this research opportunity have created a space that allows me to foster the development of my research project, content, and myself, as a researcher! 152 RANGE 6 US and British Imperialist Destabilization in Guatemala and Jamaica Through the Banana Trade GABRIELA MERIDA Faculty Mentor: Andrea Baldwin (Ethnic Studies and Gender Studies, University of Utah) ABSTRACT The banana is a widely appreciated fruit, enjoyed daily by millions worldwide. However, many consumers 153 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH remain unaware of the bloody history associated with its trade. The historical narrative surrounding the banana industry has often been overlooked or intentionally excluded from educational curricula because of its stark illustration of the violence inherent in Western imperialism. The people and regions of Latin America and the Caribbean, however, have not forgotten; they continue to confront the ramifications of the banana trade and the lasting legacies of U.S. and British imperialism, which have indelibly shaped their economic and political realities. This project examines the historical cases of Guatemala and Jamaica to investigate how Western imperialist powers, specifically the United States and the United Kingdom, have collaborated to destabilize these nations, in part, through control over the banana trade. While much research has addressed the trade disputes between the U.K. and the U.S., limited analysis has examined how both nations leveraged a monopoly over the banana industry, sharing strategies to destabilize and control these regions to sustain their imperialist ambitions. “As long as capitalism and imperialism go unchecked there will always be 154 RANGE exploitation, and an everwidening gap between the haves and the have-nots, and all the evils of imperialism and neocolonialism which breed and sustain wars.” Pan-Africanist Revolutionary and first President of Ghana, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, Challenge of the Congo, p. x INTRODUCTION I come to this work as the daughter of a Guatemalan immigrant whose childhood was shaped by poverty, hunger, and displacement. My father grew up in the shadow of the 1954 U.S.-backed coup d’état against President Arbenz, witnessing firsthand the stark inequalities and violence of Guatemala’s civil war. As a child, he was often left to care for his siblings for months on end while his parents sought work. The trauma of those years remains with him, though much of what happened is locked away in memory he can no longer access. In an effort to understand the legacy of that trauma, I began studying the history of the coup 155 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH in Guatemala and its enduring consequences. I quickly encountered the devastating truth: the United States orchestrated the overthrow of democratically elected President Jacobo Árbenz to protect its imperialist interests and those of the United Fruit Company, a major U.S. corporation. What followed was a dictatorship and brutal U.S.-backed military campaign that claimed the lives of more than 200,000 Guatemalans—83% of whom were Indigenous Maya (UN Commission for Historical Clarification 17). Two hundred thousand lives. My people. Tinam. My exploration into Guatemalan history revealed the far-reaching impact of U.S. imperialism. I came to understand that the hardships my family and I experienced in the United States were directly connected to the violence and economic turmoil wrought by U.S. intervention in Guatemala. The same imperialist forces that pushed my parents to migrate continued to oppress the lives of Guatemalans at home. This pattern is not unique to Guatemala. Across 156 RANGE the Global South, Western powers have intervened to protect their interests, often at catastrophic cost. The assassination of Patrice Lumumba in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the joint U.S.-British overthrow of Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddegh in Iran, and the U.S.-backed coup against President Salvador Allende in Chile are just a few examples. These nations were stripped of their resources and sovereignty in the service of Western capital. With this understanding, I became interested in how imperialist powers—particularly the U.S. and Europe—collaborated and shared tactics in destabilizing the Global South. I wanted to trace these interconnections, to uncover a shared genealogy of resistance among colonized peoples. I chose the banana trade as my point of entry because it offers a clear, tangible example of how foreign policy and economic domination intersect, shaping the political and economic systems of Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) to this day. My research builds on the work of influential 157 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH scholars such as Eduardo Galeano, Eric Williams, Stephen Schlesinger, and Peter Clegg, whose writings have deeply informed the study of imperialism, colonization, and the exploitation of Indigenous and Africandescended peoples in LAC (Galeano 1971; Williams 1970; Schlesinger 1982; Clegg 2002). This paper contributes to this body of scholarship through a comparative study of the banana trade in Guatemala and Jamaica—two countries whose shared history is often overlooked. By highlighting the struggles of both Indigenous and Afro-descendant communities, I seek to emphasize the importance of an internationalist lens in both historical analysis and contemporary struggle. Thus, the central question my research answers is: How have U.S. and British imperialist forces collaborated to destabilize Guatemala and Jamaica and maintain economic domination in Latin America and the Caribbean through the banana trade? This paper begins with a review of the foundational literature that informs my analysis. The writings of Marxist theorists such as 158 RANGE Vladimir Lenin and Nikolai Bukharin have shaped my understanding of imperialism as a global system (Lenin 1917; Bukharin 1917). Historians such as John Soluri and Charles Kepner provide detailed accounts of the banana trade that have informed the structure of this work (Soluri 2024; Kepner 1935). I will then turn to historiography as my main methodology to examine the banana trade in Guatemala and Jamaica, synthesizing secondary sources alongside trade records, CIA documents, US and UK National Archives, and historical imagery. My analysis is grounded in a Marxist framework, applying Lenin’s theory of imperialism to interpret both historical and contemporary developments. The historiographical analysis focuses on five key periods in Guatemalan and Jamaican history: (1) colonization (15th–18th centuries), (2) independence movements (18th–19th centuries), (3) the emergence of the banana trade (late 19th–early 20th centuries), (4) the post–World War II era (1940s–1960s), and (5) the contemporary period (1980s–present). 159 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Drawing from these sources, records, and archival materials, I ultimately argue that the United States and the United Kingdom have employed similar—and at times coordinated—economic, military, and diplomatic strategies to destabilize these nations through the banana trade. LITERATURE REVIEW Colonialism in Latin America and the Caribbean The history of colonialism in Latin America and the Caribbean spans over five centuries, beginning with Christopher Columbus’s arrival. From the outset, Western imperialist nations coordinated to conquer the so-called New World, exploiting its land, resources, and labor to accumulate capital. Peruvian sociologist Aníbal Quijano argued that the colonization of the Americas introduced a “new global model of power” (Quijano 539). Capitalism became the first “modern world- system,” as theorized by Immanuel Wallerstein or a “world economy,” as defined by Marxist Nikolai Bukharin (Wallerstein 1974; Bukharin 1929). The enslavement and genocide of Indigenous 160 RANGE peoples and Africans formed the “founding stone” of this new global economic order (Du Bois 15). As Karl Marx (1867) wrote, “The discovery of gold and silver in America, the extirpation, enslavement, and entombment in mines of the aboriginal population… the commercial hunting of black-skins, signalized the rosy dawn of the era of capitalist production.” As capitalism developed in Europe, so too did the demand for raw materials and labor power (Lenin 79). The colonization of the Americas and the kidnapping and enslavement of Africans proved to be a “profitable” investment, as the wealth plundered through their forced labor flowed back to Western Europe, fueling capital accumulation there (Lenin 60). Capitalism, through colonization, structured the division of labor, assigning unpaid labor to Indigenous people and enslaved Africans while constructing race and racial identity to justify their exploitation (Quijano 534-539). In this way, the development of capitalism in Latin America and the Caribbean would have a colonial character (Quijano 539). 161 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Banana Trade in Latin America and the Caribbean The banana trade in Latin America and the Caribbean illustrates the violence and “wretched conditions” fundamental to the capitalist mode of production (Lenin 60). The literature on the banana trade in this region provides an entry point into understanding the broader implications of Western imperialism and how the development of the West has relied upon the underdevelopment of the Global South (Galeano 41; Nkrumah, 7; Rodney 1972). The economic structures of Latin America and the Caribbean have been shaped by a history of European colonialism, which has imposed a dependency on the export of raw materials and agricultural products to fuel Western development (Josling & Taylor 98). The banana exemplifies a single-export commodity upon which many nations in the region have relied, structuring their economies around its production and trade. These nations have become known as ‘banana republics’ (Josling & Taylor 98). Historians Stephen Schlesinger and John Soluri 162 RANGE trace the origins of the Latin American and Caribbean banana trade to Jamaica in 1870, when Captain Lorenzo Dow Baker arrived and purchased bananas to trade for the first time (Schlesinger 65–66; Soluri 146). From there, Baker formed the Boston Fruit Company and left his home in the United States to reside permanently in Jamaica to supervise banana shipments (Schlesinger 66). Minor Keith, an American entrepreneur, was also developing a banana trade in Central America around the same time (Schlesinger 67). Boston Fruit and Keith struck a partnership, and the two companies merged to create the United Fruit Company (Clegg 24; Schlesinger 67; Kepner, 34). The literature on the United Fruit Company is extensive, as it is one of the most explicit examples of an undisputed capitalist monopoly that not only had the complete support of the United States government but also had the political and economic strength to shape foreign policy and expropriate the labor and means of production of nations in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) (Kepner 341). The United 163 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Fruit Company, as the “unquestioned lord of…the banana industry,” was capable of overthrowing governments and committing some of the worst human rights atrocities recorded in LAC (Kepner 341; Josling & Taylor 99). Guatemala and Jamaica The literature on the banana trade in Latin America and the Caribbean explores both its broader implications and nation-specific case studies. Kepner provides a comprehensive analysis of the trade across the region, while Dr. Peter Clegg focuses on its development in Jamaica (Kepner 1937; Clegg 2002). Both perspectives are essential to understanding the full scope of the banana trade in LAC. However, an analysis comparing the banana trade in Guatemala and Jamaica has yet to be published. This absence is striking, given their shared histories of colonial exploitation and ongoing trade disputes. The lack of such a comparative study reflects a broader pattern in how the West constructs history to obscure the interconnectedness of struggles faced by 164 RANGE colonized nations. This paper aims to fill the gap by conducting a comparative study of Guatemala and Jamaica, examining their shared genealogy in the banana trade and how the United States and the United Kingdom have employed similar and shared tactics in destabilizing these nations. The early banana trade in Jamaica was developed entirely by Black Jamaican smallholders who turned to banana cultivation to escape the oppressive conditions of the sugar plantation (Soluri 144). The success of AfroJamaican smallholders drew the attention of American corporations like United Fruit, which soon gained a monopoly over the market (Soluri 144). In Guatemala, dictator Manuel Cabrera granted United Fruit the country’s principal rail line, which would be the beginning of a long history of United Fruit’s monopoly over the banana trade in the country (Schlesinger 67-70). The literature shows that United Fruit would work to eliminate competition and gain as much political and economic control in both countries. This would ultimately culminate in the overthrow of President Jacobo Arbenz and 165 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the genocide of the indigenous Maya, as well as the ‘banana wars’ and neocolonial policies that would threaten the livelihood of smallholders and the survival of the Jamaican banana trade (Schlesinger 257; Courtman 252). INTRODUCTION OF METHOD I will use historiography to examine the history of the banana trade in Guatemala and Jamaica by synthesizing the writings of historians and historical records like trade reports, CIA documents, and the US and UK National archives. Historiography is the writing of history by examining critical sources, highlighting specific details, and synthesizing them to create a compelling narrative (Encyclopedia Britannica 2025). The method of historiography has historically been understood as compiling a catalog of contributions made by historians that advanced knowledge of a particular topic (Becker 21-22). However, late historian Carl Becker contends that a historiographer must also seek to understand the underlying beliefs and assumptions of the time and “cultivate a capacity for imaginative 166 RANGE understanding” (Becker 22). Trevor Burnard’s Empire Matters? The Historiography of Imperialism in Early America, 1492–1830 masterfully demonstrates how historiographers can integrate the writings of historians and historical documents to provide a more comprehensive analysis of the history of colonized nations (Burnard 2007). Connection with Research Question The method of historiography will effectively test my research question as I analyze the writings of historians like Stephen Schlesinger and Peter Clegg and situate their writings within my analysis of historical documents. Historiography is an effective method for addressing my research question: How have Western imperialist forces collaborated to destabilize nations and maintain their colonies in Latin America and the Caribbean through the banana trade? By examining both secondary sources, such as the works of historians like Stephen Schlesinger and Peter Clegg, and primary historical documents like CIA telegrams, letters, and trade reports, I will be 167 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH able to analyze how colonial and imperialist powers exerted control over the banana trade in Guatemala and Jamaica. This approach will allow me to contextualize historical narratives within broader patterns of Western imperialism. Methods of Data Collection I will collect my data by reviewing historical writings and documents on the banana trade in Guatemala and Jamaica. I will analyze the works of prominent scholars in the field as they trace the development of the banana trade in Guatemala and Jamaica from colonization and slavery to semi- feudalism to the rise of capitalism and neocolonialism. I will review historical and trade documents from repositories like the US and British National Archives and the UN Archives as well as from the bibliographies of my secondary sources. The data I compile from my document review will supplement the writings I analyze and provide insight into how Western imperialism has shaped the political and economic systems of Guatemala and Jamaica through the banana trade and more broadly. 168 RANGE RESULTS ANALYSIS I will evaluate my results employing a Marxist framework and using V. I. Lenin’s theory of imperialism. Using this framework, I will trace how the United Kingdom and the United States have worked together to colonize the Americas and develop a global system of capitalism that relies on the underdevelopment of the Global South. The tradition of Marxist historiographies includes a vast body of work that examines the materialist conditions of imperialist exploitation and the interconnectedness of economic and political forces in shaping colonial legacies (Lenin 1917). Rationale for Methodologies Historiography enables a critical synthesis of primary and secondary sources, allowing me to trace imperialist intervention across different historical moments and scholarly debates. Through historiographical analysis, I can uncover how narratives around U.S. and British involvement have been constructed, contested, and reinterpreted over time. At the same time, applying a Marxist framework, particularly 169 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Lenin’s theory of imperialism, situates these historical processes within the broader dynamics of capitalist accumulation. A Marxist analysis exposes how the exploitation of nations like Guatemala and Jamaica was not incidental but central to the expansion of a global capitalist system reliant on the underdevelopment of the Global South. Justification for Subject Selection & Sampling Procedure I have selected Guatemala and Jamaica as my case studies because both nations have historically played significant roles in the global banana trade and have been directly impacted by Western imperialism. These two countries illustrate how the United States and the United Kingdom have shaped the economic and political world-system to accumulate mass profits off the oppression and subjugation of colonized people in the Global South. My sampling procedure involves selecting primary sources such as trade reports, historical documents, and declassified government 170 RANGE documents from archives that reflect these imperialist relationships. Potential Limitations One potential limitation of my study is the availability and accessibility of archival materials. Some documents may be classified, incomplete, or difficult to obtain. I will also be relying on existing scholarship that may be biased or rely on outdated information. Another limitation is the scope of my research—focusing on Guatemala and Jamaica provides an in-depth look at two nations but does not capture the full extent of Western imperialist influence on the banana trade in other regions. Despite these limitations, my study will contribute to a deeper understanding of Western imperialism in Latin America and the Caribbean and trace the legacy of colonial and capitalist exploitation perpetrated by the United States and the United Kingdom in these regions. This analysis will be grounded in reputable, peer-reviewed scholarly sources, ensuring a strong academic foundation, and will be further enhanced by primary materials uncovered through archival research. 171 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH RESULTS, ANALYSIS, DISCUSSION In this section, I will conduct a historiographical analysis and examine five key periods in the history of Guatemala and Jamaica. I will begin with an overview of each period to illustrate the shared genealogy between these two nations and examine how Western imperialism, particularly through the banana trade, has shaped each country’s political and economic conditions. Then, I will analyze historical documents from each period to demonstrate how the United Kingdom and the United States employed similar and shared military, political, and economic tactics to destabilize both Guatemala and Jamaica through their control of the banana industry. Colonization & the Slave Trade Christopher Columbus arrived in Jamaica in 1494, and soon after, the Spanish colonized the land and enslaved the native Arawak people (Nicholas 2023). A majority of the native Arawak would be killed or die from diseases that the Spanish had brought with them; some 172 RANGE would escape to the mountains, where they would reside with runaway enslaved Africans, forming the Maroons (Nicholas 2023). Spanish colonist Juan de Esquivel brought the first enslaved Africans to the island in 1513 (Ferguson et al. 2025). The English grew increasingly wary of the Spanish ‘monopoly’ over the New World and began to challenge Spanish hegemony in the Caribbean (Williams 72). As a result, the English successfully captured and gained formal possession of Jamaica from the Spanish in 1655 (Williams 114). As the sugar industry began to grow in the Caribbean, the British government was quick to invest in the kidnapping and enslavement of West Africans to work on the sugar plantations (Williams 104, 114, 138). Former Trinidad and Tobago Prime Minister and historian Eric Williams wrote in his seminal book, From Columbus to Castro, that the “triangular trade” (slavery, slave trade, and the sugar plantations) was extremely profitable to the British Empire and accounted for nearly 10% of total British exports (142). By the end of the century, the 173 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH trade amounted to two million pounds in profits for the British alone (143). In the words of English businessman Sir Dalby Thomas, “The pleasure, glory and grandeur of England has been advanced more by sugar than by any other commodity” (Williams 144). This glory relied upon the mutilated and tortured flesh of enslaved Africans (Spillers 67). In the 17th century, an estimated 1 million Africans were kidnapped and taken to Jamaica (Nicholas 2023). Their journey on the Middle Passage was marked by the most brutal violence and cruelty. On slave ships, enslaved Africans endured horrific, crowded conditions, physical and sexual torture, and disease (Wolfe 2020). These appalling conditions were met with resistance as the Africans on board organized armed revolts, hunger strikes, and committed suicide by jumping overboard (Wolfe 2020). Around 15-20 percent of enslaved Africans would not survive the trip across the Atlantic (Rodney 96). In the Caribbean, the conditions on the plantations were backbreaking, and the death 174 RANGE rates of enslaved Africans were high while the birth rate remained low (Mintz 2025; National Museums Liverpool 2025). Therefore, the sugar plantation economy relied upon the continued importation of enslaved Africans to maintain the population (Mintz 2025). The Guyanese revolutionary thinker and Marxist scholar Walter Rodney traces the underdevelopment of Africa to the European slave trade, which was devastating for the political and economic systems in African countries, as well as family and community structures (102). While the Caribbean plantation economy reveals one facet of imperialist exploitation through the transatlantic slave trade, similar patterns of conquest, brutality, and resistance were unfolding on the Central American mainland. In 1524, Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado, lieutenant of Hernán Cortés, invaded and terrorized the Guatemalan highlands, overtaking K’iche warriors and burning alive tribal leaders (Immerman 20). The Mayan empire, one of the most advanced civilizations of its time, would collapse within a year as smallpox ravaged the Maya population 175 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and Alvarado spread terror throughout the region (Immerman 20). His campaign against the Maya was so brutal that Cortés complained to Spanish King Charles V because his violence only sparked more resistance from the Maya people (Wainer 2024). In his letter, he wrote, “Although Pedro de Alvarado makes constant war against [the Maya]…he has been unable to subject them to Your Majesty’s service; rather each day they grow stronger through the people that come join them” (Cortés 215). Although the Maya continued to resist through guerrilla warfare tactics, Alvarado was able to exploit conflicts between tribes and gain enough indigenous allies to defeat the Maya (Cartwright 2022). During the tyrannical regime of Alvarado, population levels in the Guatemalan highlands dropped by 90 percent, and it is estimated that over five million Indigenous peoples were killed in Guatemala alone through biological warfare, brutal enslavement, and bloody massacres (Oblesby et al. 2011). The twin violences of genocide and the enslavement of African and Indigenous peoples carved wounds into both 176 RANGE flesh and land—ruptures through which the modern world-system of capitalism was born. Independence and Emancipation Although Guatemala achieved independence and Jamaica gained emancipation in the 19th century, these events did not bring true liberation to the majority of their populations. Both countries remained deeply embedded in a racialized division of labor established under colonial rule and slavery, and the emerging capitalist economies continued to rely on the unpaid or severely underpaid labor of Afrodescendants and Indigenous Guatemalans to sustain Western development and corporate interests (Quijano 54). Guatemala, with the help of Mexico, achieved independence from Spain in 1821 (Immerman 21). As Mexico attempted to incorporate Guatemala into its territory, Guatemala resisted and united with the rest of Central America to create a federation, thereby maintaining its sovereignty (Immerman 21). This federation was short-lived, but the idea of a united Central America would have a lasting influence on President Arbenz. 177 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Historian Richard H. Immerman describes that before colonization, the Maya shared land governance and cultivated the land with the economic goal of “subsistence and participation in the community, not capital accumulation” (Immerman 25). After the conquest, Maya faced a continued threat from colonial rulers as they continued to steal and deprive Maya communities of their lands. Colonial authorities enacted laws to “legally deprive” Maya peoples of their communal properties by requiring titles to private property (Immerman 23). The expropriation of their lands forced the Maya to migrate from the highlands to agricultural regions, which guaranteed a cheap source of labor for colonial authorities (23). 178 RANGE United Fruit Company, “Scrapbook of United Fruit Company Photographs, 1917-1931” (1917). Select Florida Studies Manuscripts. 8. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/ fl_manuscripts/8 Through the colono system, the Maya were forced into debt slavery. Immerman details how the latifundiominifundio system exploited the Maya, forcing them to surrender 50–60% of their crops to landowners and accumulate debt to cover production costs and basic needs (28–29). To work off their debt, they were forced to labor on the landowners’ plantations during the summers for little to no pay. Meanwhile, emancipation came later and under different terms; independence would not come 179 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH until 1962 in Jamaica. The British Parliament signed the bill for the abolition of slavery in 1838, which would emancipate approximately 311,000 enslaved Africans in Jamaica and hundreds of thousands more across the British colonies (National Library of Jamaica 2025). However, Africans were not fully free until after a mandatory six-year apprenticeship, after which they could buy their freedom (NLJ 2025). Historian Eric Williams describes the semi-feudal system in post-abolition Jamaica, where emancipated Africans were given no option other than to work five-day weeks for as little as five cents an hour (Williams 328–330). Like the Maya in Guatemala, they remained tied to land systems that reinforced racial and economic exploitation even after formal independence or emancipation. Start of the Banana Trade Historian John Soluri traces the origins of banana production in Jamaica following emancipation from slavery, when Black Jamaicans turned to banana cultivation as a means of escaping the oppressive conditions of 180 RANGE the sugar plantations (144-145). Before emancipation, enslaved Africans cultivated bananas to exchange in local markets for shade crops —such as cacao and coffee, which thrive under the canopy of larger plants— and their consumption (Soluri 145). Jamaican women played a vital role in marketing and selling these bananas (145). Soluri contends that bananas have been closely tied to conceptions of Blackness, and therefore, Afro-Jamaican smallholders, independent farmers, dominated production due to the hesitancy of white planters (145). With the decline of the sugar industry, AfroJamaicans were able to purchase small plots of land to cultivate bananas. The impact of AfroJamaican smallholders on the local and export markets during this period cannot be overstated, as they produced the majority of the food in the country. In the words of historian Thomas Holt, “During an era in which racist ideology was becoming more virulent and practically unchallenged, official policy was grounded paradoxically on the entrepreneurship of Black Jamaicans” (Holt 317). However, colonial 181 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH officials regarded their agricultural practices as “backward,” and their technical advice reflected the condescending, paternalistic attitude of the British government toward its colonies (Soluri 144). United Fruit Company, “Scrapbook of United Fruit Company Photographs, 1917-1931” (1917). Select Florida Studies Manuscripts. 8. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/fl_manuscripts/8 North American traders began purchasing bananas from Jamaican smallholders in the late 1860s (Soluri 146). In the early 1870s, American businessmen George Busch and Lorenzo Dow Baker began to regularly ship bananas to the United States (Clegg 24). As the banana trade began to expand, Baker’s shipping company, the 182 RANGE Boston Fruit Company, saw an opportunity to reap substantial profits by establishing its own banana plantations to meet growing demand (Schlesinger 66). However, they needed new sources of supply as the banana farms in the Caribbean were being depleted of their resources (66). In Central America, Minor Keith built Costa Rica’s first railroad at a horrific human cost that took the lives of hundreds of workers (Immerman 69). Keith’s 112 miles of railroad dubbed him the “uncrowned king of Central America” (Schlesinger 67). Despite his reputation, he remained perpetually in debt and was forced to begin exporting bananas, eventually founding three banana companies to stay financially afloat (Immerman 69). Keith needed capital, and Boston Fruit needed more supplies, so they instituted a partnership and merged their companies to create the United Fruit Company (UFC) (Schlesinger 67). Jamaican growers became increasingly concerned about the power and influence of American corporate interests, such as the United Fruit Company, over banana production (Clegg 183 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 26). In 1901, the Jamaica-UK banana trade was created to provide an alternative to the American market (Clegg 29). Historian Peter Clegg details how the British company Elders & Fyffes sought to challenge the United Fruit Company’s monopoly over the trade and fulfill its “colonial responsibility” to Jamaicans (Clegg 1, 29). As competition between Elders & Fyffes and UFC grew, Elders & Fyffes faced some difficulties, such as getting a steady supply of bananas “at prices acceptable to the UK market” (Clegg 31). They were forced to ask for assistance from the American corporation several times and eventually became a full subsidiary of the UFC (Clegg 34). The resources that the UK government poured into building a sustainable UK-Jamaica banana trade were now being used to support an American company (32). The UK government’s reluctance to challenge American corporate power allowed the UFC “to expand and to stretch its tentacles over [Jamaica]” (Parker 6). In response to these pressures, Jamaican workers and small farmers began to mobilize. Labor strikes and rural protests emerged in the 1930s as 184 RANGE workers pushed back against exploitative wages, corporate control, and the colonial state. These struggles were not only about economic survival but also about reclaiming autonomy in a system that had long prioritized foreign profits over the lives of Jamaicans (Hart 2002). It was ultimately Jamaican growers who came together to establish the Jamaica Banana Producers’ Association, aiming to challenge the United Fruit Company’s power and influence over the region (Clegg 39). In Guatemala, the United Fruit Company not only gained a monopoly over banana production but also became the largest landowner, employer, and exporter in the country (Schlesinger 70). UFC had control over the railroads and over the trading ports and owned entire towns (Schlesinger 70). By the 1930s, the brutal Guatemalan dictator, Jorge Ubico, would sign a ninety-nine-year agreement with UFC to open a second plantation and grant them “total exemption from internal taxation, duty-free importation…and a guarantee of low wages” (Schlesinger 70). 185 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The United Fruit Company paid Guatemalan workers no more than fifty cents a day—a wage that President Ubico deliberately endorsed to discourage demands for better pay from other workers (Schlesinger 70). Known locally as la frutera, the company was notorious for its exploitative labor practices and aggressive attacks on labor unions (Schlesinger 71). The UFC also manipulated racial divisions, pitting ladinos and Afro-descendants against each other to undermine labor organizing efforts (Gillick 1994). Racism was embedded in the company’s policies; workers of color were required to “give right of way to whites and remove their hats while talking to them” (Schlesinger 71). Guatemala could not attain genuine economic or political independence while the UFC—and broader American corporate interests—controlled nearly every aspect of workers’ lives, from housing and healthcare to their children’s education (Schlesinger 71). Post-WWII Near the end of World War II, the United States and the United Kingdom led the effort to 186 RANGE establish a “new international financial system” (Igwe 111). The Bretton Woods system would enshrine U.S. hegemony, requiring all other nations to peg their currencies to the U.S. dollar (Patnaik & Patnaik 130). The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank were created under this system to pressure countries in the Global South to open their markets, often at the expense of their development (Igwe 111). A few years later, the Cold War gave rise to a wave of anti-communism that was weaponized against decolonized nations seeking economic and political independence from their former colonial powers. During this period, the United States and the United Kingdom would work together to systematically destabilize nations in Latin America and the Caribbean through covert military operations and economic means of control. During World War II, the United Kingdom halted all banana imports due to the growing demand for ships to support the war effort (Clegg 58). This effectively ended the banana trade in Jamaica — “a once large and profitable export industry” (59). Willis Berry, a Jamaican 187 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH civilian, recalled that one of the most damaging consequences of the war was its disruption of imports and exports (Berry 2005). He noted that “people would walk 4–5 miles to get goods” such as oil, petrol, and rice, while a ban on imports led to a surplus of local agricultural products like bananas (2005). After the war, Jamaican growers pressured the UK government to permit the import of bananas once again (Clegg 60). However, the global trade landscape had shifted. The United States, now the dominant economic power, flooded markets with cheap “dollar bananas” from Central America, backed by the United Fruit Company. These U.S.-backed bananas were produced at a scale and price point that Britain and its former colonies struggled to compete with. The UK government, burdened by post-war debt and dollar shortages, saw continued trade with U.S. banana companies as financially unviable, since it would drain precious U.S. dollar reserves. Instead of protecting the interests of Jamaican growers, the UK was “determined to remove itself from the trade” altogether. It forced the Jamaica Banana 188 RANGE Producers’ Association to return control of the industry to United Fruit via Elders and Fyffes (Clegg 67). In 1962, Jamaica achieved independence from Britain, and its government transitioned from the colonial authorities to a small, Westernbacked elite that did not reflect the masses of Afro- Jamaicans who were in poverty, unemployed, and forced to live in the slums (Chukwudinma 2022). This contradiction fueled the rise of the Black Power movement, which sought to challenge the neocolonial structures that persisted post-independence. A pivotal moment occurred in October 1968 when the Jamaican government barred Guyanese revolutionary Walter Rodney from re-entering the country after attending a Black Power conference in Canada. Rodney’s activism and engagement with the poor had made him a symbol of resistance against oppression (Chukwudinma 2022). His deportation sparked widespread protests, known as the Rodney Riots, where thousands of students, Rastafarians, farmers, and working-class youths took to the streets of Kingston, setting buses ablaze and 189 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH looting American companies, all while chanting “Black Power” (Chukwudinma 2022). Rodney theorized Black Power as a direct challenge to what he called the “white imperialist system” (Rodney 41). These riots underscored the deepseated frustrations of Afro-Jamaicans and highlighted their active resistance to ongoing Western imperialism, particularly as it was manifested through American corporations such as the United Fruit Company. In Guatemala, Ubico’s thirteen-year dictatorship wrought terror on indigenous farmworkers, students, union leaders, and anyone who opposed his regime (Immerman 33-34). He used the accusations of conspiracy and treason to justify their imprisonment, torture, and execution (34). Ubico worked to systematically oppress the Maya by forcing them to join the military to “transform them from this ‘animal-like’ condition into ‘civilized’ individuals” (35). He also stripped them of all rights to participate in government and legalized debt slavery through vagrancy laws, which forced indigenous farmworkers to provide free labor for the Guatemalan 190 RANGE government (36). The breaking point was when he issued Decree 2795, which granted landlords the authority to shoot indigenous people searching for food on private land (37). This sets the backdrop for the October Revolution. In 1944, the largest protests in Guatemalan history erupted across the country, led by schoolteachers, students, and middle-class idealists, who demanded the end of Ubico’s regime (Schlesinger 27). They applied enough pressure on him to resign, but he was soon replaced by another strongman, General Federico Ponce (28). In response, two commanders, Major Francisco Arana and Captain Jacobo Arbenz, killed their superior officers and coordinated attacks against police and military stations to force Ponce to flee the country (31). Then, the first democratic elections took place, and Dr. Juan Arévalo was overwhelmingly elected as President of Guatemala (32). President Arévalo implemented necessary reforms, including the establishment of the first Social Security Law, the creation of a Labor Code, and the implementation of some land use reform (38-41). However, he did 191 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH not attempt to make any “radical” changes that would anger the West. His successor, President Jacobo Arbenz, was left to make some of the more transformational changes to support Guatemala’s economic development. “Guatemala, man carrying harvested bananas on plantation.” AGSL Digital Photo Archive – North and Central America. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Libraries. Accessed April 192 15, 2025. RANGE https://collections.lib.uwm.edu/digital/collection/ agsnorth/id/6220/rec/63.. When Arbenz took the presidency, land reform remained a major issue. Landowners and American corporations, such as United Fruit, still owned approximately 70% of the land in Guatemala (Schlesinger 50). This was especially important for the working class, as 90% of workers worked in agriculture (54). In 1953, Arbenz enacted Decree 900, which large plantations to give to landless peasants (55). This program provided 100,000 families with a total of 1.5 million acres to use to cultivate crops and sustain themselves (55). The United Fruit Company was particularly threatened by this program and worked to convince the United States government that Arbenz was a danger to national security (77). expropriated all uncultivated land from Through the guise of the Cold War, the State Department began planning the overthrow of Arbenz, codenamed Operation PBSUCCESS (Gonzalez 135-137). The United States and the United Kingdom collaborated on an anticommunist propaganda campaign aimed at 193 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH rallying conservative Guatemalans behind U.S. intervention while also psychologically manipulating and instilling fear in the Guatemalan army, despite the military’s superior strength and broader domestic support (Moulton 2021). The State Department funded, trained, and armed political exile Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas and a disorganized group of mercenaries to conduct a coup d’état against Arbenz (Schlesinger 128- 129). After fifteen days of sporadic attacks and bombings in Guatemala, Arbenz resigned (199). In his last speech, Arbenz said, “Workers, peasants, patriots, my friends: the people of Guatemala: Guatemala is enduring a most difficult trial. For fifteen days a cruel war against Guatemala has been underway. The United Fruit Company, in collaboration with the governing circles of the United States, is responsible for what is happening to us…One day the obscured forces which today oppress the backward and colonial world will be defeated” (Arbenz 1954). 194 RANGE Contemporary The U.S.-backed coup d’état in Guatemala was followed by oppressive military dictatorships and a genocidal campaign against the Maya that endured for thirty-six years. As previously mentioned, approximately 200,000 Maya and peasants were massacred during this period. Despite the scale of these atrocities, neither the United Fruit Company—now known as Chiquita—nor any U.S. state officials have been charged for their war crimes. While former U.S.-backed dictator Efraín Ríos Montt was convicted of genocide by a Guatemalan court for the murder of tens of thousands of Ixil Maya, this remains a rare instance of justice in a broader context of impunity (Kahn 2013). The consequences of this genocidal violence extend far beyond the staggering death toll: it led to the mass displacement of Indigenous communities, forcing many to flee their ancestral lands in search of safety and survival. Entire villages were razed, and survivors were often left with no choice but to migrate, a reality that continues to shape immigration patterns 195 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH today. When we examine contemporary immigration from Central America, we must recognize the historical role of the United States in destabilizing these nations through imperialist interventions and economic exploitation. This legacy of violence and exploitation did not end with the Cold War. Both the United States and the United Kingdom have continued to exert neocolonial control over Guatemala and Jamaica through the banana trade and the imposition of neoliberal economic policies, particularly through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) dispute panels. The United Kingdom had historically given “imperial preference” to its former colonies to support the economies of the African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries. However, under increasing pressure from the United States and Latin American banana exporters, this system of trade preference became a battleground during the GATT and World Trade Organization (WTO) disputes of the 1990s. Latin American growers were strategically positioned against Caribbean 196 RANGE producers, even though both faced exploitation from the West through the banana trade. As Peter Clegg explains, the U.S. framed its case around Latin American interests, yet its underlying goal was to exert neocolonial influence over the smaller, economically vulnerable ACP states (Clegg 2001). ACP countries were deliberately sidelined during the GATT panel hearings, lacking proper representation in decisions that directly shaped their economic futures. As Clegg argues, “The ACP interests became outsiders within the WTO not through choice, but through design” (Clegg 250). This exclusion reflected how international institutions exert economic control through the liberalization of trade. Despite this, Caribbean nations like St. Lucia and Dominica actively resisted these maneuvers, stalling the implementation of U.S.-favored trade reforms and exposing the strategic tensions in the banana conflict (Clegg 248). Their resistance delayed U.S. efforts to fully dismantle the EU’s preferential treatment of ACP bananas (248). Yet, the final agreement, prompted by 197 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH WTO rulings, pushed the European Union toward an increasingly liberalized banana market, which disproportionately harmed Caribbean producers already struggling with small economies of scale and high production costs (Courtman 2004). The long-term consequence of this shift is a market environment in which Caribbean growers are unable to compete, undermining their agricultural sovereignty and reinforcing their dependency on imperialist powers. Together, these histories reveal how Western imperialism, perpetuated through violent political interventions and neocolonial trade systems, has had devastating lasting consequences on the economic and political infrastructures of Guatemala and Jamaica through mass displacement, the erosion of sovereignty, and the underdevelopment of these countries. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AND HISTORICAL SYNTHESIS By examining five pivotal periods in Guatemalan and Jamaican history, I have 198 RANGE identified recurring strategies employed by both the United States and the United Kingdom. In this section, I trace a shared genealogy between Guatemala and Jamaica through the lens of the banana trade, drawing on historical records and trade documents to deepen my analysis and substantiate my findings. Central to this inquiry is the question: How have Western imperialist forces collaborated to destabilize nations and maintain economic domination in Latin America and the Caribbean through the banana trade? Racial division of labor Through my examination of the history of colonization and slavery in Guatemala and Jamaica, I demonstrate how the development of capitalism was built upon the tortured flesh of Africans and Indigenous peoples. As Peruvian Marxist José Carlos Mariátegui observed, “The economic interests of the Spanish colonies and of the capitalist West coincided exactly,” relying on the enslavement and unpaid labor of African and Indigenous peoples to extract the raw materials that fueled Western development (Mariátegui 1971). To justify this super199 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH exploitation, Europeans constructed race and racism, imposing a colonial racial division of labor that became foundational to the capitalist system (Quijano 538). R. S. Peat’s letter to the Colonial Office in London, 1938. Catalogue ref: CO 137/827/1, The National Archives, Kew. My research in the UK National Archives yielded a striking letter written by an individual named R. S. Peat who wrote to the Colonial Office in London from Aberdeen, Scotland about the “deplorable conditions” of Jamaican laborers. Although little is known about R. S. Peat, his letter gives some insight into how slavery and colonization has structured the division of labor to superexploit Black Jamaicans. Peat begins his letter by talking about the “conditions of modern slavery” in Jamaica that made him “ashamed to be British.” He describes the racial oppression that Jamaican laborers 200 RANGE experienced at the hands of the British and the importance of understanding that their suffering was due to “oppression over a period of years [that] has reduced them to a state of helplessness.” Towards the end of Peat’s letter, he calls on the Empire to improve the conditions of Jamaican laborers and specifically take action against “the cane [sugar] and banana companies that exploit cheap labour.” Although this letter is riddled with colonial language (Jamaicans were not helpless), it does illustrate how, through colonization and the development of capitalism, the United Kingdom systematically maintained a racial division of labor to keep Jamaicans exploited and Jamaica underdeveloped. This is also true for Guatemala, where the United States and American corporations imposed a racial division of labor to justify the exploitation of indigenous workers through the latifundio system. Explicit means of control (coup d’état) and economic or monetary means of control (aid, SAPs) The United States and the United Kingdom 201 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH have both asserted control through explicit and economic means to fulfill their imperialist ambitions in the Global South. In Guatemala and Jamaica, these neocolonial tactics have had devastating consequences for the economic and political conditions of these countries. Kwame Nkrumah says, “The essence of neo-colonialism is that the State which is subject to it is, in theory, independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality its economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside” (Nkrumah ix). One of the most glaring examples of neocolonial control is the 1954 coup d’état in Guatemala. The CIA has declassified telegrams from Operation PBSUCCESS that demonstrate how and why the CIA orchestrated a coup against Arbenz. Through my research in the State Department Archives, I located a telegram that reveals how the United States invoked anti-communism to justify the overthrow of 202 RANGE Arbenz, aiming to maintain control over the Panama Canal and safeguard the interests of the United Fruit Company. Telegram From the Central Intelligence Agency to the CIA Station in [place not declassified]/1/ Washington, June 27, 1954, 2251Z. “Finally, and to repeat, this is a very serious business. The stakes are not the dividends of the United Fruit Company. The stakes are whether or not imperial Communism shall have a tactical command post in Central America within a few miles of the Panama Canal and in position undermine neighboring states. Instead of yelling about Yankee imperialism and invasion the free world should be grateful that a handful of brave but maybe pathetically comical exiles got the pitch and decided to do something about it” (Central Intelligence Agency1954). The CIA was directed to disseminate propaganda denying any involvement by the United Fruit Company in the operation, portraying it instead as the work of ‘pathetically comical exiles’ who had independently ‘decided to do something about it’ (Schelsinger, 203). In later telegrams, it becomes clear that is not the case as 203 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the CIA explicitly makes orders to bomb Guatemalan buildings, reveals their strategy to psychologically manipulate Guatemalan soldiers, and criticizes Arbenz for his agrarian reform and the harm it has done to US companies (CIA 1954). This case, along with Britain’s implementation of structural adjustment programs in Jamaica, underscores how both imperialist countries have leveraged violence, propaganda, economic dependency, and political intervention as interchangeable tools to maintain dominance and suppress resistance across Latin America and the Caribbean. “Divide and conquer”: Pitting colonized nations and peoples against each other Through my research of WTO online archives, I found key documents that showed how trade policy was used as a tool by the United States and the United Kingdom to perpetuate division among Latin American and ACP countries, with American corporate interests playing a central role (WTO Panel Report 1997). Although the EC’s preferential treatment of 204 RANGE ACP countries reflected historical colonial ties, it was the United States — acting on behalf of powerful fruit multinationals like Chiquita and Dole — rather than Latin American governments themselves, that led the challenge to this system. The Panel concluded that the “European Communities’ banana import regime and the licensing procedures for the importation of bananas in this regime are inconsistent with the GATT 1994” (WTO Panel Report 1997). However, the real driver of this complaint was not a commitment to fair trade for Latin American nations, but the economic losses experienced by U.S.-based corporations that operated banana plantations across Central America. These American corporations and the United States effectively co-opted Latin American states into acting on their behalf at the WTO. This dynamic underscores how imperialist powers manipulate former colonies into conflict with one another, maintaining control by preventing unified resistance. The Latin American states, though positioned as sovereign actors in the dispute, were largely speaking for 205 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the interests of foreign capital rather than their own people. The banana trade dispute illustrates this perfectly: instead of forging alliances with the ACP bloc—countries with shared colonial histories and experiences of economic marginalization—Latin American governments were instrumentalized to challenge those very preferences that aimed to support other Global South economies. The United States and United Kingdom did not and do not have the best interests of these regions at heart; rather, they continue to orchestrate divisions that keep former colonies dependent, fractured, and exploitable within the global trade system. Unity among ACP and Latin American countries could have posed a serious threat to the dominance of corporations like Chiquita and the global economic order they benefit from—but such unity was exactly what imperialist nations sought to prevent. This thesis has traced the historical entanglements of Guatemala and Jamaica to reveal how the United States and the United Kingdom have employed shared imperialist strategies to destabilize both nations. Through 206 RANGE the enforcement of a racialized division of labor, they created oppressive economic conditions rooted in slavery and colonization. They maintained their dominance through direct and indirect means—using coups, foreign aid, and structural adjustment programs to undermine sovereignty and suppress reform. Finally, they perpetuated division among colonized nations by manipulating trade systems and pitting nations in the Global South against one another. CONCLUSION This research began with a personal reckoning—with the silence of my father’s trauma and with the unanswered questions that led me to the history of U.S. intervention in Guatemala. What I uncovered was not just a singular injustice but a pattern—a global system of domination. Through my study of the banana trade in Guatemala and Jamaica, I traced the entangled roots of Western imperialism in Latin America and the Caribbean. I found that the same imperialist powers that orchestrated the coup against Jacobo Árbenz in Guatemala and crushed resistance in Jamaica were often 207 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH working in concert, using a shared playbook of exploitation and repression. Western imperialist countries destabilized the region by enforcing capitalism with a colonial character—a racialized division of labor designed to extract raw materials and agricultural goods while denying political and economic sovereignty to the people. They used both overt and covert strategies: military coups and violent interventions on one hand, and economic domination through aid packages, structural adjustment programs, and trade agreements on the other. And, true to a colonial logic, they deployed “divide and conquer” tactics—pitting colonized nations and oppressed peoples against one another to maintain control. Today, we are witnessing the continuation of imperialist violence in the repression of the Palestinian liberation movement. Across the United States, students and workers are demanding an end to their universities’ complicity in genocide, only to be met with suspension, termination, surveillance, and deportation. The case of Mahmoud Khalil, 208 RANGE arrested and detained after Columbia University willingly handed over student records to the Trump administration, is a chilling reminder of the lengths institutions will go to protect their imperialist interests. These acts of repression echo the very tactics I examined in my research—silencing dissent, criminalizing solidarity, and wielding state power to crush resistance. And yet, in every corner of the Global South, and now on college campuses across the United States, people are refusing to be silent. Today’s movement is not an anomaly; it is a continuation of a centuries-long struggle against imperialism, colonization, and racial capitalism. From the fields of Guatemala to the plantations of Jamaica, from the Congo to Palestine, the struggles of oppressed peoples are interconnected. This thesis is not just an academic exercise—it is an offering to that ongoing struggle. At this moment, students and workers must decide if they will allow fear to silence them or if they will be steadfast in their resolve against U.S. 209 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH imperialism. In the face of repression, fear is real—but so is solidarity. And in solidarity, there is power. In the words of Ghassan Kanafani, “Imperialism has layed its body over the world, the head in Eastern Asia, the heart in the Middle East, its arteries reaching Africa and Latin America. Wherever you strike it, you damage it, and you serve the World Revolution” (Samidoun, 2023). BIBLIOGRAPHY Arbenz, Jacobo. President Arbenz’s Resignation Speech. 1954. Guatemala. Becker, Carl L. Everyman His Own Historian. New York, Crofts & Co., 1938. Burnard, Trevor. “Empire Matters? The Historiography of Imperialism in Early America, 1492–1830.” History Compass 5, no. 2, Mar. 2007, pp. 455–478. Accessed 27 Nov. 2019. Cartwright, Mark. “Pedro de Alvarado.” World History Encyclopedia, 7 July 2022, www.worldhistory.org/Pedro_de_Alvarado/. Central Intelligence Agency. Foreign Relations, Guatemala 1952-1954. June 27, 1954. Box 9, Folder 210 RANGE 3. Job 79-01025A. U.S. Department of State Archive, Washington, D.C. April 15, 2025. Chukwudinma, Chinedu. “The Rodney Rebellion: Black Power in Jamaica – ROAPE.” Review of African Political Economy, 1 Apr. 2022, roape.net/2022/04/01/ the-rodney-rebellion-black-power-in-jamaica/. Clegg, Peter. The Caribbean Banana Trade: From Colonialism to Globalization. New York, Palgrave Macmillian, 2002. Cortés, Hernán. “The Fifth Letter of Hernan Cortes.” Cartas y relaciones de Hernan Cortés al emperador Carlos V. Edited by Pascual de Gayangos. Paris: A. Chaix, 1866. Microfilm. Courtman, Sandra. Beyond the Blood, the Beach & the Banana: New Perspectives in Caribbean Studies. Kingston ; Miami, Ian Randle, 2004. Du Bois, W.E.B. Black Reconstruction: An Essay towards a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860-1880. New York, Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1935. Ferguson, James A. “Jamaica | History, Population, Flag, Map, Capital, & Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 July 211 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 1999, www.britannica.com/place/Jamaica/ History#ref515835. Accessed 28 Apr. 2025. Galeano, Eduardo. Open Veins of Latin America : Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent. New York, Monthly Review Press, 1971. Gillick, Steven Scott. Life and Labor in a Banana Enclave: Bananeros, the United Fruit Company, and the Limits of Trade Unionism in Guatemala, 1906 to 1931. 1994. González , Juan. Harvest of Empire. New York, Penguin Random House, 2000. “Guatemala, man carrying harvested bananas on plantation.” AGSL Digital Photo Archive – North and Central America. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Libraries. Accessed April 15, 2025.https://collections.lib.uwm.edu/digital/collection/ agsnorth/id/6220/rec/63.. Hart, Richard. Labour Rebellions of the 1930s in the British Caribbean Region Colonies: Richard Hart. London, Caribbean Labour Solidarity & Socialist History Society, 2002. Holt, Thomas C. The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labor, 212 RANGE and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832-1938. Baltimore ; London, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. Igwe, Isaac O.C. “History of the International Economy: The Bretton Woods System and Its Impact on the Economic Development of Developing Countries.” Athens Journal of Law, vol. 4, no. 2, 20 Apr. 2018, pp. 105–126, www.athensjournals.gr/law/ 2018-4-2-1-Igwe.pdf, https://doi.org/10.30958/ ajl.4.2.1. Immerman, Richard. The CIA in Guatemala. Texas, University of Texas Press, 1982. Josling, Tim, and T Geoffrey Taylor. Banana Wars: The Anatomy of a Trade Dispute. California, Institute For International Studies Stanford University, 2003. Kahn, Carrie. “Three Decades On, Ex-Guatemalan Leader Faces Genocide Charges.” NPR, 18 Mar. 2013, www.npr.org/2013/03/18/174645182/three-decadeson-ex-guatemalan-leader-faces-genocide-charges. Accessed 27 Apr. 2025. Kepner, Charles David, and Jay Henry Soothill. The Banana Empire: A Case Study of Economic Imperialism. New York, The Vanguard Press, 1935. 213 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Lenin, Vladimir. Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism. 1917. Moscow, Co-operative Publishing Society of Foreign Workers in the U.S.S.R., 1917. Mariátegui, José Carlos and Marjory M Urquidi. [7 Ensayos de Interpretación de La Realidad Peruana.] Seven Interpretative Essays on Peruvian Reality … Translated by Marjory Urquidi, Etc. 1928. Austin & London: University Of Texas Press, 1971. Mintz, Steven. “Historical Context: Facts about the Slave Trade and Slavery.” The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, 2019, www.gilderlehrman.org/ history-resources/teacher-resources/historical- contextfacts-about-slave-trade-and-slavery. Moulton, Aaron Coy. “How British Intelligence Destabilised Democracy Declassified Media in Ltd, Central 8 America.” Nov. 2021, www.declassifieduk.org/how-british-intelligencedestabilised-democracy-in- central-america/. National Library of Jamaica. “Emancipation.” The National Library of Jamaica, 4 Aug. 2020, nlj.gov.jm/ exhibition/emancipation/. National Museums Liverpool. 214 “Slavery in the RANGE Caribbean.” National Museums Liverpool, 2023, www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/archaeologyofslavery/ slavery-caribbean. Nicholas, Phillip. “Research Guides: Jamaica: Local History & Genealogy Resource Guide: Introduction.” Guides.loc.gov, 15 Nov. 2023, guides.loc.gov/jamaicalocal-history-genealogy. Nikolai Bukharin. Imperialism and World Economy. New York, Ny, Monthly Review Press, 1917. Nkrumah, Kwame. Challenge of the Congo. London, Panaf, 1967, p. x. Nkrumah, Kwame. Neocolonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism. London, Panaf, 1965. Oglesby, Elizabeth. “Great Was the Stench of the Dead.” The Guatemala Reader: History, Culture, Politics, Duke University Press, 2011. Parker, N. A. “The United Fruit Company in Jamaica.” The Jamaica Review, vol. 1, no. 2, 1925, p. 6. Peat, R..S. “R. S. Peat’s letter to the Colonial Office in London.” 13th June 1938. CO 137/827/1. The National Archives, Kew. April 15, 2025. 215 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Rodney, Walter. The Groundings with my Brothers. Bogle-L’Ouverture Publications, 1969, p. 41. Rodney, Walter. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. United Kingdom, Bogle-L’Ouverture Publications, 1972. Samidoun. “From Ghassan Kanafani to Walid Daqqah: Assassination, Imperialism, Resistance and Revolution.” Samidoun: Palestinian Prisoner Solidarity Network, 8 July 2023, samidoun.net/2023/07/from-ghassan-kanafani- to-walid-daqqah-assassination-imperialism-resistanceand-revolution/. Accessed 28 Apr. 2025. Schlesinger, Stephen, and Stephen Kinzer. Bitter Fruit: The Story of the American Coup in Guatemala. Cambridge (Massachusetts), Harvard University, David Rockefeller Center For Latin American Studies, 2005. Soluri, John. “Bananas before Plantations. Smallholders, Shippers, and Colonial Policy in Jamaica, 1870- 1910.” Iberoamericana (2001-), vol. 6, no. 23, 1 June 2014, pp. 143–159, https://doi.org/10.18441/ ibam.6.2006.23.143-159. Spillers, Hortense J. “Mama’s Baby, Papa’s Maybe: An American Grammar Book.” Diacritics, vol. 17, no. 2, 1987, pp. 64–81, www.jstor.org/stable/464747, https://doi.org/10.2307/464747. 216 RANGE United Fruit Company, “Scrapbook of United Fruit Company Photographs, 1917-1931” (1917). Select Florida Studies Manuscripts. 8. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/fl_manuscripts/8 United Nations Commission for Historical Clarification. Guatemala: Memory of Silence. United Nations, 1999. Utsa Patnaik, et al. A Theory of Imperialism. New York, Columbia University Press, 2017. Vann, Richard T. “Historiography.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/topic/historiography. Wainer, Andrew. “Alvarado, Arbenz, Arévalo: The Repair of Guatemala.” ReVista, 28 Feb. 2024, revista.drclas.harvard.edu/alvarado-arbenz-arevalo-therepair-of-guatemala/. Wallerstein, Immanuel. World-Systems Analysis. Duke University Press, 2004. Williams, Eric. From Columbus to Castro: The History of the Caribbean 1492-1969. New York , Harper & Row, Publishers , 1970. Willis Berry, WW2 People’s War. War in Jamaica. 11 April 2005. A3880794. BBC News, Wymondham 217 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Learning Centre. https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ ww2peopleswar/stories/94/a3880794.shtml Wolfe, Brendan. “Slave Ships and the Middle Passage – Encyclopedia Virginia.” Encyclopedia Virginia, Virginia Humanities, 28 Jan. 2022, encyclopediavirginia.org/ entries/slave-ships-and-the-middle- passage/. World Trade Organization. European Communities — Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas: Report of the Panel. WT/DS27/R, 22 May 1997, https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ ds27_e.htm. 218 RANGE 7 Research Reflection by Gabriela Merida GABRIELA MERIDA Faculty Mentor: Andrea Baldwin (Ethnic Studies and Gender Studies, University of Utah) Engaging in undergraduate research has been a transformative experience, shaping both my academic trajectory and my broader commitment to social justice. My research critically examines the economic and 219 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH political impacts of U.S. and British imperialism in Latin America and the Caribbean, with a particular focus on the role of the banana trade in destabilizing Guatemala and Jamaica. Through a rigorous mixed-methods approach-including literature review, archival research, and document analysis-I have examined the long-term impacts of imperialist interventions, challenging dominant historical narratives and proposing alternative frameworks rooted in decolonial theory. This research is deeply personal to me. As a Guatemalan woman of Indigenous K’iche’ Maya descent, I view historical inquiry as a means of advocating for justice and systemic change. My work allows me to critically examine the historical forces that have shaped my homeland and my community, bridging my personal history with my scholarly pursuits. Studying these histories is not merely an academic exercise but a necessary step toward dismantling the systems that continue to oppress Indigenous and working-class communities in the Global South. Beyond my individual scholarship, I have actively contributed to the research culture at the University of Utah by fostering spaces for critical dialogue and political education. My leadership in Mecha de U of U and the United Campus Workers union has allowed 220 RANGE me to bridge research with direct action, organizing political education workshops and labor initiatives that challenge imperialism, capitalism, and racial oppression. Additionally, my participation in the Oxford Consortium for Human Rights and my study abroad experience in Mexico have strengthened my ability to connect theoretical frameworks with lived experiences of resistance, further refining my research approach. These experiences have solidified my future aspirations. I plan to pursue an MSc in Empires, Colonialism, and Globalisation at the London School of Economics, where I will deepen my analysis of imperialist structures and their contemporary manifestations. Ultimately, I hope to become a professor, researching the enduring effects of imperialism in Latin America while empowering the next generation to critically engage with historical injustices. Through teaching, research, and activism, I aim to amplify transnational efforts centering Indigenous knowledge, resilience, and decolonial practices to advance a more just and equitable world. 221 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 8 Empowering People With Menses TALEA STEELE Faculty Mentor: Annie Isabel Fukushima (Ethnic Studies, University of Utah) PMDs are defined as premenstrual disorders. This term includes PMS, PME, PMDD, and subtypes of PMDD. PMS is defined as Premenstrual Syndrome and according to the Obstetrics and Gynaecology online library studies show that the prevalence of premenstrual symptoms is high including eighty to ninety percent of menstruating individuals. PME is defined as 222 RANGE premenstrual exacerbation and PMDD is defined as premenstrual dysphoric disorder, both of these are continuations of PMS. There is a wide range of symptoms when it comes to PMS but when those symptoms begin to interfere with your personal, social, or professional lives and your daily function that is when they become more serious. A lot of data and information regarding PMDs is lacking. Still, according to iapmd.org their best quality data shows a prevalence of five and a half percent of individuals who have PMDD in those who menstruate. It is important to note that this does not account for those who are misdiagnosed which is very common and those who have suppressed their ovulatory cycle by hormonal, chemical, or surgical means. The prevalence of PMDD is about as common as diabetes in females, meaning that this affects many individuals, and due to lack of information, it most likely affects many more. I plan to raise awareness on campus through a workshop that educates individuals who may be struggling with PMDs or know someone who is to help find resources, means of diagnosis, how to advocate for yourself with healthcare providers, and more. I intend to focus on menstruating individuals in communities of color, as there are more medical disparities as well as increased 223 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH taboos. I plan to do this with the Center for Community and Cultural Engagement on campus which used to include the WRC (The Women’s Resource Center). The workshop will provide a safe space for students to share their experiences and to not feel so isolated would be ideal. I plan to share my own story and have anonymous survey questions throughout the workshop to gauge how many students struggle with PMDs across campus and what resources they are lacking. The faculty mentor I work with is Dr. Annie Isabel Fukushima. RELEVANT BACKGROUND/LITERATURE REVIEW Given the lack of awareness of PMDs in the United States and on The University of Utah campus many people and students feel alone with this cyclical monthly struggle. Due to a lack of education on how the menstrual cycle works in the first place, many individuals find themselves lost on what to do and what is going on. Getting a diagnosis can be challenging and takes time. The reasons diagnosis is so crucial is due to the 224 RANGE prevalence of suicidal ideation and the suicide attempt rate. According to BMC Psychiatry, seventy-two percent of people with prospectively diagnosed PMDD report thoughts of suicide at some point in their lives. This is higher than the general population who report about a ten percent chance of lifetime thoughts of suicide. Suicidal ideation is very prevalent in those with PMDs specifically those who are struggling with PMDD. These numbers get scarier when you look into actual action put toward this suicidal ideation. With a closer look, we can see that forty-nine percent of people with prospectively diagnosed PMDD have planned a suicide attempt at some point and thirty-four percent of people with prospectively diagnosed PMDD have made a suicide attempt at some point in their lives. In comparison with the general population, this number is about three percent who have attempted suicide. Diagnosing PMDD has only recently been recognized formally as an “official” diagnosis in the medical and mental health communities according to the National Library of Medicine. Epidemiological and clinical studies consistently show that some individuals when menstruating 225 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH experience a pattern of distressing and often debilitating symptoms beginning in the luteal phase of the cycle and going away when bleeding begins or a few days into bleeding/ menstruating. PMDs are recurrent and predictable when tracking your cycle but that does not make the symptoms any more manageable as knowing this is only the first step. PMDs can often be misdiagnosed as bipolar disorders, borderline personality disorders, anxiety disorders, and others. This is why tracking symptoms and understanding the cycle is very important to ensure a treatment is received that is more likely to work for the individual and not create more harm. There is a list of symptoms on the iapmd.org site and those who believe they may have a PMD and more specifically PMDD must exhibit five symptoms including symptoms of functional impairment to observe the intensity and ensure a correct diagnosis. There is not a ton of awareness surrounding what could be happening during an individual’s cycle and diagnosis is hard to know about and 226 RANGE figure out. PMDs have been gaining in these areas of some mainstream society but often remain taboo. They especially remain taboo within communities of color as mental health is often heavily contested and menstruation is more of a private matter. In the research project by Virginia Martinez titled Racial Injustices: The Menstrual Health Experiences of African American and Latina Women, she talks about menstrual justice for individuals of color. By interviewing African American and Latina women she found that often there is an increased normalization of pain, symptoms, and experiences within communities of color and the health care system. Due to this, there is a large amount of frustration toward treatment that is not working as individuals of color are more likely to be misdiagnosed or dismissed and not taken seriously for their symptoms. This leads to further hopelessness. BIBLIOGRAPHY Eisenlohr-Moul, Tory, et al. “Prevalence of Lifetime Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors in a Global Sample of 599 Patients Reporting Prospectively 227 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Confirmed Diagnosis with Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder – BMC Psychiatry.” BioMed Central, BioMed Central, 19 Mar. 2022, bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/ s12888-022-03851-0. Epperson, C Neill, et al. “Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder: Evidence for a New Category for DSM-5.” The American Journal of Psychiatry, U.S. National Library of Medicine, May 2012, pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/ PMC3462360/. IAPMD, iapmd.org/. Accessed 4 Nov. 2024. Martinez, L. Virginia. “Racial Injustices: The Menstrual Health Experiences of African American and Latina Women.” The Salem State Digital Repository, 24 Nov. 2021, digitalrepository.salemstate.edu/handle/ 20.500.13013/782. Mishra, Sanskriti. “Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder.” StatPearls [Internet]., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 19 Feb. 2023, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/ NBK532307/#:~:text=Most%20females%20have%20onl y% 20mild,significant%20distress%20and%20functional%2 0impairment. 228 RANGE “Premenstrual Syndrome and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder …” Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 1 Nov. 2022, obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ jog.15484. “Steps to Diagnosis for PMDD.” IAPMD, 6 Nov. 2018, iapmd.org/steps-to-diagnosis. “What Is PMDD? Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder.” IAPMD, iapmd.org/about-pmdd. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024. 229 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 9 Research Reflection by Talea Steele TALEA STEELE Faculty Mentor: Annie Isabel Fukushima (Ethnic Studies, University of Utah) My undergraduate research experience has been such a new thing in my life that I had not much of an idea about beforehand. I’ve learned so much about research and how to create something meaningful. Being able to participate in undergraduate research has impacted my education greatly as I see how education can further be 230 RANGE made into real world tangible research that helps others. In the future I would love to continue raising awareness of PMDs and advocate for all people who struggle with them. I want to see more research done if not by myself then by others because it is greatly needed and is life saving for so many people. 231 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 10 Queer and LDS: Oral Histories of Organizations Supporting This Intersectional Existence AMELIA STRUNK Faculty Mentor: Kim Hackford-Peer (Gender Studies, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Oral history is an important form of documentation that is accessible for many, has various benefits, and 232 RANGE covers a surplus of topics. However, there is one area in particular where it is lacking: positive documentation of queer members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (LDS or Mormon). Although these two communities are thought to be polar opposites, there are still people who desire to coexist in both, and having access to oral history that reassures them of their identities is vital. According to prior research, oral history is beneficial in many ways, such as its ability to provide representation for marginalized communities, the guidance it furnishes for younger generations, and its ability to better educate people in forms that might be more accessible or relatable than other forms of history. For this research project, I performed four interviews with people who are involved with organizations that create safe spaces for queer LDS individuals. The organizations included in this project are: Flourish Therapy, The RaYnbow Collective, and Affirmation since they are three of the most prominent organizations that exist today. INTRODUCTION Oral History Background For centuries, people have been documenting their lives and the events happening around them. Whether it has 233 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH been through writing them on cave walls, putting them down on paper with a pen, or eventually typing them into a Word document, humans have used whatever means necessary to preserve history for future generations. In 1940, a new type of record-keeping system began being used: Oral History. Allan Nevins, while attending Columbia University, decided to interview a civic leader regarding President Grover Cleveland, and unlike previous interviews, he decided to record it so it could be used for historical purposes. As this method of record-keeping started spreading, it originally only focused on “elites”, but after only a couple of decades it turned to focus on all people. It has since moved to focus on people from less recognized communities (History Matters) as it is an effective way to resist the erasure of marginalized people from mainstream historical narratives. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, oral history is “A recording containing information about the past obtained from in-depth interviews concerning personal experiences, recollections, and reflections.” While oral history is considered by some to have existed before Allan Nevins, as interviews and word of mouth did indeed evolve much earlier, an important part of the modern definition is that this spoken history must 234 RANGE also be recorded. Nowadays, it is possible to find oral histories through online archives, podcasts, YouTube, documentaries, and so much more. Various studies have shown that these recordings have many benefits, from representing underrepresented communities to providing mentorship to younger generations, and so much more (Bhat et al., 2023; Bushouse et al., 2023; Engunyu and Boakye- Danquah, 2024; Enyindah et al., 2022; Wilson et al., 2023). Nonetheless, it is impossible to provide oral history for every important topic, and there are still holes that can be found in areas of oral history today, such as the lack of coverage on the positive intersectionality between members of the queer community and those active in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (LDS or Mormon). LDS Church Background For decades, it has been well-known amongst those familiar with the LDS church that their leaders are not very accepting of the queer community. Back in 1995, their prophet (the leader of the church that is chosen through a line of succession), Gordon B. Hinckley, released a document titled “The Family: A Proclamation to the World” in order to inform church members of the recommended way to bring up their families as well as clarify where the church stood on topics like gender, 235 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH marriage, and family. After this release, many church higher-ups said that one of the motives for writing this proclamation was the noticeable push for LGBTQ+ rights, and they wanted to make sure that their members knew where they stood on this issue. Two of the many problems with this proclamation are that those who wrote it repeatedly state that marriage should only be between a man and a woman and that there are only two genders. Since then, while some regulations have been changed to better incorporate queer individuals and a few church leaders have released somewhat accepting statements, “The Family: A Proclamation to the World” continues to be reinforced and homophobic comments and documents are still being published. For example, on the church’s website, there is a section titled “Understanding and Including Our LGBT Brothers and Sisters”, which would seem like a step in the right direction for the church. The majority of the section does move toward greater possibilities of acceptance for LGBT people, but towards the end, Ryan Wessel, a previous bishop (the leader of a designated congregation) in the church, states, “Remember that what someone feels and how they choose to respond to those feelings [same sex attraction] are not the same thing” (Wessel, 2021). He then goes on to say that those 236 RANGE who withhold from having relationships with the same sex are still worthy of all privileges in the church and are not sinning; this implies that queer people who do choose to live true to their identity are sinners and will be restricted in what they are allowed to do as a member in the church. Additionally, another section on the church’s website called “Homosexual Behavior”, specifically states “Sexual association of individuals of the same gender. God forbids sexual activity of this kind” (Homosexual Behavior). So, despite the few positive messages that leaders or members of the LDS church put out to try and show some support for the queer community, they are still ultimately against queerness and queer activity. Considering all the remarks and regulations that have been made by church members and officials, from an outside perspective, it would appear that queer members of the LDS church do not exist. On top of this, many heterosexual members of the LDS church tend to have a negative outlook on queer individuals who choose to stay active in the church, which may lead to them feeling ostracized and ashamed. Nevertheless, these two identities do intersect. Thus, oral history must be collected so queer members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints have a 237 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH beneficial form of history to look back on and know that they are not alone. Filling a Hole On the church’s website, https://churchofjesuschrist.org/ topics/gay, they do have videos of active queer members sharing their stories, which would count as oral history covering intersectionality between these two communities. However, all these stories are about members who have chosen to not have same-sex relations, and many of them have even decided to marry someone of the opposite sex in order to live out the life that the church expects for them. While people choosing to do this is not necessarily a bad thing, it is problematic for the LDS church to only highlight these stories and neglect those who still live a religious life while also living true to their sexuality. Therefore, there is still a need for positive oral history regarding this topic. Furthermore, on an oral history hub titled “LBGTQ History: Digital Collaboratory” where the creators attempt to provide coverage of the past for queer people through oral history, there are hundreds of videos and topics covered. Yet, none of these are specific to the LDS church, or even religion in general, proving, again, 238 RANGE that there is a lack of coverage in this area. Finally, in a master’s thesis titled, “The Intermountain West LBGTQ+ Oral History Project: The Folklorization of Queer Theory”, John Priegnitz specifically says that oral history needs to be created that covers safe spaces for queer LDS members (Priegnitz, 2023, p. 13). Each of these sources goes to show that there is a hole within the world of oral history, and the purpose of this research is to begin to fill it. LITERATURE REVIEW In 2023, Bhat et al. released an article titled “Redressing Historical Bias: Exploring the Path to an Accurate Representation of the Past”. Within it, they performed a study assessing historical bias occurring in various forms of history-keeping methods. This was done by performing a comprehensive review of modern writings, interviews with scholars/historians, and historical narratives. Through this research, they found that bias can occur in these works for a multitude of reasons, from political agendas to personal perspectives, yet there are ways to address it and better incorporate stories that do not often get told, such as those from marginalized communities. They argue that this will eventually lead to a more equitable society and provide a more accurate and inclusive portrayal of all histories. 239 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Bhat et al. list oral history as one of the solutions to this bias and state that it is important for racial and ethnic minorities and working-class people, all of which are underrepresented in the majority of written sources. Similarly, in the passage “A History of ARNOVA at Fifty”, Bushouse et al. review the Association for Research on Nonprofit Organizations and Voluntary Action (ARNOVA) by looking at their historical records as well as recording oral histories. The purpose of this was to determine how ARNOVA has continued to function while the world around them as well as their specific fields of study have continued to change. In the methods section of this study, they state that their reason for conducting interviews was because “Oral history supplements historical research when there is a dearth of documentation or because a group is underrepresented” (Bushouse et al., 2023, p. 31). Bushouse et al. are trying to accomplish what Bhat et al. believe needs to be done in order to mend history. Engunya and BoakyeDanquah in “A systematic review of the socio-economic impacts of mining in Africa: Do research method influence participation” add that the reason that these benefits from oral history are possible for these groups is because oral history often allows them to provide self- 240 RANGE representation and participation in the research process (Engunyu and Boakye-Danquah, 2024). From all three of these sources, it is easy to see that oral history can be relied upon to fill holes in history that marginalized groups need filled, people are already striving to permeate these areas, and hopefully this will eventually lead to better and more diverse historical records and society. Moreover, Enyindah et al. offer an additional perspective as to why oral history can be a strong proponent of record keeping. In their article, “Elders and the Sustenance of History in Nkoro Kirika Kingdom: A Comprehensive Overview”, they discuss the Nkoro Kirika culture and their perspective on people who are defined as elders. They used primary sources collected through interviews and secondary sources found in written history to explore why elders are so important to this culture. Towards the end of this article, Enyindah states: The transmissions of oral history, enables elders to play a crucial role in providing mentorship and guidance to younger individuals in various aspects of life, including career choices, personal development, and decisionmaking. This mentorship has economic benefits because it helps younger individuals make valid choices regarding 241 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH education, training, and career paths. (Enyindah, 2022, p. 432) Even though this study is specifically looking at oral history regarding elders, at least some of these benefits would likely stem from oral history created by anyone or focusing on any group of people. There are also benefits of oral history from an academic perspective rather than just a personal one. For example, Wilson et al. decided to look at what pedagogies have a noticeable positive impact on primary and secondary school students’ historical literacy skills in their study titled “A systematic review of pedagogical interventions on the learning of historical literacy in schools”. They did this by looking at previous academic literature that performed studies including three broad categories they chose, and in the end, they conducted a meta-analysis on 21 previous studies. From this, they found that students understood history and historical recounts more clearly through oral sources, regardless of whether it was live or through a video (Wilson et al., 2023, p. 19). Finally, although it is important to consider the roadblocks of oral history, such as lack of access, funding issues, problems with supporting infrastructure, and much more, people are trying to mend these issues to provide better access and increase opportunities for it 242 RANGE to be used, such as in academic environments discussed previously (Jones and Piper, 2024). Mental Health In “Affirming and Nonaffirming Religious Beliefs Predicting Depression Suicide Risk Among Latter-Day Saint Sexual Minorities”, McGraw et al. performed what they believe was the first study to look at the correlations between internalized stigma, religious/spiritual struggles surrounding sexuality, depression, and suicide risk amongst both active and nonactive queer members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. This study was important to perform, because in general, “Despite increased access to mental health care and more social acceptance, sexual minorities… continue to report higher levels of depression and suicide risk compared to their heterosexual counterparts” (McGraw et al.. 2023, p. 1). In other words, the queer community is at a greater risk of depression and suicide than heterosexual people, and this study provided an opportunity to explore this correlation through an LDS lens. In order to conduct this study, they first had to define two things: affirming beliefs and nonaffirming beliefs. According to McGraw et al., affirming religious beliefs make a queer individual feel comfortable with their sexuality, such as the teaching in the LDS church that God loves all people 243 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and has a plan for each and every person. On the other hand, nonaffirming religious beliefs tend to discourage same-sex relations, like the LDS belief that God ordained marriage to be between men and woman. For this study, two samples with hundreds of individuals who were at least 18, identified as queer, and had been baptized within the LDS church were recruited. The main difference between these two groups was that one received the survey questions gradually over an eightmonth period in 2020 while the second was given all questions at once in 2022. They administered a survey with five categories of questions, and once they were answered, they explored correlations amongst the answers. In the end, they found that both groups were mildly depressed and exhibited a higher risk for suicide than the average person, and nonaffirming beliefs were related to internalized stigma, religious/spiritual struggles, and depression. Similarly, in the article “Religiousness and Minority Stress in Conservatively Religious Sexual Minorities: Lessons from Latter-day Saints”, Lefevor et al. argued that since those belonging to the LGBTQ+ community live in a predominantly heteronormative society, they are automatically at a higher risk for experiences that will lead to poorer mental health. On top of this, the 244 RANGE presence of heteronormativity in religious spaces, including the LDS church, also contributes to this decrease in mental health since they create a “… strong sense of group cohesiveness and a devaluation of those who are not part of the group” (Lefevor et al., 2023, p. 290). In order to explore this point and relate it specifically to the LDS church, they gathered 1,083 individuals from both organizations that support queer LDS people, like Affirmation, North Star, and USGA, and through word of mouth. The participants from this study included people who were queer and LDS, queer and nonLDS, heterosexual and LDS, and heterosexual and nonLDS so Lefevor et al. could perform a more indepth comparative analysis. After collecting their results, they found that not only do sexual minorities display worse mental health than heterosexual individuals, which aligns with many other studies, but queer LDS members also had higher minority stress levels than participants who were queer but nonLDS. The authors argue that this is likely due to their engagement with a conservative religion, which Dyer et al. similarly theorizes in their study titled “Religion, Mental Health, and the Latter-Day Saints: A Review of Literature 2005-2022″. For this article, the authors collected 44 peer-reviewed, scholarly articles that discussed the mental health of members of the LDS faith, because 245 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH they wanted to look deeper into the general consensus that being a member of the LDS church is correlated with better mental health. While general findings from their review showed that this belief is true, including in regards to depression, anxiety, suicide risk, self-harm, and body image, they also found that some studies showed that internalized homophobia from active queer members was linked to higher rates of depression and queer people who left the church had lower depression rates and overall better mental health than those who stayed. However, Dyer et al. also highlighted the fact that the studies they looked at showed that the mental health of this intersection is extremely nuanced and complicated. For example, some articles in their analysis actually showed that staying active in the church combatted the effects of internalized homophobia and led to a decreased likelihood of depression for queer members of the LDS church. Additionally, while people in this intersection who sought belongingness within religion exhibited superior mental health as a result of high church attendance, those who prioritized belongingness to the LGBTQ+ community also had greater mental health after lowering their church attendance. Clearly, the mental health of this group of people is quite 246 RANGE complicated and is not a “one size fits all” situation. Each of these studies provides examples of scenarios and factors that are shown to either decrease or improve the overall mental health of persons who are queer and LDS. Nonetheless, Dyer et al. stated “Although findings are nuanced, sexual minorities tend to have less favorable mental health”, (2023, p. 1) which means despite the complexity of this topic, it is still important to highlight the mental health challenges of this community and find ways to contribute to their improved mental health. METHODS Before starting my research, I had had multiple conversations with friends and individuals who are queer, LDS, or both who expressed to me that there is not enough positive discussion in society about the possibility of being both queer and LDS (Strunk, 2023). This led me to realize that uncovering and sharing stories about this intersection was extremely important, and thus, I decided that I wanted to interview persons involved with organizations that assist queer Latter-Day Saints so I could find those stories and make them available for others to come across. I chose to specifically interview people involved with organizations because I knew they would have a valuable perspective on the history behind the organizations, what resources exist 247 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH for queer/LDS individuals, and why this topic needs more attention. To start this process, I began researching what organizations were out there as well as what their purposes were, the history behind them, and who created them. I did this through browsing the internet and social media, because these are places that queer/ LDS people would likely go to try and find resources for themselves. Through this, I found that Affirmation, BYU USGA, Encircle, and Lift and Love were the four to consistently pop up and point towards each other. Since it appeared that these organizations are well established and strive to help the community I want to help, I began reaching out to both presidents and other staff from each establishment to see if interviewing them was doable. I wanted to interview presidents and staff because I felt confident that they would hold institutional knowledge on the history and importance of their organizations that would be difficult or even impossible to find elsewhere. I heard back from Kate Mower and Fred Bowers with Affirmation, and Kate was able to connect me with individuals from organizations I had not found in my preliminary research, like RaYnbow Collective, Flourish Therapy, Simple Modern Therapy, and Celebrate. I believe I could not find them initially because they 248 RANGE appear to be more concerned about reaching their target audience of queer/LDS peoples in need rather than the general public and allies, which is different from the original four that I found. I set up interviews with Gracee Purcell with the RaYnbow Collective and Lisa Hansen from Flourish Therapy, as well as with Kate and Fred from Affirmation. I wanted to complete these interviews, review my data, and then determine if I needed to set up a second round of interviews with additional participants. If all four interviews had common themes amongst them and provided me with substantial new history and stories that I could not find online, I knew I would feel confident that I did not need to interview more people. Between this research and the actual interviews, I formulated a list of questions (see Appendix A) usable for all interviewees that included a good mix of inquiries about both the organization itself as well as the interviewees’ own story and experience within the establishment. Throughout November 2024, I conducted and recorded all four interviews over Zoom since it was the most convenient with everyone’s work, school, and living situations. In order to decide where I wanted the remainder of my research to go, I thoroughly listened to each recording multiple times, took notes on portions that aligned with my research 249 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH questions, transcribed quotes I wanted to use, and extracted themes that popped up in each one. RESULTS Before officially beginning my research on the queer LDS community, I reflected on the common narrative about what it would be like as a queer LDS individual living in today’s society. Elements of this narrative include feeling lonely, out of place, struggling to find a sense of belonging in both of these communities, and wondering if there is anyone out there who feels the same way. Engaging in this reflective process led me to look for an answer on the internet, where one of the first search results would be for Affirmation: LGBTQ Mormons, Family, and Friends. Their website offers definitions for various sexualities, contact information for active chapters across the world, resources to other groups and media, a brief history of the beginning of Affirmation, and more. As I explored this resource, I also thought about my own experiences with friends and classmates, some of whom knew about Affirmation, but still yearn for more despite all that it offers. Over the past few years at university, I have had many conversations with my queer LDS friends on this topic where they have expressed to me that the need for more does exist because of the disconnect they feel from both the queer 250 RANGE and LDS communities and the belief that they cannot fully belong in either community because of their identity in the other (Strunk, 2023). During my research, Kate Mower, the current historian of Affirmation, led me to the special collections in the University of Utah’s Marriott Library. There, we looked at personal letters sent from and to Ina Mae Murria queer LDS woman who played a big part in the upbringing of Affirmation in the 1970s. Many of these letters were sent to Murri anonymously or secretly from queer LDS individuals who were ecstatic that an organization that welcomed both of their identities existed, because they had never encountered anything close to that before. For example, one letter stated, “… I was more than surprised to see an ad for gay LDS members. Yes I am LDS, and I’ve been gay for as long as I can remember. It’s very difficult to attend church every Sunday and know that in everybody’s eyes there, you are a sinner because of HOMOSEXUALITY! … Can you tell how excited I am? To finally know that there is another gay LDS somewhere in the world. I would love to meet someone or talk to someone about the way that I feel. I’m so lonely.” (Wolfgang, 1986) This excerpt, as well as so many others, showed me that this yearning for more has been around for decades, 251 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and Affirmation was able to pave the way for it to be fulfilled. Fortunately, in recent years there has been a large increase in organizations that support queer LDS peoples, especially in Utah where LDS is the dominant religion and shapes much of the political and social atmosphere. On the downside, these new organizations, in combination with, the erasure of those that came before them have prevented queer LDS people today from understanding that people like them who feel the same ways as they do have been around for ages. Therefore, the oral histories collected in this research are extremely important, because not only do they shed light on the support offered for the queer LDS community today, but they also offer the history surrounding each one and guard against the future erasure of more contemporary work. RaYnbow Collective My first interviewee, Gracee Purcell, is the current president of the RaYnbow Collective at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah, and has been the president for a couple of years. This organization was founded fairly recently in 2021 by Maddison Tenney as a way to connect queer students at BYU through 252 RANGE their stories, resources, and art. According to Gracee, a big part of this creation was due to the fact that even though there are a handful of thriving resources and communities out there that can help these queer BYU students, they are pretty underground and hard to find. To combat this, RaYnbow Collective creates an easy way to access any of these other sources while also creating a community of its own through Back-toSchool Pride and other events. Gracee said that having a resource like this is vital at BYU because “… it is so important… that people have spaces where they can like belong, and no one should feel like they don’t belong in spaces that they have like already… been admitted.” Additionally, when asked about people’s reactions to the collective, she shared that I think I’ve been really amazed by how many people have stood up and like been there to support us. I think there’s this huge community especially of parents but especially of actually moms who are really welcoming and like want to just embrace all the queer kids at BYU… and I think there are fewer extreme like negative reactions than like really good reactions that we’ve had. Both she and I agreed that this overwhelmingly positive reaction was likely due to the time period that it was created in, and she also added that none of this could 253 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH have been done without the allies that paved the way for queer LDS peoples to be able to make space for themselves. As for the future of the RaYnbow Collective, Gracee expressed that the organization itself will hopefully expand to both BYU Idaho and BYU Hawaii; however, they are also “… very aware that if we spread ourselves too thin then we won’t be able to help anybody”. On top of this, they would also love to keep providing resources and support to queer BYU students in whatever ways they can. As for Gracee herself, in response to being asked what her ultimate goal for her organization was, she said: My ultimate goal, and this is maybe going to sound crazy, but like my ultimate goal is for RaYnbow Collective to not be needed anymore… it was built out of a need at BYU and so I’d really love to get to a point where they don’t need us anymore. In other words, she is hopeful that eventually the queer LDS community in Provo will become so normalized and support itself so well that they will not need the RaYnbow collective to provide the outreach that it currently does. Flourish Therapy My final interviewee, Lisa Hansen, founded Flourish 254 RANGE Therapy in 2017 after experiencing firsthand the support that queer communities in Utah needed. As her kids were growing up in the early 2000s and became very active in various choirs and theatres, she “…recognized that the kids who had the most to offer were in the queer community… and we as a community failed them in providing mentors and opportunities to contribute and in supporting families and robustly making room for queer people growing up”. She knew from this experience, as well as her involvement in a gay men’s choir, that she wanted to help the queer LDS community once she got her master’s and doctorate from BYU, because she believed it was needed more than ever. Thus, according to Lisa, Flourish Therapy was created in Orem, Utah to provide mental health therapy, outpatient mental health care, and affordable therapy. During their first two years, they worked through Encircle, another organization that supports queer LDS peoples, since they started at the exact same time. After that, though, she shared that “Once we gained a foothold, we got lots of calls from [BYU] Idaho about ‘we need help up here too’”, and thanks to virtual therapy, they now provide services to many people living outside of Utah as well. When I asked her about the reaction from Utahn’s towards her organization, she stated: 255 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH I would say the reactions were very positive from organizations, which was really nice. We were able to go visit with people at the church office building who… were among those who felt this was really important… that’s since changed, but that’s how it was when we started… We’ve since been taken off of LDS family services referrals… even though we support people on whatever place and pathway they are wanting to go. As for the future of Flourish Therapy, similar to Gracee’s for RaYnbow Collective, Lisa personally hopes for it “To become obsolete! I don’t foresee it happening in the near future, but my ultimate goal would be that there would be such inclusion that a specialized place for people to be sure they were safe in therapy wouldn’t be necessary.” She believes that Flourish’s own ultimate goal is to reduce the stigma surrounding mental health treatment and continue to create mental health treatment that is affordable to everyone. All in all, she has learned from her work on and in Flourish Therapy “That the community needs everyone’s belief that including queer people makes us a better community… and that paying attention to the marginalized among us benefits and uplifts everyone.” Affirmation Two of my interviewees, Kate Mower and Fred Bowers, 256 RANGE are both affiliated with Affirmation: LGBTQ Mormons, Families, and Friends. Currently, Fred is living in Maine while acting as Affirmation’s president, but his involvement with the organization started back in the 1980s while he was trying to figure out his sexual and religious identities. Although Kate is their historian and is currently living in Utah, they have also been active within the community since 2018 and have held a few other leadership positions while living in other places, such as the LA chapter leader, Europe area leader, and junior vice president. They said that they found Affirmation when “I was dealing with a lot of my own coming out trauma…I felt like I really needed… people around me who understood the Mormon experience”. Since Affirmation is much older than both the RaYnbow Collective and Flourish Therapy and has expanded to all over the world, its history has been quite different. According to Fred: Affirmation started in 1977. The climate for everything was quite different than it is today. There were still people… who were going through what they will call shock therapy and everything… there was this case of that people were definitely not welcome in their families, some people were thrown out at that time. It was very hard for people to find any place that was affirming for being LGBTQ and Mormon. 257 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Kate emphasized the difficulty of belonging to this community back then by sharing with me the fact that queer LDS students at BYU used to go to gay bars Salt Lake City to look for people who had garment lines. This gave the students an opportunity to let them know that they had a secret group that supported being queer and LDS, because there was so much surveillance and shame at that time. Nonetheless, today, Affirmation is a global organization that has much more support, including from bishops, stake leaders, and other queer/ LDS organizations, Fred told me. He also pointed out that that some of this development is owed to parents who supported their queer kids in the 70s and 80s, because they were an example to others and helped pave the way for organizations like Mama Dragons, Papa Dragons, and Affirmation itself that facilitate parental understanding. Additionally, Kate mentioned that the organization was actually quite radical for a while by being actively involved in protesting and communicating with the church, which also furthered Affirmation’s growth. According to Fred, Affirmation strives to be a place that welcomes “… a wide range of LGBTQIA Mormons. It ranges from those folks that are still attending church, and some are out, and some are not out, and then it also 258 RANGE goes to the other end of that with people who are just mostly LGBT and culturally Mormon”. In other words, they want to attract and support anyone affiliated with the queer and LDS communities, no matter where they fall within that intersection. Kate echoed this by saying “… we don’t care where you land on the Mormonism spectrum, as long as you’re alive. Our goal is to keep you alive and to honor your queerness- whatever that looks like for you- and honor that spectrum of Mormonness”. They went on to add that one of the main goals of Affirmation, from the very beginning, has been to save lives and be a place for people to land for as long as they need. Looking forward, Fred hopes that Affirmation not only continues to exist but also thrives and helps those who join it thrive. When asked about Affirmation’s ultimate goal, he said it would be “… for everyone who comes to it to learn to heal together and respect each other and… to learn to love each other and work together”. Kate, on the other hand, has the same personal goal and goal for the organization: for its history not to be forgotten. They believe that the systematic erasure of history surrounding the queer LDS community has led to the need for Affirmation and similar organizations today, when in fact “We’ve always been here, we’re always going to be here. You can’t say 259 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH there aren’t queer Mormons because we’ve always been here.” CONCLUSION All in all, looking at the positive intersection between the queer community and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints is extremely important, and oral history is a beneficial way to capture that intersection. Doing so means current and future generations of LGBTQ+ Mormons can listen to the interviews that I completed, which will both give them a glimpse into the organizations that exist to help them as well as allow them to feel that they are not alone with their identity. In the future, more research should be done on how other identities fit into this conversation. Before I began my research and interviewed two of my queer LDS friends for another project, my female friend brought up the fact that as a queer woman, she feels like she has little to no role within the church since women in the church are expected to marry a man and have children. Dyer et al.’s research also briefly acknowledged this intersection of gender, sexuality, and religion when they said that “SSA [same-sex attracted] women experienced greater alienation from the Church, were more likely than SSA men to express negative 260 RANGE sentiments about their church experiences, and were less likely to subscribe to Church beliefs” (2023, p. 14). Thus, there are clearly experiences from queer, LDS woman that still need to be brought to light. Additionally, race is another point of intersection within this conversation that is not explicitly part of this project. Nonetheless, in my interview with Lisa, she stated that race is an important factor of the queer LDS community, and it is something that Flourish Therapy is trying their best to better understand and accommodate. Moreover, Lefevor et al.’s study was purposefully done on white men in order to act as a sort of control variable, which means both gender and race did not play much of a role in their results on the mental health of queer LDS persons. As I said, future research should take both of these points of intersection into account, as well as the most nuanced intersection of race, gender, sexuality, and religion. Ultimately, my goal for this research is to not only to shed a light on these organizations and their history, but to also show queer/LDS individuals that they are not alone and deserve to feel comfortable with their identity. I want them to know that their community has existed for decades, despite the erasure of it by both the LDS church and society. In addition to this passage being available to this community, the four interviews that 261 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH were completed for this project will be uploaded to the J. Willard Marriot Library Special Collections so they can also be used as a resource. Furthermore, I hope that this research will reach people who are queer or LDS, but who don’t necessarily understand that the two identities can, and do, intersect. I hope that this work gives them an opportunity to think beyond their own lived experiences so that queer and LDS spaces can become more inclusive of people who are queer and LDS. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bhat, R. M., Rajan, P., & Gamage, L. (2023). Redressing Historical Bias: Exploring the Path to an Accurate Representation of the Past. Journal of Social Science, 4(3), 698-705. Bushouse, B. K., Witkowski, G. R., & Abramson, A. J. (2023). A History of ARNOVA at Fifty. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 52(1), 29S-67S. Dyer, W., Judd, D., Gale, M., & Finlinson, H. (2023). Religion, Mental Health, and the Latter-Day Saints: A Review of Literature 2005-2022. Religions, 14(701). https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060701 262 RANGE Egunyu, F., & Boakye-Danquah, J. (2024). A systematic review of the socio-economic impacts of mining in Africa: Do research methods influence participation?. The Extractive Industries and Society, 17, 101408. Enyindah, I. C., Percy, N. R., & Rumuolumeni, P. H. Elders and the Sustenance of History in Nkoro Kirika Kingdom: A Comprehensive Overview. Hinckly, G. B. (1995). The Family: A Proclamation to the World History Matters. (n.d.). What is oral history? https://historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/oral/ what.html#:~:text=Thus%2C%20historia ns%20generally%20consider%20oral,recollections%20d eemed%20of%20historic al%20significance. Jones, M., & Piper, A. (2024). Digital History. Australian Historical Studies, 55(1), 178–203. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/1031461X.2023.2267586 Lefevor, G., Skidmore, S., McGraw, J., Davis, D., & Mansfield, T. (2022). Religiousness and Minority Stress in Conservatively Religious Sexual Minorities: Lessons from Latter-day Saints. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 32(4). 289-305. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10508619.2021.2008131 263 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH LGBTQ+ Digital Collaboratory. (n.d.). Oral History Hub. https://lgbtqdigitalcollaboratory.org/oral- historyhub/ McGraw, J., Skidmore, S., Lefevor, G., Docherty, M., & Mahoney, A. (2023). Affirming and Nonaffirming Religious Beliefs Predicting Depression and Suicide Risk Among Latter-Day Saint Sexual Minorities. American Psychological Association, 70(3), 293-306. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000659 Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Oral history. In MerriamWebster.com dictionary. Retrieved April 15, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ oral%20history. Priegnitz, J. E. (2023). The Intermountain West LGTBQ+ Oral History Project: The Folklorization of Queer Theory. All Graduate Plan B and other Reports, 1730. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/gradreports/1730 Strunk, M. (Executive Producer). (2023). Conversation About Religion and Sexuality. Spotify,https://open.spotify.com/show/ 3fPterpsD4jkw51NbiVAVj 264 A RANGE The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. (n.d.). Gay. https://churchofjesuschrist.org/topics/ga Wessel, R. J. (2021). Understanding and including our LGBT brothers and sisters. 2021(10) Liahona, https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/liahona/ 2021/10/understanding- including-our-lgbt-brothersand-sisters?lang=eng Wilson, K., Dudley, D., Dutton, J., Preval-Mann, R., & Paulsen, E. (2023). A systematic review of pedagogical interventions on the learning of historical literacy in schools. History Education Research Journal, 20(1), 9. Wolfgang, D. (1986) J. Willard Marriot Library Special Collections: University of Utah, Ina Mae Murri Correspondence 1986. Ina Mae Murri Collection. APPENDIX A – QUESTIONS FOR INTERVIEWEES • What organization(s) are you involved with and what is your role within them? • What was your motivation behind getting involved with , and how did you do so? • What’s the story behind becoming what it is today? 265 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH • What’s the current status of , and what do they do? • Your website invites queer, LDS individuals as well as . In your experience, are those people engaging as well? • How has it changed over time and why do you think that is? • If not, do you want them to, or is it important to you to focus on your target audience? • What efforts have you made to try and get other audiences involved? • How do you get the funds that you need to do what you do, and what do you feel are the pros and cons behind that? • What were the factors behind choosing where to place your organization? • What’s the plan for your organization to expand, and what are your personal hopes for those expansions? • I have a question about your public image in terms of the way you present yourselves to the local community and people trying to find you. How does your organization make 266 RANGE decisions about curating that image, and what are factors you feel like need to consider in order to reach your target audience? • What are the roadblocks to this? More specific question for USGA considering the disclaimers on their website • What would you say has been the reactions of the Utah/LDS community to your organization • How do you navigate doing the work that you do and serving the populations that you serve in the political context of Utah? • I’m also interviewing people who work with Affirmation, Encircle, and Flourish Therapy. Does your organization have any relationship with them? • What is your personal ultimate goal for ? • What do you understand is your organization’s ultimate goal? This organization is dedicated to “creating and identifying safe spaces for LGBTQ+ students, faculty, and staff at BYU”, what is the role of cis-heterosexual individuals within it? 267 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH • Are there a lot of cis-heterosexual individuals existing in your space, or is it mostly queer and trans people? • What’s one takeaway from your work that you’d like my future audience to know? • Are there other things and stories you think would be valuable to tell that I haven’t asked you about? • Would it be helpful to send these interviews back to you for you to publish? • Affirmation- I noticed on your website that you have this voting system on your website, can you tell me more about that? • What kinds of things do you have people vote on? • Have you found that there are people with ill intent who try to shape the vote? 268 RANGE 11 Tilt Boards and Snow Fracture Mechanics DOMINIC ALEI-GONZALEZ AND JACK ESKELAND Faculty Mentor: Eric Pardyjak (Mechanical Engineering, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Understanding how snow fractures is a critical element in predicting the stability and strength of a given 269 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH snowpack. The tilt boards used by practitioners to analyze snowpack provide rough estimates of the strength and location of weak layers, are sub- ject to variability, and allow for potentially inaccurate stability assessments. Current tilt board tests outlined by the Snow, Weather, and Avalanche Guidelines (SWAG) involve removing a specimen of snow with a shovel and tapping it with varying amounts of force in order to cause fracture. The force used in these tests is exerted by the observer’s hand, which lacks repeatability and precision. The main objective of this project is to design and build a tilt board that controls the variables that introduce inconsistency in the current testing procedure. Keywords: tilt boards, snow stability, avalanches 1 BACKGROUND 1.1 General Considerations Avalanches and snow instability are one of the leading safety concerns for mountain towns, ski areas, and back country recreation. Forecasting strength and avalanche stability has significant challenges because of the variability in terrain, atmospheric conditions, and other inconsistencies. Current prediction methods provide somewhat accurate forecasts but also contain significant 270 RANGE error that negatively impacts the economy and contributes to back country fatalities. The current methods to forecast avalanches involve digging snow pits which are labor intensive and only analyze a specific portion of the snowpack. While this method has been perfected and can generate relatively accurate snowpack models, inconsistencies still exist. During the process of analyzing a snow pit many tests are completed in order to generate a stability model, one of them being a tilt board test which is used to simulate failure and locate persistent weak layers. The procedure as outlined in the SWAG guidelines includes removing a section of snow and placing it on a tilted board. The snow specimen is then subject to increasing amounts of force until the point of failure [2]. Failure in a snowpack simply means that the friction between layers is overcome and separation occurs. The standard tilt board testing method contains inconsistency in the force transmitted to the board since it is done through the observers wrist, arm, and shoulder. Creating a device that would more accurately transmit the force would decrease variability and allow for more accurate snowpack analysis to occur. There are two main design considerations that must be taken into account in order to build a tilt board that will significantly improve the 271 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH repeatability and preciseness of this form of snowpack analysis. The first consideration is a measurable and repeatable way to transmit the force. Second, the tilt angle of the board must be accurate and repeatable. According to the SWAG guidelines [2], 30° is the best angle to use for these tests. Testing at 30° is well within the fracture zone [1] and is a common angle for skiers to descend at. Lastly, when observing failures on the tilt board, cocoa powder can be used to help with the visual observation of the cracks. Before force is applied to the board, cocoa powder will be applied to the side of the column. When failure occurs the compression will cause an accumulation of cocoa powder directly at the crack. This will enable more precise measurements to be taken as well as show the geometry of the crack both of which add to the usefulness of the data. 1.2 Snow Fracture Mechanics The current mixed-mode anti crack model [1] suggests that the volumetric change from the accumulation of snow causes a failure in compression and then because of the presence of persistent weak layers, a failure in shear follows [1]. Bair’s paper defines a persistent 272 RANGE weak layer as one that has not metamorphosed into round and faceted snow crystals that tend to be more stable [1]. The tilt boards will help to determine fracture mechanics specifically in new snow. In addition to testing a tilt board a level board will be used to compare failure results. If a failure happens at roughly the same spot on both boards there is a higher likelihood that the failure happened from a combination of shear and compression rather than just shear. Additionally, the tests will hopefully give insight into the presence of persistent or nonpersistent weak layers in new snow that depend on atmospheric conditions during the time of the new snow. 1.3 Existing Tilt-Board Technologies Existing tilt boards have been used to evaluate snow instabilities in the general avalanche forecasting world as well as in the experimental field like the one used alongside the Dif- ferential Emissivity Imaging Disdrometer (DEID) as shown in Figure 1 [5]. The DEIDis a device that is able to calculate the mass, density, and crystal type of hydrometeors by using a thermal camera and aluminum hot plate. 273 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1: (a) Photograph showing the DEID in the field and a tilt board used to validate weak layers in the snowpack identified by the DEID. (b) CAD rendering of the basic tiltboard design. Figure used from [4]. The difference in emissivity of the snowflake and aluminum allows for a ‘thermal footprint’ to be seen by the camera. The assumption that the heat loss from the snowflake directly correlates to the heat gained by the aluminum plate enables the thermal mass of the snowflake to be calculated [5]. In addition to calculating individual hydrometeor properties it is also able to calculate continuous precipitation quantities [5]. After collecting this information a Stability Index (SI) can be calculated which helps predict 274 RANGE whether or not failure will occur [5]. In order to cross reference the position of weak layers that the DEID calculates, a tilt board was used [4]. The tilt board as shown in Figure 1 is very similar to the standardized one outline by the SWAG. However, because of the inconsistencies in the force transfer from manual hand taps to the board, it is challenging to be sure that the data from this tilt board is reliable. Additionally, some design aspects of the board, like the central pole used to grab the board, leave room for error in the uniformity of the accumulated snowpack. Furthermore, the tilt board must be removed from the snowpack causing high likelihood for disturbances. With the new tilt board the snowpack can be minimally altered by leaving the entire board at the level of the snowpack. The fully level surface also ensures that there are naturally occurring stress concentrations rather than introducing potential hot spots by the addition of a central rod. 275 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2 DESIGN 2.1 Tilt Board Design Based on the SWAG guidelines for tilt-board tests there are a few preexisting design considerations that must be taken into account. The first is being that the dimensions of the board must be roughly 30 cm by 30 cm. Second, the tilt angle of board that is used in the SWAG guidelines is 30°. These design constraints were developed in The Avalanche Handbook [3]. Figure 2a shows a schematic of the tilt board and Figure 2b shows the real tilt board that meets the design considerations. 276 RANGE Figure 2a: Tilt Board Schematic showing the articulation of the tilt board. 277 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2b: Photograph showing a protoype of the tilt board and holding frame prototype in vertically oriented position tested in the laboratory. 278 RANGE The nuts on the long threaded bolt can be tightened to hold the board level when snow is accumulating on it and loosened when the board needs to be tilted to perform a test. The two pieces of 8020 that stick out directly from the lower member, allow the board to rest at 30° from level. The threaded rod running parallel to the lowermost cross member is positioned such that the board rotates in one plane, and is not slanted when rested at 30°. 2.2 Level Board Design In addition to a tilt board, a level board was constructed in order to cross reference the failure points. The level board is exactly the same as the tilt board but is unable to tilt. Failure on a level board, would correlate to the persistent weak layer failing due to compression. The exact mechanics of the failure on the tilt board are unknown at this time, but are hypothesized to be a result of shear and compression. Comparing the height of the failure on both boards will provide insight into whether the fracture was due to shear, compression, or a combination of both. 2.3 Known Force Transmitting Mechanism (KFTM) In order to transmit a repeatable, known, and significant 279 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH force to the board, the Known Force Transmitting Mechanism was designed and fabricated. Figure 3 shows a CAD model of the KFTM. This mechanism deflects the spring in a straight line that is perpendicular to the surface of the tilt board which ensures that the spring constant that was calculated can be applied to this device. Figure 3: CAD rendering of KFTM prototype. To use the KFTM, the operator must first deflect the spring to the set markings on the main rail and then release it. The KFTM has three levels of force that it is able to transfer into the board. These levels are meant to roughly simulate the force that would be transferred from a tap at the wrist, elbow, and shoulder in a standard Extended Column Test (ECT) by an avalanche forecasting practitioner as outlined in the SWAG 280 RANGE guidelines. Figure 4 shows the KFTM with the spring slightly deflected. The piece of 8020 that runs parallel to the central rod is attached to a linear bearing that has negligible friction. When the spring is deflected and released, the piece of 8020 acts as a hammer and transmits a force to the tilt board. Markings on the central piece of 8020 ensure that the same force is being transmitted to the tilt board on each trial. In order to transmit a wide range of forces the spring can be swapped out easily so that the force can be additionally controlled by the spring constant. 2.4 KFTM – Force Calibration In order to properly calibrate the force being applied to the tilt board using the KFTM, it was necessary to collect data from the current testing method. The quantification of a wrist tap, elbow tap, and shoulder tap was conducted by Toft and Verplanck [6], however there was a very high standard deviation of the force that the 2500 avalanche professionals exerted onto their force transducer. As a result of the variability in their results, we were not confident in using their data directly. 281 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 4: Photograph of the first physical prototype of the KFTM We decided to conduct a pilot study to quantify human 282 RANGE taps ourselves. In this experiment, a force transducer was used to collect time series data of force from six individuals who had prior experience conducting ECTs. From that data, peak forces were identified and used to calculate a mean and standard deviation of wrist, elbow, and shoulder taps. Figure 5 is an example of the raw time series data that was collected from one individual. Since peak force is the main quantity of interest, the ten peaks have been averaged together and that value is shown by the red line. Figure 6 shows the box plot for the same individual with quartile 1, quartile 3, and the mean visualized. Figure 5: Graph of raw data gathered from force transducer 283 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH for an individual. Average of max force shown indicated with red line. Set refers to the individual groups of ten taps. Figure 6: Box plot from same individual. Quartile 1, quartile 3, and the mean is shown as well as outliers. After all peak forces were isolated from the subjects, the grand mean and standard deviation of wrist, elbow, and shoulder taps were calculated and the results are shown in Table 1. In addition, the individual means and standard deviations of each subject were calculated and are presented in Table 2. 284 RANGE Table 1: Mean and standard deviation of wrist, elbow, and shoulder taps for all subjects. Tap Type Grand Mean (N) Grand SD (N) Wrist 87.9 47.7 Elbow 188.5 147.8 Shoulder 244.1 193.4 Table 2: Mean and standard deviation of wrist, elbow, and shoulder taps for individual subjects. Subject Wrist Wrist Elbow Elbow Shoulder Sho Number Mean (N) SD (N) Mean (N) SD (N) Mean (N) SD ( 1 164.3 42.0 459.2 184.3 611.8 219. 2 116.3 24.4 130.1 19.7 149 28.9 3 52.1 11.1 113.6 34.1 193.3 47.2 4 49.0 12.8 113.0 40.3 164.4 41.7 5 62.4 16.9 168.9 62.9 211.6 67.4 6 83.3 24.1 146.4 22.6 134.5 35.2 2.5 KFTM – Spring Analysis In order to accurately calculate the force that will be applied to the board from the spring mechanism, the spring constant must be known. An experiment to calculate the spring constant was conducted, and the results are shown below. In this experiment, a variety of weights were hung from the two springs and the 285 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH displacement was measured as shown in Figure 7a and 7b. 286 RANGE 287 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (a) Lighter spring’s dis- placement under 500 g 288 RANGE 289 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (b) Heavier spring’s displacement under 13 kg Figure 7: Photographs illustrating the spring displacement experiments. Figure 8: Displacement as a function of force the elastic spring tested. The data was plotted and a least squares linear regression conducted. Since the data is measuring a force and a displacement, the slope of the best-fit line is the spring coefficient, as shown in Figure 8 . For the spring with higher elasticity the spring constant is 3.3971 and for the spring with lower elasticity the spring constant is 0.4353 . Since the tapping mechanism will be displacing the spring in the same direction as in 290 RANGE the spring constant calculations it is sufficient to assume that the spring constant will be the same. 3 TILT-BOARD FIELD-TESTING PROCEDURE The following procedure can be used to conduct a tilt board test in the field using our new system. The tilt board must be placed at the snow level before new snow accumulates. Make sure all materials are available and in good working order before conducting any tests. All data should be recorded in the Google form that can be accessed here: https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/ 1FAIpQLSejFWlIRYs7XyDNdMOwqFMx78Z_IIy2Z 8gj8EzUt22XLlPOvA/viewform?usp=sf_link 3.1 Materials 1. Cocoa powder 2. Powder applicator 3. Phone or camera 4. Ruler 5. KFTM 291 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 3.2 Method 1. Take photos of the tilt boards before touching them. 2. Document starting conditions with the tiltboards both level. 3. Measure height of snow on tilt boards level and document 4. Adjust the tilt board to its angled position. 5. With the tilt board angled begin inverted extended column test ◦ Gently dust the side of the snow column with cocoa powder to help highlight the cracking in the snow. ◦ Begin filming the test from the side of the snow column. ◦ Starting by tapping the underside of the board 10 times releasing the KFTM spring from the first tick mark for a fracture to occur. If a fracture occurs note the height in the snow column where the snow fractures. 292 RANGE ◦ If a fracture has or has not occurred, continue to test by tapping the underside of the board another ten times but release the spring to the second tick mark. Repeat steps if fracture occurs. ◦ If a fracture has or has not occurred, add another ten taps to the underside of the board by releasing spring from third tick mark. Repeat steps if fracture occurs. ◦ Record snow crystal type at fracture location. 6. When the tilt board test is complete, repeat the test for the level board. It is important to note that failure will be harder to notice in the fixed column, pay extra attention to the snow movement and cracks to be highlighted with the cocoa powder. ◦ Gently dust the side of the snow column with cocoa powder to help highlight the cracking in the snow. ◦ Begin filming the test from the side of the snow column. 293 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ◦ Starting by tapping the underside of the board 10 times releasing KFTM spring from first tick mark and note the number of taps it takes for a fracture to occur. If a fracture occurs note the height in the snow column where the snow fractures. 7. Once both tests are complete, clear the tilt boards of any remaining snow. 8. Clean out and around the plates so they do not get buried by snow. 9. Reset both the tilt boards to their level starting position. ◦ For rigid tilt boards simply verify the platform is level, for the angled tilt board reset the board square to the frame then level. 4 RESULTS 4.1 Tilt-Board Field Tests The tilt boards were utilized three times at the Atwater snow-study plot in Little Cot- tonwood Canyon throughout the winter 2023-2024 season and more 294 RANGE than 30 times in the 2024-25 winter season, which was enough data for a significant amount of analysis. Figure 9: Critical layer failure caused by one elbow tap 295 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 10: Close up of lowest crack failure Jack Eskeland was able to collect a statistically significant sample of crack heights and other defining features which enabled him to compare results with the DEID and do other related work. The experiments that were conducted provided useful insight into the effectiveness of the tilt boards and the general structure of the snow at the time that the tests were conducted. As shown in Figure 9, critical failure can be seen in the column of snow at roughly 6 cm from the base of the tilt board. There is an addition crack that propagated at the surface of the tilt board but did not cause a critical failure, as shown in Figure 10. At the time of these images the KFTM had not been fully finished resulting in us using the prior ECT testing procedures. 4.2 Level Tilt-Board Tests Level board tests were conducted during all tilt board tests in order to analyze the failure method. The level board test that corresponds to the tilt board test in the previous section contained a failure at roughly 4 cm from the surface, as seen in Figure 11. 296 RANGE Figure 11: Photograph illustrating a level tilt board test at failure 5 DISCUSSION 5.1 Test Analysis The results from this season of tilt board tests were promising but left some to be desired. From the test that was analyzed in the results section there was a failure on the level board within 2 cm of the failure on the tilt board. This would indicate a higher likelihood that 297 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the layer failed in shear and compression rather than just shear. 5.2 Force Calibration Uncertainty The calibration experiment for the force that would be applied using the KFTM was relatively accurate, but some variability needs to be addressed. First, the force transducer was placed onto a table that was at waist height ∼ 0.9 m. While this is equivalent to doing an ECT test in a low snowpack, most ECT tests are performed in a snowpack that is roughly chest height ∼ 1.5 m. This slight change in height would result in a higher force being applied to the board, specifically for the elbow and shoulder taps, because the total arc length of the persons arm is longer resulting in a faster impact. In addition to table height, factoring in the subject’s height and weight in order to account for the anthropometric influence of their body’s dimensions, would have improved the validity of each data set. Unfortunately, Institutional Review Board (IRB) guidelines prohibited us from 298 RANGE collecting that data without further approval. The next source of variability is in the force transducer. The device was zeroed after each test subject; however there was a noticeable amount of drift (∼ ±6 N) after zeroing. Overall, this drift is relatively small compared to the peak force which was usually five to twenty times larger than the drift observed. Another source of uncertainty could have originated from the force transducer not being secured on the table. The rebound from the plate being hit would have most likely affected the data right after the impact. Since peak force is the main interest, the variability in the data right after impact is negligible. Additionally, the optical table that the force transducer was set upon weighed roughly 200 kg meaning the vibration from the table was minimal at this scale. Lastly, the sampling rate that was used on the force calibration plate was 250 Hz. This was found to be the best number for reducing noise but capturing the peak force data. However, this could have impacted the peak force data if the tap was 299 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH not aligned with a sample. During this experiment we attempted to minimize all forms of uncertainty however, variability existed. Nonetheless, the magnitude of uncertainty is small compared to the mean of the signal. As a result the uncertainty does not influence the interpretation of the results. 5.3 Mechanical Improvements One of the main issues that was encountered throughout the season was keeping the snow unaltered when removing the tilt board from under the surface of the snow. In order to keep the disturbances to a minimum, the addition of four dowel rods would enable the specimen of snow to be cleanly cut into a perfect cube. This would in turn provide a cleaner sample of snow that would more accurately represent the untouched snow around the tilt board. Another improvement to the tilt board would be to make the board out of acrylic or some roughened plastic because over the course of the season the plywood that was used started to show signs of weathering. 6 CONCLUSION 300 RANGE The successful design, fabrication, calibration, and testing of a more accurate and repeat- able tilt board was achieved during this research. The tilt boards tests that were conducted during this snow season offered promising results as well as a foundation for more scientific tilt board testing. The repeatability from the KFTM and tilt board holding frame ensures that accurate tests are being performed. Accurately controlling all variables that cause the snow to fail on the tilt board will enable more accurate analysis of the snow fracture and the specific way in which it failed. With the repeatability of the KFTM, tilt board test results can be cross referenced with DEID data and other snow analysis methods in the hopes of increasing the accuracy and improving snow science understanding. With increased under- standing of how snow fractures, comes increased awareness, safety, and lowers the impact on the people, towns, and economies that rely on snow and the recreation created from it. 301 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks and appreciation go to Eric Pardyjak, Dhiraj K. Singh, and Timothy J. Garrett for there on going support throughout this project. 8 HUMAN SUBJECT STUDY COMMENT The University of Utah’s Institutional Review Board was consulted prior to conducting the tapping test and all recommendations were followed. BIBLIOGRAPHY E. H. Bair, R. Simenhois, K. Birkeland, and J. Dozier. A field study on failure of storm snow slab avalanches. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 79:20–28, 2012. E. Greene, K. W. Birkeland, K. Elder, G. Johnson, C. Landry, I. McCammon, M. Sta- ples, D. Sharaf, S. Trautman, and W. Wagner. Snow, weather, and avalanches: Obser- vational guidelines for avalanche programs in the United States. American Avalanche Association, Denver, Colorado, 4th Edition, 2024. D. McClung and P. A. Schaerer. The Avalanche Handbook. The Mountaineers Books, 2006. T. J. Morrison, T. Meisenheimer, T. Garrett, D. Singh, 302 RANGE S. Donovan, and E. Pardyjak. Relating storm-snow avalanche instabilities to data collected from the differential emis- sivity imaging disdrometer (deid). Cold Regions Science and Technology, 210:103839, 2023. D. K. Singh, S. Donovan, E. R. Pardyjak, and T. J. Garrett. A differential emissivity imaging technique for measuring hydrometeor mass and type. Atmospheric Measure- ment Techniques, 14(11):6973–6990, 2021. H. B. Toft, S. V. Verplanck, and M. Landrø. How hard do avalanche practitioners tap during snow stability tests? Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 24(8):2757– 2772, 2024. 303 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 12 Optimization of Smart Hydrogel Structures for Improved Glucose Response BRYSON ANDERSON AND LARS LAURENTIUS Faculty Mentor: Lars Laurentius (Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Diabetes, a global health epidemic, requires efficient and 304 RANGE accessible methods for glucose monitoring to treat and maintain the disease. Traditional monitoring methods, such as fingerstick tests and continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) systems, have limitations in terms of cost, invasiveness, and biocompatibility, particularly in low-income settings. This study investigates the optimization of a glucose-sensitive smart hydrogel strand, which provides a promising alternative as a biosensor for glucose and could be used as a continuous and inexpensive glucose monitor. These hydrogel strands respond to glucose concentration changes by shrinking or swelling, making them ideal for a glucose biosensor. However, the hydrogel strands still have a slow glucose response. To optimize the hydrogel strand, structural features such as hydrogel strand diameter and porosity were explored to determine if they enhance the hydrogel strands glucose responsiveness. Adjusting the strand diameter and increasing porosity improved the hydrogel’s glucose response time, though further refinements are needed for practical implementation. Ultimately, glucose-sensitive hydrogels could provide a cost-effective, biocompatible, and non-invasive solution for diabetes management, particularly in low-income settings. Index Terms—Porous Hydrogels, Biomedical Sensors, 305 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Microfluidic Channel, T90 Response Time, Hydrogel Swelling Kinetics INTRODUCTION Diabetes is a growing global health concern, affecting over 422 million people worldwide, as reported by the World Health Organization [1]. The condition is characterized by chronic hyperglycemia due to defects in insulin production or function, leading to long-term complications such as cardiovascular diseases, neuropathy, and retinopathy. The burden of diabetes is particularly severe in low- and middle- income countries, where healthcare systems are often underequipped to manage the disease [2]. Effective disease management is essential to reducing complications and improving the quality of life for diabetic patients. Glucose monitoring plays a crucial role in diabetes management by helping regulate blood sugar levels and minimizing complications. Consistent monitoring helps prevent both hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) and hyperglycemia (high blood sugar), which can cause serious health issues, including fainting, seizures, or even coma. Over the long term, proper glucose management through continuous monitoring significantly reduces the risk of chronic complications 306 RANGE such as cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, nerve damage, and vision loss. However, current glucose monitoring methods, such as fingerstick blood tests and continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) systems, have notable drawbacks. Fingerstick tests are inconvenient and provide only point-in-time data, while CGM systems are typically expensive and require frequent sensor replacements. These challenges make widespread adoption difficult, particularly in low-income settings, highlighting the need for more accessible and affordable monitoring technologies [3,4]. The need for more accessible and minimally invasive glucose monitoring tools has led to increasing interest in smart hydrogels as potential biosensors for glucose. Smart hydrogels are hydrophilic polymer networks that can respond to specific solutes, such as glucose, by shrinking or swelling, offering real- time feedback on glucose concentrations [5]. These hydrogels present a unique opportunity to combine biocompatibility with high specificity for glucose, thereby providing an alternative to traditional monitoring techniques. While the idea of glucose- sensitive hydrogels has shown promise, key challenges remain in optimizing their structure for injectability, response time, and sensitivity to glucose concentrations [6]. 307 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The central question guiding this project is how to optimize the structure of smart hydrogels to improve their glucose response time and sensitivity. While previous research has demonstrated the potential of hydrogels for glucose monitoring, significant knowledge gaps remain in understanding how specific structural features, such as porosity, strand thickness, and crosslinking density, influence their performance [7,8]. These structural characteristics directly impact the hydrogel’s ability to respond to glucose fluctuations and maintain stability over time. For instance, porosity can affect the diffusion rate of glucose molecules through the hydrogel, while strand thickness and porous density have roles in mechanical strength [9]. Further investigation into these parameters is needed to optimize our hydrogel, enabling more precise, stable, and scalable glucose monitoring solutions. To address these challenges, we focused on optimizing the structural design of our glucose-sensitive hydrogel by incorporating porous structures into the hydrogel. This approach involves testing various hydrogel strand configurations with and without pores, then assessing their glucose response using an optical imaging setup. Defining and optimizing these techniques is essential for ensuring consistent hydrogel performance in 308 RANGE dynamic biological environments [10, 11]. By refining the hydrogels design and structure, our aim is to enhance their glucose monitoring capabilities, ultimately contributing to the development of a minimally invasive, cost- effective sensor for diabetes management. BACKGROUND The current landscape of glucose monitors for diabetes management includes both point-in-time measurements of blood glucose and continuous glucose monitoring. Point-in- time measurements allows for daily tracking of blood glucose levels, aiding in therapy adjustments, but may overlook life- threatening hypoglycemic events or nocturnal hypoglycemia. In contrast, continuous glucose monitoring provides continuous data, making it particularly useful for adjusting insulin therapy in adults with Type 1 diabetes as well as monitoring lifestyle changes in adults with Type 2 diabetes. However, many continuous monitors are costly and involve invasive probes, which may trigger immune responses [3, 4]. Studies show that continuous monitoring significantly reduces HbA1c levels in adults with Type 2 diabetes compared to selfmonitoring via point-in-time measurements. HbA1c is a clinical marker used to measure long-term glucose 309 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH control, reflecting average blood sugar levels over the past two to three months [12]. Smart hydrogels offer a compelling alternative, given their biocompatibility and responsiveness to glucose. Smart hydrogels are hydrophilic polymers capable of responding to external stimuli like temperature, pH changes, or specific ions. Their responsiveness stems from tunable crosslinking structures, which enable them to absorb and release water based on environmental affects [6]. Hydrogels can be chemically crosslinked through covalent bonds or physically crosslinked via hydrogen bonding, ionic interactions, or hydrophobic forces [5]. Chemically crosslinked hydrogels generally provide higher stability and durability, making them suitable for long-term applications, while physically crosslinked hydrogels often offer greater flexibility and faster response times [13]. The choice of polymer, such as polyacrylamide, polyvinyl alcohol, or naturally derived materials like alginate and chitosan, influences properties like biocompatibility, swelling behavior, and degradation rate [14]. In glucose-sensitive hydrogels, functionalization with phenylboronic acid enhances specificity, allowing for precise detection of glucose concentrations [20]. However, challenges such as leaching of functional groups, mechanical degradation 310 RANGE over time, and potential cytotoxicity still must be addressed to optimize their suitability for clinical applications [15]. With the ability to retain large amounts of water (>90%), smart hydrogels are inherently biocompatible and have already been applied in fields such as tissue engineering and artificial organs [5, 16]. They can also be designed to undergo controlled swelling and shrinkage in response to specific solutes such as glucose [7]. By including functional groups specific to the analyte these hydrogels can be tailored for high selectivity toward a wide range of solutes [17, 18, 19]. This swelling behavior offers a unique, noninvasive way to monitor glucose levels, as the swelling can be directly correlated to glucose concentration, providing both real-time and continuous monitoring. Their shrinkage and swelling behavior occur due to their capacity to retain large amounts of water. When glucose is introduced into the hydrogel matrix, it can alter the chemical potential and/or form new crosslinks, affecting the hydrogel’s swelling state by shifting water between its interior and exterior [20]. Various methods are available to measure hydrogel swelling changes, but optical imaging is favored as it provides a direct view of the hydrogel’s state. Imaging hydrogels is crucial in their scientific research, biomedical applications, and hydrogel analysis, offering insights into their structure, 311 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH behavior, and interactions [13, 11, 21]. Optical imaging has numerous advantages for in vitro benchtop characterization such as ease of integration with microfluidics for automation, simplified handling, and streamlined analysis [22]. In this study, a hydrogel strand is fixed inside a microfluidic channel, and as it swells, the strand bends due to its confinement at both ends. This approach allows for direct observation of strands (the preferred structure for injection). Further imaging modalities such as ultrasound readout are currently being explored as a potential method for measuring the swelling state of smart hydrogels in in vivo. Ultrasound has the advantage of being non-invasive and portable, making it suitable for point-of-care applications. Its ability to penetrate deeper into tissues allows for monitoring hydrogels in the interstitial fluid, providing an affordable and accessible solution for continuous glucose monitoring in low-income areas [23]. Ultrasound offers several additional advantages over optical imaging, particularly in the context of in vivo applications. Unlike optical techniques, which are limited by tissue opacity, ultrasound waves can penetrate deeper into biological tissues, making it possible to monitor hydrogel behavior in the interstitial spaces 312 RANGE where the glucose-sensitive hydrogels would be placed [24]. This ability to visualize hydrogel swelling and shrinkage within living tissues, is critical for assessing their function in a physiological environment. Moreover, ultrasound’s non-invasive nature means that it can be used repeatedly without discomfort to the patient [25]. The combination of high spatial resolution and the capability to measure hydrogel properties in vivo leaves ultrasound as a promising tool for evaluating these glucosesensitive hydrogels, particularly when integrated with wearable devices [26]. As this technology advances, it could significantly improve the practicality and accessibility of continuous glucose monitoring, paving the way for more personalized and effective diabetes management. METHODS This section describes the synthesis and characterization of a glucose-responsive hydrogel with tunable porosity. The hydrogel was developed using an acrylamide-based pre-gel solution with phenylboronic acid groups. Hydrogels with varying diameters, pore structure, and 313 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH pore spacing were evaluated for their glucose response. To evaluate glucose responsiveness, hydrogels were conditioned and monitored for swelling-induced bending within a custom-designed microfluidic channel. Optical imaging and quantitative analysis were then used to assess the hydrogel’s swelling kinetics, with T90 values calculated through function fitting in MATLAB. The following subsections detail each step of the hydrogel fabrication, experimental setup, and data analysis. A. Hydrogel Synthesis In this study a glucose-responsive hydrogel was studied. This hydrogel was based on prior compositions from Dr. Solzbacher with some minor modifications. The glucose- responsive hydrogel was developed using a phenylboronic acid (PBA)-based polymer matrix, as outlined in prior research [27]. To prepare the pre-gel solution, a 1 mM HEPES buffer solution (4-(2-hydroxyethyl) piperazine-1-ethane sulfonic acid; Sigma- Aldrich, USA) was made in deionized water and adjusted to pH8. Then, 57.3 mg of 3-acrylamidophenylboronic acid (3-APB, Achemo, China) was dissolved in 261 µL of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, Fisher Scientific, USA) and vortexed for 20 seconds. Next, 711 µL of a 30 wt% acrylamide (Aam, 314 RANGE Polysciences Inc., USA) solution in HEPES buffer was added and vortexed for another 10 seconds. Following this, 579 µL of a 2 wt% N,N’- methylene bisacrylamide (BIS, Sigma-Aldrich, USA) solution in HEPES buffer and 849.5 µL of buffer were added to the mixture and vortexed for 10 seconds. Finally, 61.5 µL of N-[3(dimethylamino)propyl] methacrylamide (DMAPAA, Polysciences Inc., USA) was added and vortexed for 10 seconds. For free-radical polymerization, 154.8 µL of a 4 wt% solution of lithium phenyl-2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl phosphinate (LAP, Sigma-Aldrich, USA) in HEPES buffer was added as a UV initiator. This pre-gel solution was then used to create the desired hydrogel structure. To create the hydrogel strands pre-gel solution was drawn into tubing with the desired diameter using a syringe. The tubing was then secured in and exposed to UV light (THORLABS M365L3). This initiated a free radical polymerization to form the hydrogel. Exposure time was for 25 seconds at 365nm. Following exposure, the tubing was then flushed with 1x PBS to remove any uncured pre-gel solution. The addition of the porous structures was also achieved through UV-mediated synthesis similar to the synthesis of the non-porous strands. However, before UV 315 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH polymerization a polymer-based photomask (Mylar Mask, Fineline Imaging Inc., USA) with the desired pattern was then positioned directly against the UV transparent tubing and secured with clamps. The polymer-based photo mask contained circular cutouts with diameters of 100 µm and 200 µm along with pore spacing of 400 µm and 800 µm, resulting in circular pores with the corresponding spacings (Figure 1). Examples of hydrogel pores produced this way are shown in Figure 2. After polymerization each hydrogel was conditioned by cycling through 1x PBS to 1/4x PBS and back to 1x PBS over three cycles (24 hours). Once done conditioning the hydrogel was fixed to a microfluidic channel and used to study its glucose responsiveness. Figure 1. An example of a mylar shadow mask from Fineline Imaging with 200 µm circular disks with 400 µm spacing 316 RANGE above and below each disk. This shadow mask was used during polymerization of the hydrogel strands to create pores with the desired size and spacing of the shadow mask. Figure 2. The hydrogel shown above is an example of a porous hydrogel strand (1.5 mm) with 100 µm pores. The hydrogel was synthesized using the method outlined in the Hydrogel Synthesis section. B. Glucose Responsiveness of Hydrogels Two separate glucose transitions were conducted for each hydrogel with varying diameters of 0.79 mm, 1 mm, 1.5 mm, and 2 mm. The two transitions observed were 10 mM to 5 mM and 5 mM to 0 mM. To do these solutions were prepared with glucose concentrations of 0 mM (1x PBS), 5 mM, and 10 mM in 1x PBS. After conditioning the strands were placed in 10 mM glucose for 24 hours to equilibrate them. After reaching equilibrium the strands were placed into a microfluidic 317 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH channel and fixed at both ends to allow for bending when the strands swelled (Figure 3). After the strands were fixed, the solution was changed to 5 mM glucose, and the strands bending was observed over 12 hours. Pictures were taken every 10 minutes for the first 2 hours and then every 30 minutes for the subsequent 10 hours. After the 12 hours and the strand was equilibrated in 5 mM glucose the solution was changed to 0 mM glucose (1x PBS) and further bending was observed. During all experiments, a flow rate of 1 mL/ hr was maintained to flush old solution that may have been diluted and/or concentration from the hydrogels swelling. The exact same procedure outlined above was used for the hydrogel strands containing varying porous structures. However, the strand diameter was fixed at 1.5 mm and the pore size and spacing was varied (200 µm diameter with 400 µm spacing, 200 µm diameter with 800 µm spacing, and 100 µm diameter with 400 µm spacing). 318 RANGE Figure 3. The hydrogel shown above is an example of the method used to analyze the swelling capacity of the hydrogel strand. The desired strand was fixed at both end points in its lowest swelling state and then as the hydrogel was introduced to lower glucose concentrations it swelled and induced the buckling which was then used to quantitatively analyze the hydrogel’s swelling. 319 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH C. Microfluidic Channel The microfluidic channel design was made specifically to observe the hydrogel strand’s bending and maintain a constant flow of solution into the channel [11]. The channel was fabricated in three layers with outer dimensions of 18 mm × 80mm. The top layer, made from acrylic G-UVT, which was selected for its UV transparency and compatibility with laser cutting. The middle layer was made from acrylic and was used to accommodate the height of the hydrogel strands. Lastly, a polycarbonate layer (McMaster-Carr, USA) formed the base. The layers were cut out using a laser cutter (PLS6.150D, Universal Laser Inc., USA), with the top layer containing two cutouts, each with a radius of 0.75 mm and spaced 65 mm apart, serving as fluidic inlet and outlet for the glucose solutions. The channel layers were adhered together using a double-sided biocompatible adhesive tape (ARCare 90445Q, Adhesive Research Inc., USA), and was cut into a 3 mm × 68 mm channel using a razor blade cutting plotter (Cameo 4, Silhouette America, USA). Acrylic tubing adapters (thickness: 5 mm) were laser-cut with a 3.1 mm hole to fit the tubing. The tubing was secured to the adapters (Tygon PVC Tubing, diameter: 3.2 mm, McMaster-Carr, USA) using UV-cured medical-grade epoxy glue (Loctite 3321, 320 RANGE Henkel AG, Düsseldorf, Germany). Figure 4 shows the completed microfluidic channel. Figure 4. The device shown above is an example of a microfluidic channel used to analyze the hydrogel strands. The middle of the channel contains glucose solution and where the hydrogel is housed. It also contains a fluidic inlet and outlet for attachment to a syringe pump. More details are outlined in the Microfluidic Channel section. D. Optical Measurement System The optical measurement system used to record pictures of the hydrogel was designed to measure the hydrogel strands optically to characterize the hydrogel’s swelling through its bending. Figure 5 presents an overview of 321 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the optical evaluation platform. At the center of the setup is a microfluidic channel that houses the hydrogel strands (Figure 4). This channel is clamped on both ends to the microscope and includes tubing on either side for attachment to a syringe pump system, enabling automated glucose solution delivery over the course of the trial (1 mL/hr) [11]. The optical measurement system comprises of a microscope (AmScope SM-2T) and a camera (AmScope MU1003) connected to the microscope using the AmScope FMA050 fixed microscope adapter. Positioned in center of the setup, the light source connected to the microscope backlights the hydrogel within the microfluidic channel. The microscope also functions as an adjustable mechanical stage to hold the microfluidic channels, allowing for positioning along the optical axis for focusing on the hydrogel structures. Additionally, the image sensor’s position is adjustable to align its field of view with the hydrogel strands. The microscope was used to take optical pictures of the hydrogel’s bending for evaluation. The overall optical measurement setup is pictured in Figure 5. 322 RANGE Figure 5. The figure above outlines the entire optical readout system. In the figure the microfluidic channel is attached to a syringe pump (left fluidic inlet) to maintain a constant glucose concentration. It is also connected to a waste beaked (right fluidic outlet) for the excess glucose solution to drain. An optical camera (AmScope MU1003) is attached to the microscope (AmScope SM-2T) to take pictures of the hydrogel while it swells. E. Hydrogel Swelling Characterization The bending data was normalized to the surface area of the hydrogel’s maximum swelling point. The data points used to calculate T90 represent the average normalized 323 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH area under the curve in percent. This was calculated using the opensource platform FIJI [28]. To determine the T90 values, which represent the time taken for each hydrogel strand to reach 90% of its maximum swelling response, a polynomial fitting approach was employed in MATLAB. The corresponding swelling percentages for each trial were taken into MATLAB. For each trial a polynomial was fitted to the data using MATLAB’s polyfit function to generate a smooth curve that accurately represents the trend in swelling over time [29]. The maximum swelling percentage from the fitted polynomial curve was identified and used to calculate the target swelling percentage for T90 as the time it takes to reach 90% of this maximum swelling. A custom MATLAB function was then applied to pinpoint the time at which the polynomial curve reached this T90 value. This function takes as inputs the time vector, the fitted curve, the target Y-value, and a specified tolerance (10-3%). It then returns the time points where the swelling percentage is within the tolerance range. Finally, the T90 times were visualized on a plot of the swelling data, with the polynomial fit and a vertical line marking the T90 point. 324 RANGE RESULTS A. Comparison of Strand Diameters The swelling response of glucose-sensitive hydrogel strands was evaluated across four varying strand diameters: 0.79 mm, 1.0 mm, 1.5 mm, and 2.0 mm. The objective of these trials was to analyze the effect of strand diameter on the time required to reach 90% of the maximum swelling state (T90). Hydrogel strands were synthesized using a uniform fabrication method to ensure consistency in diameter, as outlined in the Hydrogel Synthesis section. By comparing the swelling responses across different strand sizes, we aimed to assess how diffusion dynamics and hydrogel structure influence swelling behavior when exposed to varying glucose concentrations. To investigate this behavior, all hydrogel strands were subjected to two glucose concentration transitions: the first transition from 10 mM to 5 mM glucose and the second transition from 5 mM to 0 mM glucose. The results from these experiments are summarized in Figures 6 and 7, which presents the average T90 values for each strand diameter. The bar charts highlight a clear trend: smaller strand diameters exhibit significantly lower T90 values, indicating a faster swelling response, 325 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH while larger strand diameters take longer to reach their T90. Among the tested diameters for the glucose transition of 10 mM to 5 mM, the 0.79 mm strands exhibited the fastest response times with an average of 28.8 minutes, reaching their T90 in the shortest duration. The 1.0 mm and 1.5 mm strands displayed intermediate T90 values, while the 2.0 mm strands exhibited the slowest response with the average strand taking 469.6 minutes, requiring significantly more time to reach their T90. The observed trends were consistent across both glucose transitions. To further illustrate the swelling kinetics, Figure 8 presents the swelling behavior of the 0.79 mm hydrogel strands over time for both glucose transitions. This figure displays individual trial data, with swelling percentage plotted as a function of time. The dotted line represents the average T90 for both glucose transitions. Additionally, the small variation across multiple trials suggests a high degree of reproducibility in the swelling behavior of these strands. The overall trend observed in the 0.79 mm strands is consistent with the trend for larger diameters with the strand just swelling slower. A compiled table of all T90 values is shown in the appendix (Tables 1 & 2). 326 RANGE Figure 6. Average T90 values for hydrogel strands of varying diameters (0.79 mm, 1.0 mm, 1.5 mm, and 2.0 mm). The bar chart displays the time required for each strand diameter to reach 90% of its maximum swelling (T90) when transitioning from 10 mM to 5 mM glucose. Smaller diameter strands exhibit significantly faster swelling responses, while larger strands require more time to reach their T90. 327 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 7. Average T90 values for hydrogel strands of varying diameters (0.79 mm, 1.0 mm, 1.5 mm, and 2.0 mm). The bar chart displays the time required for each strand diameter to reach 90% of its maximum swelling (T90) when transitioning from 5 mM to 0 mM glucose. Smaller diameter strands exhibit significantly faster swelling responses, while larger strands require more time to reach their T90. 328 RANGE Figure 8. Swelling response of 0.79 mm hydrogel strands. The top graph illustrates the strand’s response when transitioning from 10 mM glucose to 5 mM glucose, with the dashed line indicating the average T90 value (28.83 min). The bottom graph depicts the response when transitioning from 5 mM glucose to 0 mM glucose, with a T90 value of 189.31 min. B. Comparison of Porous Strands The swelling response of porous hydrogel strands was evaluated under three different porous configurations. All strands maintained a consistent diameter of 1.5 mm to ensure uniformity in size. Three porous hydrogel configurations tested were 200 µm pores with 400 µm 329 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH spacing, 200 µm pores with 800 µm spacing, and 100 µm pores with 400 µm spacing. Using these hydrogel configurations the same two glucose concentration transitions used for testing the hydrogel diameters were used (10 mM glucose to 5 mM glucose and from 5 mM glucose to 0 mM glucose). In the first transition, from 10 mM glucose to 5 mM glucose, strands with 200 µm pores and 400 µm spacing exhibited the shortest T90. The strands with the same pore size (200 µm) but a larger spacing of 800 µm displayed a longer T90, indicating a slower swelling process compared to the denser configuration. The strands with 100 µm pores and 400 µm spacing had the longest T90, suggesting that both smaller pore size and less pore density contributed to a slower swelling response (Figure 9). Similarly to the diameters tested, in the second transition, from 5 mM glucose to 0 mM glucose, the trends in T90 values were consistent with those observed in the first transition. Hydrogel strands with 200 µm pores and 400 µm spacing once again showed the fastest swelling response, followed by strands with 200 µm pores and 800 µm spacing. The 100 µm pore strands with 400 µm spacing showed the slowest response for this glucose transition as well (Figure 10). 330 RANGE The differences in T90 between configurations were comparable across both transitions. To further highlight the swelling mechanism of the porous hydrogel strands Figure 11 highlights the swelling kinetics of the strands with 200 µm pores and 400 µm pore spacing. It shows the normalized swelling percentage as a function of time during both glucose transitions. It also presents individual trial data, with the dotted line marking the average T90 for each transition. Overall, T90 values decreased as pore size increased and pore spacing increased, for both glucose concentration transitions. The strands with 200 µm pores and 400 µm pore spacing consistently had a lower T90 compared to other pore configurations for both transitions. This demonstrates the role of large pores and high pore density in facilitating rapid swelling. The results indicate a relationship between the porous structure of the hydrogel strands and their swelling behavior in response to glucose concentration changes. Strands with larger and more densely spaced pores exhibited the fastest response, while smaller pores or wider spacing led to slower T90 values and therefore a slower swelling response. A compiled table of all T90 values is shown in the appendix (Tables 3 & 4). 331 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 9. Average T90 values for hydrogel strands of varying pores and pore spacing (0 µm with 0 µm spacing, 100 µm with 400 µm spacing, 200 µm with 400 µm spacing, and 200 µm with 800 µm spacing). The bar chart displays the average time required for each strand diameter to reach 90% of its maximum swelling (T90) when transitioning from 10 mM to 5 mM glucose. 332 RANGE Figure 10. Average T90 values for hydrogel strands of varying pores and pore spacing (0 µm with 0 µm spacing, 100 µm with 400 µm spacing, 200 µm with 400 µm spacing, and 200 µm with 800 µm spacing). The bar chart displays the average time required for each strand diameter to reach 90% of its maximum swelling (T90) when transitioning from 5 mM to 0 mM glucose. 333 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 11. Swelling response of 1.5 mm hydrogel strands with 200 μM pores and 400 μM spacing. The top graph illustrates the strand’s response when transitioning from 10 mM glucose to 5 mM glucose, with the dashed line indicating the average T90 value (69.67 min). The bottom graph depicts the response when transitioning from 5 mM glucose to 0 mM glucose, with a T90 value of 174.89 min. DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to optimize the structural design of our glucose-sensitive hydrogel to improve its responsiveness and glucose sensitivity for potential use in a continuous glucose monitor. Specifically, our research focused on evaluating the effects of strand 334 RANGE diameter and porosity on the hydrogel’s response time to reach 90% of its maximum swelling state (T90). Understanding how these structural features influence glucose response will enable the development of hydrogels that are not only responsive to glucose fluctuations but also practical for real-world applications, such as a minimally invasive and costeffective glucose biosensor. A. Influence of Strand Diameter The inverse relationship between hydrogel strand diameter and T90 shows the importance of minimizing strand diameter to achieve faster glucose responses. Smaller-diameter strands exhibited significantly lower T90 values compared to larger strands, indicating their higher responsiveness to glucose concentration changes. This trend can be attributed to the higher surface areato-volume ratio in smaller strands, which facilitates faster glucose diffusion and more efficient interaction with the hydrogel’s matrix [17, 23]. However, the mechanical stability of thinner strands must also be considered in practical applications. While smaller diameters improve responsiveness, they may be more susceptible to breakage or deformation during handling or implantation. 335 Balancing mechanical OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH strength and response time will be critical for the translation of these findings into clinically viable devices [30, 31]. B. Impact of Porosity Porous structures in the hydrogel strands further enhanced glucose responsiveness, particularly in strands with higher pore density. Increased porosity likely improves glucose diffusion through the hydrogel matrix by reducing barriers to molecular transport and enabling more rapid changes in swelling. Furthermore, the presence of pores may allow for more efficient water exchange during glucose-induced swelling and shrinkage, enhancing the hydrogel’s overall responsiveness [9]. While the benefits of increased porosity are evident, excessive porosity may compromise the hydrogel’s structural integrity and reduce its lifespan in physiological environments. Optimizing the pore size and density is essential to ensure a balance between the hydrogel’s performance and degradability. Future studies could also explore the mechanical properties of these porous hydrogels under simulated physiological conditions to further refine their design. 336 RANGE C. Implications for Diabetes Management The results of this study highlight the potential of glucose- sensitive hydrogels as transformative tools in diabetes management. These hydrogels present a promising alternative to conventional glucose monitoring technologies such as finger- stick blood tests and continuous glucose monitors (CGMs). Unlike existing systems that can be expensive or difficult to access in low-resource settings, hydrogel-based sensors offer a simpler and more cost-effective solution [3, 4]. One key advantage of these hydrogels is their biocompatibility. Traditional CGMs involve subcutaneous sensors that may cause discomfort or skin irritation, particularly in individuals who require longterm monitoring. In contrast, glucose-sensitive hydrogels can be engineered to function as implantable CGM as they have the ability to measure low concentrations of glucose [31, 32]. Their ability to integrate with non-invasive imaging techniques, such as ultrasound- based monitoring further enhances their appeal [21, 24, 27]. Such a setup could allow individuals with diabetes to monitor their glucose levels in real time without the need for frequent sensor replacements or invasive procedures [33, 34]. 337 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The inexpensiveness of hydrogels also has significant implications for global health. In many low- and middle-income countries, where the prevalence of diabetes is rising rapidly, access to advanced glucose monitoring technologies remains limited due to their high cost. Glucose-sensitive hydrogels could bridge this gap providing a reliable alternative for continuous glucose monitoring in low-income settings [35]. D. Limitations and Future Directions Despite the promising results, several limitations must be addressed in future research. First, this study was conducted in vitro, and the hydrogels’ performance in vivo remains unknown. Biological factors such as enzymatic degradation, immune response, and variable glucose diffusion in subcutaneous tissues may influence the hydrogels behavior. Investigating these factors through animal models and eventually clinical trials will be necessary to confirm the hydrogels’ efficacy in clinical applications. Second, while optical imaging was effective for evaluating swelling behavior in this study, it is limited to benchtop characterization. The integration of ultrasound technology for in vivo monitoring should be explored further, particularly given its non-invasive 338 RANGE and portable nature. Additionally, further refinement of hydrogel strands structural parameters could influence the ultrasound readout from the hydrogel strand. Finally, scalability and cost-effectiveness must be assessed to ensure that these hydrogels can be manufactured and distributed affordably, especially in low- and middle-income countries, while also overcoming the cost barriers posed by existing glucose sensors on the market to enhance their competitive edge. APPENDIX Table 1. Comparison of the T90 values for hydrogel strands of varying diameters during the transition from 10 mM glucose to 5 mM glucose. 339 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Table 2. Comparison of the T90 values for hydrogel strands of varying diameters during the transition from 5 mM glucose to 0 mM glucose. Table 3. Comparison of the T90 values for varying hydrogel porous structures with pore radii ranging from 100–200 μM and pore spacing between 400–800 μM during the transition from 10 mM glucose to 5 mM glucose. Table 4. Comparison of the T90 values for varying hydrogel porous structures with pore radii ranging from 100–200 μM and pore spacing between 400–800 μM during the transition from 5 mM glucose to 0 mM glucose. 340 RANGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to all of the members of Dr. Lars Laurentius’ lab for their guidance and resources throughout this project. Also, a special thanks to Saeed Borooman, PhD, and Jessica Owsley, Undergraduate Researcher, for their expertise and support throughout this project. I also acknowledge the Biomedical Engineering Department at the University of Utah for providing a collaborative and innovative environment. Lastly, I deeply appreciate the Office of Undergraduate Research at the University of Utah for their funding and resources, which made this research possible. This work was also supported by the U.S National Science Foundation (NSF) under grant number 2212977, awarded to Sentiomed, Inc. REFERENCE 1. “Diabetes.” [Online]. Available: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/ detail/diabetes 2. CDC, “Diabetes Basics,” Diabetes. [Online]. Available: https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/ about/index.html 3. A. E. Manov et al., “The Effectiveness of Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices in Managing Uncontrolled Diabetes Mellitus: A 341 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Retrospective Study,” Cureus, vol. 15, no. 7, Jul. 2023, doi: 10.7759/cureus.42545. 4. “Systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) on glucose control in diabetes | Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome | Full Text.” [Online].Available: https://dmsjournal.biomedcentral.com/ articles/10.1186/1758- 5996-5-39 5. N. A. Peppas, J. Z. Hilt, A. Khademhosseini, and R. Langer, “Hydrogels in Biology and Medicine: From Molecular Principles to Bionanotechnology,” Advanced Materials, vol. 18, no. 11, pp. 1345–1360, 2006, doi: 10.1002/adma.200501612. 6. M. C. Koetting, J. T. Peters, S. D. Steichen, and N. A. Peppas, “Stimulus-responsive hydrogels: Theory, modern advances, and applications,” Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, vol. 93, pp. 1–49, Jul. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.mser.2015.04.001.https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.mser.201 5.04.001 7. J. Sawayama, T. Okitsu, A. Nakamata, Y. Kawahara, and S. Takeuchi, “Hydrogel 342 RANGE Glucose Sensor with In Vivo Stable Fluorescence Intensity Relying on Antioxidant Enzymes for Continuous Glucose Monitoring,” iScience, vol. 23, no. 6, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101243. 8. H. Shibata, Y. J. Heo, T. Okitsu, Y. Matsunaga, T. Kawanishi, and S. Takeuchi, “Injectable hydrogel microbeads for fluorescence-based in vivo continuous glucose monitoring,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 107, no. 42, pp. 17894–17898, Oct. 2010, doi: 10.1073/ pnas.1006911107. 9. “Porous Hydrogels: Present Challenges and Future Opportunities | Langmuir.” [Online]. Available: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ acs.langmuir.2c02253 10. K. Rückmann, G. Mu, J. J. Magda, F. Solzbacher, C. F. Reiche, and J. Körner, “A reliable and easy-to-implement optical characterization method for dynamic and static properties of smart hydrogels,” Polymer, vol. 246, p. 124713, Apr. 2022, doi: 10.1016/ j.polymer.2022.124713. 343 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 11. S. Borooman et al., “Optical Imaging of Microfluidic Integrated Smart Hydrogels for Research and Sensing Applications,” Jul. 02, 2024, ChemRxiv. doi: 10.26434/ chemrxiv-2024-91317. 12. E. Eyth and R. Naik, “Hemoglobin A1C,” in StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 2025. [Online]. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/ NBK549816/ 13. W. Hu, Z. Wang, Y. Xiao, S. Zhang, and J. Wang, “Advances in crosslinking strategies of biomedical hydrogels,” Biomater. Sci., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 843–855, Feb. 2019, doi: 10.1039/ C8BM01246F. 14. J. Maitra and V. K. Shukla, “Cross-linking in Hydrogels – A Review,” American Journal of Polymer Science, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 25–31, 2014. 15. T.-C. Ho et al., “Hydrogels: Properties and Applications in Biomedicine,” Molecules, vol. 27, no. 9, p. 2902, May 2022, doi: 10.3390/ molecules27092902. 16. H. M. El-Husseiny et al., “Smart/stimuliresponsive hydrogels: Cutting-edge platforms 344 RANGE for tissue engineering and other biomedical applications,” Materials Today Bio, vol. 13, p. 100186, Jan. 2022, doi: 10.1016/ j.mtbio.2021.100186. 17. J. Erfkamp, M. Guenther, and G. Gerlach, “Hydrogel- based piezoresistive sensor for the detection of ethanol,” Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 219– 226, Apr. 2018, doi: 10.5194/jsss-7-219-2018. 18. J. Erfkamp, M. Guenther, and G. Gerlach, “Enzyme- Functionalized Piezoresistive Hydrogel Biosensors for the Detection of Urea,” Sensors, vol. 19, no. 13, Art. no. 13, Jan. 2019, doi: 10.3390/s19132858. 19. J. Erfkamp, M. Guenther, and G. Gerlach, “Piezoresistive Hydrogel-Based Sensors for the Detection of Ammonia,” Sensors, vol. 19, no. 4, Art. no. 4, Jan. 2019, doi: 10.3390/ s19040971. 20. M. Elsherif, M. U. Hassan, A. K. Yetisen, and H. Butt, “Glucose Sensing with Phenylboronic Acid Functionalized Hydrogel-Based Optical Diffusers,” ACS Nano, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 2283–2291, Mar. 345 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2018, doi: 10.1021/acsnano.7b07082. 21. P. D. Kairy, S. Binder, F. Solzbacher, L. B. Laurentius, and C. F. Reiche, “Probing glucose-sensitive hydrogel resonators with a portable medical ultrasound imaging system,” in 2024 46th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Jul. 2024, pp. 1–4. doi: 10.1109/EMBC53108.2024.10782116. 22. M. Wu et al., “A smart hydrogel system for visual detection of glucose,” Biosensors and Bioelectronics, vol. 142, p. 111547, Oct. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2019.111547. 23. “Detecting and Monitoring Hydrogels with Medical Imaging | ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering.” [Online]. Available: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ acsbiomaterials.0c01547 24. P. D. Kairy et al., “Catheter-mounted smart hydrogel ultrasound resonators for intravenous analyte monitoring,” in 2021 43rd Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine & Biology Society (EMBC), Nov. 2021,pp.7476–7479.doi: 346 RANGE 10.1109/EMBC46164.2021.9630671. 25. M. J. Matthews and M. F. Stretanski, “Ultrasound Therapy,” in StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 2025. Accessed: Apr. 03, 2025. [Online]. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/ NBK547717/ 26. N. Farhoudi, H.-Y. Leu, L. B. Laurentius, J. J. Magda, F. Solzbacher, and C. F. Reiche, “Smart Hydrogel Micromechanical Resonators with Ultrasound Readout for Biomedical Sensing,” ACS Sens., vol. 5, no. 7, pp. 1882–1889, Jul. 2020, doi: 10.1021/ acssensors.9b02180. 27. J. Anzai, “Recent progress in electrochemical biosensors based on phenylboronic acid and derivatives,” Materials Science and Engineering: C, vol. 67, pp. 737–746, Oct. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2016.05.079. 28. J. Schindelin et al., “Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis,” Nat Methods, vol. 9, no. 7, pp. 676– 682, Jun. 2012, doi: 10.1038/nmeth.2019. 29. “What Is MATLAB?” [Online]. Available: 347 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH https://www.mathworks.com/discovery/ what-is-matlab.html 30. “Injectable Hydrogels: From Laboratory to Industrialization.”[Online].Available: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/13/4/650 31. G. Lin et al., “Osmotic swelling pressure response of smart hydrogels suitable for chronically implantable glucose sensors,” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, vol. 144, no. 1, pp. 332–336, Jan. 2010, doi: 10.1016/ j.snb.2009.07.054. 32. W. Bai, N. A. Gariano, and D. A. Spivak, “Macromolecular Amplification of Binding Response in Superaptamer Hydrogels,” J. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 135, no. 18, pp. 6977–6984, May 2013, doi: 10.1021/ja400576p. 33. J. Körner, C. F. Reiche, H.-Y. Leu, N. Farhoudi, J. Magda, and F. Solzbacher, “A Sensor Platform for Smart Hydrogels in Biomedical Applications,” Proceedings, vol. 2, no. 13, Art. no. 13, 2018, doi: 10.3390/ proceedings2131006. 34. H.-Y. Leu et al., “Low-Cost Microfluidic Sensors with Smart Hydrogel Patterned 348 RANGE Arrays Using Electronic Resistive Channel Sensing for Readout,” Gels, vol. 4, no. 4, Art. no. 4, Dec. 2018, doi: 10.3390/gels4040084. 35. E. Caló and V. V. Khutoryanskiy, “Biomedical applications of hydrogels: A review of patents and commercial products,” European Polymer Journal, vol. 65, pp. 252–267, Apr. 2015, doi: 10.1016/ j.eurpolymj.2014.11.024. 349 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 13 Smoke Signals: Exceptional Event Reporting for Fire Detection TOBIAS ARMSTRONG Faculty Mentor: Heather Holmes (Chemical Engineering, University of Utah) The increase in extreme wildfires across the United States over the past few decades has raised the demand for effective response protocols. Among these protocols is the ability to monitor, identify, and report extreme air 350 RANGE pollution events. These events are known as exceptional events, which the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines as “unusual or naturally occurring events that can affect air quality but are not reasonably controllable using techniques that tribal, state or local air agencies may implement in order to attain and maintain the National Ambient Air Quality Standards” (2024). Local governments must compile reports of exceptional events and submit them to the EPA if they wish to meet heath-based attainment standards in order to avoid “restrictions on federal transportation funding or newsource permitting in the affected regions” (David et al., 2021, para. 2). Thus, an efficient method for collecting, compiling, and presenting relevant exceptional event data is in high demand, particularly in the western U.S. with the increasing wildfire smoke pollution. The aim of the proposed project is to aid in the development of an online exceptional event tool being designed by the South Coast Air Quality Management District (SoCal) as part of a Western States Air Resources Council (WESTAR) program. This tool provides air quality managers with an interface to easily collect and compile data from an online API. The managers would then be able to import the data into a word document report in the format required by the EPA. The general 351 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH goal is to help identify wildfire smoke in ambient air pollution records using EPA-approved methods for improved documentation and reporting purposes. My contributions to the project will include using R to incorporate Tropospheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) Aerosol Layer Height data products into the WESTAR Exceptional Event app interface to allow air quality managers to see images of smoke plume height from wildfires. This addition will build on top of my current contribution, which is adding a ‘tab’ for NOx satellite image generation. This information will allow managers to determine the health risks a particular wildfire poses towards surrounding populations. For example, lower wildfire pollution heights pose substantially higher health risks to affected populations than higher pollution heights because of the smoke’s ability to mix down to the surface. This information is critical to the proper documentation and reporting of exceptional events with acute elevated surface air pollution concentrations. Thus, providing air quality managers with easy access to this data product will help streamline the reporting process. BIBLIOGRAPHY David, L. M., Ravishankara, A. R., Brey, S. J., Fischer, 352 RANGE E. V., Volckens, J., & Kreidenweis, S. (2021). Could the exception become the rule? “Uncontrollable” air pollution events in the US due to wildland fires. Environmental Research Letters: ERL [Web Site], 16(3), 034029. Finlay, S. E., Moffat, A., Gazzard, R., Baker, D., & Murray, V. (2012). Health impacts of wildfires. PLoS Currents, 4, e4f959951cce2c. Griffin, D., Sioris, C., Chen, J., Dickson, N., Kovachik, A., de Graaf, M., Nanda, S., Veefkind, P., Dammers, E., McLinden, C. A., Makar, P., & Akingunola, A. (2020). The 2018 fire season in North America as seen by TROPOMI: aerosol layer height intercomparisons and evaluation Atmospheric of model-derived Measurement plume heights. Techniques, 13(3), 1427–1445. Huang, J., Loría-Salazar, S. M., Deng, M., Lee, J., & Holmes, H. A. (2023). Assessment of smoke plume height products derived from multisource satellite observations for wildfire in the western US. In EGUsphere. https://doi.org/10.5194/ egusphere-2023-1658. Richmond, B. (2019). How the Local Implementation 353 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of Air Quality Regulations Affects Wildfire Air Policy. Ecology Law Quarterly, 46(2), 343–372. Salumäki, H. N. (2003). Handling exceptional events. Health Estate, 57(5), 40–41. Sokolik, I. N., Soja, A. J., DeMott, P. J., & Winker, D. (2019). Progress and challenges in quantifying wildfire smoke emissions, their properties, transport, and atmospheric impacts. Journal of Geophysical Research, 124(23), 13005–13025. US Epa, O. (2021). What is an exceptional event? https://www.epa.gov/outdoor-air-quality-data/whatexceptional-event Veefkind, J. P., Aben, I., McMullan, K., Förster, H., de Vries, J., Otter, G., Claas, J., Eskes, H. J., de Haan, J. F., Kleipool, Q., van Weele, M., Hasekamp, O., Hoogeveen, R., Landgraf, J., Snel, R., Tol, P., Ingmann, P., Voors, R., Kruizinga, B., … Levelt, P. F. (2012). TROPOMI on the ESA Sentinel-5 Precursor: A GMES mission for global observations of the atmospheric composition for climate, air quality and ozone layer applications. Remote Sensing of Environment, 120, 70–83. Westerling, A. L., Hidalgo, H. G., Cayan, D. R., & 354 RANGE Swetnam, T. W. (2006). Warming and earlier spring increase western U.S. forest wildfire activity. Science, 313(5789), 940–943. Zhang, H., Wang, Y., Park, T.-W., & Deng, Y. (2017). Quantifying the relationship between extreme air pollution events and extreme Atmospheric Research, 188, 64–79. 355 weather events. OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 14 Automating Three-Dimensional Analysis of Talus Morphology in Tibiotalar Osteoarthritis ANNIKA BACHMAN Faculty Mentor: Amy Lenz (Mechanical Engineering, University of Utah) INTRODUCTION Ankle osteoarthritis (AOA) occurs in approximately 1% of the adult population worldwide and creates lasting 356 RANGE and debilitating mental and physical conditions for those with it [1]. As such, necessary measures need to be taken to alleviate potential sources of pain and decreases in mobility. This can be accomplished within the stages of diagnosis and onset prediction using computational analysis and imaging techniques. Currently, there are two main techniques that can be used to diagnose AOA: radiography and raw cone-beam weight-bearing computed tomography (WBCT). Radiography is the most conventional technique used to image and diagnose ankle OA. However, this technique has many limitations, which include the radiation dose from multiple radiographs, increased error due to difficulty taking images in the correct orientations [2], and occlusion of bony morphology in the complex ankle anatomy [3]. WBCT has been established as an alternative approach that provides a more accurate and comprehensive view of the ankle complex in three dimensions (3D) [2]. Although this technique eliminates bony occlusion, it can be difficult to ascertain features through viewing the three orthogonal perspectives of a medical imaging viewer separately. A new way WBCT data can be analyzed is by using 357 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH statistical shape modeling (SSM), which is a tool that allows for the quantitative study of anatomical morphology and alignment [4]. One such tool is ShapeWorks, developed at the University of Utah Scientific and Imaging Institute (SCI), an open- source SSM software that uses particle-based modeling applied to 3D shape models [5]. ShapeWorks can allow clinicians to view alignment, morphology, and other skeletal structures from WBCT in 3D from one perspective. However, to use 3D analysis in clinics, shape models need to be synthesized from images quickly and reliably. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs), a class of deep learning models, are particularly useful for processing image data by automatically learning variability of features from input images. In comparison to manual processing, CNNs reduce the time necessary to create shape models from WBCT images while producing comparable results [6]. This work aims to build on the prior work to create a functional convolutional neural network that analyzes the tibiotalar joint to classify populations with tibiotalar osteoarthritis and healthy populations. To apply convolutional neural networks, WBCT images and their corresponding shape models can be input into a ShapeWorks module called DeepSSM, 358 RANGE where parameters can be tuned and optimized to improve the network. The network described will quickly and reliably generate 3D statistical shape models automatically from WBCT images. Through analysis of the foot and ankle using DeepSSM, the time needed for 3D shape model analysis can be decreased, making it more feasible in the clinic. Ultimately, this new quantitative method for osteoarthritis classification could decrease the time physicians spend on less complicated cases, enabling them to work more on documentation and other cases. BACKGROUND Ankle Osteoarthritis Ankle osteoarthritis is characterized by a significant reduction in ankle mobility, changes in gait, and progressive joint pain, resulting in substantial physical and mental debilitation [3]. Not only is it debilitating, but AOA affects a much younger population than hip OA, particularly those with previous trauma to the ankle such as repeated ankle sprains, rotational ankle fractures, and previous ligament injuries [3]. These traumas commonly lead to tibiotalar osteoarthritis, a subtype of AOA that primarily affects the tibiotalar joint between the talus and tibia. The younger patient population 359 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH increases the importance of mediating the deterioration of cartilage, since any total ankle replacements or other procedures would not function long enough within the body [3]. Given the nature of this disease, quality diagnostic techniques are important to best inform and assist physicians in deciding on a treatment. Current Clinical Techniques Published in 1957, the Kellgren and Lawrence system (KL Grade) is the current gold standard for OA diagnosis and classifies OA into five grades: “None, Doubtful, Minimal, Moderate, Severe” [7]. The KL Grade makes classifications based on two-dimensional radiographs, where bony occlusion can hinder diagnosis [3]. Using traditional radiographs can also increase the amount of radiation administered as radiographs must be taken in four positions to assess seven different angles, which are used as indicators of ankle alignment and other bony traits [2]. An alternative to radiography is cone-beam WBCT, which can image the effects of osteoarthritis in the ankle more accurately and provide more information by minimizing bony occlusion. The use of cone-beam WBCT allows clinicians and researchers to compute angles and other reference lines used in deformity 360 RANGE assessments from landmarks within the leg, as opposed to the error- inducing method of manually calculating the axes within the ankle externally [8]. Although CT scans generally induce more radiation exposure than radiographs, collecting an appropriate series of radiographs increases the radiation emitted compared to cone-beam WBCT [2]. Additionally, bony occlusion does not impact WBCT since the images are three dimensional, and analysis can be accomplished with statistical shape modeling (SSM), which applies correspondence points onto the surface of 3D shapes and allows the points to redistribute under an energy optimization schema [4]. SSM is advantageous as it allows for quantitative study of anatomical morphology and alignment [4, 5]. This process is time intensive, however, and requires an understanding of the processing and optimization procedures causing the method to be impractical for physicians in its present form. Deep Learning Approaches To make this process more feasible, the application of machine learning in medical imaging has the potential to accelerate clinical workflows and quantitative analysis, particularly for shape analysis [6]. Machine 361 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH learning, otherwise known as deep learning, can decrease human workload by training a computer algorithm to accomplish the same work. One type of deep learning model is convolutional neural networks (CNN), which are particularly useful for processing image data as they are composed of both pooling and convolutional layers that leverage the unique structure of image data. Pooling layers reduce the feature maps to better capture details such as shape and size, while the convolutional layers convolve the input with multiple kernels that extract pattern information [6], which creates a CNN that has its own prescribed number and order of layers. One such CNN is DeepSSM, an implementation of machine learning applied to SSM through ShapeWorks [5]. ShapeWorks is an opensource SSM software, developed at the Scientific and Imaging Institute (SCI), that allows for the quantitative study of anatomic morphology and alignment. Beginning with WBCT images and ending with shape models, DeepSSM is an open-source software that applies CNNs to efficiently segment image data [5]. DeepSSM begins with preprocessing to optimize, groom, and align shape models produced from WBCT image data. Since training neural networks in image analysis requires an enormous amount of data, DeepSSM 362 RANGE generates a synthetic data set with a much larger sample size based on the distribution of features in the initial data set [9]. Training in DeepSSM consists of two separate neural architectures named Base-DeepSSM and TL-DeepSSM. In Base-DeepSSM the WBCT images are processed through five convolution and pooling layers and three fully connected layers to produce the predicted principal component analysis loading shape descriptor [10]. TL-DeepSSM has two sections as well: the T and the L. The T section is identical to the BaseDeepSSM network except that the output is a latent vector instead of a shape descriptor. The L section is an autoencoder with both convolutional and deconvolutional layers and two fully connected layers [11]. Base-DeepSSM and TL-DeepSSM are trained on the same images and work in conjunction to predict the final shape model from WBCT and compare it to the provided shape model. DeepSSM tests the neural network by comparing the distances between corresponding points on the predicted and provided shape models for unseen data. Knowing that ankle osteoarthritis (AOA) causes lifelong, debilitating mental and physical conditions [1] and that the disease affects a younger population than most degenerative joint diseases [3], an immediate, 363 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH quantitative approach to diagnostics is necessary to best inform orthopaedic surgeons as they recommend therapies and surgical interventions. According to Chan et al., deep learning is a potential solution, given its ability to exceed clinician’s performance [12]. A common misconception, however, is that these tools will replace physicians [6]. On the contrary, a quantitative and computational technique such as deep learning allows physicians to spend more time on more complicated cases, surgeries, and appropriate reporting [6]. More specifically, DeepSSM can be applied to AOA to provide quick and accurate diagnostics on disease type and severity, which can reduce clinician workflow, enabling physicians to focus their time and energy on the more complicated treatments. METHODS This research aims to address the limitations in diagnosing and predicting the onset of AOA. Weightbearing computed tomography (WBCT) offers a superior alternative to radiographs, enabling detailed three-dimensional (3D) analysis, yet its use is constrained by labor-intensive manual processes. To enhance the clinical applicability of WBCT, this study proposes leveraging statistical shape modeling through ShapeWorks (SCI Institute, Salt Lake City, UT). By 364 RANGE integrating WBCT data into a CNN-powered pipeline, this project will streamline the classification of tibiotalar osteoarthritis, reducing processing time while maintaining accuracy. This approach aims to make advanced imaging techniques more practical in clinical settings, enabling faster and more reliable AOA diagnosis and management. Pre-Processing The WBCT (0.37 x 0.37 x 0.37 mm3 voxel) data for this project comes from 43 tali from patients diagnosed with tibiotalar osteoarthritis by a musculoskeletal radiologist and orthopaedic surgeon. Each talus was segmented semiautomatically with DISIOR version 2.0 (Bonelogic, Helsinki, Finland) and then manually segmented using Mimics version 24.0 (Materlialise, Leuven, Belgium). The manual segmentation is to correct for errors in the semi-automatic segmentation. Next, the talus was groomed, smoothed, and decimated in 3-Matic (Materialise, Leuven, Belgium). Once this pipeline has been completed in all 43 tali, all data was imported into ShapeWorks 6.6.0-dev (SCI Institute, Salt Lake City, UT) to be further preprocessed. Within the Grooming Module of ShapeWorks, the left tali were reflected over the x-axis and aligned using iterative closest point 365 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH alignment to ensure uniform laterality and a uniform axis for later comparison. Next, the Optimization Module was utilized to place 1024 discrete correspondence points on each talus. This module uses a method that relies on particle-based modeling where discrete correspondence points are placed on the surface of the 3D shapes. The points redistribute themselves under an energy optimization schema, presenting valuable information on the surface appearance and distinguishable features as the correspondence points on each talus can be compared. Deep Learning After the preprocessing steps, the data was applied to a deep learning algorithm within the DeepSSM Module of ShapeWorks. The DeepSSM Module has four stages: Prep, Augmentation, Training, and Testing. Once trained and tested, the DeepSSM Module can make the shape models from WBCT without the time-intensive manual work otherwise required. The Prep Stage was run with default settings to align the WBCT images as inputs and preprocessed shape models as outputs. Additionally, a split was established between the 43 tali to ensure that 80% of the data was used for training and 20% was used for testing. Since deep learning requires 366 RANGE an enormous amount of data, the Augmentation Stage learns the shape variation in the 43 tali and applied the same variation to 4000 tali to ensure there was enough training data. The Training Stage was run with a learning rate of 0.001 over 100 epochs. The accuracy of the training was calculated over each epoch using mean squared error between the manually segmented shape models and the shape models predicted by DeepSSM. Finally, the Testing Stage used the unseen testing data to validate the trained model. This validation testing inputted the WBCT image data into the model and compared the distance between the surfaces of the outputted shape model and the manually segmented shape model. A heat map of distance from the manually segmented shape model is generated on the outputted shape model. To evaluate these results, the training set is analyzed to determine if the learning rate indicates convergence. Additionally, the locations of error on each testing talus are investigated and compared between the tali. The mean distances between the surfaces of the input and output tali are compared as well. 367 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH RESULTS 368 RANGE Figure 1 describes the relationship between the variability of the original 43 tali and the variability of the generated 4000 tali across 19 PCA modes. Each PCA mode is nearly mirrored between the original and generated data. The original data has a softer peak in many PCA modes in comparison to the generated data, indicating more variation and less of a normal distribution. Figure 2 describes the success of the training phase. Training and Validation accuracies are plotted using 369 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH root mean square error of the distance between discrete correspondence particles in the automatically segmented and manually segmented data. This is defined as the particle root mean square error as it is calculated on a particle-by-particle basis and averaged [5]. The errors remain low with all errors calculated to be below 1.0 throughout the training, however these errors do not converge to each other as expected. The validation error converges to a root mean square error of 0.75 and the training error converges to a root mean square error of near zero. 370 RANGE The third method of testing this neural network occurs in the testing phase. For each talus in the testing set, the discrete particles of the manually generated shape model are compared to the discrete particles of the automatically generated shape model by finding the distance between the corresponding particles. These 1024 distances are depicted on the talus using a heat map, with red indicating a larger distance and therefore more erroneous modeling. Additionally, the mean 371 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH distance between corresponding particles is calculated for each of the tali in the testing set. Although most of the corresponding particles have low distances of near zero (indicated in dark blue in Figure 3) the model had larger distances (in red in Figure 3) on more patientspecific details. The center talus in the top row of Figure 3 depicts a protruding edge on the talar dome with large distances between the corresponding discrete points. Similarly, the bottom right talus has similar protrusions on the posterior process and the head correlating to large distances between the corresponding discrete points. DISCUSSION The goal of this study is to apply convolutional neural networks to generate 3D statistical shape models from WBCT images automatically. This involves utilizing a ShapeWorks module called DeepSSM, which enables the input of WBCT images and corresponding shape models, along with parameter tuning and optimization [5]. By integrating this approach into the analysis of the foot and ankle, the aim is to develop a method that decreases the time required for 3D shape model analysis, thereby increasing accessibility of such analyses in clinical settings. Ultimately, the long-term objective is to establish a quantitative framework for osteoarthritis classification that could improve efficiency in clinical 372 RANGE workflows, allowing physicians to have more time to see more patients and complex cases. In the results section, Figure 1 depicts that each PCA mode is nearly symmetrical, which indicates good correspondence between the initial 43 tali and the larger, augmented data set. This indicates that the data set that is later applied to the neural network model closely resembles the 43 tali in shape, size, and other variable traits. When the augmented data set is applied to training, Figure 2 describes low root mean square error, however the training and validation curves do not converge. This indicates that although the model is being trained and becoming more accurate, some parameters might need adjusting. The learning rate is likely slightly too high and might need to be decreased to allow for continued learning after the first few epochs. While Figure 2 depicts the model’s improvement over the course of training, Figure 3 demonstrates the model’s efficacy when used on unseen images. In this last phase, there are no epochs of learning and fixing mistakes, there is just one attempt to generate the shape model, and the generated shape model is compared to the manually made one. Figure 3 depicts that the model is fairly accurate at generating the new shape models, however certain regions were difficult for 373 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the model to generate accurately. This could have been for several reasons: the model was untrained on patientspecific morphology in that region, the tibiotalar joint is severely narrowed and there is bone-on-bone contact, or there is significant osteocyte growth in that region that was unseen previously by the model. Several limitations should be acknowledged. The dataset size was limited to 43 tali, potentially reducing the model’s ability to generalize to broader populations. Additionally, the observed discrepancies in certain regions suggest that training data did not fully capture the morphological variability of AOA. Additionally, parameter tuning and optimization, including adjustments to the learning rate, could further improve model performance. demonstrates accuracy, Lastly, while real-world the study implementation would require extensive validation on larger, more diverse datasets. Future work can work towards decreasing these limitations through tuning and higher sample size. This study aligns with recent advancements in applying machine learning to medical imaging, particularly in automating shape analysis and enhancing diagnostic workflows [5]. Existing literature supports the use of CNNs for pattern recognition and 3D reconstruction, 374 RANGE yet the application to weight- bearing CT imaging for OA classification remains relatively underexplored [6]. By working to bridge this gap, the study contributes novel insights into leveraging automated shape analysis for specific clinical applications. This work also has significant clinical implications. Enhanced imaging and automated analysis could facilitate earlier detection of AOA, enabling timely interventions to slow disease progression and improve long-term outcomes. Additionally, increased diagnostic efficiency has the potential to reduce healthcare costs by minimizing the need for manual processing, repetitive imaging, and delays. Faster and automated diagnostic tools would also enable clinicians to create patientspecific treatment plans and intervene before. deformities become too severe, ultimately improving care and outcomes for patients with AOA. Furthermore, efficiency in shape analysis could alleviate resource constraints in healthcare systems, particularly in underserved regions. By enabling quick detection, this work paves the way for improved patient care and outcomes on a global scale. REFERENCE [1] M. Glazebrook et al., “Comparison of health-related 375 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH quality of life between patients with end-stage ankle and hip arthrosis,” Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 499–505, 2008, doi: 10.2106/JBJS.F.01299. [2] P. Kvarda et al., “3D Assessment in Posttraumatic Ankle Osteoarthritis,” Foot Ankle Int, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 200–214, Feb. 2021, doi: 10.1177/1071100720961315. [3] A. Barg et al., “Ankle osteoarthritis: Etiology, diagnostics, and classification,” Foot Ankle Clin, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 411–426, 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.fcl.2013.06.001. [4] J. Cates, S. Elhabian, and R. Whitaker, “ShapeWorks: Particle-Based Shape Correspondence and Visualization Software,” in Statistical Shape and Deformation Analysis: Methods, Implementation and Applications, Elsevier Inc., 2017, pp. 257–298. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810493-4.00012-2. [5] J. Cates, P. T. Fletcher, M. Styner, H. C. Hazlett, and R. Whitaker, “Particle-Based Shape Analysis of MultiObject Complexes,” Med Image Comput Comput Assist Interv, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 477–485, 2008. [6] M. Kim et al., “Deep learning in medical imaging,” Dec. 01, 2019, Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society. doi: 10.14245/ns.1938396.198. 376 RANGE [7] J. H. Kellgren “RADIOLOGICAL and J. ASSESSMENT S. Lawrence, OF OSTEO- ARTHROSIS,” Ann. Rheum. Dis., vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 494–502, 1957. [8] M. Richter, C. de Cesar Netto, F. Lintz, A. Barg, A. Burssens, and S. Ellis, “The Assessment of Ankle Osteoarthritis with Weight-Bearing Computed Tomography,” Foot Ankle Clin, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 13– 36, Mar. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.fcl.2021.11.001. [9] R. Bhalodia, S. Y. Elhabian, L. Kavan, and R. T. Whitaker, “DeepSSM: A Deep Learning Framework for Statistical Shape Modeling from Raw Images,” in Shape in Medical Imaging 2018 Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer International Publishing, 2018, pp. 244–257. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030- 04747-4_23. [10] R. Bhalodia, S. Elhabian, J. Adams, W. Tao, L. Kavan, and R. Whitaker, “DeepSSM: A Blueprint for Image-to-Shape Deep Learning Models,” Oct. 2021, [Online]. Available: http://arxiv.org/abs/2110.07152 [11] R. Girdhar, D. F. Fouhey, M. Rodriguez, and A. Gupta, “Learning a Predictable and Generative Vector Representation for Objects,” Mar. 2016, [Online]. Available: http://arxiv.org/abs/1603.08637 377 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH [12] H. P. Chan, R. K. Samala, L. M. Hadjiiski, and C. Zhou, “Deep Learning in Medical Image Analysis,” in Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol. 1213, Springer, 2020, pp. 978-3-030-33128-3_1. 378 3–21. doi: 10.1007/ RANGE 15 Construction of a Steady State, Semi-Empirical Tire Model to be Used in the Development of an FSAE Vehicle ALEX CANTRELL Faculty Mentor: Ken d’Entremont Engineering, University of Utah) 379 (Mechanical OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ABSTRACT The objective of this report is to detail the processes, methods, and strategies used in the development of Formula U Racing’s inaugural tire model. This report details the tire choice, datasets utilized, the type of model selected, and the development procedure of the model facilitated by Optimum G’s OptimumTire2 software [6]. This tire model aims to quantitatively capture the relationship between tire operating conditions and the consequent tire-generated forces and moments. By leveraging such a model, it becomes possible to scrutinize performance metrics for various suspension architectures in greater depth, allowing for a robust preconstruction assessment of the vehicle’s potential handling characteristics. The paper further delves into the model’s capability to accurately mirror, interpolate, and extrapolate the behaviors exhibited in the test data, ensuring a foundation for a modernized approach to Formula U Racing’s suspension design strategy after a three-year hiatus. INTRODUCTION Formula SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) [9], commonly referred to as FSAE, is an international collegiate engineering design competition where teams 380 RANGE of students are challenged to design, manufacture, test, and compete with other small formula-style vehicles. Judging events are divided by two main criteria: static events and dynamic events. Static events evaluate the design, business practices, and cost efficiency of the teams while dynamic events evaluate the performance metrics of the car such as acceleration, cornering capability, and fuel efficiency. The suspension system of a FSAE vehicle serves the critical role of controlling force transmission between the unsprung and sprung mass, maintaining the correct attitude angles between the wheels and road surface, and producing consistent curvature and yaw-rate response to steering input. These aforementioned forces and handling characteristics are fundamentally contingent upon the tire-ground interaction. Therefore, for any team engaged in FSAE with aspirations to accurately model dynamic vehicle behaviors or predict vehicle response characteristics must also have a way to quantifiably represent these tire-ground interactions. Tire models fulfill this need. Tire models seek to predict the forces and moments generated by a tire as it interacts with the road surface, taking into consideration factors such as inclination angle, load, inflation pressure, temperature, and velocity. 381 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH With a legacy in FSAE competition dating back to 1987, the University of Utah’s Formula U Racing team has yet to attempt tire model development since tire data became accessible to FSAE teams in 2005. Marking the team’s comeback after a three-year hiatus due to COVID, there is a renewed focus on modernizing suspension design techniques beginning with the formulation of a tire model. Crafting accurate tire models demands dedicated time and iterative enhancement. Initiating this process now is critical, not only to gain practical experience but also to progressively refine and establish a thorough and precise modeling methodology for future endeavors. 1. TIRE SELECTION METHODOLOGY The initial and fundamental step in the development of a tire model is the selection of an appropriate tire. Stringent budgetary constraints necessitated the reuse of wheels currently in inventory. This inherently limited the tire selection options, as the chosen tires needed to be compatible with the specifications of the preexisting wheels and FSAE rules. These wheels measured 10 inches (254mm) in diameter and 7 inches (177.8mm) in width, with a +14mm (0.55in) offset, thereby requiring the selected tires to be suitable for a 10-inch wheel with a 7-inch rim width. 382 RANGE Given the absence of specific suspension and tire data, the task of making an appropriately informed tire choice presented significant challenges. Additionally, the lack of a pre-existing tire model further complicated the decision-making process since a decision could not be made on the grounds of our ability to produce an accurate model for a prospective tire. Consequently, the selection criteria were pivoted towards resource utilization. The team had an ample supply of Hoosier R20 18×6-10 tires [10] from previous years, which were deemed suitable for initial testing phases. Despite the potential reduction in performance due to the age of the existing tires, the extended testing period with these competition-specific tires was deemed beneficial. This strategy allowed for a thorough evaluation of the initial tire model and would give the team the opportunity to identify any discrepancies and adjust the suspension settings to match the tire’s compound. Consequently, this preparatory phase ensured that when new tires of the same model were eventually implemented in competition, the vehicle’s behavior with these tires had already been thoroughly understood and integrated into the suspension setup. Following confirmation that Calspan [11] had produced testing data for this specific tire (see Table 3), the 383 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH decision was made to use the Hoosier R20 18×6-10 tire on this year’s car, and its accompanying data would be used for this year’s tire model. 2. FSAE TIRE TEST CONSORTIUM TIRE DATA SELECTION 2.1. FSAE Tire Test Consortium Introduction The Formula SAE Tire Test Consortium (FSAE TTC) is a volunteer-managed, closed forum where participating schools may obtain tire force and moment data collected by Calspan’s Tire Research Facility (TIRF) [12]. Participating tire manufacturers such as Hoosier Racing Tire, Continental AG, The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, and Michelin donate tires to be tested on Calspan’s flat-belt tire test machine. After nine rounds of testing to date, the FSAE TTC has established itself as a vital resource for teams aiming to optimize their vehicles to the fullest extent; moreover, the TTC offers a unique window for students into the nuanced field of tire data analysis and model development, equipping them with a highly soughtafter skill in the field of automotive engineering. 2.2. Calspan Tire Data Collection and Handling The 9th round of annual FSAE tire testing is conducted 384 RANGE at Calspan’s Tire Research Facility on their flat track tire test machine as shown below in Figure 1. Tests are conducted using 120 grit, 3 mite, stoned sandpaper, and a speed of 25 mph, the average speed of an FSAE vehicle during a race event. Figure 1. Calspan tire test machine, sourced from [1] Calspan’s tire testing machine is capable of controlling a vast array of operating parameters as necessary to reproduce real-world operating conditions as closely as possible; those relevant to the TTC are shown below in Table 1. Table 1. Calspan tire testing machine capabilities notable to the TTC, adapted from [1]. 385 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Description Units (Metric) Units (Imperial) Maximum Vertical Load kN 53 lbf Lateral Force Capability kN ± 40 lbf Longitudinal Force Capability kN ± 40 lbf Slip Angle Range deg ± 30 deg Maximum Slip Angle Rate deg/s 15 deg/s Inclination Angle Range deg ± 25 deg Inclination Angle Rate deg/s 7 deg/s Spindle Speed rpm ± 3,600 rpm Spindle Torque at 850 rpm kNm 10.8 lb-ft Spindle Torque at 2200 rpm kNm 6.9 lb-ft Spindle Torque at 3600rpm kNm 2 lb-ft Spindle Torque Rate kNm/s 19 lb-ft/s Disk Brake Torque kNm 20 lb-ft Maximum Lateral Belt Travel mm ±5 in Resulting experimental data, data derived from the experimental data, as well as ambient test conditions, is then collected and stored into a series of channels, which is then uploaded to the TTC. The number of channels and data collected is dependent on the test, the full list of data channels created for the TTC round 9 tests are as follows: 386 RANGE Table 2. Round 9 TTC test data output channels, retrieved from [2] 387 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Channel Units Description AMBTMP degC or degF Ambient room temperature ET sec Elapsed time for the test FX N or lbf Longitudinal Force FY N or lbf Lateral Force FZ N or lbf Normal Load IA deg Inclination Angle (Camber) MX N-m or lb-ft Overturning Moment MZ N-m or lb-ft Aligning Torque N rpm NFX Dimensionless Normalized longitudinal force (FX/FZ) NFY Dimensionless Normalized lateral force (FY/FZ) P kPa or psig Tire pressure RE cm or in Effective Radius RL cm or in Loaded Radius RST degC or degF Road surface temperature SA deg SL SR Wheel rotational speed Slip Angle Slip Ratio based on RE (such that SL=0 Dimensionless gives FX=0). This is “traditional” or “textbook” slip ratio. Slip Ratio based on RL (used for Calspan Dimensionless machine control, SR=0 does not give FX=0) TSTC degC or degF Tire Surface Temperature–Center TSTI degC or degF Tire Surface Temperature–Inboard TSTO degC or degF Tire Surface Temperature–Outboard V kph or mph Road Speed 388 RANGE All data is reported in the SAE coordinate system as defined by SAE J2047 as shown below in Figure 2. Figure 2. SAE tire sign convention, retrieved from [3] Notable implications resulting from the SAE tire coordinate system revolve around how the relationship between longitudinal force (Fx) vs slip ratio (κ/SR/SL), lateral force (Fy) vs slip angle (α/SA), overturning moment (Mx) vs slip angle, and rolling resistance (My) vs slip angle are influenced. A positive slip angle, facilitated by a wheel rotation about the -Z axis, will produce a negative lateral force and will create an overturning moment and aligning moment about the +X axis (provided the slip angle does not exceed peak 389 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Mz production). These forces and moments are further influenced by the addition of inclination angle (camber) (γ), as depicted below in Figure 3, retrieved from [4]. Figure 3 invokes the following conditions: Fz < 0, My > 0. Figure 3. (a) longitudinal force vs slip ratio, (b) lateral force vs slip angle, (c) overturning moment vs slip angle, (d) aligning moment vs slip angle. 2.3. Calspan Tire Test Procedures For the round 9 test, the following tires were tested, each on two different rim widths, the specific wheel and tire specifications to be used in this year’s model are highlighted in green. Table 3. Round 9 wheel/tire test combinations. 390 RANGE Size: Tire Manufacturer Wheel Size (in) O.D. x width x Compound I.D. (in) Hoosier 16.0×6.0-10 R20, C2000 10 x 6 Hoosier 16.0×6.0-10 R20, C2000 10 x 7 Hoosier 16.0×7.5-10 R20, C2000 10 x 7 Hoosier 16.0×7.5-10 R20, C2000 10 x 8 Hoosier 18.0×6.0-10 R20 10 x 6 Hoosier 18.0×6.0-10 R20 10 x 7 Hoosier 20.5×7.0-13 R20 13 x 7 Hoosier 20.5×7.0-13 R20 13 x 8 MRF 18.0×6.0-10 ZTD1 10 x 6 MRF 18.0×6.0-10 ZTD1 10 x 7 Goodyear 18.0×6.5-10 Goodyear 18.0×6.5-10 Goodyear 20.0×7.0-13 Goodyear 20.0×7.0-13 Eagle Racing 10 x 6 Special Eagle Racing 10 x 7 Special Eagle Sports 13 x 7 Car Special Eagle Sports 13 x 8 Car Special All 10-inch tires were tested on aluminum wheels from Keizer Aluminum Wheels, all 13-inch tires were tested on steel wheels from Diamond Racing Wheels [2]. For each wheel/tire combination, three tests were conducted: a low-speed transient test, a cornering test, a drive/brake test. Each test is outlined below. 391 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2.3.1. Transient Test Plan The test begins with a set of cold, non-rolling spring rate tests, followed by a set of cold, rolling spring rate tests. After the initial tests are completed, several lowspeed transient tests are performed wherein the tire is stopped, steered to a new slip angle, and then rolled forward slowly. During the low-speed transient tests, steer angles of -1, +1, and +6 deg are used, returning to 0 deg in between each step steer input. These tests occur at 3 different vertical loads and tire pressures at 10, 12, and 14psig. Transient- test conditions are depicted below in Figure 4. Figure 4. Transient test plan, reproduced from [2] As the tire rolls slowly forward during the transient tests, 392 RANGE it will seek a new equilibrium condition, the response distance required to reach an equilibrium condition is commonly referred to as “relaxation length”. The relaxation length metric is used as an indication of a tire’s transient response and is further characterized by the plots below, sourced from [2]. Figure 5. Transient tire characteristics for one steer out, steer back cycle 393 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2.3.2 Cornering Test Plan Initially, tires undergo a series of 12 “cold to hot” slip angle sweeps at a single load to condition them for accurate force and moment measurements while also evaluating the tire’s performance as it heats up. The test included multiple spring-rate assessments, starting right after the preliminary sweeps. Then subsequent tests were conducted at the end of each pressure segment. Following a “break-in block” to further exercise the tire, the main slip-angle sweeps cycle through ±12 degrees at varying loads, pressures, and inclination angles, with the first slip angle sweep block being longer than the rest as a result of a few initial “conditioning sweeps”. All tests were conducted with zero slip ratio to maintain a free-rolling state. The first half of the test, shown below in Figure 6, covered three pressure levels, followed by a pause for data collection. 394 RANGE Figure 6. First half of the cornering test plan, retrieved from [2] The second half resumes with another “cold to hot” block, mirroring the initial conditions of the test to restore the thermal state of the tire used in the first half of the test. Slip angle sweeps at 15 and 45 mph are conducted, run at zero inclination angle and 12psig. Finally, ± 4-degree inclination-angle sweeps at zero slip angle are run at all inflation pressures and three normal loads. The second half cornering test plan conditions are shown below in Figure 7. 395 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 7. Second half of the cornering test plan, retrieved from [2] 2.3.3 Drive/Brake Test Plan The drive/brake tests focus on slip ratio sweeps with constant slip angles. The tests begin with a warm- up that consists of three sets of spring rate tests, cold-to-hot slip angle sweeps, followed by simultaneous slip angle and inclination angle “break-in” sweeps, concluded by a series of slip angle conditioning sweeps. All of which were conducted in a free-rolling state. Warm-up test procedures are shown below in Figure 8. 396 RANGE Figure 8 . Drive/Brake test warmup run plan, sourced from [2] The bulk of the testing is split into two parts for datamanagement purposes, with each part conducted over various tire-pressure blocks. The first data collection segment, depicted below in Figure 9, covered three tirepressure blocks with slip ratio sweeps at fixed slip angles of 0, -2, and -4 degrees. Although the data suggests varying slip angles, only the aforementioned fixed angles were actively used, with transitions between them captured within the sweeps. 397 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 9. Drive/Brake test plan, first half, sourced from [2] The test’s second half, shown below in Figure 10, includes an identical test procedure to the first half, conducted over an 8 and 12 psig tire pressure blocks. The test concludes with 15 and 45 mph slip-angle sweeps. 398 RANGE Figure 10. Drive/Brake test plan, second half, sourced from [2] 2.4. Aligning Tire Modeling Objectives with Test Data Considering this is the inaugural attempt to construct a tire model, it is crucial to maintain simplicity in the modeling approach, allowing for reduced complexity in identifying areas for refinement. Given the absence of past vehicle specifications and data, the ability to take advantage of previous vehicle data to produce “starting points” for suspension design and analysis was deemed unfeasible. Consequently, transient vehicle-response characteristics are excluded from consideration due to the lack of requisite known vehicle specifications, as the amount of input variables needed to produce a proper transient analysis far exceed what is known, can be estimated, or measured. Thus, transient tire data (refer to 2.3.1) is deemed superfluous, streamlining the model’s data requirements. Steady-state analysis for cornering and acceleration offers a more manageable avenue, relying on conventional tire behavior metrics such as the relationship between lateral force and slip angle, and 399 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH longitudinal force and slip ratio. The cornering test (refer to 2.3.2) and drive/brake test (refer to 2.3.3) have yielded extensive data across various operational conditions, such as inclination angle, pressure, and normal load that can be used in a steady-state vehicle analysis. Therefore, the tire model will be developed using data exclusively from the cornering and drive/ brake tests. 3. TIRE MODELING OVERVIEW AND MODEL SELECTION 3.1. Tire Modeling Introduction A tire model is a mathematical model of the tire that illustrates the behavior of a tire under various operating conditions. Tire models seek to predict the forces and moments generated by a tire as it interacts with the road surface, taking into consideration factors such as inclination angle, load, inflation pressure, temperature, and velocity. Being the subject of extensive research, there are numerous tire models that exist, each aiming to reach a specific compromise between accuracy and complexity. Tire models typically fall under one of two categories; semi-empirical tire models – which describe tires using measured characteristics resulting from real-world 400 RANGE testing and the usage of regression techniques to yield a best fit to the measured data, and theoretical tire models – which are aimed at a more detailed analysis of the tire albeit at the cost of introducing a large degree of complexity. Theoretical models typically come in the form of finite element- or segment-based models. There are a multitude of models that fall between semiempirical and theoretical. The figure below, adapted from [4], provides further detail regarding tire model types. 401 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 11. Various tire model types 3.2. Selecting a Tire Model Considering the vast amounts of real-world test data produced by Calspan, it is evident that a semiempirical tire model is necessary. This decision is further upheld considering the team’s high degree of inexperience with tire modeling at the time. 402 RANGE Understanding and interpreting the results from a regression technique, such as mean squared error, are relatively easily understood when compared to analysis that might be required for a more theoretical model, such as RMOD-K. Of all the semi-empirical tire models, the ‘Magic Formula’ tire model [4], created by Hans Pacejka, is by far one of the most widely used in industry. For the inaugural tire model, the Magic Formula will be used. 3.2.1. The Magic Formula Tire Model The Magic Formula tire model is used to empirically represent and interpolate steady-state tire force and moment curves based on measured data. The coefficients within the formula act as representative quantities indicative of the tire’s performance attributes. The general form of the magic formula is given as ⯑(⯑) = ⯑ ⯑⯑⯑[⯑ ⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑{ ⯑⯑ − ⯑(⯑⯑ − ⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑ ⯑⯑)}] where ⯑(⯑) = ⯑(⯑) + ⯑⯑ 403 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ⯑ = ⯑ + ⯑ℎ ⯑ℎ = horizontal shift ⯑⯑ = vertical shift ⯑ℎ and ⯑⯑ arise due to the introduction of inclination angle or tire properties such as conicity or ply-steer and typically influence plots of lateral force and aligning moment [5]. ⯑ is either the lateral force (Fy), longitudinal force (Fx), or the aligning moment (Mz). ⯑ is either the slip angle (α) or slip ratio (κ). Nomenclature for slip angle and slip ratio used in the TTC data channels, ‘SA’, ‘SL’, and ‘SR’, are not used in the Magic Formula. ⯑ is the peak value. ⯑ is the shape factor. This controls the span in the x direction and is given by ⯑ is the stiffness factor, controlling the slope at the origin. 404 RANGE ⯑ is the curvature factor. This influences the curvature at the peak and the point Xm where the peak occurs. ⯑ is given by The ⯑⯑ term introduces an asymptote bounding ⯑ at large slip angles and is found using ⯑⯑ = ⯑ sin(π⯑/2) Curves produced by the Magic Formula typically take the form of the plot found in Figure 12 (a). For comparison, TTC test data for a single operating condition is shown in Figure 12 (b). The difference in plot orientation arises due to the Adapted SAE sign convention being utilized in the diagram reproduced from [4] and the standard SAE sign convention being utilized in Calspan’s data channels. Figure 12 (a) Generalized tire model plot, (b) Calspan data 405 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH It must be noted that the complete list of equations and coefficients used within the Magic Formula are voluminous and extensive, full lists of these equations and coefficients can be found in [4] and [5]. 4. TIRE MODEL DEVELOPMENT PROCEDURE USING OPTIMUMTIRE2 4.1. OptimumTire2 Introduction and Rationale for Selection Developed by Optimum G, OptimumTire2 is a tire modeling software that specializes in generating tire models through the application of the Magic Formula to data derived from flat track tire testing, wherein models are created using a genetic algorithm regression model. The software is centered around a user- friendly interface and is complemented by continuously refined documentation. In-depth information on the full spectrum of OptimumTire2’s functionalities is elaborated in [6]. Given that OptimumTire2 is purpose-designed to generate Magic Formula tire models using datasets acquired from equipment akin to that employed by Calspan’s TIRF, its selection as the prime tool for this task is justified. 406 RANGE 4.2. Importing and Processing Tire Data TTC data is made available in a ‘raw’ and a ‘run’ format. Raw TTC data is made available for teams who want data with no pre-processing, meaning dwells between run sweeps are included. Run data has been pre-processed to remove dwells between run sweeps. This difference is shown below in Figure 13 for the FZ data channel. Figure 13. FZ raw data (left) compared to FZ run data (right), shown for the ‘Run31’ test dataset While OptimumTire2 provides ample tools for manual data filtration and cropping, the decision was made to utilize only the run data as opposed to raw data. This decision was influenced by the potential for inadvertent error. Additionally, employing run data directly facilitates a smaller, more manageable dataset for the 407 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH regression model, thus eliminating the need for identifying and rectifying fit errors. Considering the decision made on tire data to be used in model development (refer to 2.4), the following data files shown in Table 4 were imported from the TTC into OptimumTire2. It must be noted that due to the warmup run file for the drive/brake test was omitted due to its extreme similarity to the warmup used in the cornering test. Table 4. Test data used in tire model Test Data File Cornering B2356run31 Cornering B2356run32 Drive/Brake B2356run72 Drive/Brake B2356run73 Although the run data represents a smaller, preprocessed form of the larger raw dataset as mentioned above, its volume remains relatively large, posing computational challenges for the genetic algorithm used by OptimumTire2. Specifically, extensive data risks excessive computational load, potentially leading to significant errors or hardware limitations. To mitigate this issue, a data pre-processing technique known as 408 RANGE “binning” will be utilized. Data binning refers to the process of grouping a range of values into a smaller number of “bins”. Each bin represents a specific interval in the data range, allowing for a more streamlined and computationally efficient analysis while maintaining the integrity of the data patterns OptimumTire2 allows for user-defined bin tolerances to be defined for each channel such that whenever the difference between the data value at index i+1 and the data value at index i is greater than the tolerance defined by the user for that specific channel, a new bin will be created [6] 4.2.1. Binning, Collapsing, and Merging Cornering Test Data Recalling the cornering test plan as outlined in 2.3.2, the test primarily entailed variation of a single parameter, slip angle (SA), while holding fixed various operating parameters, such as normal load (FZ), pressure (P), or inclination angle (IA). In accordance with this methodology, each bin is defined to correspond to a distinct set of these operating conditions 409 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH wherein every time FZ, P, or IA is changed, it is considered a new bin. Note that a specific bin tolerance will still be applied to the SA data channel to ensure each operating condition is binned with its respective slip angle sweep. The two cornering datasets will eventually need to become one single dataset to perform the equation fit, this begs the question whether to bin and collapse data prior, or after the two datasets have been merged. Aiming to maintain simplicity within the data-binning process, the decision was made to bin and collapse each individual cornering datasets prior to merging them. The criterion for determining the efficacy of the binning process will be based on the extent to which equal bin sizes can be achieved. This approach is rooted in the principle that uniformity in bin sizes is pivotal for ensuring a balanced and unbiased representation in the data analysis, thereby enhancing the accuracy of the equation fit. Given the binning strategy and criterium stated 410 RANGE above, the following binning tolerances shown in Table 5 were found to produce nearly equal bin sizes as shown in Figure 14 while simultaneously retaining trends found in the data as shown in Figure 15. Note that the binning tolerances given below in Table 5 were applied to both cornering test datasets. Table 5. Binning tolerances for cornering test data Data Channel Threshold Unit Normal Load (FZ) 160 N Slip Angle 10 deg Inclination Angle 0.5 deg Pressure 1 psi Figure 14. Cornering-test data-bin sizes Following the data binning, the datasets will undergo a procedure known as “data collapsing”. Data collapsing 411 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH is a method of summarizing multiple data points into a single representative value, typically by averaging nearby data points. Adhering to the default recommendation from OptimumTire2’s help guide [6], bin sizes will be reduced from those given in the binning results to 80 data points. The resulting data size after collapsing is shown below in Table 6. Table 6. Cornering data collapsing results Data File Data Size Before Collapsing Data Size After Collapsing B2356run31 61025 3760 B2356run32 52296 3280 A comparison between the unaltered run data and processed run data is shown below in Figure 15 for the normal load (FZ), inclination angle (IA), and pressure (P) data channels. 412 RANGE Figure 15. Collapsed cornering test data results sample for run 31 (left), run 32 (right) With the two cornering datasets successfully binned and collapsed, they can be merged together into a single cornering dataset to be used in the equation fit procedure. 4.2.2. Binning, Collapsing, and Merging Drive/Brake Test Data Similar to the approach outlined in 4.2.1, the binning of cornering data will also be structured around variations in testing parameters. FZ, IA, P, and SA, acting as the primary operating conditions as outlined in 2.3.3, will define the binning tolerances. As was done in 4.2.1, the SR channel will also act as a binning tolerance to ensure each operating condition is binned with its respective slip-ratio sweep. Once again, data will be binned and collapsed prior to being merged together. The extent to which equal bin sizes can be achieved will remain as the measure of the quality of the binning process. Following the binning procedure and evaluation strategy given above, bin tolerances for the drive/brake data could then be set. Unlike the cornering datasets, 413 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH where bin tolerances could be found that yielded nearly identical bin sizes, extensive iterative testing was only able to yield bin sizes within 100 points of each other. This could be the result of several factors: the lack of “free rolling” with respect to slip angle that occurred during the drive/brake tests, larger datasets produced during the tests, and greater variability within the operating parameters are all possibilities that might have led to a discrepancy between bin sizes. A more decisive conclusion will require further research. The binning tolerances given below in Table 7 produced the smallest difference between bin sizes for both drive/brake tests, bin sizes for each dataset are shown below in Figure 16. Table 7. Binning tolerances for drive/brake test data Data Channel Threshold Unit Normal Load (FZ) 175 N Slip Angle 0.5 deg Inclination Angle 0.5 deg Pressure 1 psi Slip ratio 0.15 dimensionless 414 RANGE Figure 16. Drive/Brake test data bin sizes Just as was done in 4.2.1, the datasets are to be collapsed in accordance with the default recommendation from OptimumTire2’s help guide [6]. The resulting data size after collapsing is shown below in Table 8. Table 8. Drive/Brake data collapsing results Data File Data Size Before Collapsing Data Size After Collapsing B2356run72 75860 8400 B2356run73 66778 7280 A comparison between the unaltered run data and processed run data is shown below in Figure 17 for the normal load (FZ), inclination angle (IA), and pressure (P) data channels. 415 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 17. Collapsed drive/brake test data results sample for run 72 (left), run 73 (right) The two datasets can now be merged into a single drive/ brake dataset to be used in the equation fit procedure. 4.3 Magic Formula Equation-Fit Setup 4.3.1. Selecting the Magic Formula Version to be Used\ Due to its popularity, there are numerous versions of the Magic Formula that exist. Those available within OptimumTire2 are as follows: • PAC2002 – This version of the Magic Formula is optimized for smooth road surfaces, accurately representing dynamic behavior for frequencies up to approximately 12 Hz. Unique to this version, it offers enhanced capabilities for interpolation and 416 RANGE extrapolation beyond available measurement data. • Magic Formula 5.2 – This version extends its modeling capabilities to include load sensitivity, lateral and longitudinal camber response, and effects of combined slips. Additionally, it accounts for rolling resistance and the tire’s overturning moment. • Magic Formula 6.1.2 – This enhanced version of the MF-Tire 5.2 Magic Formula model features dynamic modeling that smoothly transitions from first-order relaxation to rigid ring dynamics. It also more accurately represents the impact of inflation pressure on loaded radius and tire enveloping properties, utilizing equations from the MFEval toolbox. • Magic Formula 6.2 – This model enhances Magic Formula 6.1.2 by improving the loaded radius model for scenarios with large side slip and inclination angles. It includes tire load sensitivity, camber response, combined slip effects, and models both rolling resistance and tire overturning moment. The selection of the appropriate Magic Formula version 417 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH was guided by the principle of simplicity. OptimumTire2 offers a range of predefined boundary templates, which are instrumental in establishing the optimization constraints for the coefficients in the fitting process. Utilizing these templates significantly reduces the time investment required to individually define boundaries for each coefficient, thereby aligning with our objective of simplifying the analysis. As a result, the focus shifted to identifying the Magic Formula version for which these templates were readily available. Given the extensive availability of templates for the Magic Formula 6.1.2 model, it was determined that this version would be most suitable for fitting the data. 4.3.2. Setting Nominal Values With the model version identified, the next step is to set the nominal inflation pressure (NOMPRES), nominal vertical load (FZNOM), and nominal longitudinal velocity (LONGVL). These are values that represent the ‘standard’ operating conditions for the tire. In light of the complete unavailability of test data, measurements, or calculations from preceding 418 RANGE suspension systems, the selection of nominal values was predicated on their efficacy in yielding an accurate equation fit over a diverse spectrum of vertical load and inflation pressure conditions since these parameters are subject to significant variations. Following several meetings with the Optimum G engineers, the nominal values deemed to produce high fit accuracy across a wide range of data were found to be a nominal pressure of 82.7 kPa (12 psi), a nominal vertical load of -880 Newtons, and a longitudinal velocity of 11.163 meters per second. 4.3.3. Model Error-Calculation Method Given the utilization of a predefined set of boundaries, as detailed in section 4.3.1, coupled with the intent to use a pre-optimized fitting algorithm, both of which are innate features of the software, it is logical to adopt the default error-calculation method provided. The default error-calculation method offered by OptimumTire2 that will be adopted for this year’s model is the root mean square deviation (RMSD). RMSD is a means of calculating the 419 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH difference between an observed variable and a predicted variable, given as: where ⯑ represents the total number of observations and ⯑ denotes the ⯑th value within the dataset. RMSD results are interpreted as the magnitude of the prediction error. Within the context of empirical tire models, RMSD values represent the magnitude of error to which the model can accurately represent observed tire data. With a model error calculation method chosen, all tire model properties necessary to perform an equation fit have been defined, they have been compiled and listed below in Table 9 for convenience. Table 9. Tire model properties Model Property Value Units Model type Magic Formula 6.1.2 N/A NOMPRES 82737.1 Pascal FZNOM -880 Newton LONGVL 11.163 Meters per second RMSD Dimensionless Error calculation method 420 RANGE 4.4. Performing the Equation Fits 4.4.1. OptimumTire2 Equation Fitting Procedure Overview The OptimumTire2 Fitting Wizard uses a genetic algorithm [6] to perform an equation fit. The process begins with a diverse set of potential solutions, which are then iteratively evaluated for their ability to accurately fit the data. Through a cycle of selection (choosing the best solutions), crossover (merging different solutions), and mutation (introducing minor random variables), the algorithm refines these solutions over successive generations. The process concludes once an optimal fit is achieved through verification with an error calculation method, such as RMSD, or other termination criteria are met. Throughout this fitting procedure, the Magic Formula coefficients are optimized, within a set boundary to produce a tire model that is representative of a set of tire data. Prior to running a fit, the Fitting Wizard requires the evaluation function, genetic algorithm type, and boundaries to be defined. 4.4.2. Initial Setup – Lateral As stated in 2.3.2, the tests were conducted in a free 421 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH rolling state, meaning that a lateral force-pure (FYP) evaluation function is best suited for this dataset as it is specifically designed to perform the lateral equation fit to free rolling data. A ‘precise’ genetic algorithm type was selected for use on the basis of device computational capabilities at the time. Boundaries, as mentioned in 4.3.1, were to come from the “MF612-Fyp-Boundaries” template provided by OptimumTire2. 4.4.3. Performing the Lateral-Equation Fit Building upon the data processing techniques, tire model properties, and genetic algorithm settings elaborated in the above sections, the lateral equationfitting job was executed. The results of the fitting procedure are discussed below. Figure 18. Genetic algorithm error plot for the FYP model fit Figure 18, shown above, depicts the progression of the genetic algorithm up until its point of termination at iteration 500. The blue line denotes the selection 422 RANGE pressure, this is the required fitness of the coefficients to the dataset to be selected for a particular generation. A selection pressure of 1 indicates the requirement for a perfect fit whereas a selection pressure of 0.1 would permit a broad spectrum of values to be eligible for selection. The grey line traces the RMSD, with convergence to the black baseline indicating a state of zero error, reflecting a perfect alignment between the model and the dataset. Analyzing Figure 18, the genetic algorithm demonstrates a commendable performance in model fitting, indicated by a rapid initial decrease in RMSD, signifying a quick approach to a good fit. The subsequent stabilization and minor fluctuations in RMSD suggest that while the algorithm efficiently reduced the error, it did not achieve a perfect fit. Despite not reaching the ideal zero-error baseline, the algorithm succeeded in significantly improving the model’s accuracy. 4.4.4 Lateral-Fit Analysis The genetic algorithm was able to fit the Magic Formula to the 7,040 cornering data points with an RMSD of 54.44. This suggests that while the overall fit captures the general trend of the tire behavior, certain regimes 423 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH such as high slip angles may deviate from the experimental data, requiring specialized weighting functions if the model is to be further refined. Upon viewing the resulting tire model overlayed on the merged cornering data for various operating conditions such as normal load, pressure, and inclination angle as shown below in Figure 19, it is clear that the model captured the fundamental character of the data quite well. Figure 19. Lateral tire model overlayed on merged cornering data While the resulting model is promising at first glance, further analysis is required to verify the model’s 424 RANGE performance under various operating conditions, shown below in Figure 20. Figure 20 – FY vs SA at the following operating conditions: Top left – 0 deg inclination angle, -219 N vertical load, 10 psi inflation pressure Top right – 2 deg inclination angle, -664 N vertical load, 12 psi inflation pressure Bottom left – 4 deg inclination angle, -1112 N vertical load, 14 psi inflation pressure Bottom right – Vertical load from -100 N to -2500 N in increments of -266.67 N at a fixed inflation pressure of 12 psi and inclination angle of 1.5 degrees 425 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Upon inspection of Figure 20, it is evident that the FY-pure tire model provides accurate representation of cornering tire data throughout a wide range of operating conditions. Observing the bottom right figure, it becomes clear that the extrapolative capacity of the model markedly diminishes at approximately – 2000 N of vertical load. This limitation, however, does not present a concern for Formula SAE applications, as the tires will not be subjected to such extreme loads during operation. The analysis presented above leads to the conclusion that the lateral fit was successful. Consequently, the derived tire model establishes a sturdy foundation for analyzing the car’s dynamic response under a steady-state cornering maneuver. 4.4.5. Initial Setup – Longitudinal Owing to the presence of combined slip conditions, characterized by concurrent slip angle and slip ratio during the drive/brake tests (refer to 2.3.3), the use of a ‘pure’ evaluation function was deemed unsuitable. Fortunately, OptimumTire2 incorporates an FX evaluation function, specifically designed to address instances of combined slip. For the longitudinal equation fitting, this FX evaluation function was 426 RANGE selected. The “MF612-Fx-Boundaries” template was chosen as the boundaries for this equation fit. 4.4.6, Performing the Longitudinal Equation Fit Leveraging the data processing techniques, tire model properties, and genetic algorithm settings elaborated in sections 4.2 through 4.4.5, the longitudinal equation fitting job was executed. The results of the fitting procedure are discussed below. Figure 21. Genetic algorithm error plot for the FX model fit Detail regarding the properties of each curve can be found in section 4.4.3. Upon inspecting the above error plot, the genetic algorithm exhibits a positive outcome in fitting the model. The initial sharp decline in the RMSD indicates a swift and significant improvement in fit accuracy. Over time, the RMSD levels off, suggesting the algorithm has reached a stable solution. Although the RMSD does not converge to zero, indicating the presence of some residual error, the overall trend shows the algorithm has effectively optimized the model 427 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH parameters, striking a balance between fitting precision and computational efficiency over 500 generations. 4.4.7. Longitudinal-Fit Analysis The genetic algorithm fit the Magic Formula to the 15,680 drive/brake data points with an RMSD of 147.861. This value indicates that, on average, the model’s outputs deviate from the measured values by 147.861 units. Although this RMSD is higher than that of the lateral fit, it is important to note that the drive/ brake dataset includes an additional 8,640 points, which likely introduces extra variability and complexity into the fitting process. Moreover, when viewed relative to the overall range of measured data as shown in Figure 22, an average deviation of 147.861 units is within acceptable limits. 428 RANGE Figure 22. Longitudinal tire model overlayed on merged drive/brake data As was done for the lateral fit, a more detailed analysis of the model’s resolution under specific operating conditions will be conducted, shown below in Figure 23. 429 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 23. FX vs SR at the following operating conditions: Top left – 0 deg inclination angle, -219 N vertical load, 10 psi inflation pressure Top right – 2 deg inclination angle, -664 N vertical load, 12 psi inflation pressure Bottom left – 4 deg inclination angle, -1112 N vertical load, 14 psi inflation pressure Bottom right – Vertical load from -100 N to -2500 N in increments of -266.67 N at a fixed inflation pressure of 12 psi and inclination angle of 1.5 degrees Upon examining the results, it is evident that the model exhibits a tendency to overestimate the longitudinal 430 RANGE force response when subject to certain operating conditions. This overestimation is a probable factor contributing to the larger RMSD previously mentioned. A detailed investigation to pinpoint the exact operating conditions where this discrepancy occurs is presented in the following section. 4.4.7.1. Longitudinal-Force Response Error Analysis Three distinct analyses were undertaken. In the first analysis, illustrated in the top left of Figure 24, the model parameters were set with a fixed vertical load (FZ) of -219.45 N and an Inclination Angle (IA) of 0 degrees, while varying the Pressure (P) at 9, 12, and 14 psi shown left to right. The second analysis, depicted in the top right of Figure 24, maintained a constant FZ of -219.45 N and P of 12 psi, but altered the IA at 0, 1.5, and 2.3 degrees shown left to right. The third analysis, presented at the bottom of Figure 24, fixed P at 12 psi and IA at 0 degrees, and adjusted FZ at three different levels: -219.45, -664.01, and -1112.3 N shown left to right. 431 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 24. FX Response Patterns at Incremental Operating Parameters By visual inspection, the following observations can be made: • The influence of pressure on the model’s resolution is modest, with an improvement observed up to 12 psi. Beyond this threshold, a discernible reduction in resolution is apparent, particularly under positive slip ratios. • Alterations in inclination angle seem to produce an insubstantial impact on the 432 RANGE precision of the model. • The most significant factor affecting the model’s resolution is the normal load. FZ values ranging from -600 N to -1200 N yield the most accurate alignment with the data. From the above observations, it is likely that the considerable divergence from the -600 to -1200 N normal load range is likely responsible for the model’s deviation from the experimental data. This aligns with the nominal values established in section 4.3.2, which designated the nominal pressure at 82,737.1 Pascal (12 psi) and the nominal load at -880 N. Notably, departures from these nominal values appear to impact the model’s resolution more significantly than in the lateral model. This could be attributed to the larger amount of data making errors more pronounced or longitudinal-test conditions favoring low loads near a 12 psi inflation pressure. This heightened sensitivity could be due to the larger dataset amplifying discrepancies or because longitudinal testing conditions spent a larger time interval at low loads with pressures close to 12 psi. The observed discrepancy In the ti”e mo’el has specific implications for suspension design, notably in areas dependent on the tire’s 433 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH longitudinal characteristics such as acceleration, braking, and pitch behavior. These characteristics are sensitive to model inaccuracies, potentially leading to increased error in their analysis. However, such evaluations often focus on the more heavily loaded sections of the vehicle—for instance, the rear axle during acceleration—meaning that the error does not uniformly impact all analyses. Nonetheless, for comprehensive assessments like braking efficiency and the calculation of the ideal brake force ratio (IBFR), which involve the vertical load on all tires during braking events, the model’s lower load condition errors must be carefully considered. 5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES The completion of Formula U Racing’s first tire model marks a significant advancement towards modernizing suspension design practices. Despite its simplicity, the model demonstrates encouraging conformity with Calspan’s test data. Excluding a particular range of operating conditions affecting the longitudinal model, it 434 RANGE serves as a reliable tool for evaluating different suspension architectures, offering substantial time and cost savings before the commencement of parts modeling, prototyping, or construction. The model will serve as an essential tool in any steady-state analysis, particularly for examining the impact of different suspension configurations on tire force and moment response. This includes, for example, assessing how camber thrust influences the maximum sustainable lateral acceleration during constantradius skidpad tests. Additionally, the model will be invaluable for its implicit tire properties that are not immediately apparent in the plots. These properties, like cornering stiffness, are crucial for evaluating key dynamics such as understeer gradient, critical speed, and characteristic speed in steady- state cornering scenarios. This comprehensive utility makes the model a significant asset in optimizing vehicle performance. Future advancements in tire modeling at Formula U Racing will focus on adopting a 435 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH more interactive approach towards tire data management, including personalized data cropping and filtration. Efforts will also be directed towards developing tailored coefficient boundaries and customizing the genetic algorithm within OptimumTire2. These modifications are targeted at reducing RMSD or optimizing whichever model error evaluation method is chosen. As the team gains proficiency and familiarity with tire modeling, the models will evolve to encompass more complexity. This will include the integration of transient data, applications of weighting functions for specific operational conditions, and exploration into alternative versions of the Magic Formula, such as MF6.2. As Formula U Racing ventures into the future of suspension design, it is an exciting and hopeful time, signaling a significant step forward in the team’s technical journey. REFERENCES [1] from Calspan_Round9. Index page. (n.d.). page. (n.d.). https://www.fsaettc.org/ [2] RunGuide_Round9. https://www.fsaettc.org/ 436 Index RANGE [3] Kasprzak, E. M., & Gentz, D. (2006). The formula SAE tire test consortium-tire testing and data handling. SAE Technical Paper Series. https://doi.org/10.4271/ 2006-01-3606 [4] Pacejka, H. B., & Besselink, I. (2012). Tire and Vehicle Dynamics. Elsevier. [5] Blundell, M., & Harty, D. (2015). The multibody systems approach to vehicle dynamics. ButterworthHeinemann [6] Avi, A., & Serpa, B. (2023). OptimumTire2 Help. Wiki. https://optimumg.atlassian.net/wiki/external/ 483426322/ M2JmNTgzY2NkOTJiNGM5OTgwZTM1NzNiM2I wZTVkMzM#Welcome [7] Braden, D. P. (2019). Tire Analysis and Modeling For The Development of an FSAE Car. [8] Root mean square error (RMSE). Kalman filter for professionals. (2022, September 25). https://kalmanfilter.com/root-mean-square-error/ [9] FSAEOnline.com. (n.d.). Www.fsaeonline.com. https://www.fsaeonline.com/ [10] FORMULA STUDENT (FSAE). (2025). Hoosiertirewest.com. https://www.hoosiertirewest.com/categories/circuitracing-road-course-rally/formula-student-fsae.html [11] Calspan Aerospace, Defense, and Automotive 437 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Testing. (2024). Calspan.com. https://calspan.com/ [12] Milliken Research Associates, Inc. — FSAE Tire Test Consortium. https://www.millikenresearch.com/fsaettc.html/ www.millikenresearch.com/fsaettc.html 438 (n.d.). RANGE 16 Developing Teaching Tools for Formaldehyde Electrochemical Sensors ANDREW CODA Faculty Mentor: Kerry Kelly (Chemical Engineering, University of Utah) BACKGROUND Formaldehyde (HCHO) is a volatile organic compound (VOC), and a common indoor air quality pollutant. 439 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Formaldehyde is a known carcinogen and The American Lung Association identifies the effects of short-term exposure to formaldehyde to include irritation of the nose/eyes/throat, difficulty breathing, and asthma attacks [1]. Similar to other air quality pollutants like PM2.5, formaldehyde can be measured with low-cost sensors, specifically an electrochemical sensor. These low-cost sensors provide an excellent opportunity for outreach modules and education materials. TEACHING MODULE To model the working principle of an electrochemical sensor, glucose is used instead of any electrochemically reactive substance that is either costly or hazardous. With this outreach module, students construct two electrodes, one working (shown in Figure 1) and one reference. They can then measure the potential difference between the two when exposed to a spray of glucose solution [2]. With that measured potential difference students can construct a calibration curve. Ultimately, students will learn the engineering design cycle (Figure 2), while gaining knowledge and experience with sensors, circuits, and data analysis. 440 RANGE Figure 1. Example working electrode layers 441 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2. Engineering design cycle as it pertains to this module FUTURE WORK In the future, the goal is to polish the existing outreach module and create a catalogue of education tools for all ages and multiple demographics, such as pamphlets recruiting adult sensor users. REFERENCES [1] A. L. Association, “Formaldehyde,” American Lung Association, https://www.lung.org/clean- air/ at-home/indoor-air- pollutants/ formaldehyde#:~:text=Formaldehyde%20irritates%2 0the%20nose%2C%20eyes,attacks%2 0and%20other%20respiratory%20symptoms. (accessed Nov. 2, 2023). [2] R. Cánovas, M. Parrilla, P. Blondeau, and F. J. Andrade, “A novel wireless paper-based potentiometric platform for monitoring glucose in blood,” Lab on a Chip, vol. 17, no. 14, pp. 2500– 2507, 2017, doi: https://doi.org/10.1039/c7lc00339k. 442 RANGE 17 Graph-Based Optimization for Robotic Inspection Planning DANIEL COIMBRA SALOMAO; BLAIR D. SULLIVAN; MATTHIAS BENTERT; ALEX CRANE; PÅL GRØNÅS DRANGE; ALAN KUNTZ; AND YOSUKE MIZUTANI Faculty Mentor: Blair D. Computing, University of Utah) 443 Sullivan (School of OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH INTRODUCTION Robotics has become an essential tool for a diverse range of fields, enhancing the precision and efficiency of tasks in areas such as industrial automation, infrastructure monitoring, and medical procedures. A critical challenge to these applications is inspection planning, the development of a motion plan for sensing a series of points of interest, POIs. This problem, which holds an essential role in robotic automation, is computationally intensive, known to be PSPACE-hard [1], as the addition of points of interest results in the exponential growth of the search space. This growth constitutes an obstacle to real-time applications, especially in surgical situations where fast computations are crucial, making naive solutions, such as exhaustive search or sequential visits, unattainable. Furthermore, simply collecting the points is not sufficient, as constraints prioritize the most efficient path, where the shortest route is wielded while ensuring maximum coverage of the POIs in space. In this project, we introduce two algorithms for solving the inspection problem exactly and optimally, denoted ILP-IPA and DP-IPA [6]. 444 RANGE METHODS We conceptualize inspection planning as a graph problem, modeling a robot’s motion plan as a closed walk in an edge-weighted graph. In this configuration, POIs are represented as color sets associated with vertices, and the goal is a walk that minimizes transition costs while maximizing the number of inspected POIs. Building on IRIS-CLI [2], which iteratively constructs a rapidly-exploring random graph (RRG) to represent robot configurations, with vertices labeled by inspectable POIs and edges weighted by transition costs, we enhance the computation of the inspection path by applying fixed-parameter tractability (FPT) [3] within a dynamic programming approach (DP), solving efficiently in both memory and space. Additionally, we propose a novel Integer Linear Programming (ILP) formulation inspired by flowbased techniques for optimization [4]. To manage the exponential complexity of large instances, we employ two graph simplification strategies: color reduction and walk merging. In color reduction, a greedy maxdispersion algorithm [5] selects a smaller, diverse subset of representative POIs, reducing computational demands while preserving problem diversity. 445 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Walk merging then addresses smaller, color-reduced subproblems, integrating the resulting paths into a single, coherent route to minimize overlaps and redundancies. These strategies enable our approach to scale effectively, maintaining high coverage and optimality while achieving practical efficiency for realworld applications. Figure 1. Performance of IRIS-CLI, ILP-IPA and DP-IPA on CRISP and DRONE datasets. RESULTS To assess the practicality of our proposed algorithms, 446 RANGE we ran extensive experiments on two real-world representative instances, CRISP and DRONE, originating from a pleural cavity inspection scenario and a bridge inspection plan, respectively. In terms of efficiency, ILP-IPA achieved a 30% reduction in path weight while maintaining or improving coverage compared to IRIS-CLI and provided solutions that inspected all POIs with only 16% more weight. In terms of coverage, DP-IPA outperformed IRIS-CLI, achieving 68% coverage compared to IRIS-CLI’s 64%, while also reducing path weight by more than 50%. ILP-IPA showed significant improvements in smaller instances, delivering higher coverage with lighter solutions. For larger graphs, DP-IPA outperformed IRIS-CLI with lower solution weights and strong coverage, remaining effective even when ILP-IPA timed out. While ILP-IPA excels in smaller instances with optimal, high-coverage solutions, it struggles with larger graphs due to complexity. Together, DPIPA and ILP-IPA provide complementary strengths for different problem sizes, making them practical solvers for real-world inspection tasks. CONCLUSION In this project, we introduced two algorithms, ILPIPA and DP-IPA, to address the computationally 447 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH intensive problem of robotic inspection planning, leveraging fixed-parameter tractability and simplifications such as POI reduction and walk merging. These strategies enabled our algorithms to outperform the state-of-the-art IRIS-CLI, with ILPIPA excelling in smaller instances with higher coverage and lower path weights, and DP-IPA demonstrating robust scalability for larger graphs. The integration of POI reduction techniques proved critical for improving efficiency while maintaining significant coverage. Our future work will focus on deploying these algorithms on prototype robots, exploring advanced reduction methods, and further research on novel algorithms for tackling robotics motion problems. BIBLIOGRAPHY Halperin, D., Salzman, O., Sharir, M.: Algorithmic Motion Planning. In: Handbook of Discrete and Computational Geometry. Chapman and Hall/CRC, 3rd edn. (2017). Fu, M., Salzman, O., Alterovitz, R.: Computationallyefficient roadmap-based inspection planning via incremental lazy search. In: 2021 IEEE International 448 RANGE Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), pp. 7449–7456. IEEE (2021). Fomin, F.V., Golovach, P.A., Korhonen, T., Simonov, K., Stamoulis, G.: Fixed-Parameter Tractability of Maximum Colored Path and Beyond. In: Proceedings of the 2023 Annual ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms (SODA), pp. 3700–3712. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (Jan 2023). Cohen, N.: Several Graph Problems and Their Linear Program Formulations. Research Report, INRIA (2019). Gonzalez, T.F.: Clustering to Minimize the Maximum Intercluster Distance. Theoretical Computer Science 38, 293–306 (1985). Mizutani, Y., Salomao, D.C., Crane, A., Bentert, M., Grønås Drange, P., Reidl, F., Kuntz, A., Sullivan, B.D.: Leveraging Fixed Parameter Tractability for Robot Inspection Planning. In: The 16th International Workshop on the Algorithmic Foundations of Robotics (WAFR) (2024). 449 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 18 Research Reflection by Daniel Coimbra Salomao DANIEL COIMBRA SALOMAO Faculty Mentor: Blair D. Sullivan (School of Computing, University of Utah) My undergraduate research experience was great, particularly, offering me the chance to actively engage in research and connect with the broader academic community as an undergraduate. 450 Through the RANGE collaboration with researchers from different institutions and our research lab, Theory in Practice, I gained valuable skills in algorithms, advanced topics in inspection planning and robotics, research methodologies, and presenting my work to diverse audiences, including through posters and conferences. Presenting my poster at the undergraduate research symposium and having my first paper published at WAFR were especially meaningful milestones, paving the way for future work and deepening my interest in researching in computing. These experiences really concretized my passion for research and inspired me to pursue graduate school, where I hope to build on this foundation. Working with such a collaborative and supportive team not only strengthened my technical and research skills but also highlighted the importance of teamwork in achieving impactful results. 451 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 19 Quantification and Characterization of Microplastics in Biosolids and Soils Across the Wasatch Front ASPEN DALBY AND JENNIFER WEIDHAAS Faculty Mentor: Jennifer Weidhaas (Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Microplastics (MPs) are present in biosolids and soils where biosolids are applied, raising concerns about their 452 RANGE potential accumulation and impact on soil health. This study quantifies microplastic levels in biosolids and agricultural soils in the Wasatch Front Region to better understand their abundance, types, and implications. MPs were isolated using chemical and physical separation techniques, microscopy, and composition using visually further identified analyzed Fourier through for chemical Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), with a self-generated reference library and external literature for verification. Results show that biosolids contained 32 to 43 MPs per gram, while biosolid-amended soils had 20 to 28 MPs per gram. In comparison, control soils, where biosolids were not applied, contained 8 MPs per gram, suggesting previous presence of MPs. Based on these findings, it is estimated that 9.4 × 10⁸ MPs could be introduced into agricultural soils over a five-year period through biosolid application based on a biosolids application report for a treatment plant in the Wasatch Front [1]. MPs affect plant growth, enzyme activity, and soil health by altering microbial diversity, soil structure, and nutrient cycles [2]. Plants can uptake MPs through root absorption, leaf adsorption, or water uptake, potentially leading to bioaccumulation in edible crops and posing risks to human health [3]. This underscores the need for 453 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ongoing monitoring and research of MPs in biosolids and soils to guide sustainable land management practices in the Wasatch Front region. 1. INTRODUCTION Plastic waste remains a significant global concern and is expected to continue increasing. Projections indicate that plastic waste could nearly double between 2020 and 2050, even with improved recycling initiatives [4]. Plastic pollution in the natural and built environment is alarming, and it is important to consider the extent to which this poses a risk for humans and ecosystems. Plastic waste can degrade into small pieces through biological processes or abiotic factors like ultraviolet radiation or mechanical stress [5]. This degradation creates a category of particles called microplastics (MPs). MPs range in size from roughly 1 to <1000 micrometers that can break into smaller categories like nanoplastics (1 to <1000 nanometers) [6], and are sourced from various entities such as single-use plastics, manufactured products, household items, and automotives [7]. Imagine your daily routine and think about how many times you encounter plastic products from the moment you wake up to when you go to sleep. They are arguably an integral part of our world. MPs can be 454 RANGE further set apart by physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, which all play a role in MPs’ environmental fate and transport [8]. Similar to plastics, wastewater originates from multiple sources, including domestic activities (e.g., toilet flushing), industrial processes (e.g., manufacturing), and runoff, all of which contribute to wastewater entering treatment plants. Wastewater contains elements like microorganisms, biodegradable organic materials, metals and inorganic materials [9]. Additionally, MPs can enter the wastewater system. For example, polyethylene microbeads, commonly found in hygiene products, are estimated to release approximately 260 tonnes of microbeads annually in the United States (2.6 × 10⁸ grams) and 450 tonnes per year in the European Union (4.5 × 10⁸ grams). The actual quantities may be higher, as some MPs are retained during various stages of the wastewater treatment process [10]. It is shown that MP retention during treatment can be high, with secondary treatment systems retaining between 83.0% and 98.4% of MPs, and primary and tertiary treatments achieving up to 99.9% retention in some cases [10]. Most MPs end up in the solid byproducts of wastewater treatment, with 2% exiting via the effluent. About 4% are detected in the sludge, and the remaining 94% may 455 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH be present in the sludge but go undetected due to limitations in current analytical methods [11]. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) looks at a term called contaminates of emerging concern (CECs) to describe an environmental pollutant that is not currently routinely monitored but has reason to be considered for routine monitoring and may pose a concern to the health of humans and the environment [12]. MPs fit into this category, which emphasizes the importance of understanding and monitoring their different pathways. Being able to categorize and track MPs is key for assessing public health implications. While methods for characterizing and quantifying MPs vary, identifying where they exist and how they move remains essential. An area of the natural environment that MPs can enter is soils. Agricultural soils are especially at risk of microplastic contamination because crops require nutrients for growth, often provided by natural fertilizers like sewage sludge, called biosolids. Across the Wasatch Front region in Utah, hundreds of tons of biosolids are applied per year according to a local report [1]. They are delivered to a biosolids staging area (Figure 1) and then spread across pastures as needed (Figure 2). 456 RANGE Figure 1. Biosolids staging area 457 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2.. Biosolids applied to an agricultural field Biosolids are known to have a concentration of MPs as a byproduct of the wastewater treatment process that cannot completely eliminate MPs yet [13]. This raises the question about how microplastic concentrations vary in biosolids and the extent to which they impact soil health. To explore the relationship between MPs and soil health, one study exposed soils growing rye grass to three different types of MPs. One key finding 458 RANGE showed a 7 percent reduction in seed germination compared to a control when soils growing rye grass were exposed to microplastic clothing fibers [14]. Though this study is limited in the types of MPs and soil environments analyzed, it highlights precisely why it is crucial to quantify and understand the concentration of MPs in soils and agricultural products like biosolids. Limitations in quantifying MPs arise due to the variability in plastic types from sample to sample. As a result, physical and chemical techniques are often combined when identifying MPs. Physical methods include microscopy for visually quantifying MPs. Chemical methods can be destructive or nondestructive to a sample and can reveal details about the chemical structure of MPs. Raman spectroscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) are two non-destructive chemical techniques that use light and the electromagnetic spectrum to reveal material properties [15]. The choice between these methods often depends on particle size and the balance between time and labor. The objective of this study is to better understand the mass of MPs present in biosolids from wastewater treatment plants and in agricultural fields across the Wasatch Front Region, where biosolids have been 459 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH historically applied. Given the region’s use of biosolids in agriculture, this research aims to assess the amount and types of MPs, offering valuable insights for future studies on their potential impact on soil health. Previous studies have demonstrated that MPs are consistently present at various stages of the wastewater treatment process with biosolids containing 5 MPs per 5g of biosolids in Southern California [16]. A case study in the state of Washington highlighted the accumulation of MPs in soils, particularly in biosolidamended plots, where soil samples showed mean concentrations in the range of a few hundred MPs per kg (a few MPs per g), with the highest number observed in medium biosolid-amended soils (544 MPs/kg or 0.544 MPs/g) [17]. However, data on MPs in biosolids and soils along the Wasatch Front region, with its unique soil composition and environmental conditions, remain limited. This study investigates MP presence in regional biosolids and soils to aid understanding of longterm effects of MPs on soils and soil health. The findings will support sustainable biosolid management and inform policy decisions to mitigate microplastic contamination. 460 RANGE 2. METHODS 2.1 Microplastic Extraction and Digestion from biosolids, soils, and plant roots For a more efficient extraction of MPs from solids like biosolids and soils, it is recommended that organic matter (e.g., microbial cells) is separated via chemical digestion and physical separation using density gradient floatation [18]. For example, coupling digestion by 30% Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) at 70°C with a highdensity salt solution of Sodium Iodide (NaI) is an optimal combination for extracting small and high density MPs [18]. In this study, methods were adapted from Ruffell et al. [19] for the extraction of MPs from solid biowastes. The protocol employed Fenton’s Reagent, prepared by combining 50 mL of iron (II) sulfate, 50 mL of 30% hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), and 50 mL of deionized water. Ultrapure water, as specified in the original method, was replaced with deionized water due to availability constraints. Each trial involved the treatment of approximately 30 g of biosolids or soil. Soils were additionally pretreated by sieving through a #10 sieve prior to 461 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH digestion. To sustain the reaction, an additional 20 mL of reagent was introduced twice daily throughout the digestion period as described in the method. Complete digestion was achieved in approximately seven days for biosolid samples (Figure 3) and in approximately three to four days for agricultural soil samples, based on visual observations. As outlined in the original method, digestion was considered complete when organic matter had settled, turbidity was low, and no further bubbling was observed. At this stage, ~200 mL of deionized water was added to facilitate the degradation of residual H₂O₂. A control experiment was incorporated into the digestion and extraction process to provide a comparative reference for method performance. Known quantities of Polypropylene (PP) and Polyethylene (PE) at 0.1 g each were spiked into the control sample, which was processed using the same digestion and density gradient separation procedures applied to biosolid and soil samples. This allowed for an evaluation of the recovery efficiency of the extraction method. Additionally, a soil sample from a control field, 462 RANGE which had not been amended with biosolids, was subjected to the same digestion and density gradient separation procedures to examine potential preexisting microplastic contamination in the soil. Microscopy counts were performed to assess the presence of MPs in this control soil sample. Figure 3. Fenton’s digestion on biosolids over seven days 2.2 Density Gradient Separation Following digestion, the supernatant underwent first, a 463 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH density separation using deionized water. In contrast to the original Ruffell method, which employs a Sediment-Microplastic Isolation (SMI) unit, the initial density separation was conducted in a 1L beaker. The resulting supernatant was divided into two parts: one was subjected to vacuum filtration using a Mixed Ester Cellulose 0.45 µm filter (Figure 4), while the other was resuspended in a salt solution for further processing (Figure 5). Figure 4 .Vacuum Filtration Setup The original method specifies the use of sodium iodide (NaI) at a density of 1.8 g/cm³ for density separation. In this study, sodium chloride (NaCl) at a concentration 464 RANGE of 358 g/L (1.19 g/cm³) was selected instead. Among various tested solutions— NaCl (358 g/L, 1.19 g/cm³), NaBr (905 g/L, 1.53 g/cm³), and sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP, added until saturation, yielding 1.30 g/cm³)— NaBr yielded the highest recovery rates for conventional plastics. However, NaCl demonstrated sufficient efficacy in recovering PP and PE [20], aligning with the control materials used in this study. Figure 5. Density Separation using 358g/L NaCl Following the second density 465 separation, the OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH supernatant was subjected to vacuum filtration, yielding a second filter. Additionally, the settled solids from the initial digestion were resuspended in 100 mL of 358 g/L, to assess potential microplastic recovery, representing a deviation from the original method. This step generated a third filter, and all three filters were then analyzed. 2.3 Control and QA/QC A control experiment was conducted alongside biosolids and biosolid-amended soils, using the same reagents, and spiked with known quantities of MPs, as described in the original method (Figure 6). A review of 65 studies on MPs in biosolids identified PP, PE, and polyamide/ nylon as the most commonly detected polymers [21]. While the original method recommends spiking the control with 1× reference fragments (500–1000 µm) of PET, PVC, HIPS, PP, ABS, HDPE, and PA, along with 10× PE microbeads and 10× PMMA fibers, the present study utilized 0.10 g of PP and 0.10 g of PE (32 mesh), sourced from Magerial Science. These polymers were selected based on their prevalence in the reviewed literature and their availability, with the full range of plastics not being feasible to source. To assess the presence of pre-existing microplastic contamination in soils receiving biosolids, a control field 466 RANGE not amended with biosolids was included in the study. This control field underwent the same digestion and density gradient separation procedures as the biosolidamended samples to evaluate any potential microplastic contamination before the application of biosolids. Figure 6. Control spiked with equal parts 32 mesh PP and PE 467 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Quality assurance and control were maintained by minimizing the use of plastic laboratory equipment, opting for glassware to reduce the risk of plastic contamination. Gloves were changed as needed, and work surfaces were thoroughly cleaned to prevent contamination. Beakers were properly cleaned before each trial using a diluted Micro-90 solution to reduce dust contamination. Special attention was given when handling filters, ensuring they were directly transferred from the sterile covering into the filtration device via clean tweezers to prevent any potential contamination during the filtration process. Microscopy counts were carried out using an AmScope SM-1 Series Zoom Binocular Stereo Microscope (7X–45X magnification) equipped with a 5 MP USB 2.0 C-mount camera on a track stand. At 45X magnification, the filter was divided into two sections, and half was analyzed for microplastic content. Particles exhibiting irregular shapes and diverse colors, as well as any material with characteristics indicative of plastic, were documented and counted. The observed counts were then doubled to estimate the total count for the entire filter. These values were subsequently adjusted based on the recovery efficiency determined from the control sample (see Appendix I). 468 RANGE 2.5 FTIR-ATR analysis For biosolid samples, select suspected microplastic particles were further analyzed using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) with a Nicolet iS50 FTIR spectrometer fitted with a single-bounce Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) crystal. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy was chosen due to its strong correlation coefficients (r > 0.90) across multiple polymer types, providing reliable identification of MPs in biosolids [22]. Initially, the entire filter containing the suspected plastics was scanned, and a manual subtraction of the filter background was attempted. However, this approach resulted in unreadable spectra. Consequently, an alternative method was employed: suspected microplastic particles, barely visible to the naked eye, were carefully extracted from the filter using tweezers and placed directly on the ATR crystal for scanning. This approach presented challenges, including potential contamination from ambient dust and difficulty isolating plastic particles without unintentionally collecting adhered materials. As a result, while the obtained spectra were more interpretable, contamination remains a source of error in the analysis. 469 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 7. Reference FTIR library To facilitate polymer identification, known plastic samples were collected from a local recycling center, including Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), High- density polyethylene (HDPE), PP, and PE. Additionally, 32-mesh PP and PE used as control spikes in the study were analyzed via ATR-FTIR. The resulting spectra were compiled into a reference library for comparative analysis (Figure 7) against the unknown MPs identified in biosolid and biosolid-amended samples. 470 RANGE 3. RESULTS Visual counts of MPs in biosolid samples yielded the following results: Biosolids Trial 1 had 43 MPs per gram of biosolid, and Biosolids Trial 2 had 32 MPs per gram of biosolid (Table 1). In biosolid- amended soils, the microplastic counts were lower, with 20 MPs per gram of biosolid-amended soil in one sample from May 2024 and 28 MPs per gram in another sample from June 2024 (Table 2). In a control field where biosolids were not applied, 8 MPs per gram of soil were counted (Table 2), suggesting the presence of MPs from other anthropogenic sources. Table 1. Summarized MPs Counts in Biosolids Sample Type MPs Count in Biosolids Biosolids Trial 1 43 per gram of biosolid Biosolids Trial 2 32 per gram of biosolid Table 2. Summarized MPs Counts in Biosolid – Amended Soils 471 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH MPs Count in Biosolid-Amended Soils Sample Type BiosolidAmended Soils from May 2024 20 per gram of biosolidamended soil BiosolidAmended Soils from June 2024 28 per gram of biosolidamended soil Control Soil from a Field Where 8 per gram of soil Biosolids Were Not Applied Visually identified MPs were categorized into fragments, films, foams, fibers, and pellets, as these were the most commonly observed shapes across both biosolids and biosolid-amended soils (Figure 8). The categories of the MPs were selected based on shape and morphology, rather than size, as this approach is consistent with the recommendations of Lusher et al. [23]. Their study suggested dividing MPs into three core morphological groups: bead, fiber, and fragment, 472 RANGE with film and foam grouped under the fragment category. Figure 8. Categorized MPs from biosolids and biosolidamended soils Potential sources of error in microplastic counts include misinterpretation of materials or contamination from sources not degraded by Fenton’s Reagent. In biosolidamended soils, a large volume of opaque fibrous material was observed, raising concerns about the accuracy of MP counts. To investigate whether these materials were plant matter, plant roots from soil samples collected on the university campus in the Wasatch Front were subjected to the digestion and density separation process. Minimal degradation was observed during digestion, and the roots were documented at the end of 473 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the process (Figure 9). This suggests that plant roots and other plant matter may influence microplastic counts in biosolid-amended soils. The MP counts in biosolidamended soils were redone, ensuring the exclusion of materials resembling plant matter. These materials, which appeared more opaque compared to the brighter white or clear fibers, were likely plant material rather than plastic particles (Figure 10). This was further confirmed through ATR-FTIR scans (see Appendix III). Figure 9. Known plant roots post-digestion and density separation 474 RANGE Figure 10. Comparison of suspected plant root contamination and suspected fibrous plastics ATR FT-IR analysis was conducted as described previously. Due to the scope of this study, it was not feasible to analyze every suspected microplastic. Therefore, a few samples were selected for analysis. One sample, a prominent green suspected microplastic from Biosolids Trial 1 (Figure 11), was scanned. The results did not show distinct similarities to reference spectra (Figure 12), prompting further investigation. 475 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 11. Suspected Microplastic from Biosolids Trial 1 Among the 20 studies reviewed in the work by Xu et al. [24], which examined FTIR and Raman imaging for MPs analysis, some utilized characteristic peaks of functional groups to interpret their data. These studies identified common vibrational bands, including C-H stretching (2980–2780 cm⁻¹), C=O stretching (1760–1670 cm⁻¹), and C-H deformation (1480–1400 cm⁻¹), which are characteristic of organic matter. The removal of organic compounds via Fenton’s reagent suggests that any remaining C- H bonds may indicate the presence of synthetic materials rather than 476 RANGE natural organics. In this study, spectral features observed in the 2500–3000 cm⁻¹ region (Figure 12) are interpreted as potential C-H stretching vibrations, which could suggest the presence of synthetic materials. However, this observation remains inconclusive, and further research is required to confirm the nature of the MPs observed, and identify which types of plastic predominate in the counts. Figure 12. FTIR scan of suspected plastic from Biosolids Trial 1 with suspected C-H stretching in the 2500-3000 cm^-1 region 477 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 4. DISCUSSION A review of 65 studies reporting microplastic concentrations in sludge and biosolids found significant variation, with mean concentrations ranging from 0.193 MPs/gram to 1.69 × 10⁵ MPs/g and a median concentration of 22.4 MPs/ g. These discrepancies have been attributed to differences in extraction and quantification methods, highlighting methodological inconsistencies that complicate direct comparisons [21]. Similarly, there is recognition of variability in the visual counts presented in this study. There remains a possibility of misidentification, where particles resembling MPs may have been incorrectly categorized as such. Grid lines on the filters were followed to guide counts, but potential sources of error include double counting and uncertainty introduced by assuming the opposite side of the filter contained the same number of MPs as the counted side. Despite these uncertainties, the measured mean concentration of MPs in biosolids was 37.5 MPs/g, which, considering the observed variability, may fall within a reasonable range. However, this finding 478 RANGE contrasts with a study conducted in Southern California introduced earlier, where only 5 MPs per 5 grams of biosolids were reported on average [16]. This suggests that regional differences may influence the levels of MPs retained in biosolids. Another source of variability arose in the control trials. The control exhibited substantial inconsistency in the amount retained (see Appendix I). Spiked MPs demonstrated a tendency to accumulate along the edges of the glass containers and displayed strong adhesive properties during the removal of the supernatant. To mitigate this issue, pipetting was employed to enhance the transfer efficiency. Additionally, deionized (DI) water was used to dislodge particles adhering to the top of the filtration unit. Despite these efforts, each trial resulted in a variable adjustment factor, affecting the overall counts. In order to improve the accuracy of counts and reduce variability, if this experiment were to be repeated with additional resources, future work would focus on refining microplastic counting 479 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and identification methodologies. Beyond the variability observed in particle counting, the most accurate FTIR scans were obtained by manually picking suspected MPs off the filter. However, this approach is not recommended due to the small size of the particles, which increases the risk of sample loss or contamination. Jia-yu Lin et al. [25] propose leveraging machine learning (ML) and advanced computational techniques to enhance microplastic identification. Specifically, their recommendations include improving ML algorithms, developing a comprehensive database of microplastic structural characteristics for model training, and integrating ML with conventional methods such as image analysis. These advancements have the potential to enhance both the physical and chemical characterization of MPs, thereby improving detection accuracy and efficiency. Previous studies have shown that microplastic concentrations in biosolid-amended soils vary, with some fields exhibiting increased microplastic levels following biosolid application. However, these studies also indicate 480 RANGE that soils often contain pre-existing microplastic contamination prior to biosolid- amendment [26]. In this study, microplastic concentrations were measured at 20 and 28 MPs per gram in biosolid-amended soils, while the control soil contained 8 MPs per gram. These findings support the notion that MPs are often present in soil before biosolid application and suggest that both pre-existing contamination and biosolid amendments may contribute to observed microplastic levels. The earlier Washington case study revealed a microplastic concentration of 0.544 MP/g in biosolid-amended soils [17], notably lower than the average concentration of 24 MP/g found in the biosolid-amended soils of the current study. While this difference could suggest overcounting or other sources of error, it may also indicate that the microplastic concentrations in the soils measured in this study are indeed higher, potentially due to sitespecific factors or methodological differences. The Washington study also reported a higher concentration in the biosolids themselves (12,200 MPs/kg, or 12.2 MPs/g) [17], which 481 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH aligns with the current study’s findings, where the mean MP concentration in biosolids (37.5 MPs/g) was higher than the mean MP concentration in the biosolid-amended soils (24 MPs/g). The presence of MPs in control soils raises questions about their anthropogenic sources. MPs in agricultural soils can originate from a variety of human activities, including farming practices, irrigation, and airborne particles. These MPs break down through processes such as sunlight exposure and mechanical wear, and can move through the soil, influenced by soil type and farming activities [27]. Another potential source is fibers released from washing machines. A study estimated that a typical 6 kg load of synthetic materials could release between 137,951 and 728,789 fibers per wash, depending on the material type [28]. This study also relays that fibers have been reported in effluent from sewage treatment plants, which could enter runoff and ultimately reach agricultural fields or aquatic habitats. Given the widespread presence of MPs in both 482 RANGE biosolids and soils in various studies globally, as well as my own observations along the Wasatch Front, this raises questions about whether the benefits of biosolid application outweigh its drawbacks or if limitations should be considered. Biosolids have notable benefits, including their contribution to renewable energy production, such as biogas, and their use in civil engineering applications like landfill capping and construction materials. Furthermore, their land application provides economic and waste management advantages, such as conserving landfill space, reducing the demand for non-renewable resources like phosphorus, and decreasing reliance on synthetic fertilizers [29]. However, perspectives on their use vary. One author argues that the harm caused by MPs in biosolids outweighs the benefits of their current use in agriculture. They propose a global mandate to incorporate at least 7% biosolids into the production of clay bricks, which would help mitigate environmental damage, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and prevent further contamination of agricultural soils [30]. Another 483 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH study believes that there should be more investigation into the sources and movement of MPs in agricultural soils, suggesting that while biosolids may contribute to soil contamination, other factors such as the use of plastic materials in farming (e.g., plastic films, irrigation pipes) and MPs deposited from the atmosphere also play significant roles in the overall microplastic load [31]. These varying perspectives highlight the complexity of managing biosolid applications in agriculture. In conclusion, this study contributes important data by confirming the presence of MPs in both biosolids and soils within the Wasatch Front region, thereby establishing a foundational database for future research. The findings underscore the need for further investigation into the extent of microplastic contamination and the potential implications for environmental and public health along the Wasatch Front. With this knowledge, it is crucial to consider the possibility of more stringent regulations regarding microplastic management and to recognize the pervasive presence of MPs in our ecosystems. 484 RANGE 5. CONCLUSION Overall, MPs are a persistent environmental issue that should be monitored in both wastewater and soils across the Wasatch Front. From a local report, biosolidamended soils are applied at a rate of 7.8 tons per acre per year [1]. Using the average value of the biosolidamended soils microplastic counts (Table 2), it is evident that approximately 9.4 x 108 MPs will be introduced into agricultural soils over 5 years. (see Appendix IV). Biosolids that are sold as fertilizer to consumers may also contain MPs, which can accumulate in gardens. This local study is crucial for understanding impacts of microplastics in the Wasatch front region and supporting informed management and policy decisions. 6. APPENDICES Appendix I: Recovery Efficiency Adjustments for Control Sample This section outlines the control mass balance equation and provides an example calculation for the biosolids trial, along with adjusted microplastic (MP) counts for various samples. Control Mass Balance Equation: 485 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Mass of spiked PP and PE − ((Mass of retained MPs + Filter weight) − Filter weight) = Amount of MPs retained in the control Example Calculation for Biosolids Trial 2: • Mass of PP: 0.10 g Mass of PE: 0.10 g • Mass of Filter: 0.079 g • Mass of retained MPs + Filter weight: 0.173g 0.20⯑ − (0.173 − 0.079)⯑ = 0.106⯑ Table 3: MP counts adjusted 486 RANGE Percentage Retained Ori Co from Control (MP Sample Type Biosolids Trial 1 7% 3 Biosolids Trial 2 75% 24 Biosolid-Amended Soils from May 2024 85% 17 Biosolid-Amended Soils from June 2024 80% 22 90% 7 Control Soil from Field where Biosolids were not Applied Appendix II: Additional Microplastics FTIR Scans This appendix includes FTIR scan data for additional microplastic samples, displaying the image of suspected plastics followed by the corresponding spectral graph. 487 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 13. Suspected fibrous plastics from Biosolids Trial 1 488 RANGE Figure 14. FTIR scan of one suspected fibrous plastic from Biosolids Trial 1 with suspected C- H stretching 2500-3000 cm^-1 region Figure 15. Suspected fragment from Biosolids Trial 1 489 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 16. FTIR scan of suspected fragment from Biosolids Trial 1 with suspected C-H stretching 2500-3000 cm^-1 region Appendix III: FTIR Root Scans This appendix presents FTIR root scan data, featuring both the FTIR spectral graphs and corresponding images of plant roots. These figures provide insight into how plant root contamination was identified in biosolid-amended soils. 490 RANGE Figure 17. Plant roots sourced from university campus soil 491 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 18. An isolated plant root from plant roots sourced from university campus soil with a broad peak between 3000-4000 cm-1 492 RANGE Figure 19. Suspected root in May 2024 Biosolid-Amended Soils Figure 20. FTIR scan of a suspected root in May 2024 biosolid-amended soils, showing a broad peak in the 3000-4000 cm⁻¹ region, similar to the spectral pattern of an individual root scanned pre and post-digestion and density separation. 493 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 21. Individual root post-digestion and density separation 494 RANGE Figure 22. Individual root post digestion and density separation with a broad peak in the 3000- 4000cm-1region. Appendix IV: Total MPs Applied to Agricultural Soils Over Five Years in the Wasatch Front This appendix estimates the total MPs added to agricultural soils in the Wasatch Front region over five years. With 7.8 tons of biosolids applied per acre annually [1], the following analysis quantifies the associated MP deposition. 495 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express sincere gratitude to Dr. Jennifer Weidhaas for her mentorship and for providing this opportunity, as well as to the University of Utah Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering for their support. This project was funded by the University of Utah Office of Undergraduate Research, with additional financial support from the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. REFERENCES 1. Adhikari K, Pearce CI, Sanguinet KA, Bary AI, Chowdhury I, Eggleston I, Xing B, Flury M. Accumulation of microplastics in soil after long-term application of biosolids and atmospheric deposition. Science of The Total Environment. 2024;912:168883. doi:10.1016/ 496 RANGE j.scitotenv.2023.168883 2. Andrady AL. The plastic in microplastics: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2017;119(1):12–22. doi:10.1016/ j.marpolbul.2017.01.082 3. Biosolids report from a water treatment facility in the Wasatch Front, 2019-2024. 4. Boots B, Russell CW, Green DS. Effects of Microplastics in Soil Ecosystems: Above and Below Ground. Environmental Science & Technology. 2019;53(19):11496–11506. doi:10.1021/acs.est.9b03304 5. Carr SA, Liu J, Tesoro AG. Transport and fate of microplastic particles in wastewater treatment plants. Water Research. 2016;91:174–182. doi:10.1016/ j.watres.2016.01.002 6. Circelli L, Cheng Z, Garwood E, Yuksel K, Di Iorio E, Angelico R, Colombo C. Comparison of ATR-FTIR and NIR spectroscopy for identification of microplastics in biosolids. Science of The Total Environment. 2024;916:170215. doi:10.1016/ j.scitotenv.2024.170215 497 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 7. Crossman J, Hurley RR, Futter M, Nizzetto L. Transfer and transport of microplastics from biosolids to agricultural soils and the wider environment. Science of The Total Environment. 2020;724:138334. doi:10.1016/ j.scitotenv.2020.138334 8. Dey TK, Uddin MdE, Jamal M. Detection and removal of microplastics in wastewater: evolution and impact. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2021;28(14):16925–16947. doi:10.1007/ s11356-021-12943-5 9. Dokl M, Copot A, Krajnc D, Fan YV, Vujanović A, Aviso KB, Tan RR, Kravanja Z, Čuček L. Global projections of plastic use, end-of-life fate and potential changes in consumption, reduction, recycling and replacement with bioplastics to 2050. Sustainable Production and Consumption. 2024;51:498–518. doi:10.1016/ j.spc.2024.09.025 10. Elgarahy AM, Eloffy MG, Priya AK, Yogeshwaran V, Yang Z, Elwakeel KZ, Lopez-Maldonado EA. Biosolids management and utilizations: A review. Journal of Cleaner 498 RANGE Production. 2024;451:141974. doi:10.1016/ j.jclepro.2024.141974 11. Harley-Nyang D, Memon FA, Osorio Baquero A, Galloway T. Variation in microplastic concentration, characteristics and distribution in sewage sludge & biosolids around the world. Science of The Total Environment. 2023;891:164068. doi:10.1016/ j.scitotenv.2023.164068 12. Hartmann NB, Hüffer T, Thompson RC, Hassellöv M, Verschoor A, Daugaard AE, Rist S, Karlsson T, Brennholt N, Cole M, et al. Are We Speaking the Same Language? Recommendations for a Definition and Categorization Framework for Plastic Debris. Environmental Science & Technology. 2019;53(3):1039–1047. doi:10.1021/ acs.est.8b05297 13. Henze M, Van Loosdrecht MCM, Ekama GA, Brdjanovic D. Biological Wastewater Treatment: Principles, Modelling and Design. IWA Publishing; 2008 [accessed 2025 Apr 10]. http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book/59/ Biological-Wastewater-Treatment-Principles. doi:10.2166/9781780401867 499 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 14. Koutnik VS, Alkidim S, Leonard J, DePrima F, Cao S, Hoek EMV, Mohanty SK. Unaccounted Microplastics in Wastewater Sludge: Where Do They Go? ACS ES&T Water. 2021;1(5):1086–1097. doi:10.1021/ acsestwater.0c00267 15. Li Q, Wu J, Zhao X, Gu X, Ji R. Separation and identification of microplastics from soil and sewage sludge. Environmental Pollution. 2019;254:113076. doi:10.1016/ j.envpol.2019.113076 16. Lin J, Liu H, Zhang J. Recent advances in the application of machine learning methods to improve identification of the microplastics in environment. Chemosphere. 2022;307:136092. doi:10.1016/ j.chemosphere.2022.136092 17. Lusher AL, Bråte ILN, Munno K, Hurley RR, Welden NA. Is It or Isn’t It: The Importance of Visual Classification in Microplastic Characterization. Applied Spectroscopy. 2020;74(9):1139–1153. doi:10.1177/ 0003702820930733 18. Mohajerani A, Karabatak B. Microplastics and pollutants in biosolids have contaminated 500 RANGE agricultural soils: An analytical study and a proposal to cease the use of biosolids in farmlands and utilise them in sustainable bricks. Waste Management. 2020;107:252–265. doi:10.1016/ j.wasman.2020.04.021 19. Napper IE, Thompson RC. Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing conditions. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2016;112(1–2):39–45. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.09.025 20. Prata JC. Microplastics in wastewater: State of the knowledge on sources, fate and solutions. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2018;129(1):262–265. doi:10.1016/ j.marpolbul.2018.02.046 21. Radford F, Horton A, Hudson M, Shaw P, Williams I. Agricultural soils and microplastics: Are biosolids the problem? Frontiers in Soil Science. 2023;2:941837. doi:10.3389/fsoil.2022.941837 22. Rochman CM, Brookson C, Bikker J, Djuric N, Earn A, Bucci K, Athey S, Huntington A, McIlwraith H, Munno K, et al. Rethinking 501 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH microplastics as a diverse contaminant suite. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 2019;38(4):703–711. doi:10.1002/etc.4371 23. Ruffell H, Pantos O, Robinson B, Gaw S. A method for the extraction of microplastics from solid biowastes including biosolids, compost, and soil for analysis by µ-FTIR. MethodsX. 2024;12:102761. doi:10.1016/ j.mex.2024.102761 24. SAB Advisory on Aquatic LifeWater Quality Criteria for Contaminates of Emerging Concern. 2008. https://www.epa.gov/sites/ default/files/2015-08/documents/ sab_advisory_on_aquatic_life_wqc_for_conta minants_of_emerging_concern.pdf 25. Schütze B, Thomas D, Kraft M, Brunotte J, Kreuzig R. Comparison of different salt solutions for density separation of conventional and biodegradable microplastic from solid sample matrices. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2022;29(54):81452–81467. doi:10.1007/ s11356-022-21474-6 26. Tariq M, Iqbal B, Khan I, Khan AR, Jho EH, Salam A, Zhou H, Zhao X, Li G, Du D. 502 RANGE Microplastic contamination in the agricultural soil—mitigation strategies, heavy metals contamination, and impact on human health: a review. Plant Cell Reports. 2024;43(3):65. doi:10.1007/s00299-024-03162-6 27. Tian L, Jinjin C, Ji R, Ma Y, Yu X. Microplastics in agricultural soils: sources, effects, and their fate. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health. 2022;25:100311. doi:10.1016/ j.coesh.2021.100311 28. Wael H, Vanessa EB, Mantoura N, Antonios DE. Tiny pollutants, big consequences: investigating the influence of nano- and microplastics on soil properties and plant health with mitigation strategies. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts. 2025:10.1039.D4EM00688G. doi:10.1039/ D4EM00688G 29. Xu J-L, Thomas KV, Luo Z, Gowen AA. FTIR and Raman imaging for microplastics analysis: State of the art, challenges and prospects. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2019;119:115629. doi:10.1016/ j.trac.2019.115629 503 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 30. Zhang K, Hamidian AH, Tubić A, Zhang Y, Fang JKH, Wu C, Lam PKS. Understanding plastic degradation and microplastic formation in the environment: A review. Environmental Pollution. 2021;274:116554. doi:10.1016/ j.envpol.2021.116554 Biosolids report from a water treatment facility in the Wasatch Front, 2019-2024. H. Wael, E. B. Vanessa, N. Mantoura, and D. E. Antonios, “Tiny pollutants, big consequences: investigating the influence of nano- and microplastics on soil properties and plant health with mitigation strategies,” Environ. 10.1039.D4EM00688G, Sci. Process. 2025, doi: Impacts, p. 10.1039/ D4EM00688G. M. Tariq et al., “Microplastic contamination in the agricultural soil—mitigation strategies, heavy metals contamination, and impact on human health: a review,” Plant Cell Rep., vol. 43, no. 3, p. 65, Mar. 2024, doi: 10.1007/s00299-024-03162-6. M. Dokl et al., “Global projections of plastic use, endof-life fate and potential changes in consumption, reduction, recycling and replacement with bioplastics to 504 RANGE 2050,” Sustain. Prod. Consum., vol. 51, pp. 498–518, Nov. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.spc.2024.09.025. K. Zhang et al., “Understanding plastic degradation and microplastic formation in the environment: A review,” Environ. Pollut., vol. 274, p. 116554, Apr. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116554. N. B. Hartmann et al., “Are We Speaking the Same Language? Recommendations for a Definition and Categorization Framework for Plastic Debris,” Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 1039–1047, Feb. 2019, doi: 10.1021/ acs.est.8b05297. C. M. Rochman et al., “Rethinking microplastics as a diverse contaminant suite,” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 703–711, Apr. 2019, doi: 10.1002/ etc.4371. A. L. Andrady, “The plastic in microplastics: A review,” Mar. Pollut. Bull., vol. 119, no. 1, pp. 12–22, Jun. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.082. M. Henze, M. C. M. Van Loosdrecht, G. A. Ekama, and D. Brdjanovic, Biological Wastewater Treatment: 505 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Principles, Modelling and Design. IWA Publishing, 2008. doi: 10.2166/9781780401867. J. C. Prata, “Microplastics in wastewater: State of the knowledge on sources, fate and solutions,” Mar. Pollut. Bull., vol. 129, no. 1, pp. 262–265, Apr. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.02.046. V. S. Koutnik et al., “Unaccounted Microplastics in Wastewater Sludge: Where Do They Go?,” ACS EST Water, vol. 1, no. 5, pp. 1086–1097, May 2021, doi: 10.1021/acsestwater.0c00267. SAB Advisory on Aquatic LifeWater Quality Criteria for Contaminates of Emerging Concern.” U.S. Envrionmental Protection Agency, Science Advisory Board, Dec. 18, 2008. [Online]. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015- Available: 08/ documents/ sab_advisory_on_aquatic_life_wqc_for_contaminants_o f_emerging_concern.pdf J. Crossman, R. R. Hurley, M. Futter, and L. Nizzetto, “Transfer and transport of microplastics from biosolids to agricultural soils and the wider environment,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 724, p. 138334, Jul. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138334. 506 RANGE B. Boots, C. W. Russell, and D. S. Green, “Effects of Microplastics in Soil Ecosystems: Above and Below Ground,” Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 53, no. 19, pp. 11496–11506, Oct. 2019, doi: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03304. T. K. Dey, Md. E. Uddin, and M. Jamal, “Detection and removal of microplastics in wastewater: evolution and impact,” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., vol. 28, no. 14, pp. 16925–16947, Apr. 2021, doi: 10.1007/ s11356-021-12943-5. S. A. Carr, J. Liu, and A. G. Tesoro, “Transport and fate of microplastic particles in wastewater treatment plants,” Water Res., vol. 91, pp. 174–182, Mar. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.01.002. K. Adhikari et al., “Accumulation of microplastics in soil after long-term application of biosolids and atmospheric deposition,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 912, p. 168883, Feb. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168883. Q. Li, J. Wu, X. Zhao, X. Gu, and R. Ji, “Separation and identification of microplastics from soil and sewage sludge,” Environ. Pollut., vol. 254, p. 113076, Nov. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113076. H. Ruffell, O. Pantos, B. Robinson, and S. Gaw, “A 507 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH method for the extraction of microplastics from solid biowastes including biosolids, compost, and soil for analysis by µ-FTIR,” MethodsX, vol. 12, p. 102761, Jun. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.mex.2024.102761. B. Schütze, D. Thomas, M. Kraft, J. Brunotte, and R. Kreuzig, “Comparison of different salt solutions for density separation of conventional and biodegradable microplastic from solid sample matrices,” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., vol. 29, no. 54, pp. 81452–81467, Nov. 2022, doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-21474-6. D. Harley-Nyang, F. A. Memon, A. Osorio Baquero, and T. Galloway, “Variation in microplastic concentration, characteristics and distribution in sewage sludge & biosolids around the world,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 891, p. 164068, Sep. 2023, doi: 10.1016/ j.scitotenv.2023.164068. L. Circelli et al., “Comparison of ATR-FTIR and NIR spectroscopy for identification of microplastics in biosolids,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 916, p. 170215, Mar. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170215. A. L. Lusher, I. L. N. Bråte, K. Munno, R. R. Hurley, and N. A. Welden, “Is It or Isn’t It: The Importance of 508 RANGE Visual Classification in Microplastic Characterization,” Appl. Spectrosc., vol. 74, no. 9, pp. 1139–1153, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.1177/ 0003702820930733. J.-L. Xu, K. V. Thomas, Z. Luo, and A. A. Gowen, “FTIR and Raman imaging for microplastics analysis: State of the art, challenges and prospects,” TrAC Trends Anal. Chem., vol. 119, p. 115629, Oct. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.trac.2019.115629. J. Lin, H. Liu, and J. Zhang, “Recent advances in the application of machine learning methods to improve identification of the microplastics in environment,” Chemosphere, vol. 307, p. 136092, Nov. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136092. J. Crossman, R. R. Hurley, M. Futter, and L. Nizzetto, “Transfer and transport of microplastics from biosolids to agricultural soils and the wider environment,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 724, p. 138334, Jul. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138334. L. Tian, C. Jinjin, R. Ji, Y. Ma, and X. Yu, “Microplastics in agricultural soils: sources, effects, and 509 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH their fate,” Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health, vol. 25, p. 100311, Feb. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.coesh.2021.100311. I. E. Napper and R. C. Thompson, “Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing conditions,” Mar. Pollut. Bull., vol. 112, no. 1–2, pp. 39–45, Nov. 2016, doi: 10.1016/ j.marpolbul.2016.09.025. A. M. Elgarahy et al., “Biosolids management and utilizations: A review,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 451, p. 141974, Apr. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.141974. A. Mohajerani and B. Karabatak, “Microplastics and pollutants in biosolids have contaminated agricultural soils: An analytical study and a proposal to cease the use of biosolids in farmlands and utilise them in sustainable bricks,” Waste Manag., vol. 107, pp. 252–265, Apr. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2020.04.021. F. Radford, A. Horton, M. Hudson, P. Shaw, and I. Williams, “Agricultural soils and microplastics: Are biosolids the problem?,” Front. Soil Sci., vol. 2, p. 941837, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.3389/fsoil.2022.941837. 510 RANGE 20 Research Reflection by Aspen Dalby ASPEN DALBY Faculty Mentor: Jennifer Weidhaas (Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Utah) My undergraduate research experience taught me to be accountable, creative, and comfortable with uncertainty. I really valued the collaboration with my mentor during our weekly meetings and enjoyed sharing updates with 511 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the lab group. I’ve built valuable skills both in and out of the lab, and gained a broader perspective on how engineering can be applied in diverse ways. While I don’t plan to go to grad school right now, I feel confident that when I choose that path, I’ll be prepared and ready to succeed. 512 RANGE 21 Identifying Drugs to Target Dysregulated Lipid Metabolism in Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Zebrafish JAMES HARRIS Faculty Mentor: Kimberley University of Utah) 513 Evason (Pathology, OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ABSTRACT Previous work has been done to try and understand the molecular pathways at play in primary liver cancer. Lipid metabolism has been documented as being dysregulated in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). It is hypothesized that the pathway activated by the CTNNB1 gene plays an important role in the development of HCC and that this pathway could be used as a therapeutic target. The purpose of this paper is to examine the potential therapeutic use of 5 molecules to target this pathway: bezafibrate, meclofenoxate, sphinganine, choline and CDP choline. In these experiments a transgenic zebrafish was used to model HCC in humans. In this model the zebrafish are found to have enlarged livers at 6 days post fertilization and fully developed HCC as adults. Zebrafish were treated with the potential therapeutics from 3 to 6 days post fertilization and their liver sizes were measured as a marker for HCC. Bezafibrate, meclofenoxate, and sphinganine were found to not have any effect on liver size. While at specific dosage levels choline and CDP choline were seen to have an effect. Future work is necessary to determine if these molecules could be used as a therapeutic in humans, but the work done here provides evidence that the altered lipid metabolism 514 RANGE pathways play an important role in the development of HCC-like changes in zebrafish. Index Terms—Wnt pathway, b-catenin, ceramides, phosphatidylcholine INTRODUCTION Liver cancer represents a significant health burden worldwide. In 2020 alone 905,700 new patients were diagnosed with, and approximately 830,000 people died from liver cancer [1]. Of those diagnosed with liver cancer around 80% develop what is known as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the most common type of primary liver cancer [2]. Understanding the different factors that lead to tumorigenesis in cancer patients is crucial to both treating and preventing cancer. One of the differences between normal healthy cells and cancerous HCC cells is the dysregulation of lipid metabolism. One potential gene driver of liver cancer is a mutation in the CTNNB1 gene that codes for the protein b-catenin. This mutation is found in more than 20% of patients with HCC [3]. Mutations in the b-catenin gene lead to changes in the lipid metabolism pathway associated with it. In particular, the lipid species phosphatidylcholine (PC) and ceramide lipids have been seen to be 515 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH dysregulated in HCC [4][5]. These changes could be responsible for the development of tumors in the liver. While the dysregulation of lipid metabolism in HCC is well documented, it is not yet fully understood what role lipid metabolism plays in tumorigenesis. To characterize which lipid synthesis and metabolism pathways are important in the dysregulated growth state of HCC, we examined what occurred when those pathways were inhibited using the drugs bezafibrate, meclofenoxate, sphinganine, choline and CDP choline in an activated b-catenin transgenic zebrafish line. Better understanding the role of the lipid metabolism pathway controlled by b-catenin could lead to the development of new therapeutic treatments. A better understanding of the cellular pathways that lead to tumorigenesis in the liver could improve patient outcomes. BACKGROUND A. HepatocellularCarcinoma Cancer is characterized by unregulated cell proliferation. In HCC, as in other kinds of cancer, the normal mechanisms to limit the proliferation of cells are damaged or otherwise altered allowing cells to replicate indefinitely. In serious cases, these rapidly growing cells 516 RANGE can begin to migrate and invade other tissues in the body, a condition known as metastasis. Rapidly dividing cells have a much greater metabolic and nutritional need than normal cells. These needs lead to angiogenesis, or the formation of new blood vessels, as well as altered metabolic pathways. Altering lipid metabolism is one of the ways that cancer cells, particularly those found in the liver in HCC, meet the increased metabolic needs associated with rapid cell division. B. Gene Expression For HCC to develop, the cell must be able to meet a higher metabolic need and be supplied with the raw materials and nutrients necessary for continued cell proliferation. HCC driven by beta-catenin is commonly reported to exhibit dysregulated lipid metabolism [4], [5], [6] which could provide for both of those needs. PC and ceramide lipids in particular are seen to be dysregulated in HCC. CTNNB1 mutations are observed in 20-40% of HCC patients on average [3]. CTNNB1 codes for the betacatenin protein involved in the Wnt pathway. When this gene becomes altered or damaged altered betacatenin proteins are produced that in some cases avoid degradation but remain able to bind to normal receptors. 517 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Such mutations drive cell proliferation even when the Wnt pathway would be otherwise disengaged. C. Signaling Pathway The Wnt signaling pathway has been identified as helping to regulate the activation and transcription of genes that control cell processes important not only in embryonic development but also in cancer [7]. The protein beta-catenin plays a crucial role in the function of this signaling pathway. The Wnt pathway relies on its ability to degrade cytoplasmic beta-catenin protein to control gene expression [7]. In the pathway’s activated state, Wnt binds to the Frizzled (Fz) or LPR5/6 receptor on the cell membrane. This deactivates the beta-catenin destruction complex allowing beta-catenin accumulation in the cytoplasm and translocation into the nucleus [7]. Once there, it binds to the lymphoid enhancer factor/T-cell factor (LEF/TCF), which leads to gene transcription. In its inactive state the Wnt ligand remains unbound to its Fz/LPR receptor which means the beta-catenin destruction complex remains active. This complex breaks down beta-catenin in the cytoplasm preventing it from translocating into the nucleus. LEF/TCF remains unbound, and gene transcription does not occur. Mutations in the proteins involved in the destruction complex or in the beta518 RANGE catenin itself can lead to the hyperactivation of betacatenin and the over-expression of those genes involved in cell proliferation. D. Zebrafish Model Certain characteristics of zebrafish make them a useful animal model from an experimental perspective. For example, drugs can be administered more uniformly across multiple specimens because drugs can simply be dissolved in the water in which the fish are maintained. Additionally, in the early stages of development zebrafish larvae are transparent allowing for easy observation of internal processes relevant to HCC. Aside from these experimental advantages, zebrafish are also an effective animal model from a biologic perspective. About 86% of 1318 human drug targets and 70% of all human genes were found to have at least one zebrafish orthologue [8] [9]. Their genetic similarity to humans makes zebrafish useful in modeling many different diseases including HCC. When the CTNNB1 gene that controls b-catenin expression is turned on, zebrafish specimens develop HCC that morphologically and genetically resembles human HCC [10]. This is critically important when trying to understand the molecular processes that control this disease. Activated b-catenin (ABC) fish begin to show markers of HCC 519 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH in early development allowing for relatively fast observation of the effects of certain biologic pathways on cancer development. Specifically, ABC fish exhibit enlarged liver sizes when compared to wild type (WT) fish at just 6 days post fertilization (dpf). This change in liver size can be used as a surrogate marker for studying HCC. These physical and genetic characteristics make a zebrafish animal model advantageous for studying human HCC. E. Potential Therapeutics Dysregulated PC and ceramide metabolism pathways are promising potential therapeutic targets for HCC treatment. To modulate the metabolism of PC and ceramides in the liver there are many molecules that could be used. Different molecules act on different parts of the lipid synthesis and metabolism processes in the cell. Bezafibrate inhibits Phosphatidylethanolamine Nmethyltransferase (PEMT) [11] and meclofenoxate (also known as centrophenoxine) inhibits Choline Phosphotransferase (CPT) [12] which both contribute to the synthesis of PC. Choline and CDP-choline are both considered supplemental molecules that are naturally involved in the production of PC [12]. Sphinganine is another supplemental molecule and is a crucial part of the synthesis of ceramides [13]. 520 RANGE METHODS A. ObtainingLarvaeforTreatment Embryos were obtained from established zebrafish lines expressing the activated b-catenin pathway in order to test the effect of the selected drugs on HCC development. WT and ABC zebrafish were crossed, and the collected embryos were allowed to develop for 3 days. The transgenic line used for this experiment expresses GFP in the eyes when the CTNNB1 gene is activated. At 3 days post fertilization larvae were sorted into groups based on gene expression by using the observable expression of GFP in the eyes as a marker for the activated b-catenin pathway. In the cross between WT and ABC zebrafish, the embryos come from the same parent fish and so are genetically comparable. It is expected that approximately half the larvae from a single cross will express the activated b-catenin pathway and enlarged larval liver size associated with HCC. The other half will exhibit a normal WT phenotype. B. Experimental Treatment Once larvae are divided into WT and ABC groups, they were placed in the drug treatment. Larvae were placed in groups of 20 in 10 mL well plates at specific 521 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH testing concentrations. Meclofenoxate, bezafibrate, sphinganine, choline and CDP choline were all obtained in pure powder form and dissolved in DMSO or water at the highest concentration possible given their solubility. Meclofenoxate, bezafibrate and sphinganine were all dissolved in DMSO while choline and CDP choline were dissolved in water. Drug gradients for the treatments using meclofenoxate and bezafibrate were created by diluting the stock DMSO-drug solution to 100 mM, 50 mM, and 25 mM concentrations. 10 μL of each solution were added to the 10 mL wells housing the larvae groups creating a drug concentration within the well of 100 μM, 50 μM and 25 μM respectively. 10 μL of stock solution were added to one of the groups to create a positive control group used to determine if the drug was being absorbed by the larvae. Similarly, 10 μL of DMSO was added to one well used to create a negative control group used to determine the effect of DMSO on the larvae in the absence of any additional drug molecule. The meclofenoxate drug experiment had treatment groups of both WT and ABC fish treated with 100 μM, 50 μM, 25 μM, and a 0 μM negative control (NC) concentrations of meclofenoxate. Similarly, the bezafibrate experiment tested separate groups of both WT and ABC zebrafish treated at 100 μM, 50 μM, 522 RANGE 25 μM, and 0 μM (negative control) concentrations of bezafibrate. Sphinganine, choline and CDP choline were all obtained in powder form. The powder form of the drug was dissolved in solvent at the highest concentration possible and then diluted down to the desired treatment concentrations. Like meclofenoxate and bezafibrate sphinganine was dissolved in DMSO and diluted to the desired treatment concentrations. WT and ABC fish were treated with 0 μM, 1 μM, 2.5 μM and 4 μM of sphinganine. Because sphinganine was dissolved in DMSO the negative control group was administered 10 μL of the DMSO solvent. Sphinganine is considered a supplementary molecule and so a positive control group was not used for this set of experiments. Choline and CDP choline are also considered supplementary molecules and so did not require a positive control treatment group for experimentation. Experimental treatments with choline treated fish with 0 μM, 250 μM, 500 μM, 750 μM, and 1000 μM concentrations of the drug. CDP choline experiments treated fish with 0 μM, 10 μM, 25 μM, 50 μM and 102 μM concentrations of the drug. Unlike sphinganine 523 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH which was dissolved in DMSO, choline and CDP choline were dissolved in water. No solvent addition was necessary for the negative control groups in these experiments. C. Fixing and Imaging Larval Specimens Larvae were left in the treatment wells and kept in an incubator for 3 days. At this point, larvae were placed on ice for 20 min to induce euthanasia. Euthanized zebrafish were placed in PFA for 24 hrs. to fix the specimens. After this fixation period the outer layer of skin was removed from each larva using forceps to allow for easy imaging of the liver. Larvae were then imaged using a Leica Confocal Microscope. Larvae were oriented such that when on their side their left and right eye were directly on top of one another. This placement ensured that each larval liver was observed from the same angle and that any difference in observed size was due to an actual size difference between livers and not just a difference of perspective. D. AnalyzingLiverSize Once images were taken of each larva the pictures were randomized to blind observers as to the test condition. The area of the livers was measured using 524 RANGE ImageJ2 (version 2.14.0/1.54f). Pixel area 2 measurements are then converted into mm areas using the established conversion scale. After sizes were obtained, the files were derandomized into their original treatment groups. Differences in the liver size between groups were determined based on the average liver size for the group, and significance was determined using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test. RESULTS A. Meclofenoxate The WT groups showed no significant difference in liver size when treated with meclofenoxate as was expected. The zebrafish larvae in the 0 μM concentration negative control group showed an enlarged liver size when compared to their WT sibling controls. However, the ABC line continued to exhibit enlarged liver sizes when treated with 25 μM, 50 μM, and 100 μM concentration of meclofenoxate. The 50 μM treatment comparison was considered representative of the results from other test concentrations and can be seen in Figure 1. 525 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH B. Bezafibrate The WT groups showed no significant difference in liver size when treated with bezafibrate. The negative control, ABC group showed significant difference in liver size from the WT groups. The ABC line continued to exhibit enlarged liver sizes when treated with 25 μM, 50 μM, and 100 μM concentration of bezafibrate. The 50 μM treatment comparison was considered 526 RANGE representative of the results from other test concentrations and can be seen in Figure 2. C. Sphinganine The WT groups showed no significant difference in liver size when treated with sphinganine. The negative control, ABC group showed significant difference in liver size from their WT sibling controls. The fish treated with 2.5 μM and 4 μM did not tolerate the treatment and many of the larvae died before reaching 527 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 6 dpf. The group treated with 1 μM sphinganine tolerated the treatment but showed no significant difference in liver size from the untreated group. See Fig 3. D. Choline In the choline experiments no significant difference in liver size was observed between the WT groups when treated with choline. A significant difference in average liver size was seen in the ABC larvae treated with 500 μM in comparison to the ABC negative control group. 528 RANGE No significant difference in liver size was seen between the ABC zebrafish groups treated with other dosage levels and the negative control ABC group. Comparison between the WT and ABC negative control groups as well as a comparison between the negative control group and the group treated with 500 μM choline can be seen in Fig. 4. E. CDP Choline In the CDP choline experiments no significant 529 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH difference in liver size was observed between the WT groups when treated with choline. A significant difference in average liver size was seen in the ABC larvae treated with 25 μM CDP choline in comparison to the negative control ABC group. No significant difference in liver size was seen between the ABC zebrafish groups treated with other dosage levels in comparison to the negative control ABC group. Comparison between the WT and ABC negative control groups as well as a comparison between the negative control group and the group treated with 25 μM CDP choline can be seen in Fig. 5. 530 RANGE DISCUSSION One of the most common kinds of primary liver cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), is known to exhibit dysregulated lipid metabolism. Notably the two lipid types, phosphatidylcholine (PC) and ceramides, are found in different levels in HCC cells than in healthy cells [4], [5], [6]. It has been hypothesized that the 531 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH synthesis and metabolism pathways involving these molecules could be targets for novel cancer treatments. In order to better understand these pathways, we examined the effect of five drugs: meclofenoxate, bezafibrate, sphinganine, choline and CDP choline that are known to play a role in the synthesis and metabolism pathways of PC and ceramides. We used an activated bcatenin (ABC) zebrafish line as a model for HCC in humans. Zebrafish larvae expressing the activated b-catenin protein exhibit enlarged livers when compared to their wild type (WT) siblings [3]. Enlarged larval liver size was used as a marker for HCC-like changes in the developing fish. Drugs were administered to the zebrafish larvae globally from 3 to 6 days post fertilization. After the treatment period the specimens were imaged so that their liver sizes could be measured. As seen in Figure 1 and Figure 2. there was a significant difference in liver size between the WT and ABC control groups, but no significant difference was seen between the meclofenoxate or bezafibrate treated and untreated groups. The 532 RANGE enlarged livers we observed are indicative of the expected changes taking place in the larvae in response to the activation of the b- catenin protein. The lack of observed change in liver size in response to the drug treatment could be explained by a number of factors. In early experiments we saw significant amounts of technical issues in the imaging process. In some cases, larvae became damaged in preparation and in other cases larvae were misaligned and liver areas could not be measured accurately. It is possible that some of these early issues effected these experiments. Each treatment group started with 20 individuals. The fact that in some of the treatment groups within the meclofenoxate and bezafibrate experiments as little as 50% of the specimens were measured calls these results into question. Other work done on the subject also contradicts the results seen here in the meclofenoxate and bezafibrate experiments. For example, the work done by Evason et al [3] showed that meclofenoxate and bezafibrate reduced liver size 533 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH when administered to ABC zebrafish larvae. These experiments failed to replicate the same results, but it is suspected that this was caused by experimental error. Future experiments should try and eliminate error so a stronger comparison could be made to the other work that has been done. One of the biggest differences between the work done elsewhere in literature and the work done here is the incorporation of sphinganine, choline and CDP choline. In the sphinganine treatment experiment a significant difference was seen in the larval liver size between the WT and ABC negative control groups, as was expected. However, no significant difference was observed between negative control and sphinganine treated groups (see Fig. 3). While there was not an observable difference in liver size in response to drug treatment, these experiments did identify a useful range of sphinganine concentrations that zebrafish larvae could tolerate. The larvae did not tolerate the 2.5 M and 4 M concentrations but could tolerate the 1 μM concentration they were treated with. Future work should examine other 534 RANGE concentrations around 1 μM that could be tolerated and might still have an effect on liver size. If other experiments yield similar results, it could mean that the ceramide synthesis and metabolism pathway that sphinganine is a part of does not play a significant role in HCC development. Unlike the meclofenoxate, bezafibrate and sphinganine treatments a difference in liver size was observed when the ABC larvae were treated with choline and CDP choline. When treated with a 500 μM concentration of choline the ABC zebrafish showed significant differences in liver size when compared to the ABC negative control groups (see Fig. 4). In the PC synthesis pathway choline is modified by a series of molecular processes and is eventually used in creating more PC for the cell [12]. Treated larvae had an average liver size that was smaller than the untreated group. This could mean that the addition of choline into the system is somehow contributing to other processes that are reducing cell proliferation. Further study is necessary to determine what exactly is going on. 535 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH In the reaction cascade that eventually converts choline to PC one of the choline products is converted into CDP choline [12]. Since both molecules are part of the same chain that leads to PC synthesis, it could be hypothesized that adding either molecule into the system would have similar effects. This was not the case in our observations. The group of ABC fish that was treated with 25 μM of CDP choline saw a significant difference in average liver size when compared to the ABC untreated group (see Fig. 5). This group had an average liver size that was larger than the negative control group. This could mean that CDP choline and the enzymes that convert it into PC play a significant role in HCC development. Inhibiting choline conversion into CDP choline or CDP choline conversion into PC could be successful in controlling the rapid cell proliferation necessary for HCC to develop. Treatment and control groups were limited in size and so were more affected by variation between individuals. The data collected could be made more robust by testing a larger group. Additionally, the drug doses tested here 536 RANGE represent only a fraction of the potential dose concentrations. While the treatment doses were chosen thoughtfully and intentionally, there remains opportunity for further testing using other drug concentrations. It is possible that the lack of therapeutic effect observed from some of the drugs was due to an insufficient dose. While these experiments contribute to our understanding of how dysregulated lipid metabolism effects the development of HCC, they also highlight gaps in our understanding. Without further testing we can’t know for certain if the differences between the results observed in these experiments with meclofenoxate and bezafibrate and the results of similar experiments were in fact due to experimental error. We do not yet know why choline and CDP choline had the effects that they did, or why sphinganine did not have a visible effect. Repeating similar experiments while eliminating the known sources of error could determine whether future mechanistic studies merit further pursuit. The dysregulated lipid metabolism pathways 537 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH seen in HCC cells continue to show promise as a therapeutic target. The work described in this paper helps to pave the way for future work that could change the face of liver cancer treatment. REFERENCES [1] Rumgay H, Arnold M, Ferlay J, Lesi O, Cabasag CJ, Vignat J, Laversanne M, McGlynn KA, Soerjomataram I. Global burden of primary liver cancer in 2020 and predictions to 2040. J Hepatol. 2022 Dec;77(6):1598-1606. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2022.08.021. Epub 2022 Oct 5. PMID: 36208844; PMCID: PMC9670241. [2] American Cancer Society, “Cancer Facts & Figures – 2012,” 2012. [3] K. J. Evason, Francisc, M.T., Juric, V., Balakrishna, S., Pazmino, MPL, Gordan, J.D., Kakar, S., Spitsbergen, J., Goga, A., & Stainier, D.Y.R. “Identification of Chemical Inhibitors of β-Catenin-Driven Liver Tumorigenesis in Zebrafish,” PLOS Genetics, vol. 11, no. 7, p. e1005305, Jul. 2015, doi: 10.1371/ journal.pgen.1005305. [4] VanSant-Webb C, Low HK, Kuramoto J, Stanley CE, Qiang H, Su A, Ross AN, Cooper CG, Cox JE, 538 RANGE Summers SA, Evason KJ, Ducker GS. Phospholipid isotope tracing reveals β-catenin-driven suppression of phosphatidylcholine carcinoma. metabolism bioRxiv in hepatocellular [Preprint]. 2023 Oct 16:2023.10.12.562134. doi: 10.1101/2023.10.12.562134. Update in: Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids. 2024 Aug;1869(6):159514. j.bbalip.2024.159514. PMID: doi: 10.1016/ 37904922; PMCID: PMC10614757. [5] Krautbauer S, Meier EM, Rein-Fischboeck L, Pohl R, Weiss TS, Sigruener A, Aslanidis C, Liebisch G, Buechler C. phospholipids Ceramide are strongly and polyunsaturated reduced in human hepatocellular carcinoma. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2016 Nov;1861(11):1767-1774. doi: 10.1016/ j.bbalip.2016.08.014. Epub 2016 Aug 26. PMID: 27570113. [6] I. T. Ismail, A. Elfert, M. Helal, I. Salama, H. El-Said, & O. Fiehn, “Remodeling Lipids in the Transition from Chronic Liver Disease to Hepatocellular Carcinoma,” Cancers (Basel), vol. 13, no. 1, p. 88, Dec. 2020, doi: 10.3390/cancers13010088.[7] J. Liu et al., “Wnt/βcatenin signalling: function, biological mechanisms, and therapeutic opportunities,” Sig Transduct Target Ther, 539 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 1–23, Jan. 2022, doi: 10.1038/ s41392-021-00762-6. [8] L. Gunnarsson, A. Jauhiainen, E. Kristiansson, O. Nerman, & D. G. J. Larsson, “Evolutionary Conservation of Human Drug Targets in Organisms used for Environmental Risk Assessments,” Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 42, no. 15, pp. 5807–5813, Aug. 2008, doi: 10.1021/es8005173. [9] Howe, K., Clark, M., Torroja, C. et al. The zebrafish reference genome sequence and its relationship to the human genome. Nature 496, 498–503 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12111 [10] J. Nakayama and Z. Gong, “Transgenic zebrafish for modeling hepatocellular carcinoma,” MedComm, vol. 1, no. 2, p. 140, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.1002/mco2.29. [11] Tomoko Nishimaki-Mogami, Kazuhiro Suzuki, Eriko Okochi, & Atsushi Takahashi, “Bezafibrate and clofibric acid are novel inhibitors of phosphatidylcholine synthesis via the methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine,” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Lipids and Lipid Metabolism, vol. 1304, no. 1, pp. 11–20, Nov. S0005-2760(96)00101-4. 540 1996, doi: 10.1016/ RANGE [12] A. K. Percy, J. F. Moore, & C. J. Waechter, “Phosphoglyceride biosynthesis by brain microsomes: centrophenoxine, SaH-42-348, and DH-990 inhibit phospholipid N-methylation,” Arch Biochem Biophys, vol. 235, no. 1, pp. 18–25, Nov. 1984, doi: 10.1016/ 0003-9861(84)90250-9. [13] C. Sohlenkamp, I. M. López-Lara, & O. Geiger, “Biosynthesis of phosphatidylcholine inbacteria,” Progress in Lipid Research, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 115–162, Mar. 2003, doi: 10.1016/S0163-7827(02)00050-4. 541 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 22 Image Processing of X-rays of the Spine and Spinal Cord Stimulation Implants CHIMDI IHEDIWA AND ASHLEY DALRYMPLE Faculty Mentor: Ashley Dalrymple (Biomedical Engineering and Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is an emerging therapy 542 RANGE for restoring motor function in individuals with neurological impairments. While SCS has shown promise in both pain management and locomotor rehabilitation, its clinical success depends heavily on accurate electrode placement along the spinal cord. Currently, electrode localization is performed manually using intraoperative X-ray fluoroscopy and trial-anderror methods, which are time-consuming, subjective, and prone to inconsistency. To address this, we developed an automated image segmentation pipeline using a U-Net convolutional neural network to identify spinal vertebrae and SCS electrodes from anteriorposterior X-ray images. A total of 209 fluoroscopic images from people who received SCS implants were manually annotated and augmented to a training dataset of 624 images. The U-Net model achieved a global pixel accuracy of 83.9% and demonstrated stable convergence. However, segmentation of electrodes and vertebrae underperformed as they were frequently misclassified as background. These misclassifications were due to class imbalance favoring background and the small size of target objects. These limitations highlight the need for more robust architectures, larger datasets, and adaptive augmentation strategies. Future efforts will focus on implementing nnU-Net, a selfconfiguring deep learning framework that optimizes 543 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH architecture, preprocessing, dynamically. This model and will augmentation support future intraoperative applications where EMG signals from leg muscles are mapped to electrode locations, enabling the generation of patient-specific functional maps for improved SCS placement and rehabilitation outcomes. INTRODUCTION Neural injuries, such as spinal cord injury (SCI) and stroke cause significant motor impairments, severely impacting an individual’s quality of life. Combined, stroke and SCI account for 57.3% of all paralysis cases in the United States [1]. Approximately one-third of these patients regain the ability to walk independently or with the assistance of ambulatory devices. Rehabilitation outcomes, including increased independence and mobility, can be greatly improved using specialized implants that interface with and control the patient’s neuroanatomy. One example of such a neural control device is spinal cord stimulation (SCS). SCS delivers electrical impulses to the spinal cord. While SCS is well established as a method for managing chronic pain [2], growing evidence suggests that SCS may also enable locomotor recovery and is currently 544 RANGE being investigated in clinical trials for SCI rehabilitation[3], [4], [5], [6], [7]. Regardless of the intended clinical application, the precise placement of electrodes along the spinal cord is critical for achieving optimal outcomes. In pain management, electrodes are typically positioned more midline over the dorsal columns; for motor function recovery, they are placed more laterally, targeting the dorsal roots. However, conventional SCS lacks specificity in muscle activation because it indirectly stimulates motoneurons through reflexive pathways. Recognizing the limitation, there is a need to explore electrode placement strategies that enable more precise muscle activation and improved therapeutic effects. Understanding the anatomical location of electrode placement is essential to correlate the stimulation site with the resulting muscle activation patterns. Currently, electrode placement is determined largely through a trial-and-error process. During implantation, real-time X-ray fluoroscopy is used to visually guide the insertion of electrode leads into the epidural space along the spinal cord [8]. Electrode positioning is then paired with its functional output. In the case of locomotor rehabilitation, functional output is assessed using 545 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH electromyography (EMG). This process is repeated until an optimal muscle response is observed. However, this manual approach is time-consuming and prone to inaccuracies, which compromises the reliability of correlating EMG signals with electrode position. To overcome these limitations, X-ray image analysis and machine learning techniques are proposed to automate the identification of electrode locations relative to spinal vertebral levels. This project aims to develop a method for automatically segmenting SCS electrodes and vertebrae from X-ray fluoroscopy images. By using automated image processing, motor responses can be more precisely correlated with the exact site of stimulation along the spine. Improving this correlation enhances both the accuracy and efficiency of electrode placement. Ultimately, this approach is intended to increase the effectiveness of SCS by supporting more targeted muscle activation and improving patient rehabilitation outcomes. BACKGROUND Effects of Motoneuron-prostheses on Rehabilitation. Motor neuro-prostheses are devices that deliver electrical stimulation to parts of the nervous system that 546 RANGE are involved in generating motor movement with the goal of restoring motor function after neuromotor disorders or injury [9]. Spinal cord stimulators are a neuroprosthesis that involves implanting leads with electrodes into the epidural space dorsal to the spinal cord (Figure 1). Figure 1. Cross-sectional anatomy of the spinal cord and vertebra, highlighting the dorsal and ventral roots which join to form the spinal nerve. The diagram also illustrates the spinal epidural space. Figure made in BioRender. For rehabilitation, SCS leads are placed laterally over the dorsal spinal roots. Electrical stimulation is delivered through the electrodes, activating 547 large-diameter OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH afferent (sensory) fibers [2]. The activation of largediameter afferents results in monosynaptic activation of the spinal motor neurons, which are in the ventral horn, indirectly via reflexive pathways (Figure 2). These motor reflexive responses can be recorded in the muscles using EMG [6], [10]. Figure 2. Reflex pathway leading to indirect motor neuron activation due to SCS. This approach leads to myotomespecific muscle responses. Figure made with BioRender. Electrode Placement Matters. The precise placement of electrodes in the epidural space is essential for maximizing the therapeutic effectiveness 548 RANGE of SCS [11]. This specificity directly influences the stimulation’s ability to target individual dorsal roots that correlate with specific myotomes [3],[4]. They are linked to motor neurons located in spinal cord enlargements that innervate the upper and lower limbs [12]. The lumbosacral enlargement ranges from the 11th thoracic to the sacral vertebral levels, innervating the legs. Myotomes are anatomical regions where individual spinal nerves correspond to motor function in specific muscles. For example, the lumbar spinal nerves typically control muscles associated with hip flexion, knee extension and planter flexion of the ankle [13]. During intraoperative mapping, stimulation of dorsal spinal roots within the lumbosacral enlargement helps determine which myotomes are activated by specific electrode positions. This mapping process ensures targeted activation of motor neurons and muscle groups, which is critical for improving functional outcomes, such as locomotion or spasticity management. Previous studies have demonstrated that stimulation of dorsal spinal roots can predict corresponding myotomes based on the anatomical placement of electrode arrays [10],[14]. A statistical model was then used to correlate EMG data to a population model of stimulated spinal 549 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH cord levels. A key conclusion was that the selectivity of the motor neuron pool activated by SCS can predict corresponding myotomes, providing a more systematic and precise approach for electrode placement based on the anatomical positioning of the electrode arrays [10]. Problems analyzing X-ray images X-ray fluoroscopy is used intraoperatively to guide the SCS electrodes to spinal locations that offer the most therapeutic relief for patients. This imaging technique is favored for providing real-time visualization of electrode position. However, X-ray analysis poses several challenges that limit its effectiveness for precise anatomical localization. X-rays provide two-dimensional depictions of complex three-dimensional anatomy, which causes a loss of depth information and leads to the overlap of structures such as vertebrae, soft tissues, and implants. There is also limited contrast for soft tissues such as muscles and nerves, making it difficult to differentiate them from the surrounding anatomical background. However, spinal electrodes are typically made from platinum or platinum-iridium. These materials have radiopaque properties that cause distinct diffraction patterns, resulting in high contrast on X-ray fluoroscopy [15]. As 550 RANGE a result, electrodes are relatively easy to identify on Xray images. Anatomical variation among patients adds another layer of complexity. Differences in vertebral size, curvature, and alignment due to age, injury, or prior surgery make it more difficult to apply consistent localization methods across individuals. Furthermore, X-ray fluoroscopy image quality may be affected by artifacts such as motion blur, scatter from metallic implants, and high noise levels, especially in intraoperative imaging environments [16]. Interpretation of X-ray images is generally carried out manually by trained clinicians. However, this process remains inherently subjective and is often influenced by differences in clinical interpretation, which limits its reliability in identifying subtle anatomical details and ensuring consistent results across patients [17]. Convolution Neural Networks in Medical Image processing. To overcome these challenges, advances in automating electrode identification will utilize Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs). CNNs are deep learning algorithms used to process and analyze visual data. CNN 551 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH architecture is inspired by neocognitron, which is a neural network originally designed to simulate the visual processing observed in the human visual cortex [18], [19]. This makes CNNs powerful for medical image-related tasks such as classification, detection, and segmentation. CNNs are designed to automatically learn hierarchical representations of features from raw input data, including patterns, textures, and shapes [20], [21]. CNNs have been widely applied in biomedical imaging to support diagnostic tasks that require accurate image interpretation. In one study, CNNs were used to analyze X-ray images for the purpose of enhancing spine segmentation in patients with scoliosis [22]. A U-Net was used to achieve pixel-level segmentation of spinal structure. The U-Net architecture is a type of CNN that has been commonly used in X-ray image segmentation because of its symmetric encoder and decoder paths, which enable both precise localization and feature extraction (Figure 3)[23]. The encoder extracts feature through repeated applications of convolutions with Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU) activations and max-pooling operations. This process captures semantic information while reducing spatial dimensions. 552 RANGE The decoder then reconstructs the original image resolution by applying up-convolution layers and integrating features from corresponding encoder layers using copy-and-crop operations. The final segmentation map is generated through a 1×1 convolution layer, which assigns class labels to each pixel. Figure 3. The U-Net architecture for X-ray image segmentation, showing the symmetric encoder (downstream path) and decoder (upstream path) used for feature extraction [23]. The U-Net architecture is particularly well suited for segmenting complex anatomical structures in X-ray images due to its ability to 553 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH integrate high-resolution spatial features with deep semantic representations. This capability allows the network to maintain fine structural detail while understanding broader contextual patterns. As a result, U-Net can support accurate segmentation of vertebrae and SCS electrodes, even in low-contrast X-ray images. METHODS Dataset Generation Under an approved IRB protocol (IRB_00072431), a retrospective search was conducted to identify patients who had undergone an SCS implant procedure between 2014 – 2024. Electronic health records, imaging archives, and clinical notes were reviewed to verify eligibility. A total of 2,075 patients were initially screened. From this group, 210 anterior-posterior (AP) fluoroscopic X-ray images were selected based on visibility of electrode arrays and vertebrae between vertebral levels T7 and S2. Patients ranged in age from 18 to 85 years and included those with chronic pain or muscle spasticity. Patients were excluded if they had dorsal root ganglion or sacral implants, spinal fixation hardware in the region of interest, or poor-quality images. 554 RANGE Image Preprocessing All selected images were anonymized and preprocessed using MATLAB R2024a. Images were resized and center-cropped to a resolution of 512 × 512 pixels while maintaining aspect ratio. Histogram equalization was applied to enhance contrast, particularly around vertebral structures, and implanted electrodes. Annotation and Data Augmentation Manual pixel-level annotations were completed using MATLAB’s Image Labeling App. Vertebrae (T7–L5) and electrodes were labeled as separate classes. A standardized protocol was followed for consistency, and all annotations were reviewed by a second annotator. 555 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 4. Manual pixel-level annotations were performed to label vertebrae and electrodes, with each class assigned a distinct color for segmentation. The background class included all remaining pixels that did not correspond to vertebrae or electrodes. Following annotation, data augmentation was applied to increase dataset diversity. Augmentation methods included random vertical and horizontal translations, random 556 RANGE rotations, and center cropping. The resulting dataset was expanded from 209 annotated images to 624 image-label pairs. These augmented images were used to form the ground truth dataset for training and evaluation. U-Net Architecture and Model Training A U-Net architecture was used for multi-class image segmentation. The encoder path consisted of four down sampling blocks, each containing two 3×3 convolutional layers with ReLU activations followed by 2×2 maxpooling operations. The decoder path included four up sampling blocks using transposed convolutions and skip connections from the corresponding encoder layers via copy-and-crop operations. A 1×1 convolution was used at the output layer to generate the final segmentation map. A SoftMax activation function was applied to enable multi-class prediction. The network was implemented in MATLAB trained using the Adam optimizer with a learning rate of 1 × 10⁻³. A mini-batch size of 64 was used, and training was carried out for up to 40 epochs. The training data were shuffled at the start of each epoch. A custom output function was implemented to monitor performance and apply early stopping when necessary. The dataset was 557 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH split into 80% training (n = 499) and 20% testing (n = 125). Evaluation Metrics Model performance was evaluated using several metrics: Dice coefficient, Intersection over Union (IoU), pixel accuracy, precision, and recall. Additional metrics included global accuracy, mean accuracy, mean IoU, weighted IoU, and the mean boundary F1-score (BF Score). These metrics were calculated for the entire image and for individual classes, including background, vertebrae, and electrodes. A confusion matrix was generated to assess misclassification trends across classes and overall accuracy. (1) Dice Coefficient (DSC) Measures the overlap between the predicted and ground truth masks where A is the predicted segmentation mask and B is the ground truth mask. (2) Intersection over Union (IoU) 558 RANGE Evaluates the ratio of intersection to union between the predicted and ground truth masks (3) Global Accuracy (GA) Measures the overall proportion of correctly classified pixels where TP is the number of true positives, TN is the number of true negatives, FP is the number of false positives, and FN is the number of false negatives. (4) Mean Accuracy (MA) Computes the average accuracy per class where n is the number of classes and $i$ is the index of a specific class. (5) Mean IoU (M IoU) Calculates the average IoU across all classes 559 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (6) Weighted IoU (W IoU) Computes a class-weighted IoU that accounts for class imbalances: where wi is the weight assigned to each class and IoU. (7) Mean Boundary F1-Score (Mean BF Score) Evaluates the segmentation quality at object boundaries by comparing the predicted and ground truth contours RESULTS The U-Net model was trained and evaluated on a dataset of 624 fluoroscopic X-ray images for segmentation of spinal vertebrae and SCS electrodes. Segmentation performance was assessed using standard pixel-wise classification metrics, including accuracy, intersection over union (IoU), and boundary precision. 560 RANGE Network Performance Figure 5. Training accuracy and loss curves over 40 epochs. The U-Net model demonstrated consistent learning behavior, with increasing accuracy and decreasing loss indicating proper convergence during training. Model convergence during training was monitored using accuracy and loss curves over 40 epochs. As shown in Figure 5, training accuracy increased and stabilized at 83.9%, while loss decreased steadily and plateaued at 0.51. This trend suggests effective learning without signs of overfitting, as there were no 561 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH sharp fluctuations or divergence in performance throughout training. Segmentation Output and Qualitative Results Figure 6. Example of input X-ray image (left) and corresponding U-Net output segmentation (right). Vertebrae (blue) and electrodes (green) are segmented from background pixels and visualized in different color classes. The U-Net model successfully produced segmentation masks identifying the local region of vertebral column and electrode locations in the X-ray images. An example of the input-output comparison is shown in Figure 6, where vertebrae and electrodes are accurately identified despite challenges such as overlapping anatomical features and varying contrast. Visual inspection indicates 562 RANGE overall poor segmentation due to patchy appearance of segmented mask. Overall Segmentation Performance Table 1: Overall segmentation performance metrics of the UNet model, including global accuracy, mean accuracy, mean IoU, weighted IoU, and mean boundary F1-score (BF Score). Metric Value (%) Global Accuracy 83.924 Mean Accuracy 37.168 Mean IoU 31.92 Weighted IoU 73.85 Mean Boundary F1-Score 28.215 Quantitative metrics for model performance are presented in Table 1. The model achieved a global accuracy of 83.92%, indicating strong overall pixelwise classification. However, mean accuracy and mean IoU were lower at 37.17% and 31.92%, respectively. This reflects class imbalances between the dominant class group and smaller anatomical targets. A weighted IoU of 73.85% further highlights the model’s bias toward larger classes. The mean boundary F1-score (BF 563 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Score) was 28.21%, suggesting limited precision at object boundaries. Class-Specific Performance Table 2. Class-specific evaluation metrics for background, vertebrae, and electrodes. Metrics include class accuracy, IoU, and boundary F1-score. Class Accuracy (%) IoU (%) Mean BF (%) Background 94.86 83.76 41.84 Vertebrae 14.77 11.23 33.19 Electrodes 1.85 0.76 9.87 Class-wise metrics are shown in Table 2. The background class achieved the highest accuracy (94.86%) and IoU (83.76%), confirming that the model performs well in identifying background. In contrast, segmentation of vertebrae and electrodes was more difficult. Vertebrae reached 14.77% accuracy and 11.23% IoU, while electrodes had the lowest performance, with only 1.85% accuracy and 0.76% IoU. 564 RANGE Confusion Matrix Analysis Figure 7. Confusion matrix showing classification performance across background, vertebrae, and electrode classes. Correct classifications are located along the diagonal, while off-diagonal values represent misclassifications between predicted and true labels based on manual annotation. A confusion matrix in Figure 7 illustrates the model’s difficulty in distinguishing vertebrae and electrodes from the background. Most misclassifications occurred in these two classes, consistent with the observed drop in IoU and class accuracy metrics. 565 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH DISCUSSION SCS has shown significant potential for improving mobility in individuals with motor impairments [24] but the success of this therapy heavily depends on precise electrode placement. Surgeons currently use imaging guidance combined with trial-and-error methods to find the best location for electrode implantation. Manual electrode localization during SCS implantation is timeconsuming, subjective, and prone to variability [25],[8]. Recognizing these problems, a U-Net segmentation model was trained on manually annotated X-ray images to automate the detection of electrode and vertebral structures with pixel-level precision. Model performance of the U-Net was evaluated using both quantitative metrics and qualitative analysis. As shown in Figure 5, the model demonstrated stable learning behavior, with training accuracy steadily increasing and loss decreasing over the course of 40 epochs. The final training accuracy reached 83.9%, while the loss converged to 0.51, indicating effective model convergence. Early-stage oscillations in accuracy, particularly during the first 10 epochs. These fluctuations are normal during training and occur due to the model adjusting its 566 RANGE learning rate as it encounters newer images in the dataset in each batch [26]. After this initial phase, both accuracy and loss curves stabilized, suggesting that the model had learned meaningful features and was no longer underfitting or overfitting. The absence of sharp spikes and the smooth plateau observed in both curves confirm that the U-Net architecture was able to extract what it thought were relevant features consistently during training [27]. Figure 6 presents an example of a raw input X-ray alongside the model’s segmentation output. The vertebrae and electrodes were correctly identified in their respective regions despite the overlapping of the electrodes over the vertebrae. The clear separation of classes visually confirms the model’s ability to globally localize the object. This qualitative result aligns with previous findings in medical imaging, where U-Netbased architectures have been successfully used to segment only the cervical vertebrae from lateral X-ray images [28]. Quantitative results in Table 1 show that the U-Net achieved a global accuracy of 83.92%, which suggests that the model performed well overall in pixel classification. However, mean accuracy (37.17%) and mean IoU (31.92%) were substantially lower, indicating 567 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH uneven performance across classes. The higher weighted IoU (73.85%) reveals a class imbalance skewed in favor of the background class, which comprised the greatest number of the pixels. The mean boundary F1-score (28.21%) further shows limited performance in capturing precise object boundaries, especially for small structures like electrodes. Table 2 reveals class-specific segmentation performance. The background class achieved the highest performance, with 94.86% accuracy and 83.76% IoU, confirming that the model effectively ignored irrelevant structures and distinguished between target and nontarget regions. The model was also able to exclude medical tools, such as SCS insertion needles, which occasionally appeared in the field of view. In contrast, vertebrae segmentation had reduced performance, with 14.77% accuracy and 11.23% IoU, likely due to variable vertebral shapes and overlapping structures. Electrode segmentation had the lowest performance, achieving only 1.85% accuracy and 0.76% IoU. This decline in performance can be attributed to the small size of electrodes, which are comprised of a fewer number of pixels and are therefore more difficult for the model to detect reliably. In addition, the limited number of annotated training examples further reduced the 568 RANGE network’s ability to generalize. These observations are consistent with known challenges in segmenting small, low-contrast targets in medical imaging, which often require specialized architectures or targeted loss functions to improve model sensitivity [29]. The confusion matrix shown in Figure 7 highlights the model’s tendency to misclassify pixels as background, reflecting the class imbalance and difficulty in distinguishing the smaller electrodes and vertebrae. This pattern is consistent with prior findings where CNNs have struggled to segment small spinal components from X-ray fluoroscopy images [30]. This further explains the low mean accuracy and electrode-specific scores reported in Tables 1 and 2. LIMITATION This study has several limitations that may have affected model performance and generalizability. The dataset included 209 manually annotated X-ray images. Although augmentation tripled the dataset to 624 images, the process was performed using static augmentation, where modified images were generated ahead of training. While this helped increase the number of training samples, static augmentation shows the model the same transformed images repeatedly. This 569 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH can limit variability, reduce robustness, and increase the risk of overfitting. In contrast, real-time augmentation applies random transformations during training. This approach creates more diverse image inputs and has been shown to improve generalization and model performance [31]. Manual pixel-level annotation introduced another challenge. While necessary to create accurate ground truth masks, this process is time-consuming and can introduce variability in labeling, especially in lowcontrast regions. Although each annotation was reviewed for consistency, observer variation could still affect label accuracy. Future improvements could include semi-automated labeling tools to increase consistency and efficiency. Another important limitation was the use of 2D anterior-posterior X-ray images. These images do not provide depth information, making it difficult to localize electrodes in three-dimensional space. Overlapping anatomical structures and the low contrast typical of Xrays further complicate the segmentation task. Although this 2D approach was selected with future applications in mind, it inherently limits segmentation precision. 570 RANGE FUTURE WORK Despite these limitations, the project demonstrates the potential for using machine learning to automatically identify electrodes and vertebrae in X-ray fluoroscopic spinal images. Building on this foundation, several key areas can be targeted for future work. One priority is to increase the size and diversity of the dataset. A larger dataset will improve the model’s ability to generalize across different patient anatomies, imaging conditions, and electrode placements. This will also help address the class imbalance that affected electrode and vertebrae segmentation accuracy. A major upgrade involves adopting nnU-Net architecture, which is a self-configuring deep learning framework developed specifically for biomedical image segmentation. Unlike traditional U-Net implementations, nnU-Net automatically adapts its own architecture, preprocessing steps, and training parameters based on the input data [32]. It also incorporates adaptive augmentation techniques during training, helping the model learn from a more varied set of transformations and reducing overfitting. By tailoring itself to the characteristics of the dataset, nnUNet can directly address several of the challenges identified in this study, including static augmentation, 571 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH poor sensitivity to small structures, and architectural limitations. SIGNIFICANCE The trained U-Net segmentation model developed in this study will be an essential tool for future intraoperative testing during SCS procedures. By recording leg muscle activity using (EMG), we will be able to correlate the anatomical position of the segmented electrodes with specific patterns of lowerlimb muscle activation. This will enable the automated construction of a functional map that links spinal stimulation sites with evoked muscle responses. Such a tool has significant potential to improve the precision and efficiency of SCS implantation, especially for locomotor rehabilitation applications. Rather than relying on trial-and-error methods to identify effective stimulation sites, clinicians will be able to use this functional map to guide electrode placement based on predicted muscle outcomes. This can reduce operating time, minimize repositioning, and enhance therapeutic results. As SCS becomes increasingly available as a neuromodulation therapy for motor recovery, the demand for automated, personalized tools that bridge 572 RANGE imaging with functional data will continue to grow. This model application offers a scalable solution that can help both researchers and clinicians generate patientspecific activation maps of leg muscles, paving the way for more effective and targeted neurorehabilitation strategies. REFERENCES [1] R. Lapointe, Y. Lajoie, O. Serresse, & H. Barbeau, “Functional community ambulation requirements in incomplete spinal cord injured subjects,” Spinal Cord, vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 327–335, Jun. 2001, doi: 10.1038/ sj.sc.3101167. [2] J. Caylor, Reddy, R., Yin, S., Cui, C., Huang, M., Huang, C. Rao, R., Baker, D.G., Simmons, A., Souza, D., Narouze, S., Vallejo, R., & Lerman, I., “Spinal cord stimulation in chronic pain: evidence and theory for mechanisms of action,” Bioelectron Med, vol. 5, p. 12, Jun. 2019, doi: 10.1186/s42234-019-0023-1. [3] A. Rowald, Komi, S., Demesmaeker, R, Baaklini, E., Hernandez-Charpak, S.D., Paoles, E., Montanaro, H., Cassara,A., Becce, F., Lloyd, B., Bewton, T., Ravier, J., Kinany, N., D’Ercole, M., Paley, A., Hankov, N., Varescon, C., McCracken, L., Vat, M., Caban, M., 573 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Watrin, A., Jacquet, C., Bole-Feysot, L., Harte, C., & Courtine, G., “Activity-dependent spinal cord neuromodulation rapidly restores trunk and leg motor functions after complete paralysis,” Nat Med, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 260–271, Feb. 2022, doi: 10.1038/ s41591-021-01663-5. [4] F. B. Wagner, J.-B. Mignardot, C. G. Le GoffMignardot, R. Demesmaeker, S. Komi, M. Capogrosso, A. Rowald, I. Seáñez, M. Caban, E. Pirondini, M. Vat, L. A. McCracken, R. Heimgartner, I. Fodor, A. Watrin, P. Seguin, E. Paoles, K. Van Den Keybus, G. Eberle, B. Schurch, E. Pralong, F. Becce, J. Prior, N. Buse, R. Buschman, E. Neufeld, N. Kuster, S. Carda, J. von Zitzewitz, V. Delattre, T. Denison, H. Lambert, K. Minassian, J. Bloch, and G. Courtine, “Targeted neurotechnology restores walking in humans with spinal cord injury,” Nature, vol. 563, no. 7729, pp. 65–71, Nov. 2018, doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0649-2. [5] M. L. Gill, P. J. Grahn, J. S. Calvert, M. B. Linde, I. A. Lavrov, J. A. Strommen, L. A. Beck, D. G. Sayenko, M. G. Van Straaten, D. I. Drubach, D. D. Veith, A. R. Thoreson, C. Lopez, Edgerton, K. H. Y. P. Lee, Gerasimenko, V. R. and Zhao, K. D. “Neuromodulation of lumbosacral spinal networks enables independent stepping 574 after complete RANGE paraplegia,” Nat. Med., vol. 24, no. 11, pp. 1677–1682, Nov. 2018; Publisher Correction, vol. 24, no. 12, p. 1942, Dec. 2018, doi:10.1038/s41591-018-0175-7 / 10.1038/ s41591-018-0248-7. [6] Dalrymple, A.N., Bose, R., Sarma, D., Petersen, B.A., Barra, B., Nanivadekar, A.C., Madonna, T.J., Liu, M.F., Levy, I., Helm, E.R., Miele, V.J., Capogrosso, M., Fisher, L.E., & Weber, D.J. (2023). Reflex modulation and functional improvements following spinal cord stimulation for sensory restoration after lower-limb amputation. medRxiv. [7] C. A. Angeli, M. Boakye, R. A. Morton, J. Vogt, K. Benton, Y. Chen, C. K. Ferreira, and S. J. Harkema, “Recovery of Over‑Ground Walking after Chronic Motor Complete Spinal Cord Injury,” N. Engl. J. Med., vol. 379, no. 13, pp. 1244–1250, Sep. 27, 2018, doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1803588. [8] A. Delmotte, L. Jacques, K. Kumar, K. Poon, O. Monlezun, M. Roulaud, A. Prevost, R. Munson, F. Guetarni, B. Bataille, and P. Rigoard, “The Franco‑Canadian multicolumn spinal cord stimulation prospective study: A subgroup analysis focusing on the decisive role of lead positioning,” Neurochirurgie, vol. 61, 575 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Suppl. 1, pp. S83–S89, Mar. 2015, doi:10.1016/ j.neuchi.2014.06.005. [9] A. Gupta, N. Vardalakis, and F. B. Wagner, “Neuroprosthetics: from sensorimotor to cognitive disorders,” Commun Biol, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1–17, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.1038/s42003-022-04390-w. [10] U. S. Hofstoetter, S. M. Danner, B. Freundl, H. Binder, W. Mayr, F. Rattay, and K. Minassian, “Periodic modulation of repetitively elicited monosynaptic reflexes of the human lumbosacral spinal cord,” J. Neurophysiol., vol. 114, no. 1, pp. 400–410, Jul. 2015, doi:10.1152/jn.00136.2015. [11] C. M. Schirmer, J. L. Shils, J. E. Arle, G. R. Cosgrove, P. K. Dempsey, E. Tarlov, S. Kim, C. J. Martin, C. Feltz, M. Moul, and S. Magge, “Heuristic map of myotomal innervation in humans using direct intraoperative nerve root stimulation,” J. Neurosurg. Spine, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 64–70, Jul. 2011, doi:10.3171/ 2011.2.SPINE1068. [12] J. T. Kaiser and J. G. Lugo-Pico, “Neuroanatomy, Spinal Nerves,” in StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 2024. Accessed: Sep. 15, 2024. 576 RANGE [Online]. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ books/NBK542218/ [13] N. Bogduk, “The Innervation of the Lumbar Spine,” Spine, vol. 8, no. 3, p. 286, Apr. 1983. [14] S. Hashimoto, T. Murohashi, S. Yamada, N. Iesato, I. Ogon, M. Chiba, A. Tsukamoto, R. Hitrota, and M. Yoshimoto, “Broad and Asymmetric Lower Extremity Myotomes: Results from Intraoperative Direct Electrical Stimulation of the Lumbosacral Spinal Roots,” Spine (Phila Pa 1976), vol. 49, no. 11, pp. 805–810, Jun. 1, 2024, doi:10.1097/BRS.0000000000004737. [15] M. Ekielski, W. Głowadzka, K. Bogdanowicz, M. Rygała, M. Mikulicz, P. Śpiewak, M. Kowalski, M. Gębski, M. Motyka, A. Szerling, T. Czyszanowski, Monolithic High Contrast Grating Integrated with Metal: Infrared Electrode with Exceptionally High Conductivity and Transmission. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2312392. https://doi.org/10.1002/ adfm.202312392 [16] Lee, H. W., Lim, H. W., Jeon, D. H., Park, C. K., Lee, D. Y., Cho, H. S., Seo, C. W., Kim, K. S., Kim, G. A., Park, S. Y., Kang, S. Y., Park, J. E., Kim, W. S., Lim, Y. H., & Woo, T. H. (2018). Eliminating 577 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH artifacts in single-grid phase-contrast x-ray imaging for improving image quality. Computers in biology and medicine, 97, 74–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.compbiomed.2018.04.013 [17] Q. Liu, Y. Han, L. Shen, J. Du, and M. H. Tania, “Adaptive enhancement of shoulder x-ray images using tissue attenuation and type-II fuzzy sets,” PLoS One, vol. 20, no. 2, p. e0316585, Feb. 2025, doi: 10.1371/ journal.pone.0316585. [18] K. Fukushima, “Analysis of the process of visual pattern recognition by the neocognitron,” Neural Networks, vol. 2, no. 6, pp. 413–420, Jan. 1989, doi: 10.1016/0893-6080(89)90041-5. [19] S.-C. B. Lo, H.-P. Chan, J.-S. Lin, H. Li, M. T. Freedman, and S. K. Mun, “Artificial convolution neural network for medical image pattern recognition,” Neural Networks, vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 1201–1214, Jan. 1995, doi: 10.1016/0893-6080(95)00061-5. [20] R. Yamashita, M. Nishio, R. K. G. Do, and K. Togashi, “Convolutional neural networks: an overview and application in radiology,” Insights Imaging, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 611–629, Aug. 2018, doi: 10.1007/ s13244-018-0639-9. 578 RANGE [21] S. M. Anwar, M. Majid, A. Qayyum, M. Awais, M. Alnowami, and M. K. Khan, “Medical Image Analysis using Convolutional Neural Networks: A Review,” J Med Syst, vol. 42, no. 11, p. 226, Oct. 2018, doi: 10.1007/s10916-018-1088-1. [22] S. Sacharisa and I. Kartowisastro, “Enhanced Spine Segmentation in Scoliosis X-ray Images via U-Net,” Ingénierie des systèmes d information, vol. 28, Aug. 2023, doi: 10.18280/isi.280427. [23] O. Ronneberger, P. Fischer, and T. Brox, “UNet: Convolutional Networks for Biomedical Image Segmentation,” in Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention – MICCAI 2015, N. Navab, J. Hornegger, W. M. Wells, and A. F. Frangi, Eds., Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015, pp. 234–241. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-24574-4_28. [24] M. M. Iversen, A. T. Harrison, C. T. Stanley, and A. N. Dalrymple, “Rehabilitation of Motor and Sensory Function Using Spinal Cord Stimulation: Recent Advances,” Current Opinion in Biomedical Engineering, p. 100566, Oct. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.cobme.2024.100566. [25] Capogrosso, M., Wenger, N., Raspopovic, S., Musienko, P., Beauparlant, J., Bassi Luciani, L., 579 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Courtine, G., & Micera, S. (2013). A computational model for epidural electrical stimulation of spinal sensorimotor circuits. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 33(49), 19326–19340. https://doi.org/10.1523/ JNEUROSCI.1688-13.2013 [26] S. Ruder, “An overview of gradient descent optimization algorithms,” Jun. 15, 2017, arXiv: arXiv:1609.04747. doi: 10.48550/arXiv.1609.04747. [27] J. Heaton, “Ian Goodfellow, Yoshua Bengio, and Aaron Courville: Deep learning,” Genet Program Evolvable Mach, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 305–307, Jun. 2018, doi: 10.1007/s10710-017-9314-z. [28] S. M. M. R. Al Arif, K. Knapp, and G. Slabaugh, “Fully automatic cervical vertebrae segmentation framework for X-ray images,” Comput Methods Programs Biomed, vol. 157, pp. 95–111, Apr. 2018, doi: 10.1016/ j.cmpb.2018.01.006. [29] Zhao, L., Wang, T., Chen, Y., Zhang, X., Tang, H., Lin, F., Li, C., Li, Q., Tan, T., Kang, D., & Tong, T. (2025). A novel framework for segmentation of small targets in medical images. Scientific reports, 15(1), 9924. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-94437-9 580 RANGE [30] M.-H. Horng, C.-P. Kuok, M.-J. Fu, C.-J. Lin, and Y.-N. Sun, “Cobb Angle Measurement of Spine from X-Ray Images Using Convolutional Neural Network,” Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine, vol. 2019, no. 1, p. 6357171, 2019, doi: 10.1155/2019/ 6357171. [31] C. Shorten and T. M. Khoshgoftaar, “A survey on Image Data Augmentation for Deep Learning,” Journal of Big Data, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 60, Jul. 2019, doi: 10.1186/ s40537-019-0197-0. [32] F. Isensee, P. F. Jaeger, S. A. A. Kohl, J. Petersen, and K. H. Maier-Hein, “nnU-Net: a self-configuring method for deep learning-based biomedical image segmentation,” Nat Methods, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 203–211, Feb. 2021, doi: 10.1038/s41592-020-01008-z. 581 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 23 Research Summary: Vorticity's Impact on the Reynolds Stress Gradients in Atmospheric Turbulent Boundary Layers JAMES KARR AND ERIC PARDYJAK Faculty Mentor: Eric Pardyjak (Mechanical Engineering, University of Utah) With a motivation of providing more insight into the Reynolds stress terms of the Reynolds Averaged Navier 582 RANGE Stokes equations (RANS) to increase accuracy in turbulent flow simulations. Analyzing an atmospheric turbulence dataset from the IPAQS19 campaign through the lens of a velocity vorticity relationship has challenged previous assumptions of the Reynolds stresses in wall bounded turbulent flows. By filtering to specific wind events, for example a northernly wind with high mechanical forcing, with conditions like conservation of mass met, relationships between the vorticity and Reynolds stresses could be made. Previous assumptions have stated vorticity is related to rotational parts of the shear Reynolds stresses however in our cases vorticity terms exclusively correlate with the normal Reynolds stresses or in other words the gradient of the turbulent kinetic energy. These findings draw the conclusion that all Reynolds stress terms have significance when modelling a turbulent flow using the RANS equations. 583 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 24 Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Fracturing Using 2D Digital Image Correlation (2D-DIC): Methodology, Results, and Implications. SUNGHYUN KIM Faculty Mentor: Shahrzad Roshankhah (Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Utah) 584 RANGE INTRODUCTION: CASE STUDY AND LITERATURE REVIEW Hydraulic fracturing is an important technology that enables the efficient extraction of resources such as oil, natural gas, and geothermal energy by injecting highpressure fluids to create fractures in low-permeability rocks underground. Increasing the hydraulic conductivity of rocks can greatly aid in the extraction of otherwise inaccessible resources. Current laboratory studies use homogeneous, isotropic materials such as polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) to mimic hydraulic fracturing. Bunger (2008) used PMMA to observe the egg-shaped deformation of circular cracks at shallow depths, which was found to be consistent with observations in the field. In addition, Detournay (2016) analyzed in detail the propagation mechanism of tensile cracks induced by fluid pressure, explaining the basic principles of hydraulic fracturing. However, these studies are limited by the simplicity of the experimental materials, which do not reproduce the complex geological conditions of the real world. This leads to the limitations that prevent them from reflecting the complex and heterogeneous structure of real natural rocks. To overcome the limitation, field-scale monitoring 585 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH techniques have been developed to infer fracture dynamics through indirect measurements such as acoustic emission or surface fluid pressure (Gandossi, 2013). However, these methods have low spatial resolution, which limits their ability to clearly understand the complex interactions between fluids and rock during crack initiation and propagation. Alternatively, advanced imaging techniques such as Xray, computed tomography (CT), and neutron imaging have been used to observe internal structural changes during crack propagation (Roshankhah et al., 2018, Higo et al., 2011). However, the high cost and inaccessibility of these techniques, as well as safety concerns due to radiation exposure, have hindered their widespread use. A promising technique, 2D digital image correlation (2D-DIC) has emerged to overcome these limitations. The work of Agha et al. (2022) demonstrates that 2DDIC can capture the full-length strain contours and crack deformation under a range of loading conditions, making it an important tool in the study of crack behavior. Given its cost-effectiveness and direct observation compared to existing advanced imaging techniques, 2D-DIC is considered a suitable alternative 586 RANGE for studying natural cracks in environments that mimic field conditions. To optimize the design of hydraulic fracturing, it is important to understand the interaction between hydraulic fracturing and natural fractures (NF). According to a study by Guo et al. (2017), hydraulic fractures (HFs) can intersect NFs, propagate along them, or be captured by them, which has important implications for the resulting fracture network and fluid flow. In addition, Weng et al. (2011) showed that factors such as stress anisotropy, natural fracture orientation, and interfacial friction determine the geometry of HFNF interactions, which can result in a range of outcomes from simple fractures to complex networks. These studies suggest that the nature of natural fractures and their interactions should be considered in increasing the efficiency of hydraulic fracturing. This study aims to utilize 2D-DIC to observe the interaction of HF and NF between natural cracks in a laboratory environment, which aims to bridge the gap between simple laboratory experiments and complex field conditions, thus providing a more comprehensive understanding of the crack propagation mechanism. It is expected to increase the precision and efficiency of hydraulic fracturing, minimize the environmental 587 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH impact during resource extraction, and eventually contribute to the development of optimized energy recovery technologies. METHODOLOGY: EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND TEST PROCEDURE FOR HYDRAULIC FRACTURE ANALYSIS USING 2D-DIC Specimen Preparation Figure 1. Specimen A PMMA prismatic specimen with dimensions of 100 mm × 100 mm × 25 mm was prepared as the test specimen. PMMA has homogeneous 588 RANGE and isotropic mechanical properties, which eliminates the anisotropy and heterogeneity found in natural rocks, allowing crack mechanics to be studied under controlled conditions. In addition, the optical transparency of PMMA allows direct observation of crack formation in real time, minimizing the need for advanced imaging techniques. A 9.5 mm-diameter borehole was drilled in the center of each specimen, and a 3 mm-wide rectangular notch was machined starting at the edge of the borehole and running through the entire thickness. The notch is designed to ensure that the crack initiates at a constant origin, which increases the reproducibility of the crack behavior. The specimen surface was polished and then coated with a black-and-white speckle pattern to enable displacement and strain measurements for DIC analysis. The spray paint was uniformly applied from a distance of approximately 80 cm to achieve a 50:50 black-towhite ratio, and the density and size were verified using a speckle pattern generator. Experimental Setup The experiment consisted of a combination of a 2DDIC system and hydraulic fracturing apparatus. The 589 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2D-DIC system is based on a Lucid Vision Labs Atlas10 ATX470S-MT camera, equipped with a 47MP Sony IMX492 CMOS sensor. The camera has a resolution of 8,192 x 5,556 pixels and a pixel size of 9.24 μm, enabling the observation of highly detailed object variations. The monochrome sensor eliminates signal loss due to color filters and provides high contrast and light sensitivity; the square pixel design prevents data distortion. The optical system uses a 100mm fixed-focus lens, which exhibits <0.05% distortion; this is most important in a DIC setup, where it is necessary to minimize the error of each shot with a very low distortion rate. The aperture range of f/5.6 to f/11 provides the optimal depth of focus and reduces diffraction effects for sharp images. Unlike zoom lenses, fixed-focus lenses provide stable performance by eliminating small vibrations during the imaging process, such as those from detailed parts, thus increasing the reliability of DIC analysis. The camera and data are connected via a 10GigE interface, and data can be transferred at frame rates up to 22.6 fps for accurate synchronization and data collection, even in time-sensitive experiments. Test Procedure First, the bottom plate is placed on the table, then a long 590 RANGE rod is inserted and the nut is tightened to secure the plate. The reaction beam is then placed on the rod, and the left and right side plates are placed on the alignment of the bottom plate. The test object is inserted into the center hole of the side plate, and the injection tube is connected through the test object and the plate. All parts are fixed with vertical and horizontal bolts, and the tightening strength is gradually increased at each step to ensure structural stability. After the specimen is prepared, the injection pump is operated at a flow rate of 9 ml/min to apply hydraulic pressure to the borehole. The pressure is increased and maintained until a crack is formed, at which point the pressure drops sharply with a popping sound. During this process, the DIC system records the surface deformation of the test piece in real time, and images are taken immediately after crack formation to increase the accuracy of the data. Data Collection and Analysis The camera’s exposure time can be adjusted from 125 μs to 10 seconds, which minimizes motion blur even during fast movements. The DIC system analyzes changes in the speckle pattern of the captured images to generate precise displacement and stress–strain data 591 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of the specimen. This data is utilized to understand the correlation between crack propagation mechanisms and experimental conditions. The pictures are analyzed after the experiment using correlated solution’s vic2d software. Post-test Procedures After the end of the test, the air and hydraulic valves are closed, and the system pressure is completely released through the pressure regulator. Then the structure of the test apparatus is disassembled, the surface of the test object and plate are cleaned, and the results are recorded by photographing all sides of the test object. The plate O-rings and injection tubing are cleaned of residue and debris, and then prepared for reuse. If there is a need to repeat the experiment, the procedure is repeated from the beginning, adjusting the pressure conditions. RESULTS ANALYSIS A comprehensive analysis of the four strain and displacement data was obtained by 2D-DIC. Horizontal Strain 592 RANGE Figure 2. Horizontal Strain Horizontal strain refers to the length change that occurs when an object is deformed in the horizontal direction. The strain plot around the borehole shows a very sharp red crack in the vertical direction. This shows a region of very high tensile strain, indicating a weak spot in the rock and the appearance of a crack. The vertical orientation of the cracks suggests that the principal stresses are acting in the horizontal direction, which is the same direction as our experimental design. The uniform green color of the background region is evidence that the error was almost non-existent, and the measurement was highly reliable. 593 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Vertical Strain Figure 3. Vertical Strain The symmetrical strain distribution centered on the borehole shows that the stress redistribution is uniform. The lack of pronounced vertical cracking observed in the vertical strain also suggests that the strain is directional, with the principal stresses being more dominant in the horizontal direction. 594 RANGE Magnitude of Displacements Figure 4. Displacements Looking at the total displacement, the higher amount of displacement is colored red in the right region, indicating a large movement in the rightward direction. It can also be seem that the displacement is evenly distributed, indicating that the entire block moved together. The left region of the specimen shows the completely opposite behavior, indicating a leftward movement. The left-right bifurcation of movement around the center crack suggests that the rock moved in a left-right direction along the crack plane. The strain distribution was in the form of concentric circles centered on the center O-ring. 595 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH These DIC results effectively capture the complex strain and displacement fields generated during the hydraulic fracturing process and provide valuable data to precisely analyze the deformation mechanisms, especially during crack initiation and propagation. Each data set provides complementary information, enabling a comprehensive understanding of the hydraulic fracturing phenomenon. Pressure vs. Time Figure 5. Pressure vs. Time The graph shows pressure evolution over time. For the first 60 seconds, the pressure remains at 0 psi as the specimen is calibrated to this baseline pressure. 596 RANGE Subsequently, a rapid pressure increase occurs, reaching a peak of approximately 1600 psi. After reaching this peak pressure, which triggers crack propagation, a sharp pressure drop occurs followed by stabilization at the initial pressure level. This experiment shows a typical hydraulic fracturing pattern of an initial stabilization period, a rapid pressure/ load increase, a rapid pressure drop at the point of crack initiation, and a subsequent stabilization phase. The pattern of change in pressure and load is similar, showing that the experiment and the setting were stable. CONCLUSIONS Validation of the experimental methodology with the simple experiment was successful. High- resolution images were obtained using the 47MP Sony IMX492 CMOS sensor and 100mm fixed-focus lens, which gave me the confidence to use this setup in the experimental design of the HF experiment with NF in the next semester. The successful experimental design, which closely followed the recommendations of the A Good Practices Guide for Digital Image Correlation (2018), led to the confidence that meaningful experimental results, such as identifying the location and direction of crack initiation through the horizontal strain rate 597 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and observing the reformation redistribution pattern through the vertical balance rule, can be observed with 2D DIC. Future results will inevitably pave the way for future improvements in the process in terms of precision, efficiency, and the minimization of environmental impact in resource extraction. BIBLIOGRAPHY Agha, A., Badkul, A., Kulkarni, P., & Chavan, V. (2022). Effectiveness of 2D Digital Image Correlation in Capturing the Fracture Behavior of Sheet Metal Alloys. SAE International Journal of Materials and Manufacturing, 15(6), 437–445. https://doi.org/10.4271/10-15-06-0033 Roshankhah, S., Marshall, J., Tengattini, A., Rubino, V., & others. (2018). Neutron Imaging: A New Possibility for Laboratory Observation of Hydraulic Fractures in Shale? Géotechnique Letters, 8(4), 1–23. https://doi.org/ 10.1680/jgele.18.00129 Makhnenko, R. Y., Bunger, A., & Detournay, E. (2010). Deviation from Linear Elastic Fracture in Near-Surface Hydraulic Fracturing Experiments with Rock. In Proceedings of the 44th US Conference on Rock Mechanics/ Geomechanics (ARMA 2010). Detournay, E. (2016). Mechanics 598 of Hydraulic RANGE Fractures. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 48(1), 311–339. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev- fluid-010814-014736 Gandossi, L., & Von Estorff, U. (2015). An overview of hydraulic fracturing and other formation stimulation technologies for shale gas production – Update 2015. EUR 26347. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2790/379646 Q., Latham, J. P., & Tsang, C. F. (2017). The use of discrete fracture networks for modelling coupled geomechanical and hydrological behaviour of fractured rocks. Computers and Geotechnics, 85, 151-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2016.12.024 Higo, Y., Oka, F., Kimoto, S., Sanagawa, T., & Matsushima, Y. (2011). Study of strain localization and microstructural changes in partially saturated sand during triaxial tests using microfocus X-ray CT. Soils and Foundations, 51(1), 95–111. https://doi.org/10.3208/ sandf.51.95 International Digital Image Correlation Society, Jones, E.M.C. and Iadicola, M.A. (Eds.) (2018). A Good Practices Guide for Digital Image https://doi.org/10.32720/idics/gpg.ed1 599 Correlation. OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Guo, J., Luo, B., Lu, C., Lai, J., & Ren, J. (2017). Numerical investigation of hydraulic fracture propagation in a layered reservoir using the cohesive zone method. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 186, 195–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.engfracmech.2017.10.013 Weng, X., Kresse, O., Cohen, C., Wu, R., & Gu, H. (2011). Modeling of Hydraulic-Fracture-Network Propagation in a Naturally Fractured Formation. SPE Production & Operations, 26(3), 368–380. https://doi.org/ 10.2118/140253-PA 600 RANGE 25 Research Reflection by Sunghyun Kim SUNGHYUN KIM Faculty Mentor: Shahrzad Roshankhah (Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Utah) Engaging in UROP (undergraduate research opportunity program) has been a great experience, solidifying my aspiration to pursue graduate studies and a research career. Under the guidance of Dr. Sharzard 601 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Roshankhah at the GEO_SERL Lab, I conducted experiments on hydraulic fracturing using 2D digital image correlation (2D-DIC). This opportunity allowed me to apply theoretical knowledge to practical problems, deepening my understanding of fracture mechanics and laboratory experimentation. Dr. Roshankhah’s mentorship played a crucial role in shaping my academic and professional aspirations. Her ability to guide me through complex experimental procedures, encourage critical thinking, and provide insightful feedback not only enhanced my technical skills but also inspired me to embrace research as a lifelong pursuit. I now envision myself contributing to advancing geosystems engineering through innovative research, particularly in integrating AI into geomechanics. My undergraduate research opportunity has given me confidence in my ability to tackle complex challenges and reinforced my commitment to developing solutions that enhance resource extraction efficiency while minimizing environmental impact. 602 RANGE 26 Reverse Total Shoulder Arthroplasty Alters the Resting Orientation of the Scapula PEYTON KING; JARED ZITNAY; PETER CHALMERS; ROBERT TASHJIAN; AND HEATH HENNINGER Faculty Mentor: Heath Henninger (Orthopaedics, College of Medicine and Biomedical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, University of Utah) 603 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH INTRODUCTION The shoulder has the largest range of motion of any joint in the human body and is crucial for performing activities of daily living. Multiple treatment options are available to patients with rotator cuff deficiency or osteoarthritis, including total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA) and reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (rTSA). The rTSA is now performed more frequently, as it provides range of motion recovery and pain reduction even in the setting of rotator cuff deficiency. However, in vivo shoulder kinematics are altered and highly variable following rTSA, and thus consistent rehabilitation protocols for rTSA patients have not been established, as it is currently unknown what is “correct” or optimal rTSA motion. The goal of this ongoing research is to analyze the altered kinematics following rTSA, and the specific goal of this study was to analyze changes in resting scapulothoracic pose. The primary objective was to evaluate the difference in scapulothoracic pose between healthy controls and functionally recovered rTSA patients (>52 weeks post-operative). A subset of the included 604 RANGE patients had pre-operative data as well, which was used to evaluate the effect of rTSA surgery on scapulothoracic joint angles. METHODS Our laboratory previously collected biplane fluoroscopy and skin-marker motion capture data of rTSA patients and healthy control subjects (IRB 71782, 113015). For this study, post-operative (>52 weeks) scapulae (N = 18)1,2 were compared to healthy shoulders (N = 10) from patients >45 years old (O45)3. A subset of rTSA patients also had pre-operative data (N= 7), which was used to compare to post-operative data. Motion capture data were tracked to determine the 3D position and orientation of the anatomical landmarks of the scapula, humerus, and torso. From these landmarks, we constructed bone and body segment coordinate systems and recast the scapulae into the torso coordinate system to account for variability in torso posture between data collections. We then calculated joint rotation matrices and performed joint angle decomposition for each subject. The ISB recommended Y-X’-Z’’ Euler sequence was 605 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH used to evaluate the elevation, protraction, and tilt of the scapula4. The right-hand-rule denoted positive rotations, but reverse sign convention was used for scapular upward elevation for ease of graphical interpretation. Joint angles between post-operative and healthy control subjects were compared using a twosided independent t-test. Absolute values of the pre- and post-operative joint angles were compared using a one-sample t-test where zero difference denoted no change. Absolute values were used to evaluate the magnitude of the change, since individual subjects often had large positive or negative post-operative changes and averaging the directional joint angles would negate this variability. Statistical significance was set at p≤0.05. RESULTS When comparing the post-operative joint angles to healthy controls, mean protraction of the scapula was 7.2±10.1° lower in rTSA patients (i.e., rTSA scapulae were more retracted, p=0.029) (Fig. 1). While both the downward rotation and anterior tilt were 606 RANGE slightly larger in rTSA patients neither reached statistical significance (p=0.399 and p=0.120, respectively). When analyzed as absolute values to evaluate the magnitude of change between pre- and post-operative rTSA patients, protraction of the scapula differed by 8.0±3.3° (p=0.001), while the downward elevation differed by 5.3±3.6° (p=0.008) and anterior tilt differed by 6.5±4.8° (p=0.011) (Fig. 2). Figure 1. Healthy vs. post-operative rTSA joint angles. Mean±SD. * p≤0.05. 607 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2. Difference from pre- to post-operative joint angles. Represented as post – pre. DISCUSSION The post-operative scapular pose after rTSA is less protracted (i.e., more retracted) than healthy control shoulders, whereas downward rotation and anterior tilt of the scapula did not differ. However, when analyzing the pre- to post-operative pose of patients, there was a large variation between subjects. The lack of a directional pattern in joint angles from pre- to postoperative suggests patients may recover with a large range of functional capabilities. The scapula and its stabilizing muscles adjust for the altered implant mechanics during recovery, resulting in these changes in joint angles. This result contrasts with our prior 608 RANGE study5, which concluded that pre- to post-operative changes in scapulothoracic orientation were statistically insignificant. However, that study measured joint angles from 2D radiograph and did not control for variations in torso posture, while the present study used the true 3D pose of the scapula relative to the torso. Limitations of this study include small sample size and variations in subject age, pathology, and implant systems, but captures the variability inherent in rTSA patient populations. SIGNIFICANCE The changes in the scapular resting pose could affect how patients are able to perform activities of daily living, where scapular retraction could limit peak elevation and external rotation due to restricted ability to further retract the scapula during motion. Large variation in the recovery of each patient demonstrates the need for modifiable implant design and placement. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Funding was provided by the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (R01 AR067196). 609 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH REFERENCES [1] Sulkar, HJ. Clin Orthop Relat Res, 2022, 480: 2254-65. [2] Sulkar, HJ. J Shoulder Elbow Surg, 2022, 32: E133-44. [3] Kolz, CW. J Biomech, 2021, 117: 110266. [4] Wu, G. J Biomech, 2005, 38: 981-92. [5] Kahn, TL. J Shoulder Elbow Surg, 2019, 28: E265E270. 610 RANGE 27 Axon Geometry Impacts Activation Threshold: Implications for Deep Brain Stimulation MADISON LODICO AND ALAN D. DORVAL Faculty Mentor: Alan D. Dorval (Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah) Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder in the United States and the number of Americans with PD is expected to double by 2040 [1]. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a 611 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH neurosurgical procedure used to treat many movement disorders such as Parkinson’s disease as well as other neurological conditions such as essential tremor, epilepsy, and dystonia [1, 2]. However, the success of therapeutic electrical stimulation varies greatly between patients and across neurological disorders. A primary factor for this success variability is electrode misplacement, one of the biggest sources of error in DBS treatment [3]. One unaccounted-for factor that could significantly contribute to inaccurate electrode placement stems from using the universally accepted straight axon model to estimate neuronal excitability as a function of contact location. Past work relating to the success of DBS has typically assumed that using geometrically straight versus biologically meandering axon models is inconsequential [4,5,6]. In this work, we quantify the changes in neuronal excitability as a function of axon curvature, independent of all other variables. METHODS To model different axon geometries we implemented the Hodgkin and Huxley axon model in MATLAB, using standard conductivity, conductances, ionic potentials, and gating variables. We simulated circular, parabolic, and straight Hodgkin and Huxley axons 612 RANGE responding to extracellularly applied currents, to identify their activation thresholds and response profiles. First, we created the axon geometries. To calculate the coordinates of a circular axon, the x and y coordinates of each compartment were calculated based on the angular positions according to a discrete step size and the desired circle radius. To calculate the coordinates of a parabolic axon, a binary search technique was used to adjust the compartment positions iteratively until the desired spacing between axon compartments in parabolic shape was achieved. Subsequently, we determined the extracellular potential profile along each axon induced by a single point contact located 1.0 cm away from the common location in all axons. Next, we calculated the first and second spatial derivatives of the extracellular potential along the axon, defined as the electric field and activating function respectively. Finally, we simulated the models responding to various amplitude currents to identify each axon geometry’s rheobase: the minimum current that caused an action potential. RESULTS We found the rheobase for the standard model (i.e., the straight Hodgkin and Huxley axons) to be -5.55 mA, but varied markedly for the curving axons. We 613 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH identified an 8-fold difference in rheobase between axons curving away from the electrode and axons curving toward it (see figure). Axons curving away from the electrode contact had substantially lower rheobases than straight axons; i.e., the curving-away axons could be activated with less applied current. In contrast, axons curving toward the electrode contact had substantially higher rheobases than straight axons; i.e., the curving-towards axons could only be activated with much more applied current. The amount of current required for activation for both parabolic and circular axons increased with tightening curvature until a parabolic stretch of 1.54 cm and a circular radius of 1.0 cm. At this maximum, the rheobaseI was -16.70 mA for the parabolic axon. Interestingly, the circular axon at this bifurcation could not be activated for any amount of current: a circular axon with a point electrode in the center cannot be polarized. For tighter curvatures, the required rheobase decreases as the axon gets closer to the electrode. 614 RANGE Figure 1. (Left) Five different axon geometries being activated by a point electrode contact (black dot) 1 cm away. There are two parabolic axons (red and light blue), one straight axon (yellow), and two circular axons (orange and dark blue). (Right)Minimum step current required to activate each axon. DISCUSSION Given the manifold change that axon curvature has on activation threshold, we propose that axon geometry must be included in any analyses of neuronal activation from implanted electrodes.Future work should leverage brain atlases to model curved axon tracts surrounding 615 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the subthalamic nucleus, a common region for DBS electrode placement. Subsequently, clinical imaging tools and pre-operative MRI scans could be analyzed to define patient-specific axon curvature and determine electrode placements to optimize therapeutic efficacy. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdeen, A. & Stuchly, M. A. “Modeling of magnetic field stimulation of bent neurons.” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 41, 1092–1095 (1994). Chaturvedi, T. J. Foutz, & C. C. McIntyre, “Current steering to activate targeted neural pathways during deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic region,” Brain Stimul, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 369–377, Jul. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.brs.2011.05.002. Chaturvedi, C. R. Butson, S. F. Lempka, S. E. Cooper, & C. C. McIntyre, “Patient specific models of deep brain stimulation: Influence of field model complexity on neural activation predictions,” Brain Stimul, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 65–77, Apr. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.brs.2010.01.003. Johns Hopkins Medicine, “Deep Brain stimulation,” 08-Aug-2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatmenttests-and-therapies/deep-brain-stimulation. 616 RANGE Maks, C. B., Butson, C. R., Walter, B. L., Vitek, J. L. & McIntyre, C. C. “Deep brain stimulation activation volumes and their association with neurophysiological mapping and therapeutic outcomes.” J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 80, 659–666 (2009). National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, “Parkinson’s disease: Challenges, promise,” 30-Sep-2015. progress, [Online]. and Available: https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/patientcaregiver-education/hope-through-research/ parkinsons-disease/parkinsons-disease-challengesprogress-and-promise. 617 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 28 Distal Tibial Long Axis Coordinate System Recommendation ERIKA MUHLRAD AND AMY LENZ Faculty Mentor: Amy Lenz (Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah) Patients with ankle injuries seek the care of clinicians, scientists, and engineers to help find solutions to improve their pain and injuries that can severely impact their ability to move around and their quality of life. 618 RANGE The field of foot and ankle research has been rapidly advancing however, and there are no standards for coordinate systems used by researchers to help patients by understanding motion of the complex area of the body[1]. Accurate anatomical coordinate systems for the foot and ankle are critical for interpreting their complex biomechanics[2]. The tibial superior-inferior axis is crucial for analyzing joint kinematics, influencing bone motion analysis during gait using CT imaging and biplane fluoroscopy. This study investigated various superior-inferior axes using multiple distal tibia lengths to determine the minimal field of view for representing the full tibia long-axis. Twenty human cadaver tibias were imaged and segmented to generate 3D bone models. Axes were calculated based on coordinate definitions that required user manual input, and a gold standard mean superior-inferior axis was calculated based on the population’s principal component analysis axis. Four manually calculated superior-inferior tibial axes groups were established based on landmarks and geometric fittings. Statistical analysis revealed that geometrically fitting a cylinder 1.5 times the mediolateral tibial width, starting 5 cm above the tibial plafond, yielded the smallest angular deviation from the gold standard. Implementing these findings will help improve foot and ankle research generalizability and 619 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH impact clinical decisions. Using this definition as a standard will allow clinicians such as surgeons to work with engineers and scientists in better understanding the motion of the foot and ankle and help those overcome challenges caused by ankle pain and injury. For a complete and in depth analysis of this project, please view: Muhlrad, E, Peterson, A.C., Anderson, A.M., Aragon, K., Lisonbee, R.J., MacWilliams, B.A., Kruger, K.M & Lenz, A.L. “Recommendation of minimal distal tibial length for long axis coordinate system definitions,” Journal of biomechanics, vol. 170, p. 112153, Jun. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jbiomech.2024.112153. REFERENCES [1] Wu, G., Siegler, S., Allard, P., Kirtley, C., Leardini, A., Rosenbaum, D., Whittle, M. D’Lima, D., Cristofolini, L., Witte, H., Schmid, S., & Stokes, I.“ISB recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate system of various joints for the reporting of human joint motion—part I: ankle, hip, and spine,” Journal of Biomechanics, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 543–548, Apr. 2002, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0021-9290(01)00222-6. [2] Lenz AL, Strobel MA, Anderson AM, Fial AV, 620 RANGE MacWilliams BA, Krzak JJ, Kruger KM. Assignment of local coordinate systems and methods to calculate tibiotalar and subtalar kinematics: A systematic review. J Biomech. 2021 May 7;120:110344. doi: 10.1016/ j.jbiomech.2021.110344. Epub 2021 Mar 10. PMID: 33744722. 621 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 29 The Effect of Lung Tumor Outgrowth on Strain Distributions in Nearby Alveolar Walls SYLVIA PACK; JEFFREY WEISS; MICHAEL HERRON; AND STEVEN LABELLE Faculty Mentor: Jeffrey Weiss (Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah) INTRODUCTION Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancerous death 622 RANGE in the United States.1 New screening methods have been developed aiming to catch pre-cancer, but 23% of patients suffer a local recurrence within 5 years.2 Lung tumors are unique in that they develop within soft tissue that is under regular cyclical mechanical stretch due to normal respiration. Stretching of lung epithelial cells adjacent to the tumor tissue border has been connected to early-stage lung tumor growth.3 These cells fill the alveolar space and thicken alveolar walls, which causes the extracellular matrix (ECM) peripheral to the tumor to deform4. This ECM displacement is associated with tumor stiffening, an established tumor progression driver, but the contribution of strain to lung cancer is unknown.5 The contribution of strain to the growth of early lung cancer is difficult to study solely via experiments. Earlier reports have concluded that alveoli at the edge of lung tumors experience amplified strain during respiration.7 Therefore, this observation led to the investigation into strain inducing activation of tumor growth signaling at the tumor edge, thereby increasing the area of amplified strain during respiration. We tested the hypothesis that circumferential tensile strain at the edges of growing tumors may be large enough to cause alveolar wall failure and early tumor spread. Determining the 623 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH contribution of strain to alveolar wall failure has the potential to uncover principles that predict adenoma progression to deadly cancer. METHODS Material assignment The foundation of the FE models was established in a preliminary study.7 These models consist of a hexagonal lattice, to represent the alveolar network, and solid tumor (Figure 1.A). The hexagonal lattice was made from a MATLAB (www.mathworks.com) script that created a mesh of uniform hexagonal shapes; then to account for variability in the lung, a randomized algorithm was applied to the idealized hexagonal lattice. The thickness of the walls was chosen to be 30 m.8 The material was classified as elastic neo-Hookean, which is typical for elastic biological tissue9. Based on experimental data, the lung lattice had a Young’s Modulus of 3.5*10-8 (Pa) and a Poisson ratio of 0.25. A tumor was constructed from this lattice through the selection of 20 alveolar spaces in a cluster with the material properties of a solid tumor. The tumor is classified as neo-Hookean with a Young’s Modulus of 3.5*10-8 (Pa) and a Poisson ratio of 0, indicating no lateral deformation in the tumor when stretched or 624 RANGE compressed. All FE models were established and analyzed in FEBio (www.febio.org). Prestrain In order to simulate strain in the lung due to respiration, prestrain was implemented. Prestrain is the applied strain before the growth of the tumor, which was used to simulate the strain experienced in the alveolar walls during respiration. To represent inhalation, the lattice edges were displaced to produce 20% global elongation, while for exhalation, it was displaced 5%.10 The entire model was constrained to have zero displacement in the Z-direction, simulating plane strain conditions. A single row of nodes was selected from the top and bottom of the edge of the normal lung lattice, and a single column of nodes was selected from the left and the right sides at the edge of the normal lung lattice. These selections were given a prescribed displacement, representing inhalation and exhalation, in the y-direction and xdirection. Two models were made: one with a prestrain value of 5% (exhalation) and the other with a prestrain value of 20% (inhalation). FEBio is run according to a time scale, so this prestrain was applied from time 0-0.5 and the tumor growth was applied from time 0.5-1. 625 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Tumor Growth The tumor growth was simulated through a feature in FEBio known transversely as active isotropic contraction, active specifically contraction. This mechanism involves the parameter of prescribed stress, which in this research was tumor growth, a value of -1.6*10-9(Pa) was set. An active contraction value when negative will cause the material to expand instead of contract. The value set for tumor growth was established in an earlier model that allowed for complete convergence when running the simulation. Postprocessing Once the models ran to completion, a Python (www.python.org) script was developed that would deliver an output of two pieces of information from the plot file. The first was the average 1st principal GreenLagrange strain found in each ring of alveolar wall after tumor growth. These ‘rings’ are concentric to the tumor and were calculated according to the tumor coordinate center. The script contained a search threshold of 45 degrees to avoid non-circumferentially oriented alveolar walls. Strain was calculated across 6 rings with 100 m spacing between each. Once the element set for each ring had been established, the strain value was averaged 626 RANGE for each ring. The second output from the script was the distance of each ring according to the tumor edge. This was calculated by finding the radius of the tumor at the last timestep, as the script had already utilized the center of the tumor for ring calculation, and the distance to the center of the tumor to each ring. Therefore, the distance from each ring to the edge of the tumor was calculated by subtracting the two numbers. Graphs were constructed in Origin Pro 2024 (www.originlab.com). RESULTS The results clearly demonstrated rotation and stretching of alveolar walls near the tumor. The highest 1st principal strain values were found in the alveolar walls near the tumor (Figure 1.B). 627 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH AB Figure 1.A. 2D Lung and Tumor Model. The tumor is located in the middle of the figure (grey) and consists of a cluster of 20 filled alveolar spaces. The lung lattice surrounds the tumor (blue) in a randomized hexagonal pattern. Figure 1.B. Post Tumor Growth Strain Distribution Model after 20% prestrain and tumor growth. There is 628 RANGE an increase of the 1st principal strain in the alveolar walls near the tumor edge. The model with 5% applied strain (Figure 2.A) had 6 rings. Ring 1 (5%) had an average strain value of 0.8871, and an average distance of 54.16 m to the tumor edge after growth. Ring 6 (5%) had an average strain value of 0.11276, and an average distance of 369.9 m to the edge of the tumor. The model with 20% applied strain (Figure 2.B) also had 6 rings. Ring 1 (20%) had an average strain value of 1.054 and an average distance of 50.02 m to the tumor edge. Ring 6 (20%) had an average strain value of 0.2374 and an average distance of 454.3 m to the tumor edge. Overall, as distance from the tumor after growth increased, the strain in the alveolar walls decreased. The tumor had a constant growth rate for both models but had different relative volumes in tumor size. The 5% model had an average volume change of 5.733 time the original tumor size, while the 20% model had an average relative volume change of 6.560. 629 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH A 630 RANGE B C Figure 2.A. 5% Applied Strain. Depicts the average strain value, after 5% prestrain and tumor growth, in the alveolar network dictated through rings with an increase of 100 m 631 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH from the tumor edge reaching a total of 6 rings. Figure 2.B. 20% Applied Strain. Depicts the average strain value, after 20% prestrain and tumor growth, in the alveolar network dictated through rings with an increase of 100 m from the tumor edge reaching a total of 6 rings. Figure 2.C. Ring Map. Schematic indicating the rings centric to the tumor in the alveolar network. DISCUSSION There was an increased area of amplified strain during respiration, specifically inhalation. This is to be expected as the alveolar walls experience a greater change in length (strain) during inhalation compared to exhalation. The 1st principal strain values experienced by the alveolar walls due to simulated tumor outgrowth were as high as 100%, which based on data from the literature, are large enough to cause failure of the alveolar walls. This could lead to tumor outgrowth into adjacent alveolar spaces. The relative volume was greater in the 20% Lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancerous death in the United States1, making 632 RANGE lung cancer research essential for medical progression. A significant implication of this research is the potential for mechanical strain to serve as a biomarker for early lung cancer progression. These mechanics developed in the lung models could be used toward predictive modeling, involving the image of early lung tumors being modeled using these mechanisms to predict specific tumors likelihood of metastasis. This could offer a world altering method and would change the treatment of tumors. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. R. L. Siegel, et al., CA Cancer J Clin, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 12–49, 2024. 2. A. H. Krist, et al., JAMA, vol. 325, no. 10, pp. 962–970, 2021. 3. C. M. Waters et al., Compr Physiol, vol. 2, pp. 1–29, 2012. 4. I. Jorba et al., Acta Biomater, vol. 92, pp. 265–276, 2019. 5. J. L. Leight, et al., Annu Rev Cancer Biol, vol. 1, pp. 313–334, 2017 633 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 6. S. P. Reese, et al., Biomech Model Mechanobiol, vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 1195–1204, 2013. 7. R. G. Zitnay et a., PLoS Comput Biol, vol. 18, no. 10, Oct. 2022. 8. H. Fukaya, et al., J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 689–695, 1968. 9. A. M. Birzle, et al., J Mech Behav Biomed Mater, vol. 94, no. January, pp. 126–143, 2019. 10. G. Burgstaller, et al., Euro Resp J, vol. 50, no. 1, 2017 634 RANGE 30 Protein Z as a Potential Anti-Fibrotic Therapeutic for Cardiovascular Fibrosis GEORGIY POLISHCHUK; THIRUPURA SHANKAR; AND STAVROS DRAKOS Mentor: Thirupura Shankar (Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah) ABSTRACT No effective non-invasive treatments exist for heart 635 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH failure (HF). This paper aims to determine whether Protein Z may function as a potential antifibrotic target to develop noninvasive and preventative treatments for HF. An acute hypertensive mouse model and human cardiac fibroblast (HCF) culture were employed to observe Protein Z expression’s effect on fibroblast activity and consequent fibrosis development. Protein Z expression was manipulated within HCF samples following stimulation to induce over expression (OE) or knockdown (KD). Similarly, mice, excluding the saline control, received a treatment to induce hypertension for 4 weeks with one group receiving a viral injection to induce KD. Echocardiography was performed to observe mouse heart function. At the conclusion, immunohistochemistry, tissue weighing, and protein quantification was performed to observe fibroblast activity and fibrosis development. The results demonstrated that decreased Protein Z expression led to decreased fibroblast activity and protein excretion. Similarly, tissue imaging suggested improved tissue structure following Protein Z downregulation. Thus, this study demonstrated Protein Z’s potential as an antifibrotic target. Heart failure is intricately tied to fibrosis development and adverse cardiac remodeling. Antifibrotic targets are promising therapeutics to limit 636 RANGE adverse cardiac remodeling and improve heart function. Index Terms— Cardiovascular Illness, Fibroblast, Fibrosis, Gene Expression, Hypertension INTRODUCTION Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading causes of death globally and account for 34% of deaths in the United States. In 2006 alone, CVDs accounted for over $400 billion in health care spending [1]. Following cardiac stress, such as inflammation or myocardial infarction (MI), the over- activation of fibroblasts can lead to excessive extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition, termed replacement fibrosis [2]. Increased myocardial fibrosis is one of the main drivers of systolic heart failure (HF), which limits the heart’s ability to pump blood adequately to the rest of the organs [3]. No effective non-invasive methods exist for treating replacement fibrosis, indicating the need to regulate fibroblast activity. Although the initial process of ECM excretion is necessary for recovery following heart damage, the over-deposition of ECM can deteriorate heart function. When cardiomyocytes die, the space left by the cells must be filled with ECM to preserve heart structure and function. In adverse remodeling, 637 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH fibroblasts over deposit ECM, causing heart tissue to stiffen and lose contractility [2]. Unfortunately, adverse remodeling can lead to heart failure (HF) with complete degradation of heart function. Thus, promising treatments for fibrosis center around restricting fibroblast activity, a vital pathway in fibrosis development [3]. Fibroblasts serve the function of excreting ECM to maintain structure following tissue damage but require differentiation into myofibroblasts to actively carry out this process. Protein Z could potentially regulate the development of fibrosis through its role as a transcription factor [6] [11]. Successful control over fibroblast activation may improve HF patient outcomes without invasive operations. Current research investigating fibrosis centers around modulating fibroblast gene expression to limit fibrosis. Various proteins regulate fibroblasts through gene regulation as transcription factors [9]. Thus. controlling upstream genes serves as a potentially effective therapeutic method. However, the mechanism behind fibrosis is not fully understood, as various cells can differentiate into fibroblasts under unique conditions and biochemical signals [9]. Although limited information is known about the mechanism behind 638 RANGE Protein Z- mediated cardiac fibrosis, recent studies have promising findings about the use of Protein Z in halting pulmonary, hepatic, and renal fibrosis [6]. However, no conclusive research has been conducted to understand Protein Z’s role in cardiovascular fibrosis. Exploring Protein Z’s function as a transcription factor related to fibroblast differentiation is vital in understanding the mechanism behind Protein Zmediated cardiovascular fibrosis. Thus, this paper aims to investigate the role of Protein Z inhibition in preventing excess cardiac fibrosis. Moreover, additional research could reveal its potential as a therapeutic target for cardiac fibrosis. In this work, Protein Z expression was manipulated using adenovirus on human cardiac fibroblasts (HCF) to investigate whether Protein Z causes fibroblast activation. Additionally, an acute hypertension induced heart failure model was employed to observe the effect of Protein Z expression on regulating adverse cardiac remodeling. Showcasing Protein Z’s role in mediating cardiac fibrosis will determine whether the protein merits additional investigation into its mechanism and as a potential therapeutic target. 639 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH BACKGROUND Fibrosis Developmentand Hypertensive Model As excess fibrosis is a common cause of HF, many studies explore therapeutic targets to limit fibrosis and adverse cardiac remodeling. Specifically, studies center around evaluating interstitial and replacement fibrosis due to the condition’s effect on adverse remodeling. Interstitial fibrosis particularly can push cells like cardiomyocytes out of alignment [2]. which adversely affects tissue function. Beyond HF, fibrosis is associated with many cardiovascular complications and conditions. As human heart tissue degenerates and deteriorates, the contractile force gradually decreases. Fibrosis can worsen cardiovascular conditions like hypertension with the occlusion of blood vessels through ECM growth [12]. Conversely, hypertension alters the heart’s workload and causes the overworked left ventricle to enlarge. The excretion of ECM by the heart because of hypertension can then progress to unfavorable remodeling and heart failure [13]. Fibrosis Marker sand Key Proteins While the mechanisms behind fibrosis development are varied and complex, exploring the regulation of 640 RANGE transcription factors like Protein Z can reveal potential therapeutics in mitigating and potentially reversing adverse remodeling. Studies show that Protein Z activates fibroblasts by regulating protein expression [6]. Specifically, Protein Z is essential in the MAPK and NF-kB signaling pathways, which promote the differentiation of fibroblasts [6]. Additionally, our preliminary studies using adenovirus (AdV-CMV-h Protein Z -GFP) on human cardiac fibroblasts (HCF) resulted in increased expression of smooth muscle actin (SMA), collagen, and smooth muscle-specific protein (SM22), evidence for the activation of fibroblasts [16]. SM22 and SMA are markers of active fibroblast differentiation and myofibroblasts, respectively [7]. Importantly, collagen comprises a significant portion of the ECM and consequently serves as a marker of fibrosis maturation [4]. Certain proteins serve as markers of fibroblast development and maturation. For instance, factors like TGFβ mediate the differentiation of certain cell types into fibroblasts. While there are multiple pathways in which cells differentiate into myofibroblasts, TGFβ is an important growth factor which allows for adipocytes, fibroblasts, endothelial, and epithelial cells to differentiate [11]. Therefore, quantifying these 641 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH proteins within experimental models reveals ECM remodeling of the heart and progression of fibrosis. HF Mechanisms As the mechanism for the development of fibrosis lacks definitive consensus, various treatments center around patients already experiencing HF through reactive rather than preventative care. Many pathways lead to the development of fibrosis, such as the RAAS pathway [14]. As such, many proposed potential anti-fibrotic therapeutics center around regulating connected biological systems such as the RAAS pathway [14]. However, therapeutics aimed at modulation of fibroblast activity prior to extreme cardiac remodeling hope to provide preventive measures against HF or eventual transplantation. Greater understanding of Protein Z’s role in the development of fibrosis will provide insight into its potential as a therapeutic target against fibrosis and a preventative medicine against HF. Experimental Models Considering the various models to employ in studying cardiac fibrosis is essential to ensure the study is medically applicable. Many anti-fibrotic therapeutic studies fail due to the use of inappropriate animal 642 RANGE models and lack of cell specificity [4]. Animal models alone fail to capture the complexities behind human fibrosis, which tends to be chronic rather than acute [4]. Within humans, the development of heart failure can take decades to fully manifest with multiple factors influencing the severity of the condition and ratio of interstitial versus replacement fibrosis [2]. In contrast, heart failure can be induced within weeks for animal models which allows for practical experimental observation but fails to capture the nuance behind human fibrosis. Employing a mouse model using hypertension can allow for an acute study of gradual fibrosis development as hypertension puts strain on the heart [2]. A hypertensive model can be effectively used, as the excessive load on the heart’s muscle fibers leads to oxidative stress and potential cell death [15]. Further research performed by the Drakos’ Lab later employed a chronic mouse model and human tissue culture to study Protein Z’s potential as a fibrotic therapeutic target. The lab is now working to fully understand the mechanism behind Protein Z mediated cardiac fibrosis. METHODS As the study aims to determine the potential role of Protein Z in regulating the progression of cardiac fibrosis, Protein Z expression was manipulated using 643 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH adenovirus. Following stimulation, differentiated myofibroblasts were treated with a viral injection to observe differences in Protein Z overexpression (OE) and knockdown (KD). Similarly, an acute hypertensive mouse model was used with an experimental KD group with a positive and negative control group. Target proteins reflective of fibroblast differentiation and ECM expression were quantified through Western Blotting and differences were statistically analyzed. Additional histology was performed with the mouse model to evaluate heart structure, specifically with replacement and interstitial fibrosis. Evaluating differences between experimental groups and controls demonstrated the role of Protein Z expression in the progression of cardiac fibrosis. HCF Cell Culture HCF from PromoCell, #c-12375, were cultured in 12-well plates with 50,000 cells per well with PromoCell HCF media, #C-23010, for 48 hours. The cells within each well were stimulated by 10 ng/ml of TGFβ for 48 hours during which media change occurred every 24 hours. 72 hours following or preceding stimulation, a viral infection was performed at 250 multiplicities of infection for 24 hours. Both Protein-Z OE with AD- CMV-h Protein-Z -GFP and 644 RANGE KD with Ad-CMV-sh- Protein-Z -GFP were achieved. Each injected vector was in a concentration of vector in a concentration of 3.1* 10e12 VG kg−1 with the GFP vector serving as a control. Upon conclusion of the experiment, cells were harvested with a cell scraper. Molecular characterizations were then performed. HCF Extraction HCF were lysed in 1X Cell Signaling Technology RIPA buffer, #9806S, with 2x protease and phosphatase inhibitor (Thermo Scientific #78440). The cells then sat in solution for 20 minutes, after which 5μl of 100 mmol phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride was added to solution to inhibit proteases. The homogenate rotated at 4°C for 30 minutes before centrifugation at 4°C at 18407 rcf. The supernatant was transferred into a new tube for protein estimation using Pierce BCA Protein Assay kit (Thermo Scientific, #23225). 2x Laemmli buffer was introduced to the supernatant in equal part to 10% DTT. The solution was boiled for 10 minutes at 98°C. A similar process occurred for mouse left ventricular (LV) tissue samples except that a 30 μg sample of transmural LV was first homogenized using metal beads for 3 min within the previously described solution. 645 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Animal Care The animal study with the acute mouse model was performed in accordance with the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Research procedures such as surgical operations, treatment administration, and observation were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of the University of Utah and complied with the American Physiological Society’s Guiding Principles in the Care and Use of Animals and the UK Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 guidelines. In accordance with University of Utah protocol, the mice were housed in the intuition at 70 °F and 40% humidity with 12 h dark/light cycle. All groups received the same diet and care conditions with the only variance being in specific treatment administered. Angiotens in II and Phenylephrine (AngII+PE)Systemic Fibrosis Model: Male and female 12-week-old C57BL6J mice were used within the study which had systemic fibrosis induced through continuous infusion of AngII+PE for two weeks. Infusion was regulated by an Alzet miniosmotic pump (model #2004) which was prepared as per manufacturers protocol with saline or a 646 RANGE combination of Angiotensin II (1.5mg/g/day) and Phenylephrine (50mg/g/day). Two weeks following introduction of the pump, mice randomly received an injection of AAV9-CMV-shRNA-m-Protein-Z-GFP vector or control AAV9-CMV-GFP vector in a concentration of 3.1* 10e12 VG kg−1. The three groups consisted of 5 mice (N=5) and were recurrently echoed for entire 4-week duration of study, notably 2-weeks prior and following injection. Saline mice only had a saline pump introduced, the GFP group had the control vector, while the Protein-Z group had the experimental vector introduced. The pumps were weighed at the start and end of the study. Upon harvesting, the hearts were washed with 1x Phosphate Buffered Saline Solution (PBS). Upon completion of the study mouse hearts were weighed, Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was performed, and molecular characterization was performed. Echocardiogram Throughout the four-week timeframe of the systemic fibrosis model, mice were weekly observed through ECG using limb leads. The mice were anesthetized with 1.5% isoflurane and .8 liters of oxygen during. While under anesthesia, images of the mice heart and aorta were taken on the Vivo system along the 2D long 647 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and short-axis. Analysis of the images was performed in Vivo strain software (version 3.1.1). Echocardiograms were performed serially over 2 consecutive cardiac cycles to conduct analysis of the Ejectile Fraction (EF), Left Ventricular End Diastolic Diameter (LVEDD), and Fractional Shortening(FS). Western Blotting 30 μg of protein were pipetted into polyacrylamide gel which were run at a constant 25V per gel until the ladder was around the bottom of gel.. The proteins were then transferred onto a nitrocellulose membrane at a constant 350 mA for 1 hour. A total protein stain (TPS) was performed before being scanned following the Licor Revert 700 Total Protein Stain protocol. The membranes were blocked with Odyssey Blocking Buffer (LiCor #927-50000) and probed with primary antibodies overnight in a cool room and constant motion to promote mixing. The blots were then washed with 1x tris- buffered saline with tween (TBStween) three times. Following the wash, the protocol was performed in the dark. The blots were incubated with secondary antibodies (anti- mouse or anti-rabbit 1:10,000) for 30 mins and washed an additional three times. The blots were then scanned with Odyssey Infrared Imager (LI-COR 9120). Each gel had a unique 648 RANGE TPS which allowed for present proteins to be normalized, and the blots were analyzed with LI-COR Image Studio Lite software version 5.2. IHC Mice tissue, kidney, cardiac, or other tissues of interest, were embedded in OCT solution (Sakura Finetek) after PFA fixation in 4% paraformaldehyde. The samples were then frozen and stored at -80ºC prior to sectioning with the cryostat (Leica CM1950). The tissue was sectioned around 100μm thickness before being stained in 4’,6-diamidino-2- phenylindole (DAPI) (ThermoFisher Scientific D3571) at a concentration of 1:1000, Wheat Germ Agglutinin (WGA (ThermoFisher Scientific W32464) at a concentration of 1:1000, Periostin/OSF-2 Antibody (Novus Biologicals 30042) at a concentration of 1:100, and Protein Z (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) at a concentration of 1:10. Anti-mouse and anti-rabbit secondary antibodies were used accordingly. The images were taken using Leica Application Suite X (3.5.7.23225) with identical laser settings across each sample and a z-depth within 20 µm of each other. Images for each protein of interest were acquired with the same laser settings of a confocal microscope (Leica SP8, Leica Microsystems CMS GmbH, Leica DMi8 649 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH automated) across samples and processed using Fiji (ImageJ 2.3.0). Tissue structure was then visually evaluated with special attention to areas of concentrated ECM. Interstitial, replacement fibrosis, and cardiomyocyte orientation were evaluated between each of the three groups. Statistical Analysis Protein quantification data from Western Blotting was compared across different experimental groups. The relative concentrations of target proteins were evaluated as the mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM). The analytical and data visualization software, GraphPad Prism (version8.2.1, GraphPad), was employed for all statistical analyses. Two- tailed tests were performed in comparisons of the cell culture experimental groups. In the mouse study, one-way ANOVA was used for comparing multiple groups. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All experiments were repeated independently with at least three biological replicates. Western blot quantification was performed from the same gel or processed in parallel when necessary. RESULTS Following stimulation of the fibroblasts in the cell 650 RANGE culture, the cells were treated such that there was a Protein-Z OE and KD experimental groups. The cells were lysed, and Western Blotting was performed to quantify relative amounts of target proteins. The KD group excreted less collagen than the stimulated group while the OE excreted four times as much collagen (Figure 1). Similarly, markers of fibroblast differentiation and activity such as Sm22 and SMA were in significantly higher concentrations in the OE group compared to the stimulated group. The OE group demonstrated increased activity of fibroblasts in vitro (Figure 2). The KD group conversely had significantly lower levels of Sm22 and Collagen compared to the unstimulated group (Figure 3). Notably, the KD group excreted five times less collagen than the GFP group. 651 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1: Representative Western Blott Image of a collagen stain for the KD group. Quantification of Protein Z (KD) of Collagen (n=6) and Protein Z Overexpression (OE) from Western Blott data showcasing relationship of Protein Z expression to ECM deposition. 652 RANGE Figure 2: Western blot quantification of HCF culture. The proteins SMA and SM22 in unstimulated (US) and Protein Z OE (n=5 each) are displayed. P- value derived from Two-tailed unpaired t-test. 653 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 3: Western blot quantification of HCF culture. The proteins SMA and SM22 in unstimulated (US) and Protein Z OE (n=5 each) are displayed. P- value derived from Two-tailed unpaired t-test. The mouse study was conducted to model systemic fibrosis through hypertension, over the 4-week duration of which echocardiogram and ECG observation and analysis were conducted, shown in Figure 4. Both the KD and GFP groups had thicker left ventricular walls compared to the saline group towards the end of the study. The GFP and KD groups started with similar ejectile fractions (EF) of the left ventricle. Towards the conclusion of the study, no statistically significant differences were observed between with the EF; however, the GFP and KD groups seemed to change from the saline control towards the end of the study. 654 RANGE Figure 4: Longitudinal echocardiography data showing 655 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH left ventricular ejection fraction (EF%) and end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD) respectively (n=5 each). p-value: Multiple two-tailed t-test. 656 RANGE Figure 5: Mouse heart mass/body mass of systemic fibrosis model (n=5) Upon harvesting the hearts of the system fibrosis models, the hearts were weighed, and Western Blotting was performed. The GFP group had significantly heavier hearts compared to the Saline group. The Protein Z KD group, while not significant, had around 20% lower average heart weight compared to the GFP group (Figure 5). Figure 6: Representative Western Blott image of systemic model SMA stain. Quantification of SM22 (n=4 saline, n=5 GFP and Protein Z KD). Quantification of SMA (n=4 saline, n=5 GFP and Protein Z KD). Quantified Western Blott data, seen in Figure 6, of the systemic model did not demonstrate significant differences in concentrations of SMA or SM22 between the GFP and Protein Z KD groups. 657 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH However, the Protein Z KD groups had on average fewer relative amounts of SMA and SM22 compared to the GFP group. Figure 7: Immunohistochemistry (IHC) imaging of mouse myocardium (n=5 each) IHC data in Figure 7 showed increased ECM proteins and more irregular tissue structure in the GFP group compared to both the Saline and Protein Z KD groups. The Saline group witnessed less ECM and demonstrated a baseline structure of heart tissue. DISCUSSION Cardiovascular illness continues to be the leading cause of death in the US with heart failure being a large contributing condition [1]. With fibrosis functioning as a main driver of heart failure, 658 RANGE therapeutics limiting the development of fibrosis may serve as preventative measures against death from cardiovascular illness [3]. Accordingly, Protein Z has been tied to the development of fibrosis within other organ systems and may serve as a potential antifibrotic therapeutic [6, 11]. Unfortunately, the development of cardiac fibrosis as mediated by Protein Z is not well understood. Accordingly, this study aims to explore the effect of Protein Z expression on the development of cardiac fibrosis by employing a human cardiac fibroblast (HCF) cell culture model and an acute hypertension mouse model. Results from the HCF culture demonstrated an increased fibroblast activity associated with Protein Z expression. Following stimulation, activated fibroblasts demonstrated significantly increased levels of key proteins secreted by activated fibroblasts such as SM22 and SMA (Figure 3). Protein Z KD prevented cardiac fibroblast activation and reduced ECM deposition in vitro. Moreover, HCF cells that expressed Protein Z were shown to secrete significantly more collagen (Figure 2). Such results showcased Protein Z’s role in the development of fibrosis: HCF increased activity and secreted more 659 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ECM with Protein Z expression. The observed effect of Protein-Z expression and fibroblast activity seems to confirm previous studies observation of Protein Z as a transcription factor [11]. Similarly, results from the mouse model study demonstrated differences in cardiac structure following Protein Z expression. While no statistically significant differences were observed between the positive control group and the KD group’s cardiovascular function, as the study progressed, echocardiogram LVEDD data seemed to suggest emerging differences between the groups (Figure 4). Such observations were reflected within the average heart weight, as the KD group had smaller hearts on average, albeit, not with statistical significance (Figure 5). The observations suggest that limiting activity of Protein Z expression may lead to decreased fibrosis due to limited fibroblast activity. Similar findings were reported within pulmonary and renal fibrosis studies where limiting Protein Z expression resulted in less fibrosis development [6,9]. While no studies have observed the connection between fibrosis and Protein Z expression, our study demonstrates a potential pathway development mediated by Protein Z. 660 of fibrosis RANGE IHC data from the mouse models was analyzed for structural differences between the groups. The KD group appeared to have a more regular structure witnessed the cardiomyocytes lining the tissue in parallel with one another (Figure 6). Additionally, the WGA staining illuminated increased regions of fibrotic tissue within both the KD and positive control groups demonstrating both groups undergoing the scarring process following cardiac injury. However, the KD group appeared to have less overall fibrosis with less widespread areas of replacement and interstitial fibrosis. These results offer insight into Protein Z as a potential antifibrotic target and as a preventative treatment to current LVAD and heart transplant treatments for heart failure [3]. Our study offers insight into treating heart failure without invasive procedures by investigating therapeutic targets that offer the heart a chance to recover following damage but avoid adverse cardiac remodeling through fibrosis. The study showed the potential behind downregulating Protein Z expression to limit the development of fibrosis. However, additional work is required to fully understand the mechanism behind Protein Z-mediated fibrosis. Specifically, further 661 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH research should elucidate what proteins and genes Protein Z interacts with that may indirectly influence the progression of fibrosis. Full comprehension of the Protein Z mechanism may offer insight into additional methods to produce effective anti-fibrotic therapeutics and their side effects. This study was not without limitations. While demonstrating a link between the development of cardiac fibrosis and Protein Z expression, the study did not define the mechanism behind Protein Zmediated cardiac fibrosis. The use of an acute mouse model limited the study’s generalizability to human heart failure, which occurs over longer durations of time. Future work by the Drakos’ lab aims to address said limitations. Employing a chronic heart failure mouse model and using a human heart tissue culture to observe Protein Z’s effect on heart function following fibrosis development will increase generalizability to humans. A better understanding of Protein Z-mediated fibrosis may offer methods to treat fibrosis and cardiovascular illnesses. This research project furthered understanding of Protein Z’s role in cardiovascular fibrosis by demonstrating a connection between Protein Z expression and 662 RANGE fibrosis development: downregulating Protein Z expression led to a decrease in fibroblast activity. Thus, the study may improve therapeutic options in the fight against heart disease by contributing to the understanding of heart failure and subsequent development of non-invasive treatment options. With an aging population, cardiovascular illness will continue to be the leading cause of death in the US and, consequently, require further investigation. Accordingly, this research can improve the quality of life for millions of people afflicted by heart failure. REFERENCES [1] G. A. Mensah and D. W. Brown, “An Overview Of Cardiovascular Disease Burden In The United States,” Health Affairs, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 38–48, Jan. 2007. [2] Khalil, Natalie N., and Megan L. McCain. 2021. “Engineering the Cellular Microenvironment of Post-Infarct Myocardium on a Chip.” Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, no. 11, 14 Jul. 2021. [3] T. Espeland, I. G. Lunde, B. H. Amundsen, L. Gullestad, and S. Aakhus, “Myokardfibrose,” 663 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening, vol. 138, no. 16 Oct. 2018. [4] Z. Fan and J. Guan, “Antifibrotic therapies to control cardiac fibrosis,” Biomaterials Research, vol. 20, no. 1, p. 13 May 2016. [5] Li, Zilong, Baoyu Chen, Wenhui Dong, Ming Kong, Zhiwen Fan, Liming Yu, Dongmei Wu, Jun Lu, and Yong Xu. 2019. “MKL1 Promotes Endothelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition and Liver Fibrosis by Activating TWIST1 Transcription.” Cell Death & Disease, no. 899, pp. 1–13, 19 Nov 2019. [6] Lyons, Peter , Neil R. Mattatall, and HyoSung Ro. 2006. “Modeling and Functional Analysis of AEBP1, a Transcriptional Repressor.” Proteins, no. 4, pp. 1069-1083, 1,Jun 2006. [7] Younesi, Fereshteh S., Dong Ok Son, Joao Firmino, and Boris Hinz. 2021. “Myofibroblast Markers and Microscopy Detection Methods in Cell Culture and Histology.” Methods Mol Bio, no. 2279, pp.17–47, 25 May 2021. 664 RANGE [8] Roshdy, Ashraf, Shroque Zaher, Hossam Fayed, and John Gerry Coghlan. “COVID-19 and the Heart: A Systematic Review of Cardiac Autopsies.” Front Cardiovasc Med, 7 January 2021 [9] Wang, N. Rabhi, S.-F. Yet, S. R. Farmer, and M. D. Layne, “Aortic carboxypeptidase-like protein regulates vascular adventitial progenitor and fibroblast differentiation through myocardin related transcription factor A,” Sci Rep, vol. 11, no. 1, p. 3948, Feb. 2021. [10] Elsafadi et al., “Transgelin is a TGFβinducible gene that regulates osteoblastic and adipogenic differentiation of human skeletal stem cells through actin cytoskeleston organization,” Cell Death Dis, vol. 7, no. 8, p. 2321, Aug. 2016. [11] Liu et al., “AEBP1 promotes epithelialmesenchymal transition of gastric cancer cells by activating the NF-κB pathway and predicts poor outcome of the patients,” Sci Rep, vol. 8, no. 1, Aug. 2018. [12] R. Alpert et al., “A mechanistic analysis 665 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of the force- frequency relation in non-failing and progressively failing human myocardium,” Basic Res Cardiol, vol. 93, pp. 23–32, Mar. 1998. [13] Keteepe-Arachi, “Cardiac Fibrosis in Hypertension”, J Hypertens Manag, vol. 3, no. 1, Feb. 2017. [14] M. W. Schmidt and R. E. Schmieder, “Aldosterone- induced cardiac damage: focus on blood pressure independent effects,” Am J Hypertens. vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 80–86, Jan. 2003. [15] Van der Pol A et al., “Treating oxidative stress in heart failure: past, present and future.” Eur J Heart Fail. 2019;21 no. 4, pp. 425-435, 19 Oct 2018. [16] TS Shankar, “Understanding Cardiac Remodeling and Reverse Remodeling in Heart Failure.” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah, SLC, United States, 2022 666 RANGE 31 GJA1-20K Therapy Increases Renal Corical ATP Concentration in Pig Model of Severe Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury RYLEIGH SMITH Faculty Mentor: Guillaume Hoareau (Physiology, University of Utah) 667 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ABSTRACT GJA1-20k is an endogenous mammalian peptide. GJA1-20k exerts protective cellular effects and its expression increases in tissues undergoing ischemic stress. The protective effects of GJA1-20k after ischemia are multimodal. It is already known that GJA1-20k interacts with actin surrounding the mitochondria, causing mitochondrial fission through a novel pathway. This peptide also protects mitochondria undergoing oxidative stress by decreasing oxygen consumption, though the mechanism is not understood. The protective effects of GJA1-20k are critical to the survival of tissues experiencing ischemia since mitochondria regulate cell apoptosis and can release damaging agents such as reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial DNA. This study investigates several therapeutic benefits of GJA1-20k in a pig model of ischemiareperfusion injury characterized by hemorrhage, prolonged aortic occlusion, and resuscitation. For this project, ATP concentration and interleukin-6 (IL6) RNA fold change were quantified from flash-frozen heart and renal cortex samples. Investigating tissue ATP concentration was a logical next step since GJA1-20k reduces oxygen mitochondrial consumption dynamics. 668 IL6 and regulates transcription was RANGE evaluated since IL6 is a biomarker of injury severity in trauma patients and could be another indicator of GJA1- 20k overall protective mechanisms. It was found that with intravenous GJA1-20k treatment, the renal cortex had increased ATP concentrations but not the heart. GJA1-20k treatment had no significant effect on IL6 gene expression. These results further support GJA1-20k as a potential therapeutic drug for traumaassociated ischemia-reperfusion injury and give further insight into its mechanism of action. INTRODUCTION Uncontrolled bleeding is the primary cause of preventable death in trauma patients. Severe blood loss, or hemorrhagic shock, is responsible for 30 to 40% of mortality for trauma victims in the U.S. [1], [2], [3]. The pathophysiology of hemorrhagic shock is biphasic. First, patients suffer from ischemia, an inadequate delivery of oxygen to tissues resulting directly from blood losses. This leads to insufficient supplies for cellular metabolic needs. Ischemia in patients affected by hemorrhagic shock is commonly treated with blood transfusions, leading to reperfusion of oxygen and nutrients to cells in affected tissues [4], [5]. However, blood reperfusion during resuscitation circulates harmful metabolic byproducts that have built up systemically during the 669 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ischemic phase. Hemorrhagic shock is therefore characterized by ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), the paradoxical exacerbation of tissue damage caused by the reintroduction of oxygen to ischemic tissue [4], [6], [7]. IRI is characterized by oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and, importantly, mitochondrial dysfunction leading to cell death and ultimately multiorgan failure [3], [6]. Mitochondria are responsible for cellular energy production, metabolic regulation, and cell signaling [8]. During IRI, mitochondrial damage leads to reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, apoptosis, and energy depletion [4]. Mitochondrial dysfunction in IRI is linked to multiorgan failure and higher mortality rates [9]. Mitochondria play a vital role in IRI pathophysiology [8], [10]. Mitochondrial dysfunction is, therefore, a potential therapeutic target in trauma patients [6], [11]. The mitochondrial mechanisms contributing to IRI must be further investigated to identify appropriate treatment methods. GJA1-20k, a peptide endogenous to mammals, protects the mitochondria during IRI [12], [13], [14]. IRI increases GJA1-20k expression such that GJA1-20k overexpression is a natural response to tissue injury [14]. GJA1-20k’s effects on mitochondria are reduced size from fission [14], relocation to the cell periphery [15], 670 RANGE decreased respiration [16], and decreased ROS output [17]. The C-terminus tail of the GJA1-20k peptide interacts with the actin scaffolding around the mitochondria to cause mitochondrial fission [13], [17]. Interactions with microtubules and actin allow GJA1-20k to shuttle the smaller mitochondria to the cell periphery [15], [18], [19], which helps create a protective cytosolic mitochondrial dispersion. When GJA1-20k interacts with the mitochondria, it decreases mitochondrial respiration, ROS production, and mitochondrial membrane potential [12], [17]. Thus, less oxygen is consumed in an environment already deprived of oxygen, and metabolism is slowed. The protective effects of GJA1-20k are critical to the survival of tissues experiencing ischemia since mitochondria regulate cell apoptosis, and release damaging agents such as ROS and mitochondrial DNA [20]. The mechanisms behind the protective effects of GJA1-20k delivered as a drug are not fully understood. A preliminary study used a pig model of combined hemorrhagic shock and complete aortic occlusion to lead to profound IRI. Results from this preliminary study showed intravenous GJA1-20k reduced resuscitation fluid requirements [11] and decreased serum levels of interleukin 6 (IL6), which is a biomarker of injury 671 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH severity in trauma patients [21], [22]. How the decreased oxygen consumption affects adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production is not understood. Quantifying ATP in tissue is essential for assessing metabolic failure and mitochondrial dysfunction. ATP serves as a key indicator of cellular energetics because its depletion reflects impaired oxidative phosphorylation due to reduced oxygen and nutrient delivery [20]. Given the central role of mitochondria in ATP production, its measurement provides insight into the extent of mitochondrial injury and the efficacy of therapeutic interventions targeting mitochondrial function. Furthermore, ATP quantification allows for the evaluation of tissue-specific susceptibility to ischemia and the metabolic impact of IRI following resuscitation. Given the physiological similarities between pigs and humans, these findings have important translational implications for improving resuscitation strategies in trauma patients. Quantifying IL6 in tissue is important because it provides insight into localized inflammatory responses and the tissue-specific effects of GJA1-20k after hemorrhagic shock. While preliminary studies have demonstrated that GJA1-20k reduces serum IL6 levels [21], systemic cytokine concentrations do not always 672 RANGE reflect tissue-specific inflammation. Tissue specific inflammation is important to investigate because it plays a critical role in organ dysfunction and injury. Measuring IL6 gene expression in key organs (such as the kidney and heart) allows for a more precise evaluation of how GJA1-20k modules inflammatory signaling at the tissue level. Determining IL6 gene expression clarifies whether GJA1-20k effects on IL6 are due to reduced systemic cytokine production, enhanced clearance, or direct mitigation of local inflammation. This distinction is crucial for understanding the mechanism of action of GJA1-20k and its potential role in protecting organ function after hemorrhagic shock. This study hypothesizes that in a pig model of IRI, GJA1-20k therapy significantly increases ATP concentration and decreases IL6 gene expression in the heart and kidney. Controlled hemorrhage and aortic occlusion via resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) were used to model IRI. Pigs were treated intravenously with saline or GJA1-20k. The heart was studied because GJA1-20k is more concentrated in heart tissue [14]. The kidney was evaluated since acute kidney failure is a common morbidity of hemorrhagic shock [5], [23], and this model of IRI has been shown to have increased serum 673 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH creatinine levels, a clinical biomarker of kidney injury [24], [25]. The flash-frozen heart and kidney tissues were evaluated for ATP concentration and IL6 gene expression. Investigating the mechanisms of GJA1-20k therapy enhances understanding of its mechanisms of action and advances its potential use in treating IRI from hemorrhagic shock. BACKGROUND Blood circulates oxygen and nutrients in the body. Hemorrhagic shock, or severe bleeding, is one of many conditions that may lead to reduced oxygen delivery to the cells. This is a pressing problem because of the high prevalence of hemorrhagic shock [26]. Not only is hemorrhage associated with high acute mortality rates, but those who survive the original injury often have lasting effects. Severe hemorrhage is also associated with elevated long-term mortality [26]. These patients have a shorter life expectancy, as well as other complications such as acute kidney injury [23], [27]. Even with treatment, patients who experience hemorrhage have increased morbidity and mortality rates compared to patients who have not experienced hemorrhage [2]. The kidneys are especially susceptible to damage during IRI. Animal studies consistently demonstrate elevation 674 RANGE in serum creatinine after IRI [24], [28], which indicates kidney injury [25]. During severe hemorrhage blood flow to the kidney and other organs is reduced to conserve blood circulation to the heart and brain [29]. After ischemia, restoration of blood flow to the kidney can cause even more damage [29]. Acute kidney injury is considered an independent risk factor after trauma, and even mild acute kidney injury increases mortality risks in trauma patients by 2.5 times [23]. Furthermore, acute kidney injury in those patients can transition into chronic kidney disease, contributing to long-term morbidity [27]. Thus, the kidneys are especially susceptible to damage during IRI and require further protection in patients experiencing hemorrhagic shock. Mitochondrial dysfunction is a hallmark of IRI because mitochondria need oxygen for some of their basic functions. The mitochondria are responsible for managing the amount of calcium in the cell, initiating cell apoptosis, and regulating metabolic processes [20]. Metabolic processes such as fatty acid synthesis, ATP production, amino acid metabolism, etc. are all regulated by the mitochondria [8]. The internal structure of the mitochondria (Figure 1) and the supply of oxygen is integral to mitochondrial function because of the electron transport chain (ETC). 675 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1. The mitochondria are an organelle inside of eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria have two membranes, the inner membrane and the outer membrane. In between the inner membranes of the mitochondria there are metabolic reactions such as the TCA cycle. Embedded in the inner membrane are the components of the electron transport chain, including complex I, II, III, IV, etc. This figure was adapted from [3] using Biorender. Mitochondria use the reaction between oxygen and the electron transport chain to drive metabolic function. Oxygen is the ETC’s electron sink and drives electrons through its four complexes. Using this energy the ETC drives the creation of a proton gradient and, ultimately, the function of ATP synthase to 676 RANGE produce ATP. Figure 2 shows how electrons travel along the inner mitochondrial membrane to pump protons into the intermembrane space. The electrons then reduce oxygen to form water, and the proton gradient is used to synthesize ATP. The proton gradient creates a membrane potential that the mitochondria also use to regulate other metabolic pathways. Thus, when tissues do not have enough oxygen during ischemia, mitochondria are some of the first organelles to stop functioning correctly. Oxygen depletion inhibits the ETC since there is no oxygen to accept the electrons. Instead, electrons react with other molecules to create damaging ROS. Figure 2. The ETC is integral to ATP production and metabolic regulation in the mitochondria [30]. The ETC is a series of protein complexes (I-IV) embedded in the 677 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH inner mitochondrial membrane that drive ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation. Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred through these complexes, generating a proton gradient across the membrane. Complex I and complex II transfer electrons to ubiquinone (Q), which carries them to complex III. Electrons are then passed to cytochrome c (Cyt C) and delivered to complex IV, where they reduce oxygen to water. The proton gradient created by electron transfer powers ATP synthase, driving the conversion of ADP to ATP. Without enough oxygen, the ETC will produce ROS, the membrane potential will decrease, and ATP production will decrease. During ischemia, complexes I and III of the ETC have increased ROS production as their electrons flow to other molecules instead of complex IV. This figure was adapted from [30] using Biorender. The membrane potential also decreases duringischemia because the ETC no longer maintains the proton gradient. The decreased membrane potential reduces ATP production [6] and disables the mitochondria from regulating metabolism. This loss of membrane potential also disrupts mitochondrial homeostasis, leading to increased ROS production and the release of pro-apoptotic 678 RANGE factors such as cytochrome c. Additionally, a diminished membrane potential compromises ion regulation, contributing to calcium overload and mitochondrial dysfunction. ROS production is a hallmark of IRI owing to the reintroduction of oxygen after a period of hypoxia. ROS is an umbrella term for damaging agents such as free radicals, hydrogen peroxide, and reactive nitrogen species. ROS can damage DNA, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. As for mitochondrial ROS formation, the specific areas of the ETC where ROS can be formed are shown in Figure 2. It is normal for cells to have a small amount of ROS, but increased ROS levels are observed in tissues undergoing ischemia [26]. Increased levels of ROS come from an imbalance between ROS production and antioxidants. The accumulation of ROS damages the mitochondria and can lead to irreversible cell damage through the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) [26]. ROS production is associated with inflammation, necrosis, and apoptosis. This shows that ROS are directly related to a 679 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH molecular pathway leading to cell death and inflammation. Mitochondria can signal the cell to undergo apoptosis through small molecules called DAMPs when damaged by lack of oxygen [14]. Mitochondria can cause the cell to undergo apoptosis by releasing DAMPs during mitochondrial damage or stress [8]. Therefore, mitochondria are an attractive target for patients with IRI [24]. The peptide GJA1-20k protects the mitochondria during IRI and is a potential therapeutic drug for IRI. GJA1-20k was first pinpointed as a protein of interest for the treatment of IRI when higher expression was found in cells subjected to oxidative stress [17], [31]. The GJA1 gene codes for Connexin 43 (Cx43), a gap junction protein essential for heart cells to communicate and synchronize function [17]. This large protein has many transmembrane regions [32]. The GJA1 gene also codes for GJA1-20k, a protein that is only 20 kilodaltons compared to Cx43 which is over twice that size [15], [33]. The GJA1 gene can be translated into a protein in a 680 RANGE few different ways because there are several start codons, as shown in Figure 3 [17], [32]. One of the shorter protein versions is GJA1-20k, the most abundant isoform of Cx43 [15], [17]. GJA1-20k has the complete C-terminus tail and part of a transmembrane region of Cx43, as shown in Figure 3 [17]. GJA1-20k only has one transmembrane region and is not transported to the cell membrane in vesicles like the Cx43, meaning the tail end of the protein can interact with more components inside the cell than Cx43 [13]. Thus, GJA1-20k has an entirely different function from Cx43, even though they are both translated from the same gene. Figure 3. Cx43 has 6 common isoforms of which GJA1-20k 681 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH is the most common [17]. GJA1-20k includes one transmembrane region and the C-terminus tail of Cx43. GJA1-20k interacts with actin to stabilize it, and in keeping actin from breaking apart, it effectively controls the growth of actin filaments [13], [34]. During oxidative stress, GJA1-20k localizes to actin around the mitochondria’s outer membrane and controls the actin to change mitochondrial morphology [16]. GJA1-20k stabilizes actin filaments, directly coordinating mitochondrial fission [13]. Therefore, GJA1-20k causes fission of the mitochondria by directly interacting with actin instead of using a signaling cascade. It is not understood what function this GJA1-20k mediated fission is serving. However, the GJA1-20k mediated fission is related to GJA1-20k’s protection of the mitochondria after ischemic stress. It is not entirely understood how GJA1-20kmediated mitochondrial fission protects the mitochondria. However, there are a few known effects of GJA1-20k on mitochondria, even if the precise mechanism of mitochondrial 682 RANGE protection is yet to be discovered. One study of GJA1-20k in heart cells under oxidative stress found that GJA1-20k caused metabolic hibernation and mitochondrial biogenesis [16]. Newly formed smaller mitochondria under the influence of GJA1-20k did not require as much oxygen or underwent metabolic hibernation. Therefore, GJA1-20k not only causes mitochondrial fission but also regulates the metabolic needs of the mitochondria. Another study found that GJA1-20k decreased mitochondrial maximal respiratory capacity [16]. In the presence of GJA1-20k, the mitochondria are less dependent on oxygen delivery. GJA1-20k is hypothesized to induce an adaptive response whereby mitochondria become more efficient in an environment deprived of oxygen. Therefore, it is hypothesized that ATP concentration would be higher in GJA1-20k-treated ischemic tissue. Preliminary results showed that pigs treated with GJA1-20k after profound IRI needed less fluid injections to maintain their blood pressure after hemorrhage [11]. These pigs also displayed lower serum creatinine concentration at the end 683 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of the experiment [11]. Another set of preliminary results showed that serum concentrations of the protein IL6 were decreased from GJA1-20k therapy [21]. IL6 is a protein common in the bloodstream during ischemia [5]. It is primarily secreted by macrophages and other immune system cells and can act as a pro-inflammatory and antiinflammatory cytokine [35]. The levels of IL6 in the serum are used as early biomarkers of injury severity [22]. Thus, GJA1-20k may increase IL6 secretion or gene expression. It is hypothesized therefore that the IL6 mRNA would be less abundant in the pigs who received a GJA1-20k injection. GJA1-20k protects the mitochondria during ischemia and has potential therapeutic uses after IRI. The mechanisms of GJA1-20k must be further investigated to realize its therapeutic potential. So, in this study a pig model of hemorrhagic shock was used to investigate the effects of GJA1-20k treatment on ATP concentration and IL6 gene expression. 684 RANGE METHODS Pig Surgery All animal use protocols were approved by the University of Utah’s IACUC. Non-pregnant female or castrated male Yorkshire swine weighing between 50 and 75 kg were selected for the study. Pigs were used in this study to make results more translatable to human medicine [36]. All animals were acclimated to their enclosures for 10 days. Before anesthesia, the animals underwent an 8-12 hour fasting period, with free access to water. Anesthesia was induced with an intramuscular injection of tiletamine/zolazepam at a dosage of 6-8 mg/kg. Endotracheal intubation was performed using a cuffed endotracheal tube to secure the airway. Following intubation, anesthesia was maintained with gaseous isoflurane at a concentration of 1.5-3.0% delivered in 2 L/min of oxygen. Mechanical ventilation was provided with a positive end- expiratory pressure set to 4 cmH₂O, and tidal volumes were maintained between 6-8 mL/kg. The respiratory rate was adjusted to achieve an end-tidal CO₂ of 35-45 mmHg. The fraction of inspired oxygen was regulated between 21% and 100% to maintain pulse 685 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH oximetry readings between 95% and 98% throughout the procedure. Warmed, balanced isotonic fluids (Plasmalyte 148) were administered intravenously at a 5 mL/kg/hour rate. For analgesia, continuous-rate infusion of hydromorphone was provided, starting with an initial dose of 0.025-0.05 mg/kg intravenously, followed by a continuous infusion of 0.03 mg/kg/hour IV for the duration of the study. Animals were positioned in dorsal recumbency, and monitoring equipment, including electrocardiograms and temperature probes, was applied. To prevent hypothermia, animals were placed on warming blankets set to 39°C. Blood samples were collected for complete blood count and serum creatinine analysis. Animals with a plasma creatinine concentration exceeding 2.3 mg/ dL were excluded from the study. Blood chemistry imbalances, including hypoglycemia, hyperkalemia, and ionized hypocalcemia, were corrected as needed throughout the experiment. Before surgical preparation, the skin over each access site was cleaned using three alternating scrubs of chlorhexidine (or betadine) and alcohol. Following the third scrub, a final application of chlorhexidine or betadine was applied and allowed to dry completely. 686 RANGE Once dry, each surgical site was draped in a sterile manner. All vascular access sites were infiltrated with 2% lidocaine subcutaneously. Vascular catheters were placed under ultrasound guidance using the Seldinger technique, with open dissection performed if the percutaneous approach was unsuccessful. The following catheters were inserted (Figure 4): 1. Two 7-9 Fr femoral arterial lines: one for continuous blood pressure monitoring and the other for blood sampling and REBOA catheter insertion (ER-REBOA, Prytime Medical, TX or a custom-made catheter). 2. A 5 Fr carotid arterial line to monitor blood pressure above the occlusion point. 3. A 9 Fr dual-lumen resuscitation line in the internal jugular vein for administering whole blood and fluid boluses, along with a pulmonary artery catheter placement to measure cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance. 687 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 4. The pig was prepared for surgery by inserting a urinary catheter, two femoral arterial lines (one of which is shown in this figure), a carotid arterial line, two catheters in the internal jugular vein (one of which is shown in this figure), and a femoral vein catheter. These are used for blood draws, insertion of the REBOA catheter, blood pressure monitoring, etc. This figure was created using Biorender. 4. A triple-lumen catheter in the contralateral internal jugular vein to monitor central venous pressure placed in the opposite jugular vein to prevent artifactual elevation in central venous pressure during blood product administration. 688 RANGE 5. A 7-9 Fr femoral vein catheter for administering crystalloid boluses during resuscitation. A urinary catheter was placed via cystotomy, and a perivascular flow probe was positioned around the renal artery. A splenectomy was also performed [37]. The abdomen was closed until the conclusion of the experiment. Animals were excluded if their plasma creatinine concentration was >2.3 mg/dL or their mean arterial pressure remained below 65 mmHg despite up to two 5 mL/kg boluses of isotonic crystalloids and isoflurane down-titration. Figure 5 represents an overview of the experimental timeline. Following equilibration, 25% of each pig’s blood volume (estimated as 0.25 x 60 mL/kg x body weight in kg) was withdrawn over 30 minutes through a femoral arterial line, with the blood collected under constant agitation in citrated bags. After an additional 30 minutes, animals were subjected to 45 minutes of REBOA above the diaphragm (T60-T105), followed by a gradual balloon deflation over 10 minutes (T105-T115). The 689 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH REBOA was placed in zone 1 (distal thoracic aorta). Figure 5. The general timeline of the pig surgery was adapted from another study [24]. This timeline shows the surgical setup, hemorrhage, drug administration, REBOA inflation/ deflation, blood transfusion, and finally, euthanasia. The LPS-free peptide used in this study (GJA1-20k) was obtained from Welgen Inc. (Worcester, MA), with quality and authenticity verified by the supplier and independently validated by our laboratory. GJA1-20k was then administered. The dose was chosen by first using the same dose of 0.1 mg/kg as another 690 RANGE mitochondrial protectant [24]. This dose had a high mortality rate and was then decreased to 0.01 mg/kg dissolved in 60 mL of 0.9% saline. The peptide, with the same sequence as the human native peptide, was administered intravenously over 30 minutes from T30-T60. Control animals received an equivalent volume of 0.9% saline. Investigators were blinded to peptide or saline administration to minimize bias. At the end of REBOA, pigs were reinfused with their own withdrawn blood over 10 minutes (T100-T110) and resuscitated with intravenous fluids (Plasmalyte 148, Baxter, IL) and vasopressors (norepinephrine, Hospira, IL) following a predefined protocol until T360. At T360 the pig was euthanized using a euthanasia solution overdose. The euthanasia was confirmed by monitoring for electrical activity and pulsatility of the arterial waveform. Tissue from the left ventricle of the heart and cortex of the kidney were gathered and flashfrozen using liquid nitrogen. Heart tissue was collected because GJA1-20k expression is 691 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH significantly increased in the heart after IRI [14]. Kidney tissue was collected because acute kidney failure is a common comorbidity of hemorrhagic shock [5], [23], and this model of IRI has been shown to have increased levels of serum creatinine, a marker of kidney injury [24], [25]. Tissues were stored at -80 °C without thawing and refreezing cycles [38]. The surgical procedure and tissue collection were repeated for 12 pigs, with six receiving GJA1-20k treatment and six receiving treatment with saline. ATP Concentration The ATP concentration was determined for heart and renal cortex tissue from pigs treated with GJA1-20k and those treated with saline. First, 100 +/- 10 mg of tissue was put in 500 uL of 1X Reaction Buffer from the ATP determination kit (Molecular Probes ATP determination kit A22066, Eugene, OR). This solution was chopped 30 times with scissors and then homogenized with a tissue rupture device for 10 seconds. Then the samples were spun at 15,000 rcf for 5 minutes at 3 °C. The 692 RANGE supernatant was then removed, and the pellet was thrown away. The Pierce® BCA Protein Assay Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA) and SpectraMax® M Series Multi-Mode Microplate Reader (SeqGen, Los Angeles, CA) were then used to determine the protein amount for each sample. Next, the Molecular Probes® ATP Determination Kit A22066 was used to determine the amount of ATP in the samples. The instructions for the ATP determination kit were followed to create a reaction mixture. Next, 10 µL for the sample/standard and 90 µL of the reaction mixture were put in each well of a 96-well microplate. The plate was then put on a rocker for 30 seconds. The plate was read by a SpectraMax® M Series Multi-Mode Microplate Reader using luminescence mode with 500 integration. To calculate the ATP concentration, the ATP amount for each sample was divided by the protein amount for each sample. 693 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH IL6 Gene Expression RT-qPCR was run on heart and renal cortex tissue from pigs treated with GJA1-20k and those treated with saline [39]. The RNA from the flash-frozen heart tissue and flash-frozen renal cortical tissue was isolated using the Qiagen RNeasy® Fibrous Tissue Mini Kit (Venlo, the Netherlands). The iScript™ Reverse Transcription Supermix for RT-qPCR (BioRad, Hercules, CA) was used along with the BIORAD Thermal Cycler (Hercules, CA) to convert the isolated RNA into cDNA. The instructions for iScript™ Reverse Transcription Supermix for RT-qPCR were followed for this conversion. GAPDH was the reference gene for heart and kidney RT-qPCR [40]. Primers for IL6 and GAPDH were designed by the University of Utah Health Science DNA/ Peptide Synthesis Core (Table 1) [41]. The BIORAD CPX Opus Real-Time PCR System (Hercules, CA) determined the IL6 gene expression. The BIORAD SsoAdvanced Universal SYBR Green Supermix (Hercules, CA) instructions and products were used to run 694 RANGE the RT-qPCR. The delta delta Cq method was used to determine the gene expression of IL6 normalized by GAPDH [42]. Table I Primers Used for RT-qPCR of IL6 and Housekeeping Gene GAPDH Gene Forward/ Selected for Reverse Primer Sequence GAPDH Forward TTGGCTACAGCAACAGGGTG GAPDH Reverse GGGGAGATTCAGTGTGGTGG IL6 Forward GACAAAGCCACCACCCCTAA IL6 Reverse CTCGTTCTGTGACTGCAGCTTATC Statistical Analysis The STATA statistics software was used for all the statistical analyses. For each data set normality was determined using the joint skewness and kurtosis test. The data were considered normal if the p-value for the joint skewness and kurtosis test was greater than or equal to 0.05. If the data were normal, the standard deviation and mean were calculated. The statistical significance 695 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH was determined for normally distributed data using a two-sample t-test with equal variances [43]. If the data were not normal, the median and quartiles were calculated. For data that are not normally distributed the statistical significance was determined using a twosample Wilcoxon rank-sum (Mann-Whitney) test [43]. Tests of statistical significance compared GJA1-20k to control groups in each data set. Significance was set at a p-value less than or equal to 0.05. RESULTS Twelve pigs underwent controlled hemorrhage and complete aortic occlusion to induce profound IRI. The pigs were treated intravenously with GJA1-20k or saline as a control. Tissue ATP concentration and IL6 gene expression were then determined for the left ventricular heart and the renal cortex. ATP Concentration 696 RANGE Figure 6. Concentration of ATP was compared between GJA1-20k and control groups in the renal cortex and the heart. A) Since values for the renal cortex were normally distributed, mean and standard deviation are represented. On average, the renal tissue ATP concentration was 3.7 pmol/mg protein higher in the GJA1-20k treatment group than control. B) Since values for the heart were not normally distributed, median, interquartile range, maximums, and minimums are represented. The asterisk indicates a significant difference between the control and GJA1-20k treatment in the ATP concentration of the renal cortex. All black dots represent individual ATP concentration values. (* p= 0.0021) ATP concentration in the renal cortex was 697 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH significantly higher with GJA1-20k treatment (p = 0.0021) (Figure 6). ATP concentration in the renal cortex was found to be normally distributed (p = 0.43), while the ATP concentration assay in the heart was not normally distributed (p= 0.0002). Statistical analysis revealed that there was no significant difference between the GJA1-20k treatment and control group in myocardial ATP concentration (p = 0.63). IL6 Gene Expression 698 RANGE Figure 7. Fold change of IL6 mRNA gene expression in the renal cortex and the heart. A. Since values for the renal cortex were normally distributed, mean and standard deviation are represented. B. Since values for the heart were also normally distributed, mean and standard deviation are represented. All black dots represent individual IL6 fold change values. No significant difference in IL6 gene expression was found between control and GJA1-20k treatment in the renal cortex (p = 0.47) or the heart (p = 0.40) (Figure 7). The fold change of IL6 gene expression in the renal cortex was found to be normally distributed (p = 0.053). The fold change in IL6 gene expression in the heart was normally distributed (p = 0.084). DISSCUSION Hemorrhagic shock, or severe blood loss, causes 1.9 million deaths every year through ischemia, or a lack of oxygen in the tissues [2]. Ischemiareperfusion injury (IRI) exacerbates tissue damage caused by reinfusing ischemic tissues with blood and oxygen [4]. GJA1-20k, a stress response protein, is vital to tissue survival during ischemia because it protects the mitochondria 699 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH which can regulate cell apoptosis [16]. This study hypothesized that intravenous injection of GJA1-20k increases ATP concentration and decreases interleukin 6 (IL6) gene expression in the heart and kidney in a pig model of profound IRI. Twelve pigs underwent hemorrhage and aortic occlusion and were then treated intravenously with either saline as a control or the protein GJA1-20k. Heart and renal cortex tissue were dissected and analyzed for IL6 gene expression and ATP concentration. Comparisons of IL6 and ATP changes versus saline controls were used to assess the impact of GJA1-20 therapeutic intervention. Figure 6 indicates that GJA1-20k therapy significantly increased ATP concentration in the renal cortex but not the heart after IRI. The increased ATP concentration could be due to healthier mitochondria or direct effects on metabolic pathways. During ischemia, GJA1-20k reduces oxygen consumption [16], supposedly reducing ATP production. However, the already-listed protective effects of GJA1-20k could cause healthier mitochondria that would produce more ATP. GJA1-20k as 700 RANGE a membrane protein could also increase ATP production in the mitochondria more directly. GJA1-20k has a different effect on ATP concentration in the heart vs. the kidney tissue. This may be due to a difference in tissue localization of GJA1-20k or reactions happening within the tissue. The kidneys may express a unique or more abundant receptor for GJA1-20k that is absent or less concentrated in the heart. A receptor difference could drive the peptide to localize to the kidneys preferentially. Resuscitative endovascular occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) inserted into zone 1 causes more severe kidney ischemia than the heart [44]. Also, blood circulation is naturally conserved during severe hemorrhage to preserve the heart and brain, not the kidney [29]. As a result, GJA1-20k may localize to and exert a more significant effect on areas experiencing more severe ischemia. Conversely, GJA1-20k is endogenously expressed more in the heart [14], so the intravenous GJA1-20k may have an increased effect on the kidney because there is less endogenous expression. Multiple theories can be proposed for this difference in GJA1-20k 701 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH effect based on the tissue, but further investigation is required to determine causation. IL6 gene expression did not significantly increase, as shown in Figure 7. The decrease in IL6 in the serum of the pigs who underwent GJA1-20k therapy [21] is probably from reduced secretion, either from the tissue, inflammatory cells, or both. IL6 secretion is essential to the immune system’s inflammatory response and is commonly secreted by immune cells like macrophages [35]. Thus, GJA1- 20k may be interacting with the cells secreting IL6. In contrast to other studies of GJA1-20k, this is the first time that GJA1-20k has been injected intravenously instead of translated within the cells. Other studies have been conducted in GJA1-20k knockout and knockdown mice [17], GJA1-20k endogenous gene expression [16], or the effect of increased GJA1-20k expression introduced through a virus [15]. However, the ability of GJA1-20k to have a positive effect through a simple injection makes it more viable as a drug in a clinical setting. In this study, published preliminary data showed that the pigs 702 RANGE treated with GJA1-20k as an intravenous injection did not require as many fluid injections to maintain a normal blood pressure after IRI [11]. Other published preliminary data showed that these pigs treated with GJA1-20k injections after ischemia had lowered serum IL6 levels [21]. These pigs had significantly increased ATP concentration in the kidney from GJA1-20k therapy, as shown in Figure 6. Thus, further effects of GJA1-20k therapy should be investigated since several significant effects have already been found. Other drugs are also being investigated as to their effects on the mitochondria during IRI. The mitochondrial-targeted antioxidant SKQ1 reduces ROS, mitochondrial DNA, and inflammation in the heart of hemorrhaging rats [26]. Similarly, elamipretide protects the mitochondria in a pig model of IRI and when used as a drug, reduces resuscitative requirements and serum creatinine levels [24]. These other drugs are being investigated using similar methods including controlled hemorrhage, aortic occlusion, and drug administration during resuscitation. 703 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Factors outside of the GJA1-20k therapy could have affected the ATP concentration in this study. The pigs who received GJA1-20k treatment consistently required less resuscitation fluids during the critical care phase of the surgery [11]. Other potential confounding variables in the pigs include gender, slight differences in age, and individual genetic differences. Increased sample size could confirm that the results were not skewed by some of these confounding variables. Several factors could have contributed to the nonsignificant results found in IL6 gene expression, as seen in Figure 7. The euthanasia and longer cryostorage time could have reduced the ability to detect differences in IL6 gene expression. Tissue storage increases mRNA degradation, which could be prevented by performing this analysis quickly. In addition, six hours between starting hemorrhage and euthanasia may not give tissues enough time for IL6 to change gene expression. Usually, IL6 is secreted from macrophages and other immune system cells on a short time scale [35]. Six hours would not be enough time to investigate the 704 RANGE long-term effects of the GJA1-20k injection. This would help explain why no significant difference was detected in IL6 gene expression as shown in Figure 7. This study measured ATP concentration in the tissue, not the mitochondria. Increased ATP production is assumed to be from the mitochondria because GJA1-20k localizes to the mitochondrial membrane [16]. However, it is unknown whether the increase in ATP concentration is coming from oxidative phosphorylation or other metabolic pathways in the cytosol. In the future, the mitochondria could be isolated, and then the ATP concentration could be determined. This would help determine if the increased ATP production is happening because of changes to glycolysis in the cytosol or oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. A respirometer could be used to analyze GJA1-20k effects on oxidative phosphorylation in the kidney. This would clarify how GJA1-20k affects each electron transport chain complex in the mitochondria. These studies would provide further insights 705 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH into the mechanism of GJA1-20k in ATP production. More work should also be done to understand where GJA1-20k localizes and how it moves throughout the body. Fluorescent tagging of dosed GJA1-20k and its analysis in collected tissues could be used to analyze cellular and organ-specific localization of GJA1-20k following intravenous injections during ischemia. The localization of GJA1-20k could also be tracked in real-time using a combination of radioactive tagging of GJA1-20k and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [45], [46]. GJA1-20k’s transmembrane region prevents it from diffusing across the cell membrane [17]. Therefore, when GJA1- 20k is injected, it is unknown whether GJA1-20k is crossing the cell membranes to affect the mitochondria [20]. If GJA1-20k is crossing the cell membranes, the mechanism by which it is doing so is unclear. The mechanism by which GJA1-20k enters the cells from the bloodstream could be investigated by looking at potential GJA1-20k cell receptors. This study stopped only a few hours after 706 RANGE GJA1-20k was injected and therefore investigated primarily the short-term impacts of GJA1-20k. Thus, studies should be done on the long-term effects of GJA1-20k to investigate its potential toxic effects as well as the rates of acute and chronic kidney injury after IRI [28]. Also, this study investigated the administration of GJA1-20k after the patient had already experienced ischemia. Future studies could examine if GJA1-20k could be used to prevent mitochondrial damage by giving the drug before ischemia is induced. The abovementioned studies would be critical to GJA1-20k becoming a clinically relevant therapeutic drug. GJA1-20k is critical because of its potential as a therapeutic drug. Patients with severe IRI could greatly benefit from pharmacological interventions that target the mitochondria [24]. Protecting the mitochondria could be especially relevant to reducing IRI associated with hemorrhagic shock. GJA1- 20k has now been shown to increase ATP in the kidneys when given intravenously, which could directly lead to less cell death after IRI [5]. ATP is a common 707 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH output of mitochondria, and GJA1-20k has been shown to localize to and protect the mitochondria after IRI. Thus, GJA1-20k is a good potential therapeutic drug for mitochondrial dysfunction after IRI. Acute kidney injury is a common side effect of IRI [27]. GJA1-20k protects the mitochondria after IRI and has significantly impacted the kidneys. GJA1-20k could help protect the mitochondria in the kidneys and prevent acute kidney injury after IRI. Not only could GJA1-20k be used as a treatment for hemorrhagic shock, but it could also treat other forms of ischemia. Surgeries with frequent IRI include solid organ transplants [6] and cardiopulmonary bypass surgeries [47]. GJA1-20k could be given to patients already experiencing ischemia to help their cells better manage and recover from oxidative stress. Therefore, GJA1-20k could be of interest as a therapeutic drug to healthcare workers involved in both emergency medicine and surgery to prevent complications from ischemia. This study identified one potential drug delivery technique for GJA1-20k. Therefore, GJA1-20k 708 RANGE is a potential treatment for IRI in hemorrhagic shock and a variety of other clinical settings. REFERENCES 1. M. El Sayad and H. Noureddine, “Recent Advances of Hemorrhage Management in Severe Trauma,” Emerg. Med. Int., vol. 2014, p. 638956, 2014, doi: 10.1155/2014/638956. 2. J. W. Cannon, “Hemorrhagic Shock,” N. Engl. J. Med., vol. 378, no. 4, pp. 370–379, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1056/ NEJMra1705649. 3. N. V. Andrianova, M. I. Buyan, A. A. Brezgunova, K. S. Cherkesova, D. B. Zorov, and E. Y. Plotnikov, “Hemorrhagic Shock and Mitochondria: Pathophysiology and Therapeutic Approaches,” Int. J. Mol. Sci., vol. 26, no. 5, Art. no. 5, Jan. 2025, doi: 10.3390/ijms26051843. 4. M. Zhang, Q. Liu, H. Meng, H. Duan, X. Liu, J. Wu, F. Gao, S. Wang, R. Tan, and J. Yuan, “Ischemia-reperfusion injury: molecular 709 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH mechanisms and therapeutic targets,” Signal Transduct. Target. Ther., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–39, Jan. 2024, doi: 10.1038/ s41392-023-01688-x. 5. M. Malek and M. Nematbakhsh, “Renal ischemia/reperfusion injury; from pathophysiology to treatment,” J. Ren. Inj. Prev., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 20–27, Jun. 2015, doi: 10.12861/jrip.2015.06. 6. R. O. S. Soares, D. M. Losada, M. C. Jordani, P. Évora, and O. Castro-eSilva, “Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury Revisited: An Overview of the Latest Pharmacological Strategies,” Int. J. Mol. Sci., vol. 20, no. 20, Art. no. 20, Jan. 2019, doi: 10.3390/ijms20205034. 7. P. Cowled and R. Fitridge, “Pathophysiology of Reperfusion Injury,” in Mechanisms of Vascular Disease: A Reference Book for Vascular Specialists, R. Fitridge and M. Thompson, Eds., Adelaide (AU): University of Adelaide Press, 2011. Accessed: Dec. 09, 2024. [Online]. 710 RANGE Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/ NBK534267/ 8. E. Vringer and S. W. G. Tait, “Mitochondria and cell deathassociated inflammation,” Cell Death Differ., vol. 30, no. 2, Art. no. 2, Feb. 2023, doi: 10.1038/ s41418-022-01094-w. 9. A. V. Kozlov, S. Bahrami, E. Calzia, P . Dungel, L. Gille, A. V. Kuznetsov, and J. Troppmair, “Mitochondrial dysfunction and biogenesis: do ICU patients die from mitochondrial failure?,” Ann. Intensive Care, vol. 1, p. 41, Sep. 2011, doi: 10.1186/2110-58201-41. 10. Q. Sun, W. Gao, P . Loughran, R. Shapiro, J. Fan, T. Billiar, and M. J. Scott, “Caspase 1 activation is protective against hepatocyte cell death by up-regulating beclin 1 protein and mitochondrial autophagy in the setting of redox stress,” J. Biol. Chem., vol. 288, 711 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH no. 22, pp. 15947–15958, May 2013, doi: 10.1074/jbc.M112.426791. 11. N. Ewer, R. Ford, V. Ngyen, D. Shimura, L. Neff, T. Williams, S. Youngquist, M. A. Johnson, R. Shaw, and G. Hoareau, “43: GJA1-20K REDUCES RESUSCITATION REQUIREMENTS AND RENAL INJURY POST-REBOA ISCHEMIAREPERFUSION INJURY,” Crit. Care Med., vol. 51, no. 1, p. 22, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.1097/ 01.ccm.0000906048.66822.f6. 12. “Stress response protein GJA1-20k promotes mitochondrial biogenesis, metabolic quiescence, and cardioprotection against ischemia/ reperfusion injury – PMC.” Accessed: Oct. 24, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC6237442/ 13. R. Baum, J. A. Palatinus, M. Waghalter, D. Shimura, Q. Jin, L. Kuzmanovich, S. Xiao, A. G. Kléber, 712 RANGE E. E. Grintsevich, T. Hong, and R. M. Shaw, “GJA1-20k, an internally translated isoform of Connexin 43, is an actin capping protein,” Jan. 05, 2022, bioRxiv. doi: 10.1101/ 2022.01.05.475034. 14. D. Shimura, E. Neubel, R. Baum, S. E. Valdez, S. Xiao, J. S. Warren, J. A. Palantinus, T. Hong, J. Rutter, and R. M. Shaw, “Protective mitochondrial fission induced by stress-responsive protein GJA1- 20k,” eLife, vol. 10, p. e69207, Oct. 2021, doi: 10.7554/ eLife.69207. 15. D. Ren, P . Zheng, J. Feng, Y. Gong, Y. Wang, J. Duan, L. Zhao, J. Deng, H. Chen, S. Zou, T. Hong, and W. Chen, “Overexpression of AstrocytesSpecific GJA1-20k Enhances the Viability and Recovery of the Neurons in a Rat Model of Traumatic Brain Injury,” ACS Chem. Neurosci., vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 1643–1650, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00142. 713 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 16. W. A. Basheer, Y. Fu, D. Shimura, S. Xiao, S. Agvanian, D. M. Hernandez, R. C. Hitzeman, T. Hong, and R. M. Shaw, “Stress response protein GJA1-20k promotes mitochondrial biogenesis, metabolic quiescence, and cardioprotection against ischemia/ reperfusion injury,” JCI Insight, vol. 3, no. 20, p. e121900, Oct. 2018, doi: 10.1172/jci.insight.121900. 17. D. Shimura and R. M. Shaw, “GJA1-20k and Mitochondrial Dynamics,” Front. Physiol., vol. 13, 2022, Accessed: Oct. 24, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/ 10.3389/fphys.2022.867358 18. Y. Fu, L. Tao, F. Peng, N. Zheng, Q. Lin, S. Cai, and Q. Wang, “GJA1-20k attenuates Ang II-induced pathological cardiac hypertrophy by regulating gap junction formation and mitochondrial function,” Acta Pharmacol. Sin., vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 536–549, Apr. 2021, doi: 714 RANGE 10.1038/s41401-020-0459-6. 19. Y. Fu, S. Zhang, S. Xiao, W. Basheer, R. Baum, I. Epifantseva, T. Hong, and R. M. Shaw, “Cx43 Isoform GJA1-20k Promotes Microtubule Dependent Mitochondrial Transport,” Front. Physiol., vol. 8, Nov. 2017, doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00905. 20. D. C. Chan, “Mitochondria: Dynamic Organelles in Disease, Aging, and Development,” Cell, vol. 125, no. 7, pp. 1241–1252, Jun. 2006, doi: 10.1016/ j.cell.2006.06.010. 21. T. Hunt-Smith, R. Johnson, J. Themen, W. Mohamed, G. LaceyHoward, S. Youngquist, A. Johnson, R. Shaw, and G. Hoareau, “1606: GJA1-20K REDUCES LEVELS OF INTERLEUKIN-6 IN PATIENTS WITH REBOA-INDUCED ISCHEMIA-REPERFUSION INJURY,” Crit. Care Med., vol. 52, no. 1, p. S786, Jan. 2024, doi: 10.1097/ 01.ccm.0001004580.65550.b5. 715 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 22. P. K. Okeny, P. Ongom, and O. Kituuka, “Serum interleukin-6 level as an early marker of injury severity in trauma patients in an urban lowincome setting: a cross-sectional study,” BMC Emerg. Med., vol. 15, no. 1, p. 22, Sep. 2015, doi: 10.1186/ s12873-015-0048-z. 23. B. E. Biesterveld, A. Z. Siddiqui, R. L. O’Connell, H. Remmer, A. M. Williams, A. Shamshad, W.M. Smith, M. T. Kemp, G. K. Wakam, and H. B. Alam, “Valproic Acid Protects Against Acute Kidney Injury in Hemorrhage and Trauma,” J. Surg. Res., vol. 266, pp. 222–229, Oct. 2021, doi: 10.1016/ j.jss.2021.04.014. 24. N. Patel, M. A. Johnson, N. Vapniarsky, M. W. Van Brocklin, T. K. Williams, S. T. Youngquist, R. Ford, N. Ewer, L. P . Neff, and G. L. Hoareau, “Elamipretide mitigates ischemia-reperfusion injury in a swine model of hemorrhagic shock,” Sci. Rep., 716 RANGE vol. 13, no. 1, Art. no. 1, Mar. 2023, doi: 10.1038/s41598-023- 31374-5. 25. H. Shahbaz, P. Rout, and M. Gupta, “Creatinine Clearance,” in StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 2025. Accessed: Feb. 08, 2025. [Online]. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/ NBK544228/ 26. B. Jia, J. Ye, L. Gan, R. Li, M. Zhang, D. Sun, L. Weng, Y. Xiong, J. Xu, P . Zhang, W. Huang, M. Zheng, and T. Wang, “Mitochondrial antioxidant SkQ1 decreases inflammation following hemorrhagic shock by protecting myocardial mitochondria,” Front. Physiol., vol. 13, 2022, doi: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1047909. 27. Y. Ishimoto and R. Inagi, “Mitochondria: a therapeutic target in acute kidney injury,” Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 1062–1069, Jul. 2016, doi: 10.1093/ndt/ gfv317. 717 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 28. N. Pabla and A. Bajwa, “Role of Mitochondrial Therapy for IschemicReperfusion Injury and Acute Kidney Injury,” Nephron, vol. 146, no. 3, pp. 253–258, Dec. 2021, doi: 10.1159/ 000520698. 29. N. Fage, P. Asfar, P. Radermacher, and J. Demiselle, “Norepinephrine and Vasopressin in Hemorrhagic Shock: A Focus on Renal Hemodynamics,” Int. J. Mol. Sci., vol. 24, no. 4, Art. no. 4, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.3390/ijms24044103. 30. “Assays for ROS and oxidative stress : 주요브랜드 자세한 product information.” Accessed: Nov. 11, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://dawinbio.com/productinformation/?q=YToyOntzOjQ6InBh Z2UiO2k6MjtzOjEyOiJrZXl3b3JkX3 R5cGUiO3M6Mzo iYWxsIjt9&bmode=view&idx=167381 39&t=board&category=8I0n7X1B5h 31. C. C. Whisenant and R. M. Shaw, “Internal translation of Gja1 718 RANGE (Connexin43) to produce GJA1- 20k: Implications for arrhythmia and ischemic-preconditioning,” Front. Physiol., vol. 13, Dec. 2022, doi: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1058954. 32. S. Xiao, D. Shimura, R. Baum, D. M. Hernandez, S. Agvanian, Y. Nagaoka, M. Katsumata, P. D.Lampe, A. G. Kleber, T. Hong, and R. M. Shaw, “Auxiliary trafficking subunit GJA1-20k protects connexin-43 from degradation and limits ventricular arrhythmias,” J. Clin. Invest., vol. 130, no. 9, pp. 4858–4870, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.1172/JCI134682. 33. “Connexin 43/GJA1 Antibody,” www.rndsystems.com. Accessed: Nov. 09, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.rndsystems.com/products/ connexin-43-gja1-antibody_pps045 34. W. A. Basheer, S. Xiao, I. Epifantseva, Y. Fu, A. G. Kleber, T. Hong, and R. M. Shaw, “GJA1-20k Arranges Actin to Guide Cx43 Delivery to Cardiac 719 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Intercalated Discs,” Circ. Res., vol. 121, no. 9, pp. 1069–1080, Oct. 2017, doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.117.311955. 35. M. Aliyu, F. T. Zohora, A. U. Anka, K. Ali, S. Maleknia, M. Saffarioun, and G. Azizi, “Interleukin-6 cytokine: An overview of the immune regulation, immune dysregulation, and therapeutic approach,” Int. Immunopharmacol., vol. 111, p. 109130, Oct. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109130. 36. J. K. Lunney, A. Van Goor, K. E. Walker, T. Hailstock, J. Franklin, and C. Dai, “Importance of the pig as a human biomedical model,” Sci. Transl. Med., vol. 13, no. 621, p. eabd5758, Nov. 2021, doi: 10.1126/ scitranslmed.abd5758. 37. V. S. Bebarta, M. Daheshia, and J. D. Ross, “The significance of splenectomy in experimental swine models of controlled hemorrhagic shock,” J. Trauma Acute Care Surg., vol. 75, no. 5, p. 920, Nov. 2013, doi: 10.1097/ 720 RANGE TA.0b013e3182a539b8. 38. J. Botling, K. Edlund, U. Segersten, S. Tahmasebpoor, M. Engström, M. Sundström, P . Malmström, and P . Micke, “Impact of Thawing on RNA Integrity and Gene Expression Analysis in Fresh Frozen Tissue,” Diagn. Mol. Pathol., vol. 18, no. 1, p. 44, Mar. 2009, doi: 10.1097/ PDM.0b013e3181857e92. 39. R. Harshitha and D. R. Arunraj, “Real- time quantitative PCR: A tool for absolute and relative quantification,” Biochem. Mol. Biol. Educ., vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 800–812, 2021, doi: 10.1002/ bmb.21552. 40. P. Arlock, M. Li, B. Davis. C. Lövdahl, Q. Liao, T. Sjöberg, A. Rahman, B. Wohlfart, S. Steen, and A. Arner, “Excitation and contraction of cardiac muscle and coronary arteries of brain‐ dead pigs,” FASEB BioAdvances, vol. 5, no. 2, p. 71, Dec. 2022, doi: 10.1096/ fba.2022-00104. 721 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 41. K. H. Ho and A. Patrizi, “Assessment of common housekeeping genes as reference for gene expression studies using RT-qPCR in mouse choroid plexus,” Sci. Rep., vol. 11, no. 1, p. 3278, Feb. 2021, doi: 10.1038/ s41598-021-82800-5. 42. D. A. Khan and S. Fatima, “B-218 Role of Delta Tocotrienol and Resveratrol Supplementation in Regulation of Micro RNAs in Patients With Metabolic Syndrome: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Clin. Chem., vol. 69, no. Supplement_1, p. hvad097.545, Oct. 2023, doi: 10.1093/clinchem/ hvad097.545. 43. R. M. West, “Best practice in statistics: Use the Welch t-test when testing the difference between two groups,” Ann. Clin. Biochem., vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 267–269, Jul. 2021, doi: 10.1177/ 0004563221992088. 44. S. Halvachizadeh, L. Mica, Y. Kalbas, M. Lipiski, M. Canic, M. Teuben, N. 722 RANGE Cesarovic, Z. Rancic, P . Cinelli, V. Neuhaus, H. Pape, and R. Pfeifer, “Zone-dependent acute circulatory changes in abdominal organs and extremities after resuscitative balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA): an experimental model,” Eur. J. Med. Res., vol. 26, no. 1, p. 10, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1186/ s40001-021-00485-y. 45. M. R. Edelmann, “Radiolabelling small and biomolecules for tracking and monitoring,” RSC Adv., vol. 12, no. 50, pp. 32383–32400, 2022, doi: 10.1039/D2RA06236D. 46. A. J. Fischman, N. M. Alpert, and R. H. Rubin, “Pharmacokinetic Imaging,” Clin. Pharmacokinet., vol. 41, no. 8, pp. 581–602, Jul. 2002, doi: 10.2165/ 00003088-200241080-00003. 47. R. C. Smith, J. M. Leung, and D. T. Mangano, “Postoperative myocardial ischemia in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. 723 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH S.P.I. Research Group,” Anesthesiology, vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 464–473, Mar. 1991, doi: 10.1097/ 00000542-199103000-00013. 724 RANGE 32 Examining Compositional Behavior in Large Language Models JORDAN TAN AND VIVEK SRIKUMAR Faculty Mentor: Vivek Srikumar (School of Computing, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Large language models (LLMs) can be used to solve compositional tasks. These tasks involve knowledge of subtasks that must be combined to arrive at the correct 725 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH answer. To better understand how LLMs approach compositional tasks, we conducted two compositional task experiments, multiplication and word list operation (WLO), on Flan-T5 and Llama 2-Chat models. We found that adding in-context examples of related skills did not improve any model’s ability to perform the main task, regardless of whether the model could perform the related skills well. INTRODUCTION Recently, transformer-based large language models (LLMs) have become widely popular. One of the popular commercial LLMs used today is OpenAI’s ChatGPT1, and LLMs that are open-source and are used in academic research include Flan-T5 and Llama 2. They have prolific usage in natural language processing (NLP) tasks, search engines2, and code generation3. With their ability to perform a wide variety of tasks, LLMs are sometimes presented in academic literature and popular media as having “sparks of artificial general intelligence” [1]. Despite their ability to compose intricate responses, large language models have limited capability for compositional reasoning. These tasks are complex enough that they require multiple subtasks to complete 726 RANGE them [2]. However, little is known about the causes of these limitations in LLMs. In this work, we explore whether compositionality can be learned in-context. In-context learning is a popular technique to instruct large language models, where task examples are added to a model’s input. We wanted to determine if prompting an LLM with in-context examples of subtasks can improve compositionality. Compositional tasks require knowledge of multiple skills to derive the answer for the main task. Any intelligent system appropriately trained in the underlying skills can improve at a compositional task, but can today’s academic-scaled LLMs do so? Let us consider an example of a compositional task: multiplication. It is a compositional task because it requires the following subtasks: single-digit multiplication, carry, addition, and concatenation. For an intelligent system to solve any multiplication problem, it must know how to perform these skills and compose them together to form the correct answer. If the system struggled to perform multiplication due to poor performance at a skill, then teaching it the skill would help it perform multiplication. We conducted experiments on two tasks: multiplication and a more difficult compositional task involving string 727 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH operations on lists of words. We focused our experiments on several models from two LLM families: Flan-T5 [3] and Llama 2-Chat [4]. Our results showed that the skills can be learned for both tasks, with larger models performing better. However, both models struggled at the compositional task, with Flan-T5 performing worse than Llama 2-Chat overall. BACKGROUND: LARGE LANGUAGE MODELS Large language models are machine learning models that can be used for text generation. Given a sequence of words, a language model tokenizes the sequence and returns probabilities for the next token after the sequence. To achieve good predictions, they are trained on an abundance of raw textual data based on a training objective. An example of a training objective is standard language modeling, where the model is tasked to optimize the probability of predicting text from the training data [5]. Perplexity is a metric for the quality of language models, and a lower perplexity corresponds with the model being more confident in its prediction based on the previous tokens [6]. There are many ways of obtaining the next n tokens in text generation. Greedy decoding considers the most probable token at each output, but this can lead to 728 RANGE “repetitive and short output sentences” [7]. While considering all tokens at each step would produce the most probable sequence, this search is impractical due to its exponentially growing size. Beam search constrains the decoding process by considering the top b hypotheses at each output step [7]. This addresses the drawbacks of greedy decoding and maintains some benefits of exploring different paths. One modification to these strategies is to sample from the distribution rather than considering the highest probable tokens, increasing the diversity of outputs. However, training a model for language modeling is not enough to use it for an NLP task. To obtain satisfactory results, one must provide context to the model about the downstream task. One way is to fine-tune a model to respond to instructions for the task [5]. While finetuning can improve a model’s performance on a downstream task, it requires a labeled dataset of instruction and output pairs, which can be difficult to procure for certain tasks. To address this, models can be instruction- tuned on a large dataset of instructionoutput pairs to follow instructions [8]. Instead of finetuning a model, one can engineer prompts for a model to obtain an answer to a downstream task. For instance, providing in-context examples of the task at hand can 729 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH prime an LLM to respond to a query better [9]. With prompting, the terms few-shot, one-shot, and zero-shot correspond to the number of in-context examples given in a prompt: few-shot means having k in-context examples, one-shot means having one in-context example, and zero-shot means having no in-context examples [10]. Sentiment analysis is an example of an NLP task that one can solve using a large language model. It is a text classification problem where the goal is to predict the sentiment (attitude) of a given text. A popular dataset for this task is the Stanford Treebank Dataset (SST) [11], where extracted text from movie reviews is labeled as positive or negative. To solve this problem, one can use an LLM and construct a prompt. As an example, the prompt can look like this: C l a s si f y t h 730 RANGE e t e x t s e n ti m e n t a s p o si ti v e o r n e g 731 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH a ti v e . T e x t: a t e c h n i c a ll y s u p e r b 732 RANGE fi l m S e n ti m e n t: If the model was instruction-tuned, then fine-tuning a model on prompts given in this format should not be necessary; the model should know sentiment analysis because it is a common task in NLP. With the information provided, the model should produce “positive” over “negative” if it is more probable, but it may be necessary to provide additional context to the model. This can be done in the form of an in-context example. A one-shot prompt could then look like this: C l a s si 733 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH f y t h e t e x t s e n ti m e n t a s p o si ti v e o 734 RANGE r n e g a ti v e . T e x t: c o n t a i n s n o w it , 735 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH o n l y l a b o r e d g a g s S e n ti m e n t: n e g 736 RANGE a ti v e C l a s si f y t h e t e x t s e n ti m e n 737 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH t a s p o si ti v e o r n e g a ti v e . T e x t: a t e 738 RANGE c h n i c a ll y s u p e r b fi l m S e n ti m e n t: Note that there are many ways to format a prompt, and 739 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH one may need to perform prompt engineering to find one that works well for a particular model. Large language models of today use a transformer-based architecture. A transformer is a machine learning model that uses multi-head attention layers and positional encoding to process textual data [12]. The multi-head attention layers use attention, which is a mechanism that allows the model to focus on specific words in an input. Positional encoding is necessary for the model to understand which words come before or after other words. There are three types of transformers: encoder models, decoder models, and encoder-decoder models. Encoder-decoder models, such as Flan-T5, first generate an encoding of the input and uses a separate decoder to generate an output from the encoding [5]. Decoder models, such as Llama 2, feed the input into the decoder and then generate text that continues from the input [5]. For the experiments, we used two large language model families built upon the transformer architecture: Flan-T5 and Llama 2-Chat. Text-to-Text Transfer Transformer 740 RANGE (T5) is an encoder- decoder model that underwent multi-task learning. It was trained on the Colossal Clean Crawled Corpus (C4), a large English corpus extracted from the web, and on “a mixture of tasks” [13]. Flan-T5 builds upon T5 by incorporating instruction-tuning into its development, where it learned 1.8K tasks and how to do chain-of-thought [3]. Large Language Model Meta AI 2 (LLaMA 2) is a decoder model that updates Llama 1 by “train[ing] on a new mix of publicly available data,” doubling the context length, and more [4]. Llama 2-Chat is “a fine-tuned version of Llama 2 that is optimized for dialogue use cases” [4, p. 2]. The optimization was done using reinforcement learning with human feedback (RLHF), which is a process that involves maximizing a reward model trained to give higher scores to text preferred by humans [4]. Flan-T5 and Llama 2-Chat are distinct despite both models using a transformer-based architecture, and they provide a good mix for these experiments. CAN COMPOSITIONALITY BE LEARNED 741 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH IN-CONTEXT? Compositionality is a topic that appears in different contexts, including semantics and mathematics. Generally, compositionality is the notion that “[t]he meaning of a complex expression is determined by its structure and the meanings of its constituents” [14]. While there is debate over the existence of compositionality in natural languages, compositionality can be purposely built into artificial languages, such as programming languages [15]. In this paper, we consider compositionality in a task-based context. One can view compositionality in terms of tasks for an overall skill. Let us consider cooking as an example. If one is following a recipe, each step is a task that involves a skill. To cook well, one needs to know a variety of skills, such as selecting and measuring ingredients, cutting vegetables or meat, and frying, boiling, or baking. Even with a fixed set of ingredients to select and cooking methods, there are an endless amount new dishes one can make. These skills are separate from one another, and they are transferable. If 742 RANGE one knows how to create a cake, then creating a cupcake would not be too difficult. Compositional tasks often require a step-by-step approach to solving the task, which large language models can mimic. One idea to improve a model’s ability to reason is through chain-of- thought, which primes an LLM to respond to a query by mimicking how a human would approach solving a problem [16]. For instance, consider the following question: “If John purchased 2 watermelons for $2 and 3 oranges for $1, how much did he pay?” Instead of responding directly with the answer, the LLM could respond with this: “Let’s think this step-by-step. John purchased 2 watermelons for $2, which is 2 * $2 = $4. John purchased 3 oranges for $1, which is 3 * $1 = $3. Therefore, the total is $4 + $3 = $7.” Wang et al. improve on chain-of-thought reasoning with selfconsistency, which can produce more accurate responses by sampling “over diverse reasoning paths,” rather than consider one path like chainof-thought [17]. Because chain-of-thought and self- consistency can improve task performance, 743 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH LLMs seem to exhibit or mimic some level of reasoning. In-context learning can improve a model’s performance on a task, so it is productive to see if this applies to compositional tasks. Brown et al. trained GPT-3, “an autoregressive language model with 175 billion parameters” [10]. They experimented with prompting the model and found that few- shot prompting could outperform the state-of-the-art models on various datasets. Their findings reinforce the idea that in-context learning and prompt engineering are viable strategies for performing downstream tasks. If a task is compositional and models exhibit compositionality, in-context learning could help models by giving additional information about the skills. If this is the case, we would expect improvement in a model’s performance on the task. Furthermore, we would expect that in- context examples of skills that are not relevant to a task should offer no benefit to a task, either worsening or maintaining a model’s performance. 744 RANGE EXPERIMENT SETUP For a compositional task, we define a main task and its subtasks. From Flan-T5, the Small, Base, Large, XL, and XXL models were used. From Llama 2, the Chat 7B and Chat 13B models were used. Each model was tested on the main task and subtask based on prompts. The prompt formats used for Flan-T5 are shown below in Figures 1-6. Llama 2-Chat used slightly different prompts because it uses additional instruction tags. However, the instructions and questions remained the same. The prompts consisted of a worded instruction and a question, and each experiment was given an incontext example. Additionally, the main task was given an in-context example of the subtask. As a control, the main task was given an incontext example of a task unrelated to the main task. These tasks were subtraction, exponentiate, and string reversal. Each experiment was repeated with five different in-context examples, and the experiment was repeated five times with the same in-context example. 745 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Q: Carry the digit from the tens place. 27 // 10 = A: 2 Q: Carry the digit from the tens place. 44 // 10 = A: 1a: Example of the carry prompt for Flan-T5. Q: Concatenate the numbers. 1&7&5= A: 175 Q: Concatenate the numbers. 2&3&3= A: 1b: Example of the concatenation prompt for Flan-T5. Q: Multiply two numbers. 746 RANGE 4*9= A: 36 Q: Multiply two numbers. 9*0= A: 1c: Example of the multiplication of single digits prompt for Flan-T5. Q: Add two numbers. 22 + 1 = A: 23 Q: Add two numbers. 18 + 41 = A: 1d: Example of the summation prompt for Flan-T5. Figure 1: Example of skill prompts for the multiplication task for Flan-T5 747 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Q: Multiply two numbers. 38 * 98 = A: 3724 Q: Multiply two numbers. 15480 * 75948 = A: Figure 2: Example of the multiplication prompt for Flan-T5. Q: Add two numbers. 38 + 98 = A: 136 Q: Multiply two numbers. 38 * 98 = A: 3724 Q: Multiply two numbers. 15480 * 75948 = A: Figure 3: Example of the primed multiplication prompt for Flan-T5. 748 RANGE The multiplication task evaluated a model’s ability to perform reasoning with numerical tasks. For the multiplication experiment, the main task was multiplication of up to 5 digits. For up to 2-digit multiplication, all combinations were considered. For up to 3 to 5-digit multiplication, 1K problems were sampled for each digit. This resulted in 13K problems in total. The main task was composed of the following subtasks: multiplication of single digits (100 problems), carrying of the tens digit (90 problems), addition of up to two digits (10K problems), and concatenation of up to three digits (1.1K problems). All numbers considered were positive numbers. Q: Concatenate the two word lists. Concatenate of tyr, rectus, ki and chilli, vogul, bps is what? A: tyr, rectus, ki, chilli, vogul, bps Q: Concatenate the two word lists. Concatenate of gaba, craved, ritz and krone, 749 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH duenna, zoic is what? A: 4a: Example of the concatenation prompt for Flan-T5. Q: Uppercase all of the words in the list. Uppercase of tyr, rectus, ki is what? A: TYR, RECTUS, KI Q: Uppercase all of the words in the list. Uppercase of gaba, craved, ritz is what? A: 4b: Example of the uppercase prompt for Flan-T5. Q: Remove the first word in the list. Remove first of tyr, rectus, ki is what? A: rectus, ki Q: Remove the first word in the list. 750 RANGE Remove first of gaba, craved, ritz is what? A: 4c: Example of the remove first prompt for Flan-T5. Figure 4: Example of skill prompts for the WLO task for Flan-T5. Q: Perform these operations in order: uppercase all of the words in the first word list, remove the first word in the second word list, and concatenate the two word lists. Using tyr, rectus, ki and chilli, vogul, bps gives what? A: TYR, RECTUS, KI, vogul, bps Q: Perform these operations in order: uppercase all of the words in the first word list, remove the first word in the second word list, and concatenate the two word lists. Using gaba, craved, ritz and krone, duenna, zoic gives what? A: 751 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 5: Example of WLO prompt for Flan-T5. Q: Uppercase all of the words in the list. Uppercase of tyr, rectus, ki is what? A: TYR, RECTUS, KI Q: Perform these operations in order: uppercase all of the words in the first word list, remove the first word in the second word list, and concatenate the two word lists. Using tyr, rectus, ki and chilli, vogul, bps gives what? A: TYR, RECTUS, KI, vogul, bps Q: Perform these operations in order: uppercase all of the words in the first word list, remove the first word in the second word list, and concatenate the two word lists. Using gaba, craved, ritz and krone, duenna, zoic gives what? A: Figure 6: Example of primed WLO prompt for Flan-T5. The word list task evaluated a model’s ability to perform string operations on lists of words. The main task was a word list operation over 752 RANGE two lists of words that consisted of the following tasks in order: uppercasing all of the words in the first list, removing the second word from the second list, and concatenating the two lists together. Each task had 1K problems containing a sample of words from a filtered WordNet corpus, where the words considered did not contain digits, did not contain underscores, were six characters or fewer, and were not obscenities. Each prompt was given to the models to generate a response. Multinomial beam search with five beams was used. The correct answer was searched in each generated response in different ways. For the multiplication experiments, the response was stripped of commas, and the last number in the generated response was considered as the answer. For the WLO experiments, the answer was searched in the generated response such that the final word list was in the response in order, and an additional check was used to ensure that the answer was not contained in a sublist of a larger list. 753 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH RESULTS We aim to answer the following research questions in this section: • How well do the models perform at the given tasks and skills? • Does model parameter size affect the model’s performance at the task? • If a model is given an in-context example of a skill relevant to a task, does this improve the model’s performance at that task? After conducting the experiments, we scored each experiment based on a scoring function. The results are shown below as box-and-whisker plots, representing each experiment’s five average accuracies using different in-context examples. For each experiment, the accuracy of skills and the accuracy of the main task were measured. There are three variants for the experiments on the main task: original, primed, and control. The original experiment is performed with the main task prompt. The primed experiments contained an additional in-context example of a relevant skill to the main task prompt, and the control 754 RANGE experiments contained an irrelevant in-context example instead. Flan-T5 XXL, Llama 2-Chat 7B, and Llama 2-Chat 13B can perform the skills needed for multiplication. However, all Flan-T5 models had near zero accuracy for the WLO task, so only the Llama 2-Chat models are shown in Figure 10. This indicates that Llama 2-Chat had better training in responding to these questions than Flan-T5. A general trend from the results was that larger models tended to perform better than smaller models (ignoring Flan-T5 for the WLO experiment). This coincides with the general trend of larger models performing better than smaller models [10]. However, there are some differences between the model families chosen. Llama 2-Chat models performed better than their Flan-T5 counterparts in the main tasks and most skills (XL and XXL, respectively). Additional information in a prompt can do one of three things: (1) it can improve the model’s response by giving it useful information, (2) it can have no effect on the model’s response and is 755 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ignored, or (3) it can worsen a model’s response by adding noise and causing confusion. If large language models can learn a skill through incontext examples, then one would expect an improvement in accuracy by introducing incontext examples of relevant skills. However, the results disprove this notion, as experiments with primed prompts did not consistently improve. Furthermore, we expected that control experiments would either have no effect or worsen model performance, but there were cases where it improved accuracy. This suggests that no clear effect exists on how in- context examples for different skills can change model performance on a particular task. MULTIPLICATION For the multiplication task, the models were evaluated on the following skills: carrying, concatenation, multiplication of single digits, and summation. The models were evaluated on multiplication, with and without being primed on a skill. Figure 7 shows the results of the skills across all models used in the experiment. 756 RANGE Figure 8 shows the results of the main task across different prompts. 7a: Models of increasing size evaluated on accuracy for the carry skill. 757 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 7b: Models of increasing size evaluated on accuracy for the concatenation skill. 7c: Models of increasing size evaluated on accuracy for the multiplication of single digits skill. 758 RANGE 7d: Models of increasing size evaluated on accuracy for the summation skill. Figure 7: Results for skills used in multiplication. Results were consistent across each skill, with the larger models performing better than the smaller models. FlanT5 XXL, Llama 2-Chat 7B, and Llama 2-Chat 13B were the models that performed the skills well. With the Llama 2-Chat models, they occasionally responded with more than the eventual answer, producing a chainof-thought response even without being prompted to. For the concatenation task, Llama 2-Chat 7B sometimes mistakenly appended zeros to the start of its answer. Llama 2-Chat 13B sometimes mistakenly skipped the first number for its answer if the first number was zero. Smaller models tended to perform poorly due to various issues in their responses. For the carry skill, Flan-T5 Small, Flan-T5 Base, and Flan-T5 Large tended to respond with the answer for the in- context example rather than the question at hand. For the concatenation skill, Flan-T5 Base frequently resorted to repeating the question. For the sum skill, Flan-T5 Small and FlanT5 Base frequently produced negative numbers in their answers, which would not be possible in this context because only positive numbers were used in the 759 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH experiments. For the multiplication of single digits skill, Flan-T5 Small, Flan-T5 Base, and Flan-T5 Large frequently produced single-digit answers, even for questions that would result in a two-digit answer. 8a: Flan-T5 Small’s accuracy for multiplication using different prompts. 760 RANGE 8b: Flan-T5 Base’s accuracy for multiplication using different prompts. 8c: Flan-T5 Large’s accuracy for multiplication using different prompts. 8d: Flan-T5 XL’s accuracy for multiplication using different prompts. 761 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 8e: Flan-T5 XXL’s accuracy for multiplication using different prompts. 8f: Llama 2-Chat 7B’s accuracy for multiplication using different prompts. 762 RANGE 8g: Llama 2-Chat 13B’s accuracy for multiplication using different prompts. Figure 8: Results for the multiplication task using different models. There are a few things to note from the results in Figure 8. Llama-2 Chat 13B performed the best at multiplication, but its accuracy was still poor at around 35%. While the Multiply + Concatenate prompt seemed to improve the response for Flan-T5 Base, the overall accuracy is still poor at around 1.3%. Furthermore, none of the other models responded similarly when primed with related skills. Including the control tasks for other models had inconsistent effects on model performance. Flan-T5 XL performed slightly worse when including the string reversal control task to the prompt on average, 763 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH but Flan-T5 Large performed marginally better with string reversal than other prompts on average. However, these differences are negligible due to these models’ trivial performances. For larger models, the control task did not significantly affect model performance. WORD LIST For the word list task, the models were evaluated on the following skills: concatenation, remove first word, and uppercase all words. Furthermore, the models were evaluated on a word list operation (WLO), with and without being primed on a skill. Figure 9 shows the results of the skills across all models used in the experiment. Figure 10 shows the results of the main task across different prompts for the Llama 2-Chat models only due to the poor results from Flan-T5 for this experiment. 764 RANGE 9a: Models of increasing size evaluated on accuracy for the concatenation skill. 9b: Models of increasing size evaluated on accuracy for the remove first skill. 765 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 9c: Models of increasing size evaluated on accuracy for the uppercase skill. Figure 9: Results for skills used in WLO. For the skills needed to perform WLO, only the Llama 2-Chat models could perform them reliably. Of the Flan-T5 models, Flan-T5 XXL performed the best in the skills overall. It performed on par with the Llama 2-Chat models in the remove first skill but poorly on the concatenation and uppercase skills. Upon further inspection, the Flan-T5 models tended not to change the word list and mistake uppercasing all words as uppercasing the first letter in each word. For the concatenation task, it tended to concatenate all words 766 RANGE into a single word. These results contrast with Llama 2-Chat, which was able to concatenate the lists into a comma-delimited word list. 10a: Llama 2-Chat 7B’s accuracy for word list operation using different prompts. 10b: Llama 2-Chat 13B’s accuracy for word list operation 767 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH using different prompts. Figure 10: Results for the WLO task using different models. For Llama 2-Chat 7B, the introduction of the uppercase skill did improve some of the runs. However, the accuracies are still negligible. Looking at the larger model, Llama 2-Chat 13B did not exhibit this behavior and tends to perform better with control prompts on average. However, the accuracies between each incontext example varied substantially, highlighting the importance of selecting the right one for a task. Upon further examination, Llama 2-Chat models tended to misunderstand how concatenation operated in the WLO experiment. Instead of concatenating the two lists into one list, they sometimes combined the lists into a single word, much like Flan-T5 did with the concatenation task. Even with the injection of concatenation skills, the models did not pick up on this distinction. Sometimes, the models mistook which words belonged to which list, capitalized all words in both lists, and did not remove the first word in the second list. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION Previous authors had performed work to understand the 768 RANGE behavior large language models exhibit when reasoning with compositional tasks. Dziri et al. determine the limits of compositionality in transformer-based models based on reasoning with computational graphs based on subtask operations [2]. Despite prompting models to decompose a compositional task, they found that these models tended to fail as the depth of the graph computational graph increased. Along similar lines, Press et al. investigated the relationship between model size and its ability to reason in compositional tasks [18]. They found that the compositional gap between singlehop and multi-hop question- answering does not decrease as model sizes increase. Lepori et al. highlight one way neural networks can reason with complex tasks is because there exists structural subcomponents of a network that can handle subtasks [19]. They created models trained on odd-one-out language tasks and found that one can remove a subnetwork that handles a subtask from a network and leave the network’s functionality of other subtasks intact. Furthermore, previous authors have explored numerical reasoning in large language models. One of Dziri et al.’s experiments involved multiplication, and they divided it into five subtasks: “one- digit multiplication, sum, mod 10, carry over, [and] concatenation” [2]. They used the 769 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH number of digits between the two numbers multiplied to represent the size of the problem. Ling et al. created a framework for LLMs to solve algebraic problems by “generating answer rationales” alongside the predicted answer [20]. Answer rationales create an interpretable explanation of why a model chose a particular answer. Ontañón et al. explored different design patterns for the transformer architecture for compositional tasks, including “addition, duplication, [and] set intersection” [21]. They found that improvements from architectural changes depended on the compositional task evaluated. In the multiplication experiment, we observed a trend of large models performing better than smaller models. We can also observe a similar effect with the Llama-2 Chat models in the WLO experiment. Our results also prove that models cannot learn compositionality in-context reliably. Even if a model can perform relevant skills well individually, including an in-context example of relevant skills did not consistently improve the model. In the larger models for multiplication, including a relevant or irrelevant skill did not change the model’s overall performance. For the WLO experiment, a relevant or irrelevant skill had inconsistent effects on model performance. Several limitations of these experiments revolve around 770 RANGE scaling and resource constraints. The largest model considered for these experiments was Llama 2-Chat 13B, but the largest Llama 2-Chat model available is 70B. Only the Flan-T5 and Llama 2-Chat family of models were considered, and future experimentation should consider different families, such as GPT. The choice of how prompts are given to a model can influence model performance [5], but only one main prompt format was considered for these experiments. Furthermore, future work could add more in-context examples and combine skill examples into a single prompt. We considered in-context examples for our experiments, but future work can try finetuning models on the subtasks instead. We conducted experiments involving multiplication and word list operation. A natural extension is to design additional tasks to see if our observations hold across them. REFERENCES [1] S. Bubeck, V. Chandrasekaran, R. Eldan, J. Gehrke, E. Horvitz, E. Kamar, P. Lee, Y. T. Lee, Y. Li, S. Lundberg, H. Nori, H. Palangi, M. T. Ribeiro, and Y. Zhang, “Sparks of Artificial General Intelligence: Early experiments with GPT-4.” arXiv, Apr. 13, 2023. doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2303.12712. 771 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH [2] N. Dziri, X. Lu, M. Sclar, X. L. Li, L. Jiang, B. Y. Lin, P. West, C. Bhagavatula, R. L. Bras, J. D. Hwang, S. Sanyal, S. Welleck, X. Ren, A. Ettinger, Z. Harchaoui, and Y. Choi, “Faith and Fate: Limits of Transformers on Compositionality.” arXiv, Jun. 01, 2023. doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2305.18654. [3] H. W. Chung, L. Hou, S. Longpre, B. Zoph, Y. Tay, W. Fedus, Y. Li, X. Wang, M. Dehghani, S. Brahma, A. Webson, S. S. Gu, Z. Dai, M. Suzgun, X. Chen, A. Chowdhery, A. Castro-Ros, M. Pellat, K. Robinson, D. Valter, S. Narang, G. Mishra, A. Yu, V. Zhao, Y. Huang, A. Dai, H. Yu, S. Petrov, E. H. Chi, J. Dean, J. Devlin, A. Roberts, D. Zhou, Q. V. Le, and J. Wei, “Scaling Instruction- Finetuned Language Models,” Journal of Machine Learning Research, vol. 25, no. 70, pp. 1–53, 2024. [4] H. Touvron, L. Martin, K. Stone, P. Albert, A. Almahairi, Y. Babaei, N. Bashlykov, S. Batra, P. Bhargava, S. Bhosale, D. Bikel, L. Blecher, C. C. Ferrer, M. Chen, G. Cucurull, D. Esiobu, J. Fernandes, J. Fu, W. Fu, B. Fuller, C. Gao, V. Goswami, N. Goyal, A. Hartshorn, S. Hosseini, R. Hou, H. Inan, M. Kardas, V. Kerkez, M. Khabsa, I. Kloumann, A. Korenev, P. S. Koura, M.-A. Lachaux, T. Lavril, J. Lee, D. Liskovich, Y. Lu, Y. Mao, X. Martinet, T. Mihaylov, P. Mishra, I. 772 RANGE Molybog, Y. Nie, A. Poulton, J. Reizenstein, R. Rungta, K. Saladi, A. Schelten, R. Silva, E. M. Smith, R. Subramanian, X. E. Tan, B. Tang, R. Taylor, A. Williams, J. X. Kuan, P. Xu, Z. Yan, I. Zarov, Y. Zhang, A. Fan, M. Kambadur, S. Narang, A. Rodriguez, R. Stojnic, S. Edunov, and T. Scialom, “Llama 2: Open Foundation and Fine-Tuned Chat Models.” arXiv, Jul. 19, 2023. Accessed: Mar. 23, 2024. [Online]. Available: http://arxiv.org/abs/2307.09288 [5] P. Liu, W. Yuan, J. Fu, Z. Jiang, H. Hayashi, and G. Neubig, “Pre-train, Prompt, and Predict: A Systematic Survey of Prompting Methods in Natural Language Processing,” ACM Comput. Surv., vol. 55, no. 9, p. 195:1-195:35, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.1145/3560815. [6] T. Kuribayashi, Y. Oseki, T. Ito, R. Yoshida, M. Asahara, and K. Inui, “Lower Perplexity is Not Always Human-Like,” in Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers), Online: Association for Computational Linguistics, 2021, pp. 5203–5217. doi: 10.18653/v1/2021.acl-long.405. [7] D. Ippolito, R. Kriz, J. Sedoc, M. Kustikova, and C. Callison-Burch, “Comparison of Diverse Decoding 773 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Methods from Conditional Language Models,” in Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, A. Korhonen, D. Traum, and L. Màrquez, Eds., Florence, Italy: Association for Computational Linguistics, Jul. 2019, pp. 3752–3762. doi: 10.18653/v1/P19-1365. [8] S. Zhang, L. Dong, X. Li, S. Zhang, X. Sun, S. Wang, J. Li, R. Hu, T. Zhang, F. Wu, and G. Wang, “Instruction Tuning for Large Language Models: A Survey.” arXiv, Oct. 09, 2023. doi: 10.48550/ arXiv.2308.10792. [9] S. Min, X. Lyu, A. Holtzman, M. Artetxe, M. Lewis, H. Hajishirzi, and L. Zettlemoyer, “Rethinking the Role of Demonstrations: What Makes In-Context Learning Work?,” in Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, Y. Goldberg, Z. Kozareva, and Y. Zhang, Eds., Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates: Association for Computational Linguistics, Dec. 2022, pp. 11048–11064. doi: 10.18653/ v1/2022.emnlp-main.759. [10] T. Brown, B. Mann, N. Ryder, M. Subbiah, J. D. Kaplan, P. Dhariwal, A. Neelakantan, P. Shyam, G. Sastry, A. Askell, S. Agarwal, A. Herbert-Voss, G. Krueger, T. Henighan, R. Child, A. Ramesh, D. Ziegler, 774 RANGE J. Wu, C. Winter, C. Hesse, M. Chen, E. Sigler, M. Litwin, S. Gray, B. Chess, J. Clark, C. Berner, S. McCandlish, A. Radford, I. Sutskever, and D. Amodei, “Language Models are Few-Shot Learners,” in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, Curran Associates, Inc., 2020, pp. 1877–1901. Accessed: Apr. 07, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://papers.nips.cc/paper/2020/hash/ 1457c0d6bfcb4967418bfb8ac142f64aAbstract.html [11] R. Socher, A. Perelygin, J. Wu, J. Chuang, C. D. Manning, A. Ng, and C. Potts, “Recursive Deep Models for Semantic Compositionality Over a Sentiment Treebank,” in Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, D. Yarowsky, T. Baldwin, A. Korhonen, K. Livescu, and S. Bethard, Eds., Seattle, Washington, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, Oct. 2013, pp. 1631–1642. Accessed: Mar. 26, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://aclanthology.org/ D13-1170 [12] A. Vaswani, N. Shazeer, N. Parmar, J. Uszkoreit, L. Jones, A. N. Gomez, Ł. ukasz 775 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Kaiser, and I. Polosukhin, “Attention is All you Need,” in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, Curran Associates, Inc., 2017. Accessed: Apr. 11, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://papers.nips.cc/paper_files/paper/2017/ hash/ 3f5ee243547dee91fbd053c1c4a845aa-Abstract.h tml [13] C. Raffel, N. Shazeer, A. Roberts, K. Lee, S. Narang, M. Matena, Y. Zhou, W. Li, and P. J. Liu, “Exploring the limits of transfer learning with a unified text-to-text transformer,” J. Mach. Learn. Res., vol. 21, no. 1, p. 140:5485-140:5551, Jan. 2020. [14] Z. G. Szabó, “Compositionality,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Fall 2022., E. N. Zalta and U. Nodelman, Eds., Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2022. Accessed: Mar. 30, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2022/ entries/compositionality/ [15] T. M. V. Janssen and B. H. Partee, “Chapter 7 – Compositionality,” in Handbook 776 RANGE of Logic and Language, J. van Benthem and A. ter Meulen, Eds., Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1997, pp. 417–473. doi: 10.1016/ B978-044481714-3/50011-4. [16] “Chain-of-Thought Prompting Elicits Reasoning in Large Language Models.” Accessed: Nov. 08, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper_files/ paper/2022/hash/ 9d5609613524ecf4f15af0f7b31abca4-AbstractConference.html [17] J. Wei, X. Wang, D. Schuurmans, M. Bosma, brian ichter, F. Xia, E. Chi, Q. V. Le, and D. Zhou, “Chain-of-Thought Prompting Elicits Reasoning in Large Language Models,” in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, S. Koyejo, S. Mohamed, A. Agarwal, D. Belgrave, K. Cho, and A. Oh, Eds., Curran Associates, Inc., 2022, pp. 24824–24837. [Online]. Available: https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper_files/ paper/2022/file/ 9d5609613524ecf4f15af0f7b31abca4-PaperConference.pdf 777 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH [18] O. Press, M. Zhang, S. Min, L. Schmidt, N. A. Smith, and M. Lewis, “Measuring and Narrowing the Compositionality Gap in Language Models.” May 22, 2023. doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2210.03350. [19] M. A. Lepori, T. Serre, and E. Pavlick, “Break It Down: Evidence for Structural Compositionality in Neural Networks.” arXiv, Jan. 25, 2023. doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2301.10884. [20] W. Ling, D. Yogatama, C. Dyer, and P. Blunsom, “Program Induction by Rationale Generation: Learning to Solve and Explain Algebraic Word Problems,” in Proceedings of the 55th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), R. Barzilay and M.-Y. Kan, Eds., Vancouver, Canada: Association for Computational Linguistics, Jul. 2017, pp. 158–167. doi: 10.18653/v1/P17-1015. [21] S. Ontanon, J. Ainslie, Z. Fisher, and V. Cvicek, “Making Transformers Solve Compositional Tasks,” in Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for 778 RANGE Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), S. Muresan, P. Nakov, and A. Villavicencio, Eds., Dublin, Ireland: Association for Computational Linguistics, May 2022, pp. 3591–3607. doi: 10.18653/v1/2022.acllong.251. 779 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 33 Higher Wall Shear Stress in AVFs Reduces Neointimal Hyperplasia Compared to AVGs: Insights from Porcine Models NICHOLAS THOMSON Faculty Mentor: Yan-Ting Engineering, University of Utah) 780 Shiu (Biomedical RANGE INTRODUCTION Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) affects approximately 15% of people in the United States, with End-Stage Kidney Disease (ESKD) representing the final stage of the condition, where the kidneys can no longer filter blood effectively [1]. At this stage, patients require renal replacement therapy to sustain life, either through a kidney transplant or hemodialysis [2]. While kidney transplants are the most effective long-term solution, their availability is severely limited, with wait times often exceeding four years [2]. Consequently, hemodialysis remains the most accessible and widely used treatment for ESKD patients due to its efficacy and availability [2]. For hemodialysis to function optimally, it requires vascular access capable of sustaining the high blood flow rates necessary for effective blood filtration by an external dialyzer. The two primary types of vascular access are arteriovenous fistulas (AVFs) and arteriovenous grafts (AVGs). AVFs are created by surgically connecting an artery to a vein, allowing the vein to enlarge and strengthen for increased blood flow. They are generally preferred due to their higher longterm success rates and fewer complications compared to AVGs, which use synthetic conduits [3]. However, 781 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH both AVFs and AVGs are prone to failure due to venous stenosis, primarily caused by neointimal hyperplasia (NH), which thickens the vessel wall, reducing the lumen size and compromising blood flow [4]. Despite significant research, the biomechanical factors contributing to NH formation in AVFs and AVGs remain poorly understood, particularly the role of hemodynamic parameters like wall shear stress (WSS). The gap in understanding lies in the specific role that WSS plays in influencing NH formation, and whether these differences can account for the superior outcomes seen in AVFs. Current understanding of NH formation in vascular access settings suggests that both biological and mechanical factors are involved. Biologically, NH formation is driven by vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition, processes often triggered by inflammation and vascular injury [5]. Mechanically, disturbed blood flow patterns, characterized by low WSS and high oscillatory shear index (OSI), promote NH in AVGs, whereas regions with higher and more stable WSS are associated with better outcomes in AVFs [5], [6], [7]. Computational models, like those using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), enable detailed simulations of these hemodynamic conditions, providing insights into 782 RANGE how WSS and OSI affect NH progression in patientspecific vascular geometries [6], [7]. This study seeks to further address this gap by investigating how early hemodynamic differences between AVFs and AVGs influence NH formation, focusing specifically on WSS. The hypothesis is that AVFs, which experience higher WSS, exhibit reduced NH compared to AVGs. This hypothesis will be explored using porcine models and validated through CFD simulations and statistical analysis to ensure model accuracy. By integrating findings from these simulations with biological insights, the study aims to clarify the biomechanical influences on NH, ultimately contributing to improved vascular access management and clinical outcomes for hemodialysis patients. BACKGROUND Neointimal hyperplasia is a pathological process characterized by the proliferation of VSMCs and the accumulation of ECM components within the intima of blood vessels following injury. This response is primarily triggered by the initial vascular trauma, activating VSMCs to migrate from the medial to the intimal layer and proliferate [4]. NH formation plays a critical role in restenosis, or the re-narrowing of blood 783 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH vessels, after interventions such as vascular grafting and percutaneous coronary interventions [8]. The mechanisms underlying NH are complex and multifactorial, involving an interplay of cellular responses, inflammation, and ECM remodeling, which together contribute to structural changes in the vessel wall [9]. Biological studies reveal that the early response to vascular injury includes the release of growth factors, such as platelet-derived growth factor, which promotes VSMC proliferation and migration [10]. The proliferation of VSMCs is central to NH formation, as these cells lay down ECM components that structurally reinforce the neointima, although excessive proliferation leads to vessel narrowing. Research indicates that targeting VSMC behavior can mitigate NH; for example, metformin has been shown to reduce VSMC proliferation, thus decreasing NH in insulin-resistant models [11]. Inflammatory cells, particularly macrophages, also play a key role in NH development by releasing cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) that promote VSMC migration and differentiation [12], [13]. This interplay between VSMCs and inflammatory mediators highlights the need 784 RANGE for therapeutic strategies addressing both cellular proliferation and inflammatory responses. The role of ECM remodeling is another essential factor in NH progression. ECM components like collagen are deposited by activated VSMCs, adding structural integrity to the neointima while contributing to lumen narrowing. Studies show that the balance between ECM deposition and degradation is pivotal in determining NH extent. For instance, inhibiting MMPs can slow ECM deposition, reducing NH [14]. Additionally, advancements in drug-eluting stents and gene therapy have offered new methods for curbing NH by delivering antiproliferative agents directly to the site of vascular injury [15]. Drug-eluting stents, in particular, have been effective in reducing NH compared to baremetal stents, and gene therapy targeting microRNAs has shown promise in modulating VSMC behavior to prevent NH [16]. Computational methods, particularly CFD, provide valuable tools for understanding the hemodynamic factors associated with NH in vascular access settings. CFD modeling enables detailed simulations of flow patterns and forces within vascular structures, offering insights into how hemodynamic conditions influence NH formation [6]. Studies utilizing CFD in AVFs and 785 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH AVGs have shown that disturbed blood flow patterns, characterized by low WSS and high OSI, are associated with increased NH in AVGs, while regions with stable, high WSS correlate with better AVF outcomes [7,17]. By applying CFD to patient-specific vascular geometries, researchers can simulate the hemodynamic environment and evaluate potential interventions in a non-invasive manner. These models are especially relevant to this study, as they enable an in-depth analysis of WSS in AVFs versus AVGs, addressing a critical gap in understanding the biomechanical factors that influence NH formation in vascular access. METHODS Materials This study used six female Yorkshire cross domestic pigs, selected for their anatomical and physiological similarities to human vascular systems, making them suitable models for hemodynamic analysis in vascular access research [8]. All procedures were approved under Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). The pigs were divided into two groups: three for the AVF model and three for the AVG model. AVFs were surgically created by connecting the common carotid artery to the ipsilateral external jugular vein. 786 RANGE For the AVG group, a 7-cm expanded polytetrafluoroethylene graft with a 6-mm internal diameter was surgically implanted between the carotid artery and the external jugular vein. The animals were monitored post-surgery to ensure consistent recovery conditions across both groups, minimizing potential variations in hemodynamic response [9]. Imaging and Data Acquisition Two weeks post-surgery, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was conducted using a 3T Siemens Magnetom Prisma scanner to capture detailed images of the vascular structures, enabling a comprehensive assessment of the hemodynamic environment. Imaging protocols included 2D time-of-flight imaging for high-resolution visualization of vascular structures, 3D black blood MRI to define the vessel lumen and wall, and 2D phasecontrast MRI to measure blood flow velocities at specific locations within the AVFs and AVGs [10]. These imaging techniques provided detailed geometric and flow profiles essential for subsequent computational modeling. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Following image acquisition, computational methods 787 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH were used to reconstruct the 3D lumen geometry of the AVFs and AVGs. Segmentation software (Amira, version 2022.1) was used to create detailed vessel representations. High-resolution meshes were generated in Ansys ICEM CFD (version 2022 R2). Each AVF model contained approximately 1.5 million elements, while the AVG models included around 3 million elements, ensuring the spatial resolution necessary for accurate CFD simulations [11]. Ansys Fluent (version 2022) was then used to perform transient simulations across three cardiac cycles, with the third cycle analyzed to obtain steady-state flow parameters. Velocity profiles extracted from the MRI data were applied as inlet conditions, and additional flow extensions, generated using Vascular Modeling Toolkit (VMTK, version 1.5), ensured realistic boundary conditions for the computational model [12]. Data Processing and Analysis The CFD simulation data were processed in Tecplot (version 2023 R1) to extract critical hemodynamic parameters, including wall shear stress (WSS), oscillatory shear index (OSI), blood velocity, and vorticity. Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism (version 2024), applying paired t-tests to evaluate significant differences between AVFs and AVGs. Model 788 RANGE accuracy was validated by comparing simulated flow parameters with MRI-measured velocities. This analysis focused on quantifying the relationship between WSS and other key hemodynamic factors, supporting our hypothesis that higher WSS in AVFs reduces NH formation. RESULTS Wall shear stress analysis demonstrated a significantly higher WSS in AVFs compared to AVGs, particularly in the proximal vein (PV). AVFs exhibited an average WSS of 382.8 ± 82.2 dyne/cm² in the PV, compared to 332.9 ± 108.4 dyne/cm² in AVGs (Table 1). These differences are visualized in the heat maps (Figure 1), which highlight the greater and more stable shear forces present in AVFs. Higher WSS is associated with reduced neointimal hyperplasia (NH), as it improves endothelial cell alignment and reduces vascular injury [5], [6]. 789 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1: Representative heat maps of WSS in AVFs (left) and AVGs (right). AVFs exhibit significantly higher WSS values across the proximal vein. AVG Parameter AVF CSA (mm²) 28.3 ± 4.2 9.5 ± 0.4 Flow Rate (mL/min) 1122.4 ± 47.8 862.7 ± 87.2 Vorticity (rotations/s) 1880.6 ± 206 1174.3 ± 179.9 Velocity (m/s) 1.2 ± 0.2 1.2 ± 0.1 WSS (dyne/cm²) 382.8 ± 82.2 332.9 ± 108.4 Table 1: Comparison of early hemodynamic differences in the 790 RANGE proximal vein between AVFs and AVGs, including CSA, velocity, and WSS. Velocity analysis revealed similar mean velocities in the proximal vein between AVFs and AVGs, both averaging 1.2 m/s (Table 1). However, streamline visualizations (Figure 2) showed that AVFs had more laminar and organized flow patterns, whereas AVGs demonstrated disturbed flow. These laminar patterns in AVFs are hypothesized to provide a protective hemodynamic environment that reduces NH development [6]. 791 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2: Representative heat maps of velocity distribution with streamline overlays for AVFs (left) and AVGs (right). AVFs show laminar flow, while AVGs exhibit disturbed flow patterns. Vorticity, a measure of rotational flow, was significantly higher in AVFs compared to AVGs, with values of 1880 ± 206 rotations/s in the PV for AVFs versus 1174 ± 180 rotations/s for AVGs (Table 1). This increased vorticity suggests enhanced blood mixing and wall stimulation in AVFs, potentially contributing to reduced NH formation. Heat maps (Figure 3) further illustrate these 792 RANGE differences, highlighting regions of greater rotational energy in AVFs. 793 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The OSI, indicative of disturbed flow, was significantly lower in AVFs compared to AVGs (Figure 4). OSI values in AVFs were approximately 0.15, whereas AVGs exhibited OSI values closer to 0.25. Lower OSI reflects more stable flow conditions, which are protective against NH formation [7]. 794 RANGE Figure 4: Heat maps of OSI for AVFs (top) and AVGs (bottom). AVFs display lower OSI values, indicative of more stable flow. In the proximal artery, AVFs exhibited larger crosssectional area (CSA) and higher velocity and WSS compared to complement AVGs the (Table proximal 2). These findings vein analysis, further reinforcing the biomechanical advantages of AVFs across vascular regions. Together, these results emphasize that AVFs offer a 795 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH hemodynamically advantageous environment, which supports their long-term functionality and clinical success in hemodialysis. Parameter AVF AVG CSA (mm²) 17.1 ± 1.4 12.1 ± 2.0 Flow Rate (mL/min) 722.1 ± 127.9 320.9 ± 76.3 Vorticity (rotations/ s) 662.1 ± 116 628.1 ± 134.5 Velocity (m/s) 0.62 ± 0.1 0.50 ± 0.1 WSS (dyne/cm²) 81.5 ± 28.2 34.0 ± 12.7 Table 2: Comparison of early hemodynamic differences in the proximal artery between AVFs and AVGs, showing higher flow rates, vorticity, and WSS in AVFs. DISCUSSION This study aimed to evaluate how hemodynamic differences, particularly wall shear stress (WSS), influence neointimal hyperplasia (NH) formation in arteriovenous fistulas (AVFs) compared to arteriovenous grafts (AVGs). Using porcine models and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, we tested the hypothesis that AVFs exhibit higher WSS and lower oscillatory shear index (OSI), leading to reduced NH formation. The findings confirmed this hypothesis, demonstrating that AVFs maintain significantly higher 796 RANGE WSS in the proximal vein (382.8 ± 82.2 dyne/cm²) compared to AVGs (332.9 ± 108.4 dyne/cm²). The increased shear stress likely contributes to improved endothelial function and lower NH progression, reinforcing why AVFs remain the preferred vascular access method for hemodialysis patients. These results suggest that WSS plays a central role in shaping vascular remodeling outcomes and could be a critical factor in optimizing graft designs. The relationship between WSS and NH is further emphasized by the differences observed in OSI and vorticity. AVFs exhibited lower OSI (0.15) compared to AVGs (0.25), which suggests a more stable and protective flow environment. Higher OSI has been linked to endothelial dysfunction, increased inflammation, and greater NH progression, supporting the idea that AVFs maintain a more favorable biomechanical environment. Additionally, vorticity was significantly higher in AVFs (1880 ± 206 rotations/s) compared to AVGs (1174 ± 180 rotations/s), indicating enhanced blood mixing and wall stimulation. The dynamic nature of flow in AVFs may contribute to a protective effect against NH, as high vorticity has been associated with improved endothelial adaptation and reduced vessel narrowing. Together, these findings 797 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH reinforce the biomechanical advantage of AVFs and highlight potential areas for improving AVGs. These results align with previous studies that have examined the impact of hemodynamics on vascular remodeling. Prior work has shown that AVFs consistently exhibit higher WSS, often exceeding 350 dyne/cm² in mature fistulas, a threshold associated with improved long-term patency rates [6]. Similarly, previous studies have found that AVGs, which experience lower and more oscillatory shear stress, are more prone to NH and stenosis [7]. The consistency between these findings and the present study supports the idea that AVF success is largely influenced by its hemodynamic profile. The observed differences in vorticity also complement prior computational models that suggest rotational flow enhances endothelial adaptation, a feature that appears to be more prominent in AVFs due to their natural flow dynamics. While these findings add to the growing body of literature on vascular access biomechanics, they also point toward potential interventions to mitigate NH formation in AVGs. A key limitation of this study is the small sample size (n=6), which restricts statistical power and generalizability. Additionally, while porcine models 798 RANGE closely approximate human vascular physiology, interspecies differences may affect the direct clinical translation of these results. The study also focuses primarily on mechanical factors such as WSS and OSI, without directly investigating the biological pathways involved in NH formation, such as inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, or smooth muscle cell proliferation. Integrating biological markers with computational models in future studies would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanobiology underlying vascular access outcomes. Despite these limitations, the findings have important clinical implications. The confirmation that higher WSS in AVFs is associated with reduced NH suggests that modifications to AVG design could enhance their longevity and functionality. Potential interventions could include altering graft geometry to increase localized WSS, developing bioactive coatings that promote endothelial adaptation, or incorporating patient-specific CFD modeling to optimize vascular access planning. These strategies could help mitigate NH formation and extend the viability of AVGs, particularly for patients who are not candidates for AVFs due to vascular limitations. Future research should address the limitations of this 799 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH study by increasing the sample size, incorporating longterm follow-up data, and integrating biological analyses such as inflammatory cytokine profiling and histological evaluation. Additionally, expanding CFD simulations to account for patient-specific vascular geometries could provide deeper insights into optimizing vascular access selection and surgical planning. By bridging computational modeling with clinical application, future studies can refine strategies to improve vascular access outcomes and reduce complications related to NH progression. Ultimately, these findings contribute to the broader effort to enhance vascular access strategies for hemodialysis patients, a population that faces high morbidity and mortality due to access failure. By demonstrating that higher WSS in AVFs correlates with reduced NH, this study reinforces the long-standing preference for AVFs and provides a foundation for improving AVGs. Further exploration of hemodynamic optimization could lead to more durable access solutions, improving patient outcomes and reducing the healthcare burden associated with vascular access complications. 800 RANGE REFERENCES [1] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Chronic Kidney Disease Basics,” CDC, Feb. 28, 2022. [Online]. Available: www.cdc.gov/kidneydisease/ basics.html [2] J. S. Thurlow, M. Joshi, G. Yan, et al., “Global Epidemiology of End-Stage Kidney Disease and Disparities in Kidney Replacement Therapy,” American Journal of Nephrology, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 98-107, 2021. [3] J. Kolikof, K. Peterson, and A. M. Baker, “Central Venous Catheter,” in StatPearls, Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, Jul. 26, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557798/ [4] T. C. Rothuizen, C. Wong, P. H. A. Quax, A. J. Van Zonneveld, T. J. Rabelink, and J. I. Rotmans, “Arteriovenous access failure: More than just intimal hyperplasia?,” Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 1085-1092, 2013. [5] E. Rajabi-Jagahrgh, M. K. Krishnamoorthy, P. RoyChaudhury, et al., “Longitudinal assessment of hemodynamic endpoints in predicting arteriovenous fistula maturation,” Seminars in Dialysis, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 203-209, 2013. 801 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH [6] Y. He, H. Northrup, H. Le, A. K. Cheung, S. A. Berceli, and Y. T. Shiu, “Medical Image- Based Computational Fluid Dynamics and Fluid-Structure Interaction Analysis in Vascular Diseases,” Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, vol. 10, 2022. [7] M. S. Hafeez, M. H. Eslami, R. A. Chaer, and T. H. Yuo, “Comparing post-maturation outcomes of arteriovenous grafts and fistulae,” The Journal of Vascular Access, 2023. [8] L. Li, C. M. Terry, Y. T. Shiu, and A. K. Cheung, “Neointimal hyperplasia associated with synthetic hemodialysis grafts,” Kidney International, vol. 74, no. 10, pp. 1247–1261, 2008. [9] M. Wang, C. Qiu, Q. Pan, Y. Yang, D. Yang, and X. Sun, “Role of nuclear receptor subfamily 1 group D member 1 in the proliferation, migration of vascular smooth muscle cell, and vascular intimal hyperplasia,” Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology, vol. 82, no. 3, pp. 221-228, 2023. [10] J. Lü, J. Ji, H. Meng, D. Wang, B. Jiang, L. Liu, et al., “The protective effect and underlying mechanism of metformin on neointima formation in fructose-induced 802 RANGE insulin-resistant rats,” Cardiovascular Diabetology, vol. 12, 2013. [11] Q. Zhao, D. Zhou, H. You, B. Lou, Y. Zhang, Y. Tian, et al., “IFN-γ aggravates neointimal hyperplasia by inducing endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis in macrophages by promoting ubiquitin-dependent liver X receptor-α degradation,” The FASEB Journal, vol. 31, no. 12, pp. 5321-5331, 2017. [12] F. Yang, Q. Chen, M. Yang, E. Maguire, X. Yu, S. He, et al., “Macrophage-derived MMP-8 determines smooth muscle cell differentiation from adventitia stem/ progenitor cells and promotes neointima hyperplasia,” Cardiovascular Research, vol. 116, no. 1, pp. 211-225, 2019. [13] X. Shen, J. Zou, F. Li, T. Zhang, and T. Guo, “Lysophosphatidic acid enhances neointimal hyperplasia following vascular injury through modulating proliferation, autophagy, inflammation, and oxidative stress,” Molecular Medicine Reports, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 215-222, 2018. [14] W. Zhang, Y. Cheng, Y. Xiao, Y. Sun, Y. Lin, Q. Li, et al., “Sulfasalazine induces autophagy inhibiting neointimal hyperplasia following carotid artery injuries 803 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH in mice,” Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, vol. 11, 2023. [15] E. Bahnson, H. Kassam, T. Moyer, W. Jiang, C. Morgan, J. Vercammen, et al., “Targeted nitric oxide delivery by prevention supramolecular of restenosis nanofibers after arterial for the injury,” Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, vol. 24, no. 8, pp. 401-418, 2016. [16] S. Cassese, R. Byrne, T. Tada, S. Pinieck, M. Joner, T. Ibrahim, et al., “Incidence and predictors of restenosis after coronary stenting in 10,004 patients with surveillance angiography,” Heart, vol. 100, no. 2, pp. 153-159, 2013. [17] J. Liu, Y. Peng, J. Lai, W. Gao, A. Song, and G. Zhang, “Fluid upstream shear stress of rabbit aortic stenosis inhibits neointimal hyperplasia by promoting endothelialization after balloon injury,” BMC Cardiovascular Disorders, vol. 17, no. 1, p. 35, 2017. [18] N. R. Neyra and S. Wazir, “The evolving panorama of vascular access in the 21st century,” Frontiers in Nephrology, vol. 2, 2022. [19] P. Roy-Chaudhury, “Endothelial Progenitor Cells, Neointimal Hyperplasia, and Hemodialysis Vascular 804 RANGE Access Dysfunction: Novel Therapies for a Recalcitrant Clinical Problem,” Circulation, vol. 112, no. 1, pp. 3-4, 2005. [20] M. S. MacNealy, Strategies for Empirical Research in Writing. Boston, MA 805 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 34 Research Reflection by Nicholas Thomson NICHOLAS THOMSON Faculty Mentor: Yan-Ting Shiu (Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah) My undergraduate research experience has been one of the most valuable parts of my education, shaping the way I approach problem-solving, data analysis, and collaboration in biomedical engineering. Working in 806 RANGE research has allowed me to take what I’ve learned in the classroom and apply it to real-world problems, particularly in vascular access for hemodialysis patients. My work has focused on understanding how wall shear stress (WSS) affects neointimal hyperplasia (NH) in arteriovenous fistulas (AVFs) and grafts (AVGs). I’ve explored how mechanical forces influence vascular remodeling through computational fluid dynamics (CFD), medical imaging techniques, and experimental models, deepening my understanding of biomechanics and its clinical relevance. Beyond these skills, research has helped me grow as a thinker and problem-solver. It has taught me skills that are essential for both research and clinical practice. Through this process, I’ve realized how much I value the intersection of engineering and medicine, where scientific exploration can directly improve patient care. This experience has reinforced my desire to pursue a career as a physician, where I hope to apply this knowledge to improve patient outcomes through innovation and evidence-based practice. As I prepare to apply to medical school, I see this research as a foundation that will help me approach medicine with a deeper understanding of biomechanics, medical technology, and the importance of quantitative 807 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH analysis in clinical decision-making. I hope to continue integrating engineering principles into my medical education and, ultimately, into my work as a physician. My time in research has not only strengthened my passion for medicine but has also given me a unique perspective that I will carry forward in my future medical training and career. 808 RANGE 35 Effects of the Receptor for Advanced Glycation End Products on Successful Arteriovenous Fistula Maturation RIVER TOBIAS AND YAN-TING SHIU Faculty Mentor: Yan-Ting Shiu (Bioengineering, University of Utah) 809 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH INTRODUCTION Chronic kidney disease (CKD) affects approximately 37 million people in the United States, representing a significant health concern [1]. There are five stages to CKD, each determined by the decline of the glomerular filtration rate [2]. The fifth and final stage is called endstage kidney disease (ESKD). This is when the kidneys have failed and can no longer filter blood effectively. ESKD is irreversible and expensive to treat, with 36 billion dollars being spent on ESKD in the US alone per year [1]. Of the 37 million Americans who have CKD, around 786,000 have ESKD and require renal replacement therapy [1]. Kidney transplants and hemodialysis are both common, but due to long wait times, 71% of ESKD patients use hemodialysis as their primary treatment [1]. Hemodialysis is a form of renal replacement therapy where blood is filtered outside the patient’s body using a dialyzer. To undergo this procedure, the patient needs a vascular access site that can handle the increased blood flow rate required by the dialyzer [3]. Among the various types of vascular access, the arteriovenous fistula (AVF) is preferred because it offers lower mortality and morbidity rates, as well as greater longevity compared to other options [4]. An AVF is created surgically by 810 RANGE directly connecting the radial artery and cephalic vein of the wrist [4]. After AVF creation, the vein needs to undergo remodeling or build outwards to widen the lumen, allowing for the high blood flow needed to filter the blood properly. This remodeling process is called AVF maturation and should happen naturally after the AVF is created. However, while some AVFs can mature successfully for hemodialysis use, up to 60% of newly created AVFs in the US fail to mature [5]. One common form of AVF failure is due to neointimal hyperplasia formation, or the inward formation of tissue that narrows the lumen. This prevents proper access to the vascular site, and another site often is required [6]. This lengthy and challenging process can jeopardize patients’ access to life-saving treatment. There are currently few treatments to increase success in AVF maturation for ESKD patients. Treatments such as angioplasty or stents are available but are highly invasive [7]. Other treatments, such as nitric oxide (NO) and gene therapy, have some support as potential treatments, but more research on their effectiveness is still needed [8]. Inflammation and oxidative stress play important roles in vascular health. Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and the receptor 811 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) increase oxidative stress due to increasing kinase and GTPase activity [9]. RAGE activity has previously been associated with decreased cardiovascular health and is a suspected factor in the progression of chronic kidney disease [10,11,12,13]. Additionally, these AGEs are not filtered out well by hemodialysis and are therefore found in greater concentration in patients with ESKD [14]. Due to their known roles in oxidative stress and increased fibrosis in the vasculature, it is possible that this could increase neointimal hyperplasia in the AVF, increasing the chances for maturation to fail. Knowledge of a connection between RAGE and AVF health could provide a novel method to improve the success of essential treatment for ESKD patients. This study explores whether decreasing RAGE activity improves the AVF maturation process. Three mice subject groups were used in this experiment: untreated (or wild type), a gene knockout for RAGE, and a drug treatment to decrease RAGE activity. Surgically created AVF tissues were matured in each sample and were then collected to analyze both 812 RANGE the formation of neointimal hyperplasia and fibrosis to measure the health of the AVF. This study gives insight into the effect of RAGE and AVF health during its maturation process through the inhibition of RAGE to determine whether further research into RAGE could lead to a possible treatment for hemodialysis patients. Ensuring that patients are able to receive hemodialysis treatment as soon as possible is imperative to their survival and quality of life. BACKGROUND The kidney is an incredibly important organ. While it has many functions including producing vital hormones, one of its main functions is filtering out blood, removing harmful waste products such as urea, along with monitoring concentrations of ions and water. In chronic kidney disease, the function of the kidney in filtering blood is inhibited. Chronic kidney disease is a progressive disease characterized by 5 stages, with each stage characterized by the glomerular filtration rate, or the rate at which blood can enter the kidney glomerulus from the afferent arterioles [2]. The 813 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 5th and final stage, called end stage kidney disease or end stage renal disease, is when kidney function is reduced to the point that the patient could not survive, and the kidneys are considered to have failed [2]. This damage is irreversible. Factors that can lead to end stage kidney disease include diabetes and hypertension, and patients with cardiac issues are more likely to develop chronic kidney disease. Current treatments for end stage kidney disease primarily include kidney transplant and hemodialysis. Kidney transplants have the lowest mortality rate and the best patient outcomes overall. However, many patients are not eligible for kidney transplants, and even for those who are, the average weight time for one is 49 months, which is too long to go without treatment [1]. For this reason, 71% of patients with end stage kidney disease have to undergo hemodialysis treatment [1]. Vascular access for hemodialysis Hemodialysis is the process of filtering blood outside of the body, used to treat 814 RANGE kidney failure. Patients usually undergo this therapy 3 times a week for up to 3-5 hours each visit [3]. Blood must first be collected from the body. The blood is filtered through thin hollow tubes inside a dialyzer [3]. The blood is then returned back to the body. A vascular access site needs to be created for blood both to be taken from and returned to the body, and it must be sufficient so as not to overwhelm the vasculature with the high blood pressure and flow leaving/returning to the body. There are three main vascular access sites that are used. The first is a catheter, usually inserted directly into the jugular vein. The second method is an arteriovenous graft, a device that connects an artery to the vein, usually in the non-dominant arm. The third and final method is an arteriovenous fistula, or an AVF, which involves surgically creating a connection between a vein and an artery in the non-dominant arm [4]. Functional AVFs are less prone to infection and require less intervention than other vascular access types, reducing patient hospitalization and mortality [4]. When an AVF is created, several conditions need to be met before the AVF can become functional. First, the cross- sectional 815 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH diameter needs to triple from 2 mm to 6 mm [15]. The flow also needs to increase considerably, going from 25 mL per minute to 500 [15]. This process is called AVF maturation or remodeling [5]. Unfortunately, 60% of newly created AVFs do not mature, especially in older patients [5]. When an AVF fails to mature, an intervention like angioplasty needs to be performed, or an entire new AVF needs to be created, both of which are intense burdens for patients and come with possible risks [7]. Advanced glycation end products AGEs are stable posttranslational modifications of proteins formed by non- enzymatic reactions (through the Maillard reaction) with sugars such as glucose and related metabolites [9]. Unplanned spontaneous glycation of these metabolites changes their functions, often adversely, and can lead to cross-linking, aggregation, and the loss of enzymatic function, leading to decreased tissue function [9]. Not all AGEs cause these issues, but specific AGEs that have known complications are methylglyoxal (MG)-derived hydroimidazolone MG-H1, Nεcarboxymethyl-lysine (CML), and glucosepane [9]. It has been shown that AGEs are increased 816 RANGE in patients with ESKD due to impaired renal clearance [14]. While AGEs can cause issues of themselves, their primary pathological effects result from binding to RAGE by enacting signaling cascades through binding to RAGE, which is a 45 kDa transmembrane receptor in the immunoglobulin family and expressed on the surface of many tissue cells, but most importantly including vascular wall cells [9]. The receptor characteristics allow it to bind to many different variations of AGEs, notably the known AGEs mentioned above [9]. When AGEs bind to RAGE, they can activate critical signaling pathways that increase oxidative stress, inflammation, and fibrosis [10,11,12,13]. One such pathway is the stimulation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase, thereby increasing the production of reactive oxygen species. RAGE is also involved in upregulating nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) [11]. NF-κB then leads to the transcription of specific genes such as endothelin-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, intracellular adhesion molecule- 1, vascular endothelial growth factor, and E817 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH selectin, increasing inflammatory responses in vascular tissue [11]. Taken together, the AGERAGE pathway leads to increased oxidative stress and inflammation in vascular tissues. Increased inflammation and oxidative stress are known contributors to neointimal hyperplasia, or the inward remodeling of vascular tissue [6]. This is an adverse reaction in a new AVF, as inward remodeling decreases blood flow and can make the AVF unusable. However, there is no direct link between RAGE activity and AVF maturation success, so a clear connection is still unknown. Mouse model for RAGE expression In vascular access research, several types of animal models have been used. For studies that look at physical properties such as shear stress or fluid dynamics, large animals are preferred, such as pig or sheep models [16]. However, for histological analysis, along with cell culture and protein analysis, small animal models such as mice and rats are preferred because the decreased cost enables more models to be used [16]. Furthermore, previous studies on 818 RANGE treatments for AVF maturation have used mice models [16], so studies on mice models can be used as a more accurate comparison with previous studies for the efficacy of treatments. METHODS To explore the effects of RAGE, mice models were used, and RAGE expression was decreased using two methods, both a gene knockout and a drug treatment, which were compared with a control group that had no treatment. After treatment to decrease RAGE, AVFs were surgically created in all mice groups and allowed to mature for a given time before the animals were sacrificed and the tissues were collected and processed for histology. Stained slides were created to analyze certain characteristics of the AVF vein to look for neointimal hyperplasia formation and overall vascular health to answer the question of RAGEs effect. Quantification was performed from the imaged slides, and statistical analysis was performed between each treatment group and the control group separately. 819 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Animal Model and Group Allocation A total of 30 mice were used for this study. Mice were divided into three groups: wild type untreated (control group), wild type treated with FPS-ZM1, a specific inhibitor of RAGE activity, and a full-body homozygous gene knockout (KO) for RAGE delivered intraperitoneally. C57BL/6 strain male mice around 3-4 months old were used for this study as the wild type. Drug Treatment Protocol Mice in the treated group were administered FPS-ZM1 at a dosage of 25 mg/kg body weight intraperitoneally. Twelve shots were administered to each mouse. The first injection was administered 5 days before AVF surgery, and was administered daily until 7 days after the AVFs were created. Arteriovenous Fistula (AVF) Surgery All mice underwent an arteriovenous fistula (AVF) surgery, where carotid-jugular AVFs were surgically created in young (3–4 month 820 RANGE old) male mice to create the AVF, simulating those used in dialysis for end-stage kidney disease. Mice were anesthetized with isoflurane, buprenorphine, xylazine, and ketamine, and then a midline incision of the surgical area was performed. Using a surgical microscope, the right carotid artery and jugular vein were exposed. 10-0 monofilament microsurgical sutures were used to make a side-to-end anastomosis using the carotid artery and jugular vein. After unclamping, dilation of the vein and patency were confirmed visually. The mice were maintained on a warming blanket following surgery and buprenorphine was administered two times at 12 hours apart. Tissue Collection and Histological Processing After a maturation period of seven days, the mice were sacrificed, and AVF tissues were collected. The artery was then cut from the vein near the suture point, and the arteries and veins were processed separately to make embedding easier. Processing was done using a Leica 821 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH TP1020 automated processor. Processing used the following reagents: -Zinc-Buffered Formalin (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -70% Isopropanol (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -95% Dehydration Alcohol (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -100% Dehydration Alcohol (Harleco, Gibbstown, New Jersey) -Xylene (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -Liquid Paraffin Wax (Surgipath, Richmond, Illinois) Tissues were then placed into cassettes to be embedded. The embedding machine used was Leica EG1150 H Tissue Embedding Center, with paraffin wax (Surgipath, Richmond, Illinois). The mold was chilled for at least 1 hour prior to sectioning with the Leica Rotary Microtome (model / part number). The mold boat was trimmed at 10 um thick slices until tissue could be observed. A different blade was then used to section the tissue and collect serial sections at 5 μm thick, placing them into a 38 °C water bath for 30 seconds 822 RANGE to 1 minute before placing them on slides, where they were stored until staining. Each slide had 3 sections of tissue, and 2 slides were stained for each type of stain for each animal tissue sample. Typical samples had the first slide between 100 and 150 μm from anastomosis, and the second slide between 200 and 300 μm from anastomosis in most cases. Slides were imaged using the Zeiss Axioscan 7 (10X magnification). Histological Staining and Imaging In Masson’s Trichrome staining, sections were stained to evaluate fibrosis, with blue areas representing fibrotic tissue content, with specific protocol outlined in Appendix A. In Verhoeff-van Gieson staining, elastic fiber staining was performed to evaluate neointimal hyperplasia, assessing the internal elastic lamina and open lumen area. The specific times and chemicals for the stain can be found in Appendix B. Slides for both stains were placed in a 55-60 degree Celsius oven for 12 hours before staining procedure. Image Quantification To quantify fibrosis on histological images, first photoshop (Version 21; Adobe Systems Incorporated) 823 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH was used to mask the AVF out from surrounding tissue. Next, Image-J (Version 1.54k; Fiji) software was used to measure both the total area and the area stained blue in the AVF tissue. This was done using the color threshold, specifically the hue function while keeping all other factors constant in order to only select blue tissue. This hue value is different depending on the quality of the stain, but should be consistent for all sets of samples in a stain. Once an appropriate threshold was selected, the mean area was recorded. After this, hue was changed to include all values, which selects all of the tissue without selecting the background. Mean gray area was once again recorded. Equation 1 was then used to calculate % area fibrosis. Equation 1: area % of fibrosis = mean gray area blue × mean gray area total In the VVG stain, first a scale was set using the scale bar present in all imaged slides. In ImageJ (Version 1.54k, Fiji), the length of the scale bar was recorded and set as the known distance. The internal elastic area shows up as a thin black line around the lumen in the VVG stain. The 824 RANGE area was carefully traced in Image-J (Version 1.54k, Fiji), and this area was measured. Next, the actual open lumen was carefully traced. Equation 2 was used to calculate the area of the neointimal hyperplasia, equation 3 was used to calculate the normalized area of open lumen, and equation 4 was used to determine the percent area of open lumen. These equations were all implemented in Excel (v16.0, Microsoft). Equation 2: ⯑⯑⯑⯑ ⯑⯑ 𝑙⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑ = ⯑⯑⯑⯑ ⯑⯑⯑𝑙⯑⯑⯑⯑ ⯑⯑ ⯑⯑⯑ − ⯑⯑⯑⯑ ⯑⯑ 𝑙⯑⯑⯑⯑ Equation 3: ⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑𝑙⯑⯑⯑⯑ ⯑⯑⯑⯑ ⯑⯑ ⯑⯑⯑⯑ 𝑙⯑⯑⯑⯑ = area of open lumen × area of IEL Equation 4: ⯑⯑e⯑ % ⯑⯑ ⯑⯑⯑⯑ 𝑙⯑⯑⯑⯑ = ⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑𝑙⯑⯑⯑⯑ ⯑⯑⯑⯑ ⯑⯑ ⯑⯑⯑⯑ 𝑙⯑⯑⯑⯑ [Equation 3] × 100% Statistical Analysis Data from treated groups (FPS-ZM1-treated and RAGE knockout) were compared to the wild type control group separately using a one-tailed Student’s t-test, since 825 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the only significant values would come from vascular health being improved in the treated groups. The study did not define a question relating knockout to drug treatment, so those groups were not compared to each other. The significance threshold was set at p < 0.05. Standard error (SE) and p-values were calculated from equation 5 to assess the significance of the differences in fibrosis and neointimal hyperplasia between groups. Excel (v16.0, Microsoft) was used in statistical analysis calculations. Equation 5: SE = σn−−√⯑n n = number of samples, σ = standard deviation Ethical Considerations All procedures involving animals were conducted in accordance with the guidelines of the University of Utah and were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). RESULTS SECTION To evaluate the impact of RAGE inhibition on AVF maturation, fibrosis levels and neointimal hyperplasia in three experimental groups: WT controls, FPS826 RANGE ZM1-treated mice, and RAGE KO mice. From this, it was expected that RAGE KO would be the definitive group to demonstrate a complete absence of RAGE expression, and FPS-ZM1 would show limited RAGE expression in vascular tissues. Quantitative analysis was performed using histological staining and image processing techniques. Neointimal hyperplasia was assessed from the imaged VVG stained slides. In Excel (v16.0, Microsoft), IEL area and lumen area were recorded from tracings performed in Image-J (Version 1.54k, Fiji), and from this the area of lesions, normalized area of open lumen, and area percent of open lumen, were calculated. Figure 1 highlights the results from the relationship between control AVFs and AVFs treated with FPS-ZM1. The average open lumen area percentage for the control group was 33.09%, which was higher than the drug treatment group at 24.31%. The p value was 0.229 which is far above 0.05, failing to indicate statistical significance. Standard error, calculated using Equation 5, demonstrated significant overlap between groups. Figure 2 highlights the results from the relationship between control AVFs and AVFs in KO mice. The average open lumen area percentage in the control AVFs was 33.09%, which was lower than the KO group 827 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH at 36.47%. The p value was 0.455, which was above the 0.05 p value required to indicate statistical significance. Standard error similarly demonstrated significant overlap between control and KO groups. Figure 1: WT vs drug treatment open lumen area compared to total lumen area, p-Value =0.229. Error bars calculated using Equation 5, to demonstrate the range of data using standard deviation, and the error bars demonstrated significant overlap within a standard deviation between groups 828 RANGE Figure 2: WT vs RAGE KO open lumen area compared to total lumen area, p-Value = 0.455. WT vs drug treatment open lumen area compared to total lumen area, p-Value = 0.229. Error bars calculated using Equation 5, to demonstrate the range of data using standard deviation, and the error bars demonstrated significant overlap within a standard deviation between groups Masson’s Trichrome staining was used to evaluate fibrosis, with the percentage of fibrotic area measured relative to the total AVF area. As shown in Figure 3, average fibrosis in the FPS-ZM1-treated group was slightly increased compared to WT controls, but the p value was above 0.05 at p=0.206, and standard error demonstrated 829 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH significant overlap between groups. Similarly, Figure 4 highlights that RAGE-KO mice demonstrated a slight increase in average fibrosis relative to WT controls, but the p-value was above 0.05 at p=0.163, and the standard error bars demonstrated significant overlap between groups. Figure 3: WT vs drug treatment fibrosis area compared to total AVF area, p-Value = 0.206. WT vs drug treatment open lumen area compared to total lumen area, p-Value = 0.229. Error bars calculated using Equation 5, to demonstrate the range of data using standard deviation, and the error bars demonstrated significant overlap within a standard deviation between groups 830 RANGE Figure 4: WT vs RAGE KO fibrosis area compared to total AVF area, p-Value = 0.163. WT vs drug treatment open lumen area compared to total lumen area, p-Value = 0.229. Error bars calculated using Equation 5, to demonstrate the range of data using standard deviation, and the error bars demonstrated significant overlap within a standard deviation between groups DISCUSSION ESKD is an irreversible disease that requires immediate intervention, mainly through hemodialysis, for patients to survive. To ensure that patients can receive this care as soon as possible, it is imperative that the vascular access 831 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH for hemodialysis works properly and is not the limiting factor. Unfortunately, 60% of AVFs, the most reliable form of vascular access, fail to mature properly. This paper aimed to determine whether decreasing the expression of RAGE in vascular tissue could improve AVF maturation success by improving vascular health. Mice animal models with AVFs were used, and a control group were compared to both a drug treatment (FPS-ZM1) to decrease RAGE, along with a RAGE knockout group. While some benefit was seen in the treatment groups, none of the results demonstrated statistical significance. Understanding the mechanisms behind vascular health is critical in improving AVF maturation success, thereby giving ESKD patients the best chance possible to live productive lives while managing their illness. While many elements were quantified from the data, the most important indicators of AVF maturation success were the open lumen area percentage and the fibrosis percentage. Open lumen area percentage indicates how much of the lumen was actually usable for blood flow and was calculated using the IEL area compared 832 RANGE to the observable open space. In healthy tissue, the IEL is the last barrier of the vascular wall, so the area encompassed by the IEL should be ideally made up entirely of ‘open space’ where blood can flow. By increasing the area of usable lumen in an AVF, there could be significantly more blood flow, allowing for hemodialysis to be effective. Percentage was considered more important than just overall lumen area, as the mice models had differences in vasculature, so overall vein size differed. Using percentage allowed for a normalized representation of the amount of usable lumen space in relation to the maximum potential. Figure 1 demonstrated a slight decrease in open lumen area in the drug treatment group compared to control, but Figure 2 demonstrated a slight increase in open lumen area for the KO group. Between the two groups, the KO was a more accurate representation of decreased RAGE expression. While FPS-ZM1 is a known RAGE antagonist, and its effectiveness has been demonstrated both in the brain and in vascular tissue, RAGE KO is more definitive, as it guarantees that no RAGE is present [17] [18]. Figure 2 highlights a possible 833 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH relationship between decreasing RAGE and increasing open lumen area, albeit the differences were not statistically significant. However, the p value was over 0.05, so this result is not significant, as was the relationship between open lumen area in the drug treatment group. While fibrosis content does not directly relate to the ability to draw a usable amount of blood from an AVF for hemodialysis, it nonetheless functions as an important indicator of overall AVF health. Increased fibrosis indicates an inability for a vein to recover from the stresses of maturation after AVF surgery. Veins with a greater degree of fibrosis are more prone to vascular disfunction and are often stiffer [19]. This can lead to improper remodeling, or even a late-stage failure where the vein cannot hold up and collapses after use. While some fibrosis is expected after an AVF surgery, minimizing fibrotic formation is desired to improve AVF success. In Figures 3 and 4, fibrosis was seen to increase. One possible reason is the treatments themselves. FPS-ZM1, while being a direct antagonist for RAGE, had significant side effects 834 RANGE for the mice models used, and could have increased stress significantly. Similarly, a homozygous knockout was used for the KO group, which had significant side effects for the mice models. However, this increase in fibrosis compared to the control group was not significant for either the drug treatment group or the KO group, so a direct effect cannot be determined. In previous studies, RAGE has been shown to be linked to increased oxidative stress and inflammation, notably through NF-κB and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase, but other pathways and signaling molecules are involved in the negative effects seen from RAGE overexpression [11]. Additionally, previous studies have determined that AGEs are present in higher concentrations in ESKD patients, and while AGEs are not the only compatible ligand for RAGE, they are a significant factor in he overexpression of RAGE [14]. Many studies have also aimed to determine the relationship between RAGE expression and different aspects of health, and studies have found that RAGE is a significant factor in cancer 835 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH progression, diabetes complications, and even arterial and vascular health [10], [11], [12], [13]. However, while many of these studies determined a connection between RAGE and upregulation of other factors known to affect vascular health, these studies did not try to decrease RAGE directly. Additionally, RAGE has connections to signaling molecules that are significant outside of AGEs that could be researched further. Sitruin-1 (SIRT1) is one that has had previous data support a connection to RAGE, both in previous studies and in current data in this research lab [20]. While previous studies have shown a relationship between RAGE and vascular health, the results from this study did not demonstrate an ability to control RAGE expression to improve vascular health. There are several possible limitations for this. One limitation is the methods used to decrease RAGE expression. Both drug treatment and KO had significant side effects outside of simply reducing RAGE in vasculature, which could have acted as confounding variables. Additionally, all the mice in this study were previously healthy, but a 836 RANGE more accurate model would have animal models that had ESKD prior to AVF surgery, which would increase the AGEs in the bloodstream, possibly accentuating the effects of RAGE in the AVF. Finally, there were very few samples in many of the groups, specifically the control group, allowing possible outliers to confound results. Moving forward, the animal samples that are being analyzed will be induced with CKD prior to surgery. Additionally, multiple types of KO treatment are being employed which should be more localized to vasculature. These changes, along with having more samples, could improve the current results and highlight a statistically significant relationship that could not be seen prior. Additionally, future directions outside of the project could aid in understanding how to improve vascular health in AVF maturation. Other related signaling molecules and pathways could be explored, such as SIRT1. The ability to directly affect the outcome of AVF maturation success is critical to improving patients suffering from ESKD that need 837 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH immediate treatment. To best help them, we must understand the full scope of what effects the maturation process, from flow rate to signaling pathways. Additionally, it is imperative to not only understand the relationship between variables and vascular health, but we must also be able to effectively control these variables for patients to have any benefit. Overall, this research is one step in gaining knowledge to help these patients and can hopefully be expanded on moving forward so that future treatment can improve patient outcomes for all those suffering from ESKD. REFERENCE [1] “Kidney Disease Statistics for the United States – NIDDK,” National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Accessed: Nov. 08, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.niddk.nih.gov/healthinformation/health-statistics/kidney-disease [2] “Stages of kidney disease.” Accessed: Nov. 08, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.kidneyfund.org/allabout-kidneys/stages-kidney-disease [3] “Hemodialysis – NIDDK,” National Institute of 838 RANGE Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Accessed: Nov. 08, 2024. [Online]. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health- Available: information/ kidney-disease/kidney-failure/hemodialysis [4] D. Santoro, F. Benedetto, P. Mondello, N. Pipitò, D. Barillà, F. Spinelli, C. Ricciardi, V. Cernaro, and M. Buemi, “Vascular access for hemodialysis: current perspectives,” IJNRD, vol. 7, pp. 281–294, Jul. 2014, doi: 10.2147/ IJNRD.S46643. [5] M. Allon, T. Greene, L. Dember, J. Vita, A. Cheung, N. Hamburg, P. Imrey, J. Kaufman, M. Robbin, Y. Shiu, C. Terry, H. Umphrey, and H. Feldman, “Association between Preoperative Vascular Function and Postoperative Arteriovenous Fistula Development,” Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 27, no. 12, p. 3788, Dec. 2016, doi: 10.1681/ASN.2015020141. [6] A. Barac and J. A. Panza, “Mechanisms of Decreased Vascular Function With Aging,” Hypertension, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 900–902, Jun. 839 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2009, doi: 10.1161/ HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.132308. [7] J. H. M. Tordoir, N. Zonnebeld, M. M. van Loon, M. Gallieni, and M. Hollenbeck, “Surgical and Endovascular Intervention for Dialysis Access Maturation Failure During and After Arteriovenous Fistula Surgery: Review of the Evidence,” European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 240–248, Feb. 2018, doi: 10.1016/ j.ejvs.2017.12.001. [8] H. Hu, S. Patel, J. Hanisch, J. Santana, T. Hashimoto, H. Bai, T. Kudze, T. Foster, J. Guo, B. Yatsula, J. Tsui, A. Dardik, “Future research directions to improve fistula maturation and reduce access failure,” Seminars in Vascular Surgery, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 153–171, Dec. 2016, doi:10.1053/ j.semvascsurg.2016.08.005. [9] “Targeting the Receptor for Advanced Glycation Endproducts (RAGE): A Medicinal Chemistry Perspective | Journal of Medicinal Chemistry.” Accessed: Nov. 08, 2024. [Online]. 840 RANGE Available: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ acs.jmedchem.7b00058 [10] “Role and Mechanisms of RAGE-Ligand Complexes and RAGE-Inhibitors in Cancer Progression.” Accessed: Nov. 08, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/14220067/21/10/3613 [11] L. M. Senatus and A. M. Schmidt, “The AGE-RAGE Axis: Implications for AgeAssociated Arterial Diseases,” Front. Genet., vol. 8, Dec. 2017, doi: 10.3389/fgene.2017.00187. [12] J. Lee, J.-S. Yun, and S.-H. Ko, “Advanced Glycation End Products and Their Effect on Vascular Complications in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus,” Nutrients, vol. 14, no. 15, p. 3086, Jul. 2022, doi: 10.3390/nu14153086. [13] “Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs) and Chronic Kidney Disease: Does the Modern Diet AGE the Kidney?” Accessed: Nov. 08, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/14/13/2675 [14] N. Rabbani and P. J. Thornalley, 841 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH “Advanced glycation end products in the pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease,” Kidney Int, vol. 93, no. 4, pp. 803–813, Apr. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2017.11.034. [15] M. Kokozidou, A. Katsargyris, E. L. G. Verhoeven, and G. Schulze-Tanzil, “Vascular access animal models used in research,” Annals of Anatomy – Anatomischer Anzeiger, vol. 225, pp. 65–75, Sep. 2019, doi: 10.1016/ j.aanat.2019.06.002. [16] M. Kokozidou, A. Katsargyris, E. L. G. Verhoeven, and G. Schulze-Tanzil, “Vascular access animal models used in research,” Annals of Anatomy – Anatomischer Anzeiger, vol. 225, pp. 65–75, Sep. 2019, doi: 10.1016/ j.aanat.2019.06.002. [17] F. Yang, Z. Wang, J. Zhang, J. Tang, X. Liu, L. Tan, Q. Huang, and H. Feng, “Receptor for Advanced Glycation End-Product Antagonist Reduces Blood–Brain Barrier Damage After Intracerebral Hemorrhage,” Stroke, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 1328–1336, May 2015, doi: 10.1161/ STROKEAHA.114.008336. 842 RANGE [18] R. Deane, I. Singh, A. Sagare, R. Bell, N. Ross, B. LaRue, R. Love, S. Perry, N. Paquette, R. Deane, M. Thiyagarajan, T. Zarcone, G. Fritz, A. Friedman, B. Miller, and B. Zlokovic, “A multimodal RAGE-specific inhibitor reduces amyloid β–mediated brain disorder in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease,” J Clin Invest, vol. 122, no. 4, pp. 1377–1392, Apr. 2012, doi: 10.1172/JCI58642. [19] A. Harvey, A. C. Montezano, R. A. Lopes, F. Rios, and R. M. Touyz, “Vascular Fibrosis in Aging and Hypertension: Molecular Mechanisms and Clinical Implications,” Can J Cardiol, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 659–668, May 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.cjca.2016.02.070. [20] K.-P. Huang, C. Chen, J. Hao, J.-Y. Huang, P.-Q. Liu, and H.-Q. Huang, “AGEsRAGE System Down-Regulates Sirt1 Through the Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway to Promote FN and TGF-β1 Expression in Male Rat Glomerular Mesangial Cells,” Endocrinology, vol. 156, no. 1, pp. 268–279, Jan. 2015, doi: 10.1210/en.2014-1381. 843 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Appendix A: Masson Trichrome Protocol Deparaffinization and rehydration -Xylene for Massachusetts, 5-6 USA) min (Fisherbrand, Repeated with Waltham, two more additional containers of Xylene for 5-6 min -100% EtOH for 5 min, then repeated with a second container (Harleco, Gibbstown, New Jersey) -95% EtOH for 5 min (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -80% EtOH for 5 min (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -Two changes of diH2O In the first change, held the slides in the water for 3 min. If staining 24 slides, held in for 4 min. In the second change, held the slides in the water for 4 min. If staining 24 slides, held in for 5 min. Bouin’s Solution -Submerged the slides in Bouin’s solution and 844 RANGE placed the container in the water bath (60 °C) for 2 hr (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri) -After 2 hr, tissues were transferred to a container with running tap water for approximately 1 min -2 containers of diH2O for 30 sec Dye Application -Biebrich-Scarlet Acid Fuchsin for 8-8.5 min (Chromaview) -5 changes of diH2O. Five dips in each change of diH2O -Phosphotungstic-phosphomolybtic acid for 5 min (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri) -Aniline Blue for 5-5.5 min (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri) -1% Acetic Acid for 2-2.5 min (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -3 changes of diH2O three times for about Dehydration, Clearing, and Mounting 845 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH -5 dips in 95% EtOH (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -5 dips in 100% EtOH for 2 changes (Harleco, Gibbstown, New Jersey) -Xylene for at least 3 min (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -Mounted the slides using Toluene Permount Solution and coverslip (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) Appendix B: Verhoff Van Gieson Protocol Deparaffinization and rehydration -Xylene for 5-6 min (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) Repeated with two more additional containers of Xylene for 5-6 min -100% EtOH for 5 min, then repeated with a second container (Harleco, Gibbstown, New Jersey) -95% EtOH for 5 min (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) 846 RANGE -80% EtOH for 5 min (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -Two changes of diH2O In the first change, held the slides in the water for 3 min. If staining 24 slides, held in for 4 min. In the second change, held the slides in the water for 4 min. If staining 24 slides, held in for 5 min. Dye Application -Elastic Stain solution for 15 min (ThermoView, Louisville, Kentucky) -5 separate changes of diH2O 1st change: 5 dips 2nd change: 5 dips 3rd change: 8 dips 4th change: 8 dips 5th change: 8 dips -Ferric Chloride solution for 2.5 min (ThermoView, Louisville, Kentucky) -Running lukewarm tap water for 30 sec -95% EtOH for 2 min (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) 847 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH -diH2O for 30 sec -Van-Gieson solution for 3 min (Thermoview, Louisville, Kentucky) Dehydration, Clearing, and Mounting -5 dips in 95% EtOH (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -5 dips in 100% EtOH for 2 changes (Harleco, Gibbstown, New Jersey) -Xylene for at least 3 min (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) -Mounted the slides using Toluene Permount Solution and coverslip (Fisherbrand, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) 848 RANGE 36 Research Reflection by River Tobias RIVER TOBIAS Faculty Mentor: Yan-Ting Shiu (Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah) I have learned a tremendous amount about research and education from my time in the vascular access lab during my undergraduate education. I was able to take concepts I learned in classes and apply them in research. 849 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Additionally, the scope of a single project was massive compared to the homework assignments I was used to, which gave me more insight into how to budget for such a large project, and it gave me insight to the scope of research overall and how much work goes into a single paper. Additionally, I was able to develop soft skills such as teamwork and effective communication that I would not have experienced otherwise, as coordinating a project by myself required working with many lab members. Learning about my project only increased my curiosity in academia, and I learned skills to assist with that, such as how to be precise and consistent, and how to properly think about statistics in research. Finally, I was able to form a significant relationship with my mentor. Dr. Shiu guided me to become independent as a researcher and helped to prepare me for a future in research, by having me practice presenting and performing literature research, and offering constructive criticism throughout my undergraduate journey. 850 RANGE 37 Research Summary: Investigation of the Representative Volume Element in Fibrous Porous Systems JAMES WALKER; PANIA NEWELL; AND MIKHAIL KUTS Faculty Mentor: Pania Newell (Mechanical Engineering, University of Utah) Fibrous porous materials consist of networks of fibers that are intertwined through weaving, knitting, or 851 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH bonding, creating a structure with interconnected pores that facilitate the transport of gases and liquids. The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a discussion of these materials to become highly relevant in the context of medical masks, since they are made of fibrous materials. Medical masks are subject to tensile loading throughout their use, which has a significant impact on their longevity and functionality. Being able to simulate fibers under such mechanical loading is integral to improving their design. Fibrous porous materials are highly random and anisotropic, however, which causes a numerical analysis of their properties to be very challenging. Simulations are most efficient when the sample cell is the minimum possible size while still possessing the macroscopic properties of the material– such a sample is called a representative volume element (RVE). We designed a computational framework for analyzing fibrous porous RVEs based on the finite element method. Using this framework, we conducted a parametric analysis in which we found the influence of fiber diameter, fiber cross sectional shape, and RVE size on the mechanical properties of various RVEs in an idealistic, but useful scenario consisting of polypropylene fibers that are orthogonally intersected within cubic boundaries. To help isolate the effect of each of the parameters of interest on the stiffness 852 RANGE properties of the material, we created a set of RVEs with constant porosity. Once an appropriate RVE size was determined, we found that the stiffness of the samples increased as the cross-sectional shape progressed from a triangle to other regular polygons with an increasing number of sides largely due to the increases in intersection volume between fibers. We also found that increases in fiber diameter decreased the material stiffness due to the increased randomness created by the requirement of a constant porosity between RVEs. Ultimately, the project provides a valuable tool for designing and optimizing fibrous porous materials in various engineering applications. 853 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 38 Research Reflection by James Walker JAMES WALKER Faculty Mentor: Pania Newell (Mechanical Engineering, University of Utah) Throughout the entirety of 2023, I had the opportunity to work in the Integrated Multiphysics Laboratory under Dr. Pania Newell in the Department of Mechanical Engineering. My project 854 RANGE focused on the computational modeling of the elastic properties of fibrous porous materials. When I first arrived, I was given increasingly difficult tasks until I could meaningfully work under a graduate student in the lab. Once I was up to speed, I was also able to acquire my own UROP funding. The work itself required me to remain very self-disciplined, since my graduate student mentor worked remotely. I would regularly encounter issues with my code or struggle to understand the broader, high- level concepts related to the work, which was frustrating at first, but I had the support of my graduate student mentor and research advisor to help me overcome all of the difficulties I faced. Ultimately, the project was very fruitful, and I am grateful for the opportunity I had to work in the lab. Of the many skills I acquired while working on the project, the most important skill was simply the ability to struggle productively. Struggle is inevitable, but I learned how to ask the right questions, engage with the necessary resources, and communicate myself in all steps of solving the problem at hand. I have carried the idea of struggling productively with me in all aspects of my academic life, and this notion has prepared me to be 855 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH successful in an academic space as I move forward in my career. 856 RANGE 39 Circadian-Based Interventions to Improve Cardiometabolic Health in Adults With Habitual Short Sleep Duration KATELYN BALLARD; CHRISTOPHER DEPNER; AUDREY STEGMAN; MICHELLE KUBICKI; AND GRACE ZIMMERMAN Faculty Mentor: Christopher Depner (Health and Kinesiology, University of Utah) 857 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ABSTRACT Short sleep duration is linked to increased risk for metabolic disorders, including obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Circadian misalignment, which can occur as a result of short sleep duration, exacerbates these risks by further disrupting glucose metabolism and impairing insulin sensitivity. Despite these welldocumented effects, interventions promoting circadian alignment to mitigate these adverse health outcomes remain poorly researched. Thus, our goal was to assess the impact of a circadian-based intervention on insulin sensitivity and cardiometabolic health outcomes in overweight adults with habitual short sleep duration. Methods: This part of the Timing of Circadian Synchronizers (TOCS) study investigated the effects of a circadian-based intervention on insulin sensitivity in overweight adults with habitual short sleep duration. The protocol consisted of a 9-week randomized controlled trial with control and intervention groups. Verbal instructions directed participants in the intervention group to optimize circadian timing using light interventions. The Matsuda Index (MI) assessed insulin sensitivity using oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTT) conducted at baseline and post-intervention. Wrist actigraphy data and self-reported sleep logs 858 RANGE measured sleep parameters. Frequent saliva melatonin sampling during overnight visits determined circadian timing. Findings: Preliminary results from this ongoing study suggest that the intervention did not significantly (p >0.05) impact circadian timing (DLMO and DLMOFF), insulin sensitivity (MI), sleep duration (TST), bedtime (BT), or wake time (WT). Additionally, baseline values of MI, TST, BT, and WT were strong predictors of their respective Week 8-9 values, suggesting that initial sleep and metabolic characteristics heavily influence later outcomes. Interpretation: Preliminary analyses show the intervention did not significantly alter insulin sensitivity or circadian timing, though baseline measures were strong predictors of post-intervention values. Final analyses with the full sample size will help clarify the relationship between circadian timing and metabolic health outcomes. It may also be valuable to introduce an intervention that more specifically targets sleep timing or regularity as opposed to light exposure. INTRODUCTION Obesity and habitual short sleep duration are epidemic 859 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH public health concerns that contribute to risk of metabolic disease including type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, which are major causes of morbidity and mortality (Cappuccio et al., 2008). As of 2021, “537 million individuals globally were affected with diabetes” (Hossain et al., 2024). This number is “predicted to increase to 784 million by 2045” (Singer et al., 2022). The prevalence of diabetes is dangerously high and is projected to rise rapidly over the next few years based on current trajectories. Given these alarming statistics, there is a critical need for healthbased interventions that mitigate this epidemic of cardiometabolic disease in modern society. In parallel with the increased incidence of diabetes, there has been a concomitant decrease in average nightly sleep duration (Cappuccio et al., 2008). Additionally, sleeping less than the recommended 7 hours per night is an independent risk factor for Type 2 diabetes mellitus and Metabolic Syndrome (Eckel et al., 2015; Depner et al., 2014). There is a notable correlation between lack of sleep and reduced insulin sensitivity which is subsequently associated with type 2 diabetes (Depner et al., 2014). Data from our lab show even short- term sleep restriction of 5 days in otherwise healthy adults significantly impairs insulin 860 RANGE sensitivity (Eckel et al., 2015). Alarmingly, the impaired insulin sensitivity in this study due to sleep loss was severe enough that some participants met criteria for pre-diabetes, demonstrating the adverse consequences of short sleep are clinically meaningful. In aggregate, these data highlight and stress the importance of obtaining optimal sleep to promote overall metabolic health. Addressing and managing sleep habits could have a significant impact on insulin sensitivity and related risk of cardiometabolic disease. However, to date, there are no established free- living interventions to mitigate the adverse cardiometabolic risk of short sleep duration. One potential mechanism to address is circadian misalignment, which a leading expert defines as “inappropriately timed sleep and wakefulness” (Baron, 2014). Prior data from our lab shows the magnitude of circadian misalignment during sleep loss is associated with the magnitude of impaired insulin sensitivity, suggesting circadian misalignment is a potential mechanism underlying the link between short sleep and risk of diabetes (Eckel et al., 2015; Duraccio et al., 2024). To address this knowledge gap, we will investigate the impact of a circadian intervention on insulin sensitivity and sleep 861 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH duration in a free-living setting. A real-world setting will further bridge the gap in understanding the impact of short sleep on insulin sensitivity. METHODS Participants Recruitment targeted adults aged 18–45 years with a BMI of 25.0-34.9 kg/m² and habitual sleep duration of <6.5 hours per night. Exclusion criteria included diagnosed sleep disorders, major psychiatric illnesses, significant organ dysfunction (e.g., cardiovascular disease or kidney disease), or use of medications affecting sleep or metabolism. To date, 15 out of a planned 28 adults (7 control, 8 intervention) aged 28.7 ± 7.9 years, BMI 29.2 ± 2.1 kg/m2 [mean ± SD] have completed data collection. Study Design We conducted a 9-week randomized controlled trial, during which all participants underwent a 1-week baseline testing followed by an 8-week intervention. Participants were randomized (1:1) to either a circadian intervention group or a healthy lifestyle control group, stratified by sex. The circadian intervention involved wearing blue light-blocking 862 RANGE glasses starting four hours before bedtime and attaining light exposure for the first hour after waking via a light box or blue light emitting glasses. After baseline and intervention segments, participants completed an OGTT followed by overnight melatonin sampling (Figure 1). Wrist actigraphy devices measured sleep parameters throughout the study, and self-reported sleep logs supplemented actigraphy data. Data Processing RStudio analyzed wrist actigraphy data using the GGIR package (version 3.0-6). Standard algorithms within GGIR extracted sleep parameters, including TST, BT, and WT. GGIR automatically detected and excluded non-wear time. Manual data quality checks ensured completeness and accuracy, and excluded those participants whose data was insufficient. Statistical Analysis Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) evaluated the effect of the intervention while controlling for baseline values and potential confounding variables. Paired-sample t-tests assessed within-group changes for statistically significant differences in outcome 863 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH measures from baseline to post-intervention. Two participants in the control group were missing wrist actigraphy data due to device malfunctioning during the intervention segment, which required their exclusion from sleep analysis. The study excludes one subject who was an outlier in DLMO. Presented data are mean ± SEM. RESULTS Figure 1. Protocol. Solid bars indicate sleep opportunities. Yellow bar indicates baseline habitual short sleep (Days 1-6),light blue bar indicates the 8-week intervention segment (Days 8-55) and dark blue bars (Days 7 & 56) indicate the overnight in laboratory testing including OGTT, DLMO and DLMOff. Grey bars indicate dim light conditions during DLMO and DLMOff. Dim Light Melatonin Onset and Offset (DLMO and DLMOFF) At baseline, the experimental group had a DLMO of 864 RANGE 21.46 ± 0.67 hrs, and after the intervention DLMO was 20.91 ± 0.53 hrs. This data showed a statistical trend with p = 0.062. The control group at baseline had a DLMO of 22.58 ± 0.79 hrs, which was not significantly different from the control group postintervention at 21.54 ± 0.31 hrs. The experimental group at baseline had a DLMOFF of 9.46 ± 0.49 hrs, which was not significantly different following the intervention at 9.75 ± 0.67 hrs. At baseline, the DLMOFF of the control group was 7.75 ± 0.53 hrs, which was not significantly different from the control post-intervention at 7.79 ± 0.48 hrs. Figure 2. Dim Light Melatonin Onset (DLMO) and Dim Light Melatonin Offset (DMLOFF) with Bed and Wake Time during Baseline and Intervention. Total Sleep Time (TST) At baseline, the experimental group had a TST of 865 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 5.56 ± 0.15 hours. TST was similar following the intervention, at 5.86 ± 0.23 hours. At baseline, the control group had a TST of 5.89 ± 0.47 hours. TST was similar at the end of the experiment at 5.73 ± 0.32 hours. There was a significant moderate positive correlation between TST in the experimental group at baseline and post-intervention (r = 0.61, p < 0.05). Figure 3. TST during Baseline, and Intervention Weeks 8-9. TST was not significantly different between groups. 866 RANGE Wake Time (WT) At baseline in the experimental group, WT was 7.30 ± 0.34 hours which was not significantly different (p > 0.05) following the intervention 7.67 ± 0.43 hours. At baseline in the control group, WT was 6.72 ± 0.48 hours which was not significantly different (p > 0.05) following the intervention 7.15 ± 0.44 hours. There was a significant strong positive correlation between WT in the experimental group at baseline and postintervention. (r = 0.72, p < 0.05) 867 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 4. Change in WT from baseline to Intervention weeks 8-9. WT is not significantly different between groups. Bed Time (BT) The BT of the experimental group at baseline was 25.08 ± 0.45 hours which was not significantly different than BT after intervention 24.9 ± 0.35 hours (p >0.05). In the control group, the BT baseline was 24.07 ± 0.55 which was not significantly at the end of the experiment at 24.67 ± 0.52. There was a moderate positive correlation between BT in the experimental group at baseline and post-intervention. (r = 0.65, p < 0.05) Figure 5. Change in BT from baseline to Intervention weeks 8-9. BT is not significantly different between groups. 868 RANGE Matsuda Index (MI) The intervention did not significantly impact the MI (p > 0.05). The experimental group had a MI of 2.61 ± 0.32 at baseline and 2.33 ± 0.40 post-intervention. In the control group, the MI baseline was 3.03 ± 0.69 which was not significantly different at the end of the experiment at 2.79 ± 0.59. There was a significant strong positive correlation between MI in the experimental group at baseline and post-intervention. (r = 0.74, p < 0.05) Figure 6. MI during Baseline, and after the Intervention. MI was not significantly different between groups. CONCLUSION Currently, 15 out of 28 participants have 869 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH completed the study; however, our preliminary findings indicate that there are no significant differences between groups following the intervention in DLMO, DLMOFF, TST, WT, BT, or MI. Current analysis shows a trend for an earlier DLMO in the intervention group, consistent with our hypothesis that the lightbased intervention would shift circadian timing earlier. If this trend continues with the full sample size we will have adequate statistical power to detect such a shift in DLMO. Despite this potential positive shift in DLMO in the experimental group,. there were no significant differences in the Matsuda Index, suggesting no benefit on diabetes risk. Moreover all our participants’ baseline Matsuda Index was at a level below 4.3 which is considered insulin resistant (Takahara et al., 2013), and thus all our participants were at elevated risk of diabetes at baseline. It is possible that other lifestyle factors such as diet, physical activity, and external stressors may have influenced insulin sensitivity more heavily than the implemented light-based intervention. A strength of this study is that although the light-based interventions did not 870 RANGE produce as large of an impact on circadian timing as hypothesized, the study occurred in a real-world setting where natural sunlight and other factors could still influence circadian timing. Thus, our findings show feasibility of participants to complete the light-based intervention but did not show strong efficacy for the intervention to impact circadian timing or risk of diabetes. This is valuable knowledge because it demonstrates that translating findings from controlled laboratory studies into the freeliving environment, regarding circadian based interventions, is complex and not a one-to-one translation. This knowledge will directly inform the design of new and more efficacious interventions designed to mitigate the risk of diabetes linked to short sleep duration. Ultimately, these data suggest that an intervention targeting sleep timing instead of light exposure could be more influential in modifying circadian rhythms and improving cardiometabolic outcomes. Data collection is still ongoing, and a full data set is required to determine if these results will remain constant. 871 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Audrey Stegman, Dr. Christopher Depner and the research team for their guidance, and support throughout this process. The parent study “Timing of Circadian Synchronizers,” from which the data for the current project were collected, was funded by the National Institutes of Health through grants NIH- UL1TR002538; NIH-K01HL145099; NIH-R01HL166733; NIH-T32DK110966; as well by University of Utah Seed Grant-10060570, Ben B. and Iris M. Margolis Foundation. The current project was supported by UROP from the Office of Undergraduate Research at the University of Utah. BIBLIOGRAPHY Baron, K. G., & Reid, K. J. (2014). Circadian misalignment and health. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24892891/ Cappuccio, F. P., Taggart, F. M., Kandala, N.-B., Currie, A., Peile, E., Stranges, S., & Miller, M. A. (2008). Meta-analysis of short sleep duration and 872 RANGE obesity in children and adults. Sleep, 31(5), 619–626. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/31.5.619 Depner, C. M., Stothard, E. R., & Wright, K. P. (2014). Metabolic consequences of sleep and circadian disorders. Current Diabetes Reports, 14(7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-014- 0507-z Duraccio, K. M., Kamhout, S., Baron, K. G., Reutrakul, S., & Depner, C. M. (2024). Sleep extension and cardiometabolic health: What it is, possible mechanisms and real‐world applications. The Journal of Physiology. https://doi.org/10.1113/jp284911 Eckel, R. H., Depner, C. M., Perreault, L., Markwald, R. R., Smith, M. R., McHill, A. W., Higgins, J., Melanson, E. L., & Wright, K. P. (2015). Morning circadian misalignment during short sleep duration impacts insulin sensitivity. Current Biology, 25(22), 3004–3010. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.cub.2015.10.011 Hossain, Md. J., Al‐Mamun, Md., & Islam, Md. R. (2024). Diabetes mellitus, the fastest growing global public health concern: Early detection should be focused. Health Science Reports, 7(3). https://doi.org/ 10.1002/hsr2.2004 873 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Singer, M. E., Dorrance, K. A., Oxenreiter, M. M., Yan, K. R., & Close, K. L. (2022). The type 2 diabetes ‘modern preventable pandemic’ and replicable lessons from the covid-19 crisis. Preventive Medicine Reports, 25, 101636. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.pmedr.2021.101636 Takahara, M., Katakami, N., Kaneto, H., Noguchi, M., & Shimomura, I. (2013). Distribution of the matsuda index in Japanese healthy investigation. subjects. Journal of diabetes https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/ PMC4020231/ 874 RANGE 40 The Effect of High-Intensity Interval Training on Visceral Adipose Tissue in Type 2 Diabetes: A Literature Review IVAN DELGADO Faculty Mentor: Ryan Burns (Health and Kinesiology, University of Utah) Type 2 diabetes (T2D) has reached alarming global 875 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH prevalence, driven primarily by the rise of obesity, sedentary lifestyles, and excessive caloric intake. Central to T2D pathogenesis is the accumulation of visceral adipose tissue (VAT), a highly active fat depot associated with systemic inflammation, insulin resistance, and greater cardiometabolic risk. Given the central role of visceral adiposity in the development and progression of Type 2 diabetes, this review aimed to assess whether high-intensity interval training (HIIT) offers a time efficient and effective intervention for reducing VAT and improving glycemic outcomes. This systematic review followed PRISMA guidelines and included seven randomized controlled trials that examined the effects of HIIT on VAT reduction and glycemic control in T2D populations. Database searches (PubMed, Embase, SPORTDiscus) yielded 36 unique records, seven of which met inclusion criteria. Across studies, HIIT protocols consistently led to meaningful reductions in VAT, often exceeding those seen with moderateintensity continuous training (MICT). Such VAT loss frequently paralleled improvements in glycemic parameters, including fasting glucose, HbA1c, and insulin sensitivity. Although one study reported no significant difference between HIIT and MICT when total energy expenditure was controlled, the majority indicated HIIT’s superior or comparable efficacy at 876 RANGE lower volumes and shorter session durations. Despite promising outcomes, barriers such as safety concerns, perceived exercise supervision may intensity, limit and the long-term need for adherence. Collectively, these findings suggest that appropriately structured HIIT interventions can offer a viable and effective strategy for VAT reduction and glycemic control in T2D, although further research is warranted to optimize individual protocols and facilitate broader, real-world application. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdelbasset, W. K., Tantawy, S. A., Kamel, D. M., Alqahtani, B. A., & Soliman, G. S. (2019). A randomized controlled trial on the effectiveness of 8-week highintensity interval exercise on intrahepatic triglycerides, visceral lipids, and health-related quality of life in diabetic obese patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Medicine (Baltimore), 98(12), e14918. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000014918 Bays, H. E. (2011). Adiposopathy is “sick fat” a cardiovascular disease? J Am Coll Cardiol, 57(25), 2461-2473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2011.02.038 Blundell, J. E., Gibbons, C., Caudwell, P., Finlayson, G., & Hopkins, M. (2015). Appetite control and energy 877 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH balance: impact of exercise. Obes Rev, 16 Suppl 1, 67-76. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12257 Cassidy, S., Thoma, C., Hallsworth, K., Parikh, J., Hollingsworth, K. G., Taylor, R., Jakovljevic, D. G., & Trenell, M. I. (2016). High intensity intermittent exercise improves cardiac structure and function and reduces liver fat in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomised controlled trial. Diabetologia, 59(1), 56-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-015-3741-2 Church, T. S., Blair, S. N., Cocreham, S., Johannsen, N., Johnson, W., Kramer, K., Mikus, C. R., Myers, V., Nauta, M., Rodarte, R. Q., Sparks, L., Thompson, A., & Earnest, C. P. (2010). Effects of aerobic and resistance training on hemoglobin A1c levels in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 304(20), 2253-2262. https://doi.org/10.1001/ jama.2010.1710 DeFronzo, R. A., Ferrannini, E., Groop, L., Henry, R. R., Herman, W. H., Holst, J. J., Hu, F. B., Kahn, C. R., Raz, I., Shulman, G. I., Simonson, D. C., Testa, M. A., & Weiss, R. (2015). Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Dis Primers, 1, 15019. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2015.19 Despres, J. P. (2012). Body fat distribution and risk of 878 RANGE cardiovascular disease: an update. Circulation, 126(10), 1301-1313. https://doi.org/10.1161/ CIRCULATIONAHA.111.067264 Findikoglu, G., Altinkapak, A., & Yaylali, G. F. (2023). Is isoenergetic high-intensity interval exercise superior to moderate-intensity continuous exercise for cardiometabolic risk factors in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus? A single-blinded randomized controlled study. Eur J Sport Sci, 23(10), 2086-2097. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2023.2167238 Fuster, J. J., Ouchi, N., Gokce, N., & Walsh, K. (2016). Obesity-Induced Changes in Adipose Tissue Microenvironment and Their Impact on Cardiovascular Disease. Circ Res, 118(11), 1786-1807. https://doi.org/ 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.306885 Gibala, M. J., Little, J. P., Macdonald, M. J., & Hawley, J. A. (2012). Physiological adaptations to low-volume, high-intensity interval training in health and disease. J Physiol, 590(5), 1077-1084. https://doi.org/10.1113/ jphysiol.2011.224725 Gillen, J. B., & Gibala, M. J. (2014). Is high-intensity interval training a time-efficient exercise strategy to improve health and fitness? Appl Physiol Nutr Metab, 879 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 39(3), 409-412. https://doi.org/10.1139/ apnm-2013-0187 Grundy, S. M., Brewer, H. B., Jr., Cleeman, J. I., Smith, S. C., Jr., Lenfant, C., American Heart, A., National Heart, L., & Blood, I. (2004). Definition of metabolic syndrome: Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association conference on scientific issues related to definition. Circulation, 109(3), 433-438. https://doi.org/10.1161/ 01.CIR.0000111245.75752.C6 Honkala, S. M., Motiani, K. K., Eskelinen, J. J., Savolainen, A., Saunavaara, V., Virtanen, K. A., Loyttyniemi, E., Kapanen, J., Knuuti, J., Kalliokoski, K. K., & Hannukainen, J. C. (2017). Exercise Training Reduces Intrathoracic Fat Regardless of Defective Glucose Tolerance. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 49(7), 1313-1322. https://doi.org/10.1249/ MSS.0000000000001232 Horwitz, A., & Birk, R. (2023). Adipose Tissue Hyperplasia and Hypertrophy Syndromic Obesity-The Case in Common of BBS and Obesity. Nutrients, 15(15). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15153445 Hotamisligil, G. S. (2006). Inflammation and metabolic 880 RANGE disorders. Nature, 444(7121), 860-867. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/nature05485 Kahn, S. E., Hull, R. L., & Utzschneider, K. M. (2006). Mechanisms linking obesity to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Nature, 444(7121), 840-846. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05482 Keating, S. E., Johnson, N. A., Mielke, G. I., & Coombes, J. S. (2017). A systematic review and metaanalysis of interval training versus moderate-intensity continuous training on body adiposity. Obes Rev, 18(8), 943-964. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12536 Little, J. P., Safdar, A., Wilkin, G. P., Tarnopolsky, M. A., & Gibala, M. J. (2010). A practical model of lowvolume high-intensity interval training induces mitochondrial biogenesis in human skeletal muscle: potential mechanisms. J Physiol, 588(Pt 6), 1011-1022. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2009.181743 Maillard, F., Rousset, S., Pereira, B., Traore, A., de Pradel Del Amaze, P., Boirie, Y., Duclos, M., & Boisseau, N. (2016). High-intensity interval training reduces abdominal fat mass in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab, 42(6), 433-441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabet.2016.07.031 881 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Mitchell, N. S., Catenacci, V. A., Wyatt, H. R., & Hill, J. O. (2011). Obesity: overview of an epidemic. Psychiatr Clin North Am, 34(4), 717-732. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.psc.2011.08.005 Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Ann Intern Med, 151(4), 264-269, w264. https://doi.org/10.7326/ 0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135 Neeland, I. J., Ross, R., Despres, J. P., Matsuzawa, Y., Yamashita, S., Shai, I., Seidell, J., Magni, P., Santos, R. D., Arsenault, B., Cuevas, A., Hu, F. B., Griffin, B., Zambon, A., Barter, P., Fruchart, J. C., Eckel, R. H., International Atherosclerosis, S., & International Chair on Cardiometabolic Risk Working Group on Visceral, O. (2019). Visceral and ectopic fat, atherosclerosis, and 30 cardiometabolic disease: a position statement. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol, 7(9), 715-725. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S2213-8587(19)30084-1 Ogurtsova, K., da Rocha Fernandes, J. D., Huang, Y., Linnenkamp, U., Guariguata, L., Cho, N. H., Cavan, D., Shaw, J. E., & Makaroff, L. E. (2017). IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global estimates for the prevalence of diabetes for 882 RANGE 2015 and 2040. Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 128, 40-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.03.024 Ong, K. L., Stafford, L. K., McLaughlin, S. A., Boyko, E. J., Vollset, S. E., Smith, A. E., Dalton, B. E., Duprey, J., Cruz, J. A., Hagins, H., Lindstedt, P. A., Aali, A., Abate, Y. H., Abate, M. D., Abbasian, M., AbbasiKangevari, Z., Abbasi- Kangevari, M., Abd ElHafeez, S., Abd-Rabu, R.,…Vos, T. (2023). Global, regional, and national burden of diabetes from 1990 to 2021, with projections of prevalence to 2050: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. The Lancet, 402(10397), 203-234. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01301-6 Paluch, A. E., Boyer, W. R., Franklin, B. A., Laddu, D., Lobelo, F., Lee, D. C., McDermott, M. M., Swift, D. L., Webel, A. R., Lane, A., on behalf the American Heart Association Council on, L., Cardiometabolic, H., Council on Arteriosclerosis, T., Vascular, B., Council on Clinical, C., Council on, C., Stroke, N., Council on, E., Prevention, & Council on Peripheral Vascular, D. (2024). Resistance Exercise Training in Individuals With and Without Cardiovascular Disease: 2023 Update: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation, 149(3), e217-e231. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001189 883 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Pedersen, B. K., & Febbraio, M. A. (2012). Muscles, exercise and obesity: skeletal muscle as a secretory organ. Nat Rev Endocrinol, 8(8), 457-465. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/nrendo.2012.49 RezkAllah, S. S., & Takla, M. K. (2019). Effects of Different Dosages of Interval Training on Glycemic Control in People With Prediabetes: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Diabetes Spectr, 32(2), 125-131. https://doi.org/10.2337/ds18-0024 Ross, R., Dagnone, D., Jones, P. J., Smith, H., Paddags, A., Hudson, R., & Janssen, I. (2000). Reduction in obesity and related comorbid conditions after dietinduced weight loss or exercise-induced weight loss in men. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med, 133(2), 92-103. https://doi.org/10.7326/ 0003-4819-133-2–200007180-00008 Ross, R., Hudson, R., Stotz, P. J., & Lam, M. (2015). Effects of exercise amount and intensity on abdominal obesity and glucose tolerance in obese adults: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med, 162(5), 325-334. https://doi.org/10.7326/M14-1189 Sabag, A., Way, K. L., Sultana, R. N., Keating, S. E., Gerofi, J. A., Chuter, V. H., Byrne, N. M., Baker, M. K., 884 RANGE George, J., Caterson, I. D., Twigg, S. M., & Johnson, N. A. (2020). The Effect of a Novel Low-Volume Aerobic Exercise Intervention on Liver Fat in Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Diabetes Care, 43(10), 2371-2378. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc19-252331 Shulman, G. I. (2014). Ectopic fat in insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and cardiometabolic disease. N Engl J Med, 371(12), 1131-1141. https://doi.org/10.1056/ NEJMra1011035 Stroh, A. M., & Stanford, K. I. (2023). Exercise-induced regulation of adipose tissue. Curr Opin Genet Dev, 81, 102058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gde.2023.102058 Sun, K., Kusminski, C. M., & Scherer, P. E. (2011). Adipose tissue remodeling and obesity. J Clin Invest, 121(6), 2094-2101. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI45887 Wewege, M., van den Berg, R., Ward, R. E., & Keech, A. (2017). The effects of high-intensity interval training vs. moderate-intensity continuous training on body composition in overweight and obese adults: a systematic review and meta- analysis. Obes Rev, 18(6), 635-646. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12532 Winding, K. M., Munch, G. W., Iepsen, U. W., Van Hall, G., Pedersen, B. K., & Mortensen, S. P. (2018). 885 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The effect on glycaemic control of low-volume highintensity interval training versus endurance training in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab, 20(5), 1131-1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.13198 Yki-Jarvinen, H. (2005). Fat in the liver and insulin resistance. Ann Med, 37(5), 347-356. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/07853890510037383 886 RANGE 41 Burnout Among EMS Providers in Utah LONDON GAY; CADEN WILLIAMS; AND CAMBRIE JESSEE Faculty Mentor: Julia Franklin (Health and Kinesiology, University of Utah) INTRODUCTION Given the high-stress nature of emergency medical service (EMS) professions and their exposure to stressful 887 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH situations, providers are at significant risk of burnout (McGary). Research has shown that elevated burnout levels can compromise both the quality and safety of patient care (Salyers) and may contribute to a future shortage of EMS personnel. Consequently, there is a growing need to assess current burnout levels among EMS providers in Utah. This research aims to identify the prevalence and key contributors to burnout within this population. The findings can serve as a foundation for developing strategies to mitigate and prevent burnout, offering valuable insights for EMS agencies and the broader community. This study was designed to determine the frequency and contributing factors to burnout among EMS providers in the state of Utah. Understanding burnout is a critical first step in safeguarding the well-being and longevity of EMS careers. METHODS In partnership with the Utah Department of Health and Human Services, an anonymous electronic survey was distributed to licensed EMS providers in the state of Utah via email through the spring and summer of 2024. Data from the survey was collected using Qualtrics analysis software. The survey included three questions to collect participants’ demographics, and ten questions 888 RANGE regarding their careers in EMS that are explained in more detail in the table below. These questions included: number of years working in EMS, level of certification, what geographical setting the respondent works in, and three questions to assess burnout. The questions were given in multiple formats, such as selecting all that apply, short answer, single answer, etc. THE SURVEY Question Response Options 18-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-44, 45-49, 50-54, Age 55-59, 60+ Native American/Native Alaskan, Asian/Pacific Islander, Black or African American, African Race and American, Hispanic/Latino, White/Caucasian, Mixed Ethnicity Race (Please Specify below), Other (Please Specify below), Prefer Not to Answer 889 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH SelfIdentified Gender Years in EMS Service Years at Current Job Position EMS Practicing Level Male, Female, Non-Binary, Transgender Male, Transgender Female, Other, Prefer Not to Answer Freeform response box Freeform response box Emergency Medical Responder (EMR), Emergency Medical Technician (EMT), Advanced Emergency Medical Technician (AEMT), Paramedic Work Hospital, EMS/Fire Agency, Clinic Setting Geographical Urban, Suburban, Rural Setting Shift Length Freeform response box Shifts per Freeform response box Week Personal Scale of 1-5 (one being the respondent “Loves their Burnout Rate job”, and five being they “Want to Retire”) Reasons for Burnout Lack of Sleep, Lack of Good Nutrition, OverScheduling, Financial Issues, Work Environment, Stress, Patient Ratios, Other Additional Information About Burnout Open response box RESULTS A total of 370 EMS personnel in Utah completed the survey, of which 340 indicated their professional classification (68 being EMTs, 142 being AEMTs, and 130 being Paramedics). The average age group was between 40 and 44 (Figure 1) with 88% of respondents 890 RANGE selecting White/Caucasian, 2.7% selecting Hispanic/ Latino, 1% selecting Black, 1.9% selecting Asian/Pacific Islander, and 6.4% selecting Other. Of the respondents, 61.3% identified as male and 34% as female, 4.7% preferred not to respond or selected “Other.” For all respondents, the mean burnout rate was 3.39 on a five-point scale (Figure 2). Paramedics averaged 3.72 out of 5 for burnout, while AEMTs averaged 3.27 out of 5, and EMTs averaged 3.00 out of 5. The median and mode of provider burnout were both 4 out of 5. The two most reported reasons for burnout were “Lack of Sleep” and “Stress” (Figure 3). 891 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1 Figure 2 892 RANGE Figure 3 CONCLUSION Our findings indicate a high prevalence of burnout among EMS providers in Utah. This 893 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH burnout is primarily attributed to sleep deprivation and occupational stress, though additional contributing factors include financial challenges, high patient ratios, and inadequate nutrition. Given the complexity of burnout and the potential for other influencing factors, further research is necessary to gain a comprehensive understanding of its causes. Future studies could help identify key stressors and inform targeted interventions to mitigate burnout or reduce its likelihood. Addressing burnout in EMS not only enhances the wellbeing and job satisfaction of providers but also improves the overall quality of patient care. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank our faculty sponsor, Dr. Julia Franklin, Ph.D., CHES®; as well as Dr. Julie Lucero, Ph.D., MPH, Chris Stratford, MS, BSN, RN, NRP; Shelly Beck, MS, AEMT, and Mark Herrera, NRP, FP-C, for all their efforts and support throughout this study. BIBLIOGRAPHY McGarry, E., & O’Connor, L. (2023). Assessing 894 RANGE burnout rates and contributing factors in emergency medical services clinicians. Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, 39(3), 288–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 15555240.2023.2292119 Salyers, M.P., Bonfils, K.A., Luther, L. et al. The Relationship Between Professional Burnout and Quality and Safety in Healthcare: A MetaAnalysis. J GEN INTERN MED 32, 475–482 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11606-016-3886-9 895 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 42 Exploring the Relationship Between Muscle Strength and Knee Joint Biomechanics in Patients With Knee Osteoarthritis MADDIE HOPKINS Faculty Mentor: Jesse Christensen Engineering, University of Utah) 896 (Biomedical RANGE ABSTRACT One of the most widespread causes of global disability and impairment is osteoarthritis, and the knee is the joint most commonly affected. Substantial research has been done on knee osteoarthritis (KOA). According to current research, patients with KOA exhibit weakness in their knee extensor muscles, even if there is no visible muscle loss or reports of pain. There is limited knowledge about the relationship between skeletal muscles and joint biomechanics in KOA. This study hypothesized a significant relationship between poor knee biomechanics and weakened knee extensors in patients with KOA. To test this relationship, kinematic data was collected from KOA patients during step-up and step-down tasks as well as knee extensor strength data during a knee extension task. The results of this study show a strong correlation between increased knee extension moment and increased knee extensor strength. In addition, there was a strong correlation between increased knee extension power and increased knee extensor strength. The results also revealed that greater knee flexion angle was correlated with decreased knee extensor strength. These potential relationships suggest that stronger quadriceps may help support the knee joint, enhance overall joint function, and relieve 897 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH pain during movement. They inform how muscle strength can interact with knee biomechanics in a KOA patient population and support the use of muscle strengthening as a promising strategy to manage KOA. INTRODUCTION Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint condition that can significantly impact quality of life and the ability to perform daily activities [1]. Knee osteoarthritis (KOA) has been described as the deterioration of cartilage within the joint surface [2]. Growing evidence suggests that the loss of skeletal muscle function may precede cartilage degradation and could be the underlying cause of reduced mobility and abnormal knee biomechanics [2-4]. A significant challenge in managing the disease is the lack of understanding regarding how muscle dysfunction interacts with joint mechanics. Extensive research has been conducted on KOA. However, there is limited data relationship between skeletal muscles biomechanics in patients relationships have shown with that regarding and the knee KOA. Direct modified loading mechanisms, increased mechanical stresses, and changes in biomechanics impact the onset and worsening of osteoarthritis [5]. Additionally, studies have shown that 898 RANGE quadriceps weakness is observed in patients with KOA, even if muscle atrophy or joint pain is absent [6]. Increased functional impairment is connected to quadriceps weakness, emphasizing the importance of skeletal muscle strength in preserving joint health [6]. Despite these conclusions, the relationship between poor quadriceps strength and abnormal knee biomechanics in KOA is unknown. In order to explore this possible relationship, quadriceps strength and motion capture data will be collected and processed from patients with knee osteoarthritis. Vicon Nexus and Visual 3D software, along with MATLAB code, will be used to process the data and pinpoint clinically essential patterns. The aim is to uncover valuable information about muscle dysfunction and joint mechanics. This study hypothesizes a significant correlation between quadriceps weakness and altered knee biomechanics in patients with KOA. Understanding the relationship between muscle dysfunction and knee joint biomechanics will enable the development of more effective treatments and specialized therapies, ultimately improving patient outcomes. This research may also contribute to better management of KOA by physicians, clinicians, and therapists, which would delay the disease’s progression 899 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and improve patients’ quality of life. Overall, the results will greatly contribute to the understanding of osteoarthritis, which could be key for disease prevention and intervention efforts. BACKGROUND Understanding osteoarthritis from a broader context is critical to understanding its impact on joint health and function. Osteoarthritis is a progressive disease involving the entire joint caused by a combination of general risk factors, such as age or injury, mechanical stresses and unusual joint mechanics [7]. One of the most common causes of impairment and disability globally is osteoarthritis, particularly in older adults [7]. The knee is the joint most commonly affected by osteoarthritis [7]. There is currently no cure for osteoarthritis, so treatment of the disease involves symptom management and delaying disease progression [7]. Patients with osteoarthritis experience joint stiffness and pain, which significantly impairs their ability to perform daily activities of living, such as walking, standing up from sitting, and climbing stairs [7]. In the early stages of osteoarthritis, the articular cartilage develops surface fibrillation, irregularities, and erosion that progressively spread to the bone as the disease 900 RANGE worsens [8]. Articular cartilage lines the ends of bones to create joints. This helps the bones to glide smoothly as the leg extends and bends, and helps absorb shock [8]. Along with the cartilage and bony structure, soft tissues, such as ligaments, menisci, and joint capsules, are also affected [8]. Another factor that advances the onset of the disease is elevated mechanical stress and loading on the knee, which is frequently caused by weakened muscles [8]. Adding friction and joint instability worsen the disease as cartilage breaks down and soft tissues change. The addition of muscle weakness exasperates the disease and contributes to the lack of support of the joint. It is speculated that structural damage and symptoms associated with osteoarthritis result from improper mechanical loading [9]. Joint tissues are subjected to mechanical stress during movement and this force can contribute to osteoarthritic processes [9]. Joint mechanics in patients with KOA are abnormal, which causes increased strain on the joint and unusual movement. This furthers cartilage degradation and can increase joint pain and deterioration. Current studies on knee kinematics focus primarily on external knee joint moments, which include knee 901 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH adduction moment (KAM), knee flexion moment (KFM), and knee rotation moment (KRM) during gait analysis [10]. According to prior studies, patients with KOA have substantial varus deformities during gait analysis [11]. This means that their knees predominantly angle inward while walking. They found that KOA patients experience a larger KAM and smaller KFM, showing elevated strain on the medial side of the knee and potentially weakened muscles near the joint [10]. Other studies reveal additional abnormal knee kinematics, such as increased joint reaction forces and reduced knee flexion angles, which further contribute to the deterioration of cartilage [11-12]. These biomechanical abnormalities suggest that knee osteoarthritis is a mechanical issue compromising joint function while also being a progressive cartilage disease. Preserving knee stability and controlling joint movement largely depends on the muscles near the joint, specifically the quadriceps and hamstrings. Adequate muscle strength enables proper absorption of forces, which mitigates stress on the knee joint. The muscles surrounding the knee greatly affect joint mechanics. Therefore, weakness in those muscles can contribute to the worsening of KOA [12]. Patients with KOA often experience muscle weakness without 902 RANGE noticeable muscle atrophy or joint pain [6]. There is a strong connection between severe functional impairment of the knee and weak quadriceps muscles. This implies that muscle dysfunction develops relatively early in the onset of the disease, indicating its importance [6]. In regards to knee mechanics, the connection to quadriceps weakness remains unclear. A previous study indicates that there is not a linear relationship between lower limb muscle strength and knee joint movements in patients with KOA [11]. However, despite the lack of a definitive relationship, researchers maintain that lower limb muscles possibly influence the knee’s biomechanics during gait [11]. Other studies have reached similar tentative conclusions but have yet to explore additional kinematic variables and tasks, such as stairs, as the majority of these studies involve gait analysis [11-12]. Further research must be conducted to fully comprehend these mechanisms and determine a connection between knee joint mechanics and muscle strength. METHODS Patient Population This IRB approved study consisted of a patient 903 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH population of eight male, veteran KOA patients from ages 50-75 years old. Each patient had a Kellgren and Lawrence classification of osteoarthritis severity in the knee joint of grade I or greater. Proper consent was obtained from each participant before the trials were conducted. Motion Capture Data Collection Each patient performed three trials of step-up and stepdown tasks during the data collection process. These tasks were selected because they place a high demand on the knee and simulate stair navigation, which is a challenging task for patients with KOA. The motion capture data was collected using VICON Nexus, a 24-camera motion analysis system. To measure the ground reaction forces during the tasks, force plates were used. Reflective markers were placed on important anatomical landmarks, specifically bony prominences, on the patients during collection. The cameras in the Vicon system captured the various locations of these markers and then triangulated their positions to generate of 3D model of motion. Quadriceps strength data was collected for all patients during a knee extension task using a System 4 Biodex, which is a computerized measuring device for measuring muscle strength. The kinematic data collected for each patient during the stair 904 RANGE tasks includes: frontal and sagittal plane knee joint angles, moments and power. Kinematic Data Processing After collection, the kinematic data for each trial was processed in VICON Nexus software to access data quality. The data was checked for potential gaps, as small gaps in certain markers can occur due to anatomical variations among patients. Any gaps present were filled in VICON Nexus using data from adjacent markers located in comparable anatomical positions. Once the data had been checked and cleaned, it was transferred to the Visual 3D software. In Visual 3D, the data was processed through pipelines to generate graphs and reports of kinematic variables for each trial. Using code written in Visual 3D, biomechanical variables of interest were extracted for further analysis. Key variables included knee angle, knee moment and knee power. The maximum values in the sagittal plane and frontal plane for all trials and all variables were pinpointed during this extraction. These values were exported and put into MATLAB. Statistical Analysis MATLAB code was used to average the maximum 905 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH values for the tasks for each patient and each variable. These values were then compared to average quadriceps strength for each patient. To check for normality in the data, the Lilliefors test was used in MATLAB, and all data was found to be normally distributed, so parametric statistical analysis was conducted in MATLAB. This included the use of Pearson correlation to evaluate potential relationships between the variables and quadriceps strength. Statistical significance for the Pearson correlation analyses was determined by a pvalue less than 0.05. R2 values to indicate the amount of variance in quadriceps strength related to the other corresponding variables were also calculated in MATLAB. RESULTS In eight patients with KOA, we measured quadriceps strength and estimated a large set of knee joint biomechanical variables from the stair task data. We analyzed the correlation between quadriceps strength and a subset of biomechanical variables including maximum knee extension moment, maximum knee extension power and maximum knee flexion angle. For maximum knee extension moment, the results show a positive correlation to quadriceps strength during a 906 RANGE step-up task. Patients with greater quadriceps strength exhibited a greater rotational force as they straightened their leg while ascending the stair. To quantify the strength of this relationship, the Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was calculated to be 0.884 (Fig. 1). According to established guidelines, a correlation closer to 1 signifies a strong, positive correlation. This correlation coefficient suggests that that increased knee extension moment is strongly correlated to increased quadriceps strength. The p-value of 0.004, which is well below the accepted threshold of 0.05, confirms the statistical significance of this relationship (Fig. 1). 907 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1. Direct relationship between maximum knee extension moment and maximum quadriceps strength during step-up task. Error bars represent standard deviation of quadriceps strength measurements for each individual patient. For maximum knee extension power, the results show a positive correlation to quadriceps strength during a step-up task. When ascending the stair, the patients with greater quadriceps strength exerted greater power when straightening their leg. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) for this relationship was 0.879 (Fig. 2). This correlation coefficient is close to 1, which shows a strong, positive correlation. This indicates that increased knee extension power is strongly correlated to increased quadriceps strength. The p-value for this relationship was 0.004 and supports its statistical significance (Fig. 2). 908 RANGE Figure 2. Direct relationship between maximum knee extension power and maximum quadriceps strength during step-up task. Error bars represent standard deviation of quadriceps strength measurements for each individual patient. For the maximum knee flexion angle, there was a negative correlation to quadriceps strength. As quadriceps strength decreased, the maximum knee flexion angle exerted during the stepdown task increased. Patients with weaker quadriceps strength had a greater bend in their knee while descending a stair. The Pearson 909 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH coefficient for this relationship was calculated to be -0.924 (Fig. 3). According to established guidelines, a correlation coefficient closer to -1 signifies a strong, negative correlation. This correlation coefficient suggests that a greater knee flexion angle is correlated to decreased quadriceps strength during a step-down task. The p-value of 0.001 shows a statistically significant relationship between decreased quadriceps strength and increased knee flexion angle (Fig. 3). 910 RANGE Figure 3. Inverse relationship between maximum knee flexion angle and maximum quadriceps strength during step-down task. Error bars represent standard deviation of quadriceps strength measurements for each individual patient. DISCUSSION Osteoarthritis is one of the most prominent causes of global disability and impairment. Knee osteoarthritis (KOA) primarily affects the cartilage and soft tissues surrounding the knee joint, but many patients with this condition also experience muscle weakness. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between knee joint biomechanics and quadriceps strength in patients with KOA. Kinematic data during stepup and stepdown tasks was collected from KOA patients and processed in comparison to knee extensor strength data. The results from this study show strong correlations between multiple biomechanical variables and quadriceps strength. These results reveal valuable information regarding the interaction between joint mechanics and muscle dysfunction, and indicate potential value in using quadriceps strengthening to aid in managing KOA. 911 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH As quadriceps strength increased, a corresponding increase in knee extension moment was observed during a step-up task (Fig. 1). The knee extension moment is the rotational force produced by the muscles surrounding the knee joint, primarily the quadriceps, when straightening the leg [13]. Existing research states that KOA patients often have reduced knee extension moments compared to patients without KOA due to joint instability and stiffness [13]. Reduced knee extension moments can negatively impact joint mechanics by inhibiting the ability to fully extend the leg, which subsequently affects gait patterns and increases joint stress [13]. The observed results highlight the crucial role of quadriceps strength in enhancing torque production at the knee joint. The findings in Figure 1 suggest that strengthening the quadriceps may directly improve knee extension moment, potentially mitigating mechanical deficits. Additionally, increased quadriceps strength was correlated with increased knee extension power during a step-up task (Fig. 2). Knee extension 912 RANGE power is defined as the capacity of the muscles surrounding the joint to generate force efficiently during movement [14]. Efficient generation of force is essential for actions such as walking, stair-climbing and standing up from sitting. Current research shows that KOA patients experience deficiencies in knee extension power, in addition to decreased quadriceps strength, which leads to increased pain and reduced functional mobility [14]. Changes in knee extensor strength are not directly connected to the progression of osteoarthritis [14]. However, based on the findings of this study, strengthening the quadriceps could increase power production, and possibly help improve mobility and reduce pain during high demand movements. Patients with KOA typically have decreased range of motion in knee flexion, likely associated with the quadriceps avoidance strategy, which is an attempt to decrease quadriceps force to alleviate pain and joint loading [15]. Reduced knee flexion angles are common in KOA patients and the degree of severity of KOA is correlated with knee flexion 913 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH angle [15]. However, the results of this study show an increase in knee flexion angle connected to a decrease in quadriceps strength during a stepdown task. This is likely due to a momentum strategy in that patients with weaker quadriceps are unable to control their descent down the stairs leading to an excessive bend in the knee. Although these results are statistically correlated, the relationship remains unclear and requires further investigation due to contradictions with existing literature. Although strong correlations are present between various biomechanical variables and quadriceps strength, the results could be limited. The sample size of patients is relatively small, and may not be generally applicable to a larger population with KOA as the patient population in this study were solely male veterans. Other biomechanical variables including frontal plane moment, front plane power, and knee adduction angle did not show strong correlations. Another limitation is the variability among patients with different grades of Kellgren and Lawrence classification of osteoarthritis severity [16]. While each patient 914 RANGE had a classification of grade I or higher, indicating that joint space narrowing is present [16], limiting the patient population to include patients with more comparable and severe grades could lead to more relevant results. The findings of this study provide valuable information on how knee biomechanics and muscle strength can interact in a patient population with KOA. While further investigation should be done regarding these proposed relationships, the use of quadriceps strengthening to manage KOA is a promising strategy. These results suggest that quadriceps strengthening could help stabilize the knee joint, alleviate pain during movement and improve mobility. This would contribute to improved patient outcomes and further research could help refine this potential treatment strategy. Future work will continue to explore the relationship between knee biomechanics and muscle strength. A key priority is to expand the sample size to include more KOA patients in this study. This expansion will include a greater 915 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH number of both male and female participants. This would allow for a comprehensive analysis of potential sex-specific differences in the interplay between knee joint biomechanics and muscle strength. Additionally, hip and ankle kinematics from patients with KOA will be analyzed in relation to knee joint biomechanics and muscle strength to identify possible areas of movement compensation and other potential relationships. While additional research should be conducted to confirm and expand upon the findings of this study, it has the potential to enhance existing therapies of KOA. The use of strength training as a method of KOA management could not only help minimize pain and improve physical function, but could also reduce reliance on more invasive treatments. This ultimately could improve understanding of the condition as a whole, and enhance the quality of life of patients with KOA. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Thank you to Dr. Jesse Christensen and The Gait Lab at the VA Salt Lake City Health Care 916 RANGE System, affiliated with the University of Utah. Additionally, thank you to the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program. BIBLIOGRAPHY Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Osteoarthritis,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, June 12, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.cdc.gov/arthritis/ osteoarthritis/index.html. 5 A. H. Alnahdi, J. A. Zeni, and L. SnyderMackler, “Muscle impairments in patients with knee osteoarthritis,” Sports Health, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 284–292, Jul. 2012, doi: 10.1177/ 1941738112445726. M. V. Hurley, D. L. Scott, J. Rees, and D. J. Newham, “Sensorimotor changes and functional performance in patients with knee osteoarthritis,” Ann. Rheum. Dis., vol. 56, no. 11, pp. 641–648, Nov. 1997. S. C. O’Reilly, A. Jones, K. R. Muir, and M. Doherty, “Quadriceps weakness in knee osteoarthritis: the effect on pain and disability,” 917 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Ann. Rheum. Dis., vol. 57, no. 10, pp. 588–594, Oct. 1998, doi: 10.1136/ard.57.10.588. C. Egloff et al., “Biomechanics and pathomechanisms of osteoarthritis,” Swiss Med. Wkly., Jul. 19, 2012, doi: 10.4414/ smw.2012.13583. C. Slemenda, “Quadriceps weakness and osteoarthritis of the knee,” Ann. Intern. Med., vol. 127, no. 2, p. 97, Jul. 15, 1997, doi: 10.7326/ 0003- 4819-127-2-199707150-00001. G. A. Hawker, “Osteoarthritis is a serious disease,” Clin. Exp. Rheumatol., vol. 37, Suppl. 120, no. 5, pp. 3–6, 2019. R. Sen and J. A. Hurley, “Osteoarthritis,” in StatPearls [Internet] . Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482326/. L. E. Diamond, T. Grant, and S. D. Uhlrich, “Osteoarthritis year in review 2023: Biomechanics,” Osteoarthritis and Cartilage, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 138–147, 2024. 918 RANGE Y. Suzuki et al., “Assessing knee joint biomechanics and trunk posture according to medial osteoarthritis severity,” Scientific Reports, vol. 13, no. 1, p. 19186, 2023, doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-46486-1. S. Farrokhi, C. A. Voycheck, J. A. Gustafson, G. K. Fitzgerald, and S. Tashman, “Knee joint contact mechanics during downhill gait and its relationship with varus/valgus motion and muscle strength in patients with knee osteoarthritis,” The Knee, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 49–56, 2016. A. M. Murray, A. C. Thomas, C. W. Armstrong, B. G. Pietrosimone, and M. A. Tevald, “The associations between quadriceps muscle strength, power, and knee joint mechanics in knee osteoarthritis: A crosssectional study,” Clin. Biomech., vol. 30, no. 10, pp. 1140–1145, 2015. T. Fukaya, H. Mutsuzaki, and K. Mori, “Relations between external moment and movement of the knee joint during the stance phase in patients with severe knee 919 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH osteoarthritis,” J. Orthop., vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 101–104, Jan. 2019, doi: 10.1016/ j.jor.2018.12.014. K. M. Calder, S. M. Acker, N. Arora, K. A. Beattie, J. P. Callaghan, J. D. Adachi, and M. R. Maly, “Knee power is an important parameter in understanding medial knee joint load in knee osteoarthritis,” Arthritis Care Res. (Hoboken), vol. 66, no. 5, pp. 687–694, May 2014, doi: 10.1002/acr.22223. Y. Kuroyanagi, T. Nagura, H. Matsumoto, T. Otani, Y. Toyama, and Y. Suda, “Weightbearing flexion angle correlates significantly with severity of knee osteoarthritis,” Knee, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 371–374, Oct. 2009, doi: 10.1016/ j.knee.2009.01.003. M. D. Kohn, A. A. Sassoon, and N. D. Fernando, “Classifications in brief: KellgrenLawrence classification of osteoarthritis,” Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res., vol. 474, no. 8, pp. 1886–1893, Aug. 2016, doi: 10.1007/ s11999-016-4732-4. 920 RANGE 43 Perceptions of Lifesyle Behavior and Psychosocial Screening of Hispanic/Latino Community Members Visiting a Mobile Health Unit ALEJANDRA HUERTA HERNANDEZ; PAUL ESTABROOKS; MICKEY BOLYARD; MEGAN MILLER; AND ALEX HERNANDEZ Faculty Mentor: Paul Estabrooks Kinesiology, University of Utah) 921 (Health and OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ABSTRACT Through the Driving Out Diabetes Initiative (DODI), the University of Utah Wellness Bus (WB) visits communities in the Salt Lake Valley with significant health disparities, offering free health screenings, coaching and education. In addition, the WB refers visitors to other health and social services, helping them access basic resources for a continued health follow-up. In the past year, the WB implemented My Own Health Report (MOHR), a screening tool designed to assess health behaviors and psychosocial outcomes during the patient intake process, prior to their appointment with a community health worker (CHW). MOHR was implemented to facilitate easier comparison of visitor’s health behaviors relative to public health guidelines and to track progress in behavior change over time. Additionally, the tool helps guide discussions between the visitors and the CHWs and/or registered dietitians. Although MOHR was designed to have a positive impact on visitors and enhance the provider-visitor connection, it is unclear if adding the tool to the intake process on the WB is perceived well by bus visitors. Therefore, the primary aim of this project is to 922 RANGE understand how individuals from Hispanic/Latino backgrounds perceive the MOHR tool, particularly regarding its questions on lifestyle behaviors, lifestyle interventions, and their potential impact overall health. This study aims to provide insights into the perceptions of Hispanic/Latino individuals concerning lifestyle behavior and lifestyle interventions. Consequently, it will frame any needed changes to the MOHR tool for a continued effective attempt in reducing health disparities in the Salt Lake Valley. The study sample (n=26) consisted of WB visitors, 18 of whom were from Hispanic/Latino backgrounds. The research participants participated in qualitative interviews to assess whether MOHR and lifestyle behaviors were perceived well. The results indicate a positive reception of the screening tool among WB visitors, with a few suggestions for further improvements to the tool. WB visitors also reported an understanding of lifestyle behaviors and how changes can improve their health; however, they expressed difficulty when implementing lifestyle changes. These findings suggest that MOHR is an effective tool for assessing lifestyle behaviors and psychosocial outcomes, yet further research is needed to enhance MOHR impact and sustain behavior change over time. 923 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH BACKGROUND The World Health Organization (WHO) states that 60% of factors that promote or inhibit individual health and quality of life are related to lifestyle, yet millions of people have an unhealthy lifestyle (World Health Organization, 2009; Farhud, 2015). Specifically, lifestyle behaviors, such as physical activity, dietary intake, and sleep, have a significant influence on both physical and mental health (Farhud, 2015). Healthcare providers also recognize the importance of promoting health behavior change and how these changes can improve patient outcomes (Hamilton et al., 2019). Yet, conversations revolving around lifestyle behaviors with providers are often brief and usually initiated by patients (Hamilton et al., 2019). Research conducted in Portugal conveyed that the study cohort believed that a healthy diet, regular physical activity, and good quality of sleep can prevent and control some diseases, while other lifestyle behaviors like smoking, excessive stress, sedentary behaviors, etc., can cause some disease; however, implementing the necessary lifestyle changes can be difficult to do (Páscoa et al., 2021). Regardless of the information revolving around lifestyle behaviors, risk factors for cardiovascular and other chronic diseases remain high in ethnic/racial 924 RANGE minority populations in the U.S., this is especially true in Hispanic/Latino individuals (Koniak-Griffin et al., 2016). Yet, research studies have demonstrated that health programs and workshops can be used to promote health behavior change and improve education on behaviors related to nutrition and physical activity among the Hispanic/Latino communities (MuddMartin et al., 2013; Sanchez et al., 2021). However, access to these programs can be challenging in community settings. Mobile Health Clinics (MHCs) are an innovative method used to deliver healthcare services to alleviate health disparities in vulnerable populations in a costeffective way (Malone et al., 2020; Yu et al., 2017). MHCs help address some of the barriers that the public and vulnerable populations face when accessing or trying to access health care services with some of the obstacles being insurance status, transportation, financial costs, linguistic and cultural barriers, etc. (Yu et al., 2017). By reducing these barriers, MHCs can “provide more opportunities for underserved populations to screen for various conditions and learn to manage their health,” (Yu et al., 2017). Additionally, MHCs can connect their patients to broader community resources, which helps alleviate some of the social determinants of 925 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH health that vulnerable communities encounter daily (Yu et al., 2017). At the University of Utah Health, the Wellness Bus (WB), a community program under the Driving Out Diabetes Initiative (DODI), offers free health screenings, coaching, and referrals in underserved communities in the Salt Lake Valley with high health disparities (The Wellness Bus: Free Health Screenings, Coaching, and Education, 2021). The screenings that the WB offers include blood (sugar) glucose, blood pressure, cholesterol, and body mass index (BMI) (The Wellness Bus: Free Health Screenings, Coaching, and Education, 2021). Coaching and education with a registered dietician are also available to WB visitors (The Wellness Bus: Free Health Screenings, Coaching, and Education, 2021). Additionally, the WB offers referrals to visitors for other health and social services, connecting them to basic resources for continued health follow-up that address the social determinants of health. These referrals often include programs within DODI like the National Diabetes Prevention Program, Food Pharmacy, and resources with other local community organizations (Driving Out Diabetes, 2021; The Wellness Bus: Free Health Screenings, Coaching, and Education, 2021). On a larger scale, the purpose behind DODI and the WB is 926 RANGE to “empower individuals and families to access optimal wellness,” focusing on prevention and the reduction of diabetes in Utah (Driving Out Diabetes, 2021). The roles of DODI and the WB are crucial since the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimate that 1 in 3 people in the U.S. will have diabetes by 2050, this is especially concerning in communities without access to regular health services (CDC, 2024; The Wellness Bus: Free Health Screenings, Coaching, and Education, 2021). In the past year, the WB implemented My Own Health Report (MOHR), a screening tool that can assess health behaviors and psychosocial outcomes, during the visitor intake process before their appointment with a community health worker (CHW) (Gilbert et al., 2024; Glasgow et al., 2014; Krist et al., 2013; Krist et al., 2014). MOHR consists of questions related to frequency of lifestyle behaviors such as fruit and vegetable consumption among other questions related to mental and emotional health (Gilbert et al., 2024; Glasgow et al., 2014; Krist et al., 2014). The tool was implemented to allow for easier comparison of health and lifestyle behavior relative to public health guidelines, support bus visitor goal setting and action planning, and to track behavior change progress over time (Fisher et al., 2024; 927 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Forcier et al., 2024; Gilbert et al., 2024; Krist et al., 2013). Additionally, MOHR is designed to help facilitate appointments with CHWs and registered dietitians by providing points of conversation between the healthcare provider and the visitor (Fisher et al., 2024; Forcier et al., 2024; Gilbert et al., 2024; Glasgow et al., 2014). While the MOHR tool was designed to have a positive impact on visitors and facilitate the connection between the provider and visitor, it is unclear if adding the tool to the intake process on the WB is perceived well by bus visitors in terms of the amount of time it takes to fill out or its personal relevance. Therefore, the primary aim of this project is to understand how people from Hispanic/Latino backgrounds perceive the MOHR tool specifically the questions about lifestyle behaviors, lifestyle interventions, and how changing these behaviors can impact overall health. In this context, health is considered as physical and mental/emotional health and any specific risk of chronic diseases like diabetes and cancer. This study will help assess whether MOHR is an effective screening tool and whether WB visitors perceive the tool to be useful. It will also provide direction for future research on lifestyle behaviors and interventions around the Hispanic/Latino community 928 RANGE and any needed changes to the MOHR tool for a continued effective attempt to reduce health disparities. METHODS This study used a qualitative research design and thematic analysis to explore the experiences and receptiveness of Hispanic/Latino WB visitors towards the screening tool, MOHR. The research question guiding this study was: “How do Hispanic/Latino individuals view lifestyle behavior interventions and its impact on health?” A qualitative research design was chosen to gain a better understanding of these perceptions and the receptiveness of Hispanic/Latino individuals using the MOHR tool. Participants Participants (n=26) were WB visitors from various communities in the Salt Lake Valley, most (n=18) of them were from a Hispanic/Latino background. The method used to select the participants was based on convenience sampling, which is practical and contextually appropriate for a community-based study. The WB visits under-resourced communities, most with a Hispanic/Latino majority, indicating that participants recruited for the interview are likely representative of the community. The sampling method 929 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH was also dependent on the participant’s availability as the interviews took place after participants wrapped up their appointments with the CHWs and/or registered dieticians. The CHWs and dieticians referred the bus visitors to a trained research assistant to explain the study and invite the visitor to participate. If visitor agreed to be interviewed, informed consent was obtained, and participants were made aware that they could withdraw from the study at any time with no penalty. Participants that were interviewed received a $10 gift card for their time as well. Data Collection Data was collected through semi-structured interviews, each one lasting between 5-10 minutes depending on participant’s responses. Most of the interviews were conducted in Spanish (n=18) with a few in English (n=8). The interviews took place in a room within the WB which provided a quieter yet familiar setting for the participant. The interviews were audio recorded and numbered 1-26 for participant anonymity. The recordings were securely stored in a digital folder shared among the research team only and password protected electronic devices. The interview guide consisted of seven questions, with the addition of a few follow up question, and were developed using four concepts from 930 RANGE the Practical Robust Implementation and Sustainability Model (PRISM) framework (Table 1). The PRISM framework helps understand the context in which an intervention is implemented and facilitates implementation from research setting to a real-world setting. The concepts used to guide the interview questions were: (1) perspectives of the intervention, (2) characteristics of implementers, their settings, and those receiving the interventions (patients), (3) external environment, and (4) implementation and sustainability infrastructure (Aqil et al., 2009; What is PRISM? – REAIM, n.d.). Data Analysis The data was analyzed using a thematic analysis. Each interview was transcribed, translated from Spanish to English if necessary, and analyzed using a rapid qualitative analysis summary template. The rapid qualitative analysis template was developed using the domains identified from the interview guide (Figure 1). A rapid qualitative analysis was used to code for themes across all interviews more efficiently than traditional thematic coding methods. The summary template was test-driven by the research team, all using the same interview, to check for consistencies, or lack of, when summarizing and to identify if adjustments to the 931 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH summary template were needed. Once the summary template was finalized, each interview was summarized and rapidly condensed based on overlapping themes from the interviews. RESULTS The following section presents the key themes that emerged from the interviews regarding perceptions of lifestyle behaviors and psychosocial screening among Hispanic/Latino individuals visiting the WB (Table 2). The analysis of participant responses revealed six key themes: (1) positive perceptions of the MOHR tool, (2) health behavior changes and intentions, (3) WB staff interactions, (4) follow-up preferences, (5) observability of progress, and (6) value of services. Theme 1: Positive Perceptions of the MOHR Tool Across all interviews participants comfortably completed the MOHR survey and found the questions on the survey useful and as a valid starting point to evaluate their health. Some participants appreciated the questions on the survey concerning mental and emotional health since these types of questions made participants reflect on their wellbeing, especially in participants that were experiencing stress, anxiety, or worry and needed help. A few participants explained that questions related to 932 RANGE behavior frequency were a bit unclear or confusing at times and suggested changing the phrasing or better explaining the questions. Theme 2: Health Behavior Changes and Intentions Some participants expressed that answering MOHR questions increased their awareness and motivation to make healthy lifestyle changes. Additionally, many participants believed that lifestyle behaviors can impact their health and that healthy lifestyle changes can improve their health. Participants often expressed perceptions of disease susceptibility and severity as a reason to make lifestyle behavior changes. Other participants worried about their family and loved ones and viewed changed in health behaviors to reduce worries and/or burden on their loved ones. However, some participants recognized that making and maintaining lifestyle changes can be difficult to execute even though participants are aware of the benefits that comes with making healthy lifestyle changes for their health and wellbeing. Theme 3: WB Staff Interactions In general, participants had positive experiences with the WB and repeat visitors found their visits to be helpful 933 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and consistent in terms of service and treatment. The WB staff were seen as kind and supportive, playing an essential role in encouraging participants to consider and implement lifestyle changes. For participants with no initial ideas of lifestyle changes, advice was still given by the WB staff, and the participants appreciated the advice. However, there was some inconsistency with WB staff communicating with visitors about lifestyle behaviors from MOHR. Participant interviews portrayed that the staff would talk about all, some, or none of the MOHR behaviors which suggests room for more consistency when engaging with visitors about health behaviors. Theme 4: Follow-up Preferences Most of the participants expressed that the WB staff does a good job in their follow-up process now and stated that they would like to continue receiving followup in person. Nonetheless, participants communicated that the use of technology was convenient and effective for their health progress. Some participant stated that communication via text messages and phone calls as other methods of follow-ups, while others recommended the use of WhatsApp as an alternative. Participants conveyed interest in receiving appointment and health reminders through texts and calls. Some 934 RANGE participants suggested virtual methods like Zoom for appointments, especially when scheduling conflicts arise. Theme 5: Observability of Progress Most participants demonstrated interest in receiving a copy of MOHR survey results, viewing it as beneficial and to keep track of their health progress over time. Some participants viewed the copy to help them individually follow-up on their health and make any necessary changes. There were many formats that participants preferred for their copy of results such as the copies being printed, emailed, or texted. On the other hand, there were a few participants that stated a copy of their results would not be useful and they would not use it. Theme 6: Value of Services Participants generally appreciated the support and consistency of services provided by the WB with some participants mentioning improvement in their health. Participants also expressed appreciation for the advice and information shared by the bus staff. Therefore, participants were satisfied with their interactions with 935 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the WB and perceived advantage of engaging with the bus. Patterns and Relationships across Themes A common pattern emerged where participants valued the support and kindness of the WB staff, which in turn encouraged participants to consider and implement lifestyle changes. So, the emotional and social support provided by the staff seems to play a critical role in motivating participants to overcome challenges when it comes to adopting healthier behaviors, something that was mentioned by participants as difficult doing so. This suggests a potential connection between support and behavior change which in turn could lead to improved health. Additionally, repeat visits to the WB correlate with positive experiences and health improvements over time which demonstrates a strong relationship with consistency of services and visitor satisfaction and in the long-term improvement to participant’s health. Another pattern was the preference for follow-ups using text messages, calls or virtual methods which illustrates a pattern of convenience and adaptability for individual needs. Yet, the desire for in-person interaction for follow-ups among some participants further demonstrates that the relationship between personal 936 RANGE connections and the perceived effectiveness of followups. This also portrays the WB staff as essential for participants to continue investing in their health. These patterns highlight the importance of communication, consistent support, and accessible follow-up methods in cultivating positive health outcomes. DISCUSSION This study aimed to assess whether the screening tool, MOHR, was perceived well by WB visitors. The study also aimed to understand perceptions of lifestyle behaviors, lifestyle interventions, and how applying these interventions can impact health. The findings revealed six key themes: (1) positive perceptions of the MOHR tool, (2) health behavior changes and intentions, (3) WB staff interactions, (4) follow-up preferences, (5) observability of progress, and (6) value of services. Theme 1: Positive Perceptions of the MOHR Tool This theme emerged as crucial as it demonstrates that visitors had overall positive experiences with the screening tool, implying that the tool is perceived well among its intended audience. Visitors identifying the tool as applicable and a good starting point for health evaluation further demonstrates that visitors had no negative feelings towards the tool. However, since a 937 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH few visitors stated that questions related to behavior frequency were hard to understand, a change in the survey is required to make the tool more effective in tracking lifestyle behavior over time. Prior work validating the MOHR tool highlighted its strength in supporting rapid, meaningful assessment across multiple behavioral domains while being integrated standard care workflows (Krist et al., 2013; Glasgow et al., 2014). However, consistent with this study’s findings, implementation studies have shown that patient-facing tools like MOHR must continuously evolve to meet the needs of diverse literacy levels and cultural contexts (Forcier et al., 2014). Theme 2: Health Behavior Changes and Intentions By answering MOHR, visitors reported an increase in awareness and motivation to make healthy lifestyle changes and how these changes can have a positive impact on their health. This aligns with existing literature by Hamilton et al. (2019) and Páscoa et al. (2021), which express that changes in lifestyle behaviors can improve health outcomes. At the same time, participants stated that making these changes can be hard to execute, further aligning with Páscoa et al. (2021) in how patients in Portugal expressed difficulty when implementing lifestyle changes. 938 RANGE This intention-behavior gap is echoed in work showing that screening alone is insufficient to spark change unless coupled with consistent feedback and support (Krist et al., 2014). Studies also emphasize the importance of family-centered motivation, particularly in Hispanic communities, where collective well-being often drives health decision-making (Gilbert et al., 2024). This also aligns with the finding that WB visitors considered the worries and/or burdens their family and loved ones would encounter if the visitor became ill and viewed these lifestyle changes to reduce family concerns and burdens. Theme 3: WB Staff Interactions Participants viewed the WB staff as kind and supportive, encouraging participants to consider and implement lifestyle changes. WB staff gave visitors advice, which was appreciated by the visitors, yet there are a few inconsistencies in communication concerning lifestyle behaviors from MOHR. While it’s unclear why the differences are present, it could be due to timing since there are times when the WB is overflowing with visitors. This is also demonstrated in Hamilton et al. (2019) in which healthcare providers express timing as a barrier in conversing with patients about lifestyle behaviors. Consistency in staff using of tools like 939 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH MOHR is an ongoing challenge in implementation efforts. Fisher et al. (2024) suggest that structured staff training and role integration significantly improve fidelity in delivering behavior change conversations, particularly when reinforced through tools like patient self-report surveys. Theme 4: Follow-up Preferences Visitors expressed that the current follow-up process on the WB is good; however, a few expressed interests in virtual methods like Zoom due to scheduling difficulties. It demonstrates a potential barrier, the hours of operation of the WB, that could be addressed by integrating other methods of access to the WB, as identified by Yu et al. (2017). Participants also showed interest in receiving appointment reminders and health resources through texts, calls, and apps like WhatsApp, demonstrating a need for constant education and access to resources, aligning with literature from Yu et al. (2017). Similar digital preferences were noted in mobile-assisted screening and brief intervention studies, where text-based and app-delivered feedback (e.g., via WhatsApp) significantly increased the feasibility and acceptability of behavior change intervention in lowresource and time-constrained settings (Forcier et al., 2024). 940 RANGE Theme 5: Observability of Progress While most participants expressed interest in receiving a copy of their MOHR results, very few said they would not find a copy helpful, which was a bit unexpected. Other than that, this theme helped gauge what visitors view as useful or not and the type of formats that would be most appreciated when given a copy of the results. This aligns with findings from other studies using the MOHR tool. Specifically, personalized, visual feedback can enhance patient engagement, particularly when it supports goal setting and tracking over time (Krist et al., 2013; Glasgow et al., 2014). Theme 6: Value of Services Participants portrayed appreciation for the consistency of services, advice, and information, with noticeable improvements in their health. The visitors expressed satisfaction and an advantage in their engagement with the bus. This correlates with existing literature from Mudd-Martin et al. (2013) and Sanchez et al. (2021) who found that health programs can improve health outcomes. The value participants placed on the WB aligns with broader literature demonstrating that mobile health units can reduce healthcare access barriers, especially among underserved populations (Malone et 941 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH al., 2020; Yu et al., 2017). Participant’s appreciation for the consistent, respectful, and culturally relevant services echoes findings that mobile health unites not only offer key services but also build trust and familiarity over time. While this study focused on a specific screening tool (MOHR), its integration within a mobile health unit may increase use and follow-up for visitors. In contrast, other studies (e.g., Fisher et al., 2024; Forcier et al., 2014) highlight how mobile-assisted digital tools (e.g., apps) can support behavior change across diverse health settings—including hospitals and outpatient clinics—but also highlight the benefit of valued services delivered by people are likely important for tool adoption and sustained use. IMPLICATIONS These findings suggest that MOHR is a practical and effective screening tool that is perceived well by WB visitors. While MOHR may benefit from some minor revisions to improve clarity and understanding, the visitors still view it as a good starting point for understanding their health. Visitors did not express any discomfort or negative emotion about filling out MOHR which was an initial concern by WB staff. The findings also demonstrate that WB visitors view lifestyle behaviors as impactful and that healthy changes can 942 RANGE improve their health outcomes. Nonetheless, it is troublesome to implement such changes, yet the WB staff is perceived as supportive of these endeavors. This implies that with support from the staff, visitors may feel motivated to overcome challenges and adopt healthier behaviors. LIMITATIONS One limitation of this study is that the sample was drawn from a single mobile unit using the MOHR tool, which limits the generalizability of our findings. Still, when compared to other studies focused on lower-income or underserved audiences, many of the same themes have been identified (Gilbert et al., 2024; Sanchez et al., 2021; Mudd-Martin et al., 2013). Additionally, while interviews were relatively brief and convenience sampling was used, both approaches were pragmatic and well-suited to the mobile clinical context. Participants provided consistent, actionable feedback, supporting the credibility and utility of the insights gathered. 943 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH CONCLUSION This study successfully achieved its purpose to explore perceptions of the MOHR screening tool among Hispanic/Latino participants engaged through the WB. Findings demonstrated that MOHR is not only feasible and acceptable in a mobile health unit setting but also has potential to spark meaningful discussion of lifestyle behavior change when paired staff from and of the community. The WB served as a novel and impactful delivery context for MOHR, expanding its reach beyond traditional clinical environments and into communities with limited access to care. The integration of psychosocial and behavioral screening within mobile, bilingual, and community-trusted platforms represents a promising direction for future efforts to address health disparities. Building on these results, future research should test strategies that strengthen the follow-up process—including both digital (e.g., text reminders, app-based feedback) and human delivered (e.g., health coaching, community health worker engagement) lifestyle interventions—to enhance 944 RANGE the implementation impact of MOHR and support sustained behavior change over time. Finally, by expanding our understanding of the visitors, we can better support individuals at the WB and further address the health disparities these populations face. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere thanks to the staff at the WB for their support and guidance throughout this research study. Without their contributions, this project would not have been possible. Their knowledge and involvement were invaluable. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Candace Wilund and Mia Krause for their contribution to this project. 945 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH APPENDIX 946 RANGE 947 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1. Rapid Qualitative Analysis Summary Template 948 RANGE BIBLIOGRAPHY Aqil, A., Lippeveld, T., & Hozumi, D. (2009). PRISM framework: A strengthening paradigm and shift evaluating for designing, routine health information systems. Health Policy and Planning, 24(3), 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czp010 CDC. (2024, September 16). About prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. National Diabetes Prevention Program. https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes-prevention/aboutprediabetes-type2/index.html Driving out diabetes | University of Utah Health. (2021, April 6). https://healthcare.utah.edu/integrative-health/ driving-out-diabetes Farhud, D. D. (2015). Impact of Lifestyle on Health. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 44(11), 1442–1444. Fisher, B., Dennison, E., McDonald, H., Rimmer, T., & Fallowfield, J. L. (2025). Can healthcare practitioners deliver health behaviour change to patients with musculoskeletal injuries as part of routine care?: A feasibility study. Physiotherapy, 127, 101461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physio.2024.101461 Forcier, C., Constant, A., Grisard, F., Clair, E., Val949 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Laillet, D., Thibault, R., & Moirand, R. (2024). Feasibility and acceptability of a mobile-assisted screening and brief intervention for multiple health behaviors in medical settings. Journal of Primary Care & Community Health, 15, 21501319241303604. https://doi.org/10.1177/21501319241303604 Gilbert, J. L., Brooks, E. M., Funk, A., Webel, B., Britz, J., Kelly, C., Wilson, J., Lee, J. H., Sabo, R. T., Huebschmann, A., Glasglow, R. E., & Krist, A. H. (2024). Patient preferences for addressing unhealthy behaviors, mental health challenges, and social needs in primary care. Journal of Primary Care & Community Health, 15, 21501319241307741. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/21501319241307741 Glasgow, R. E., Kessler, R. S., Ory, M. G., Roby, D., Gorin, S. S., & Krist, A. (2014). Conducting rapid, relevant research. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 47(2), 212–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.amepre.2014.03.007 Hamilton, K., Henderson, J., Burton, E., & Hagger, M. S. (2019). Discussing lifestyle behaviors: Perspectives and experiences of general practitioners. Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine, 7(1), 290–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/21642850.2019.1648216 950 RANGE Koniak-Griffin, D., Brecht, M.-L., Takayanagi, S., Villegas, J., Melendrez, M., & Balcázar, H. (2015). A community health worker-led lifestyle behavior intervention for Latina (Hispanic) women: Feasibility and outcomes of a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 52(1), 75–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2014.09.005 Krist, A. H., Glenn, B. A., Glasgow, R. E., Balasubramanian, B. A., Chambers, D. A., Fernandez, M. E., Heurtin-Roberts, S., Kessler, R., Ory, M. G., Phillips, S. M., Ritzwoller, D. P., Roby, D. H., Rodriguez, H. P., Sabo, R. T., Sheinfeld Gorin, S. N., Stange, K. C., & The MOHR Study Group. (2013). Designing a valid randomized pragmatic primary care implementation trial: The my own health report (Mohr) project. Implementation Science, 8(1), 73. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-8-73 Krist, A. H., Phillips, S. M., Sabo, R. T., Balasubramanian, B. A., Heurtin-Roberts, S., Ory, M. G., Johnson, S. B., Sheinfeld-Gorin, S. N., Estabrooks, P. A., Ritzwoller, D. P., Glasgow, R. E., & For the MOHR Study Group. (2014). Adoption, reach, implementation, and maintenance of a behavioral and mental health assessment in primary care. The Annals 951 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of Family Medicine, 12(6), 525–533. https://doi.org/ 10.1370/afm.1710 Malone, N. C., Williams, M. M., Smith Fawzi, M. C., Bennet, J., Hill, C., Katz, J. N., & Oriol, N. E. (2020). Mobile health clinics in the United States. International Journal for Equity in Health, 19(1), 40. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s12939-020-1135-7 Mudd-Martin, G., Martinez, M. C., Rayens, M. K., Gokun, Y., & Meininger, J. C. (2013). Sociocultural tailoring of a healthy lifestyle intervention to reduce cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes risk among Latinos. Preventing Chronic Disease, 10, 130137. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd10.130137 Páscoa, R., Teixeira, A., Gregório, M., Carvalho, R., & Martins, C. (2021). Patients’ perspectives about lifestyle behaviors and health in the context of family medicine: A cross-sectional study in Portugal. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(6), 2981. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062981 Sanchez, J. I., Briant, K. J., Wu-Georges, S., Gonzalez, V., Galvan, A., Cole, S., & Thompson, B. (2021). Eat healthy, be active community workshops implemented 952 RANGE with rural Hispanic women. BMC Women’s Health, 21(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-01157-5 The wellness bus: Health screenings, coaching, & education | University of Utah health University of Utah health. (2021, April 6). https://healthcare.utah.edu/ integrativehealth/driving-out-diabetes/mobile-healthprogram The who cross‐national study of health behavior in school‐aged children from 35 countries: Findings from 2001–2002. (2004). Journal of School Health, 74(6), 204–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1746-1561.2004.tb07933.x What is prism? – Re-aim. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2025, from https://re-aim.org/learn/prism/ Yu, S. W. Y., Hill, C., Ricks, M. L., Bennet, J., & Oriol, N. E. (2017). The scope and impact of mobile health clinics in the United States: A literature review. International Journal for Equity in Health, 16(1), 178. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-017-0671-2 953 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 44 Relationships Between Total Knee Arthroplasty Preoperative Clinical Factors on Postoperative Recovery AUBREY JACOBSON AND JESSE CHRISTENSEN Faculty Mentor: Jesse Christensen, DPT, PhD (Physical Therapy and Athletic Training, University of Utah) INTRODUCTION Knee osteoarthritis (KOA) is a degenerative joint disease 954 RANGE that greatly reduces mobility and is associated with increased mortality rates in older adults [5]. While many conservative treatment options exist for managing KOA (i.e. lifestyle management, physical therapy, pharmacotherapy), a total knee arthroplasty (TKA) has been shown to be the most effective treatment for managing pain and disability [12]. A TKA can greatly reduce knee pain and improve physical function postoperatively. However, recent data has shown that abnormal gait mechanics, defined as overloading of the nonoperative knee and underloading of the operative knee, are observed even years post-TKA and are similar to those observed pre-TKA [7]. This is concerning as abnormal gait mechanics can result in a higher risk for falls, muscle imbalance, and decreased quality of life [2]. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between preoperative clinical factors and abnormal gait mechanics in adults post-TKA. Specifically, we will determine if knee angle, moment, and power influence underloading of the operative joint post-TKA. We hypothesize that adults with poorer clinical factors (i.e. gait speed, residual knee pain, weakness, comorbidities) pre-TKA will have poorer gait mechanics 3 months post-TKA. 955 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH METHODS This study was conducted at the VA Salt Lake City Medical Center Gait Lab. All participants (n=25) underwent a primary unilateral TKA due to end-stage KOA. Participants completed motion analysis testing, self-reported measures (numeric pain rating scale, functional comorbidity index), and physical performance measures (40-meter walk test, maximal isometric quadriceps, and hamstring testing) preoperatively and 3 months post-TKA. Motion capture analysis (Nexus) was used to evaluate knee mechanics and inverse kinematic and dynamic solutions (Visual 3D) were conducted with traditional methods. TABLES/FIGURES 956 RANGE Figure 1. Relationship between preoperative numeric knee pain on surgical knee flexion angle (t=-2.82, p=0.01 r=-0.51) at weight acceptance during self-selected gait at 3 months post-TKA. 957 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2. Relationship between preoperative gait speed on surgical knee power (t=-2.30, p=0.03 r=-0.43) during weight acceptance during selfselected gait at 3 months post-TKA. 958 RANGE Figure 3. Relationship between preoperative peak surgical quadriceps strength on surgical knee torque (t=3.16, p=0.01 r=-0.55) during weight acceptance during self-selected gait at 3 months post-TKA. Figure 4. Relationship between preoperative peak surgical quadriceps strength on surgical knee power (t=3.09, p=0.01 r=0.54) during weight acceptance during self-selected gait at 3 months post-TKA. 959 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 5. Relationship on preoperative peak surgical hamstring strength on surgical knee flexion (t=2.13, p=0.01 r=-0.42) angle during weight acceptance during self-selected gait at 3 months post-TKA. RESULTS Increased numeric pain levels preoperatively were related to a lower knee angle at weight acceptance at 3 months post-TKA (p=0.01, t=-2.82, r=-0.51). Faster gait speeds preoperatively were related to greater knee power during weight acceptance at 3 months post-TKA (p=0.03, t=-2.30, r=-0.43). Greater quadriceps torque preoperatively were related to greater knee extensor torque during weight acceptance at 3 months post-TKA (p=0.01, t=3.16, r=-0.55). Greater quadriceps torque 960 RANGE preoperatively was related to greater knee power during weight acceptance at 3 months post-TKA (p=0.01, t=3.09, r=0.54). Greater hamstring torque was related to less knee angle at weight acceptance at 3 months postTKA (p=0.01, t=2.13, r=-0.42). DISCUSSION The relationship between numeric pain levels and knee angle mobility may be explained by muscle guarding. This can be partially explained by the Integrated Pain Adaptation Model[6][10]. This model describes that as pain arises, it is common for the body to modify muscular activity in ways such as muscle guarding in order to protect the affected joint and prevent further injury[6][10]. The relationship between faster gait speed and increased knee power is likely the result of faster movements requiring greater muscle activation, which results in increased power production [8][11] . This is also consistent with the relationships between increased quadriceps strength and knee extension torque and quadriceps strength and knee power during weight acceptance of the gait cycle. Power is the product of torque and angular velocity. Torque reflects the force applied, while speed (angular velocity) determines how 961 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH quickly that force is applied. Together, they equal the total power produced.[8][9][11]. Increased hamstring strength was related to reduced knee angle mobility. One possible reason for this is the formation of scar tissue. This can limit joint flexibility and range of motion[3]. Another possible reason is muscle adaptations (inhibition of muscle activation, muscle guarding)[4] during recovery of a TKA. It is possible for this to lead to increased stiffness or changes in neuromuscular control, resulting in reduced mobility despite the increase in muscle strength[1][3][4]. My study provides preliminary data suggesting increased quadriceps strength, faster gait speeds, and lower pain levels preoperatively will potentially result in improved biomechanical outcomes at 3 months postTKA. These findings indicate that pre-TKA physical function plays a crucial role in post-TKA recovery. This evidence may prehabilitation assist clinicians programs and in developing improving patient education pre-TKA. Thus, contributing to more informed decision-making and better long-term outcomes post-TKA. REFERENCES 1. An, J., Cheon, S.-J., & Lee, B.-H. (2024). The 962 RANGE effect of combined balance exercise on knee range of motion, balance, gait, and functional outcomes in acute phase following total knee arthroplasty: a single-blind randomized controlled trial. Medicina, 60(9), 1389. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60091389 2. Ataullah, A. H. M., & De Jesus, O. (2024). Gait disturbances. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. 3. Bong, M. R., & Di Cesare, P. E. (2004). Stiffness after total knee arthroplasty. The Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 12(3), 164–171. https://doi.org/ 10.5435/00124635-200405000-00004 4. Cavanellas, N. T., Cossich, V. R. A., Nicoliche, E. B., Martins, M. B., Sousa, E. B., & Salles, J. I. (2018). Comparative analysis of quadriceps and hamstrings strength in knee osteoarthritis before and after total knee arthroplasty: a cross-sectional study. Revista brasileira de ortopedia, 53(2), 158–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rboe.2018.02.009 5. Cleveland, R. J., Nelson, A. E., & Callahan, L. F. (2019). Knee and hip osteoarthritis as 963 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH predictors of premature death: A review of the evidence. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology, 37(Suppl 120(5)), 24–30. 6. Graven-Nielsen, T., Svensson, P., & ArendtNielsen, L. (1997). Effects of experimental muscle pain on muscle activity and coordination during static and dynamic motor function. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology/Electromyography and Motor Control, 105(2), 156-164. 7. Marino, G., De Capitani, F., Adamo, P., Bolzoni, L., Gatti, R., & Temporiti, F. (2024). Long-term gait analysis in patients after total knee arthroplasty: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Gait & Posture, 113, 75–98. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2024.06.002 8. National Strength and Conditioning Association. (2017, June 1). Muscle activation and strength training. 9. https://www.nsca.com/education/articles/ kinetic-select/muscle-activation-andstrength-training 10. Ottinger, C. (2020). Biomechanics and growth. 964 RANGE The Muscle PhD. https://themusclephd.com/ biomechanics-andgrowth/#:~:text=Therefore%2C%20since%20 po wer%20is%20W,major%20impact%20on%20 muscle%20size. 11. Peck, C. C., Murray, G. M., & Gerzina, T. M. (2008). How does pain affect jaw muscle activity? The Integrated Pain Adaptation Model. Australian Dental Journal, 53(3), 201–207. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1834-7819.2008.00050.x 12. Pojednic, R. M., Clark, D. J., Patten, C., Reid, K., Phillips, E. M., & Fielding, R. A. (2012, May 22). The specific contributions of force and velocity to muscle power in older adults. Experimental Gerontology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22626972/ 13. Zhang, Y., & Liu, H. (2021). Safety of total knee arthroplasty in the treatment of knee osteoarthritis and its effect on postoperative pain and quality of life of patients. Contrast Media & Molecular Imaging, 2021, 6951578. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6951578 965 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 45 Research Reflection by Aubrey Jacobson AUBREY JACOBSON Faculty Mentor: Jesse Christensen (Physical Therapy and Athletic Training, University of Utah) As a senior majoring in Kinesiology, I’ve had the opportunity to participate in undergraduate research focused on musculoskeletal function and rehabilitation for the past year. My research involved working in a 966 RANGE biomechanics lab where we studied movement patterns and joint loading in participants undergoing Total Knee Arthroplasty surgeries. This hands-on research experience has significantly enriched my understanding of human movement. It also taught me how to critically evaluate scientific literature, collect and interpret clinical data, and work collaboratively in a research setting. This experience reinforced my desire to pursue a career as a Physician Assistant specializing in orthopedics. Seeing how research translates into better patient outcomes strengthened my commitment to blending clinical care with scientific knowledge. I hope to continue engaging in research as a PA to stay current with advancements and contribute to improving orthopedic treatment strategies. 967 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 46 Effects of Nitric Oxide Gel on Collagen Organization After AVF Creation KEVIN PAN Faculty Mentor: Yan-ting Shiu (Internal Medicine, University of Utah) INTRODUCTION Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) is a significant health concern, affecting approximately 37 million Americans, 968 RANGE or 15 percent of the U.S. adult population [1]. The kidneys, responsible for filtering waste and regulating essential functions like blood pressure and electrolyte balance, are vital to maintaining bodily equilibrium. CKD cannot be cured, and the most effective treatment is renal replacement therapy (RRT). However, the high demand for kidney donors presents significant challenges and most patients will use dialysis instead. For CKD patients undergoing dialysis, the arteriovenous fistula (AVF) is the gold standard for vascular access. A successful AVF relies on the proper maturation of the vessel and depends on outward remodeling to allow adequate blood flow. Following the creation of AVFs, there is an increased synthesis of collagen, initiating a gradual and irreversible process known as fibrosis. The arrangement of collagen pattern in the extracellular matrix (ECM), plays a vital role in the remodeling process. Nitric oxide (NO) is known to facilitate outward ECM remodeling by promoting vasodilation [2], making it a potential therapeutic solution for AVF maturation. Despite the known benefits of NO on vascular remodeling improvement, it remains unclear how NO impacts the arrangement of collagen in the medial layer of the AVF. In vascular injury models, NO has also been 969 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH shown to modulate ECM composition and suppress excessive collagen deposition [3]. As collagen alignment and integrity influence vessel compliance and patency, understanding how NO effects collagen organization could offer insight into strategies for improving AVF maturation and long-term functionality in dialysis patients. This led to the hypothesis that NO treatment would not alter collagen fiber patterns, and that AVFs treated with NO gel would exhibit similar collagen organization to non-AVF vessels. The objective of this study is to examine the influence of NO on collagen arrangement within the media layer of the anastomosis site in AVFs using a porcine model. An NO-releasing gel was applied to the anastomosis sites of pig AVFs between internal of the jugular vein to the carotid artery. It was then immediately injected with perivascular application of NO gel after the AVF creation. AVF image was obtained using second harmonic generation microcopy (SHG). To determine the impact of NO gel on AVF, collagen arrangement within the media layer was analyzed using ImageJ and MATLAB. Comparative image analysis between NO-treated and untreated groups was used to evaluate the effect of NO on collagen fiber organization and patterning. 970 RANGE METHODS The studies utilized both male and female 50kg Yorkshire pigs (Snyder Farms, Southside, AL). Subjects were split into four groups: [NO-treated AVF, Non-AVF, NO-treated Non AVF, and AVF]. The animal was anesthetized with isoflurane, and the skin in the ventral neck area was shaved and disinfected. The pig AVFs were then created by connecting the jugular vein to the carotid artery. The animal was then positioned supine on a heating blanket to maintain a body temperature of 37°C throughout the procedure. After completion of the AVF, the NO-releasing nano-matrix gel was applied over the AVF anastomosis site, followed by closure of the skin with suture. After surgery, the animal was monitored for 35 days before being sacrificed for tissue collection using SHG. Qualitative Analysis After acquiring the image, qualitative analysis of different types of collagen patterns in the media layers is performed. These patterns are described by comparing the collagen fibers alignment within the circumferential vessel section in comparison to the 971 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH lumen. The terms used to describe the collagen pattern are depicted in Figure 1. Figure 1: Representative second-harmonic-generation (SHG) collagen patterns [4]. • Honeycomb: Collagen fibers resemble a weblike structure. • Perpendicular: Collagen fibers that run vertically with respect to the vessel’s lumen • Parallel: Collagen fibers that run horizontally 972 RANGE with respect to the vessel’s lumen • Railroad Track: Collagen fibers run in a mixture of parallel and perpendicular that makes look like a railroad track with respect to the lumen. • Micro-Perpendicular Macro-Parallel (MPMP): When the image is zoomed out, the collagen fibers appear to be parallel with respect to the lumen, but once zoomed in, the collagen is made up of thick looking perpendicular fibers. • Mixed: Two or more of the distinct patterns Quantitative Analysis Numerical analyses were conducted using ImageJ version 1.54c (National Boston, MA) and Bioimaging MATLAB version Solutions, R2023a (MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA) to evaluate collagen organization within the medial layer of the vessel. Images were first aligned with the vessel lumen at 180 degrees using a PowerPoint template to determine the appropriate rotation angle. This angle was then applied in ImageJ to properly orient each image and regions of interest (ROIs) were selected specifically from the medial layer for further analysis. After isolating medial ROIs, images were converted to 973 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 16-bit grayscale and analyzed using the ImageJ’s OrientationJ plugin to calculate dominant fiber orientation The Dominant Direction Angle represents the average alignment of collagen fibers with respect to the lumen. The Anisotropy Index (AI), ranging from 0 to 1, quantifies fiber alignment—where 0 indicates random orientation and 1 indicates perfect alignment. For each image, the OrientationJ “Dominant Direction” and “Measure” features were used to ensure consistency in angle and AI values. The selected regions were then resized to square dimensions (128×128 or 256×256 pixels) and exported as JPEGs for MATLAB analysis. MATLAB was used to verify AI values using custom written program from the Shiu Lab database. These metrics were then used to calculate the Fiber Configuration Index (FCI) using the equation: FCI = sin(angle in radians) × AI, which captures both fiber directionality and degree of alignment. RESULTS Qualitative Analysis The most common medial collagen fiber patterns observed in the NO-treated AVF, non-AVF, and NO- treated non-AVF groups were predominantly 974 RANGE parallel, with fibers aligned along the circumference of the lumen (Figure 4). In contrast, the untreated AVF group exhibited more variability, with collagen fibers displaying a mix of perpendicular, and random alignment patterns, making random orientation more common in this group (Figure 1). Figure 2: The first two collagen images show a Nitric Oxide sample with non-AVF (first) and AVF (second) regions exhibiting parallel collagen patterns. Similarly, the last two images display parallel collagen patterns observed in non975 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH AVF (third) and AVF (fourth) regions treated with the NO gel. Quantitative Analysis Quantitative analysis of the Anisotropy Index (AI) revealed differences in collagen fiber alignment across treatment and anatomical location groups (figure 6). The Control Contralateral group exhibited the highest variability (SD = 0.162), followed by the Control Past Anastomosis group (SD = 0.150). In comparison, both NO Gel-treated groups demonstrated lower variability, with the NO Gel Contralateral group showing the lowest SD (0.115), and the NO Gel Past Anastomosis group showing moderate variability (SD = 0.133). These findings suggest that NO Gel treatment may contribute to more consistent collagen fiber alignment, regardless of anatomical location. The visualization further highlights the overall effect of NO treatment in reducing the variability of ECM organization compared to untreated controls. 976 RANGE Figure 3: Bar graph illustrating the mean Anisotropy Index (AI) ± standard deviation (SD) for four experimental groups: Control Contralateral, Control Past Anastomosis, NO Gel Contralateral, and NO Gel Past Anastomosis. Orientation Angle (OA) variability was assessed across all experimental groups to evaluate the consistency of collagen fiber direction. The Control Contralateral group exhibited the greatest variability (SD = 32.4), followed by the Control Past Anastomosis group (SD = 19.3). The NO Gel Past Anastomosis group showed a similar level of variability (SD = 19.2), while the NO Gel Contralateral group demonstrated the lowest variability (SD = 5.98). These results suggest that NO Gel treatment, particularly in the contralateral region, 977 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH may lead to more uniform collagen fiber alignment. The comparison highlights distinct differences in OA variability between treated and untreated vessels, as well as between anatomical sites. Figure 4: Bar graph showing the mean dominant direction angles (OA) ± standard deviation (SD) for four experimental groups: Control Contralateral, Control Past Anastomosis, NO Gel Contralateral, and NO Gel Past Anastomosis Variability in the Fiber Configuration Index (FCI) was compared across treatment and anatomical location groups (figure 8). The Control Contralateral and Control Past Anastomosis groups showed the greatest variability, with SD values of 0.14 and 0.14, 978 RANGE respectively. In contrast, the NO Gel Contralateral group exhibited the lowest variability (SD = 0.052), and the NO Gel Past Anastomosis group showed moderate variability (SD = 0.097). These results suggest that NO Gel treatment, particularly in the contralateral vessels, may contribute to more consistent collagen organization within the vessel wall. This pattern supports the potential role of NO in stabilizing ECM architecture compared to untreated controls. Figure 5: Bar graph showing the mean fiber configuration index (FCI) ± standard deviation (SD) for four experimental groups: Control Contralateral, Control Past Anastomosis, NO Gel Contralateral, and NO Gel Past Anastomosis. 979 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Two-Way ANOVA Test To assess how nitric oxide (NO) treatment and anatomical location influence collagen organization, a two-way ANOVA was conducted for three key metrics: Anisotropy Index (AI), Orientation Angle (OA), and Fiber Configuration Index (FCI) (Table 1). For AI, no significant main effects were observed for either treatment or location. However, a significant interaction between treatment and location was detected, suggesting that the effect of NO Gel on fiber alignment may vary depending on anatomical site. In contrast, OA showed a significant main effect of NO Gel treatment, while the location effect was not significant Additionally, a highly significant interaction was observed, indicating that NO Gel meaningfully influences collagen fiber orientation in a location-dependent manner. For FCI, there was no significant main effect of NO treatment though a significant main effect of anatomical location was observed and the interaction between the two factors was not significant Collectively, these results suggest that NO treatment primarily affects the direction and alignment of collagen fibers, particularly when anatomical context is taken into account, while 980 RANGE location alone may play a more consistent role in influencing fiber configuration. Metric Anisotropy Index (AI) Orientation Angle (OA) Fiber Configuration Index (FCI) F = 0.08, p = 0.78 F = 8.0, p = 0.0055 Main Effect: Control (F, p) F = 0.16, p = 0.69 F = 0.65, p = 0.42 F = 3.6, p = 0.059 F = 4.8, p = 0.031 Main Effect: NO Gel (F, p) Interaction (F, p) F = 13, p = 0.0005 F = 26, p < 0.001 F = 1.6, p = 0.21 Table 1: This table presents the results of Two-Way ANOVA analyses examining the effects of treatment (NO Gel vs. Control), anatomical location (Contralateral vs. Past Anastomosis), and their interaction on three quantitative metrics of collagen organization: Anisotropy Index (AI), Orientation Angle (OA), and Fiber Configuration Index (FCI). DISCUSSION Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a significant global issue, leading to an increased demand for hemodialysis. However, the success of dialysis is heavily reliant on properly matured arteriovenous fistulas (AVFs), which often fail due to inward remodeling. Addressing this issue is crucial for improving vascular access for CKD 981 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH patients that need dialysis. This study builds on previous studies showing that nitric oxide effectively enhances lumen size in AVFs [8]. This study aimed to investigate whether nitric oxide (NO) gel application promotes favorable collagen patterns within the medial layer of AVFs while preserving collagen pattern organization. AVFs were created in a porcine model and treated with NO-releasing compounds to evaluate collagen using MATLAB and ImageJ. The finding that NO gel does not interfere with the natural alignment of collagen fibers suggests that it promotes outward remodeling without disrupting extracellular matrix (ECM) structure. This is further supported by qualitative observations, which showed that samples from the NOtreated AVF, non-AVF, and NO- treated non-AVF groups predominantly exhibited organized parallel collagen patterns. In contrast, untreated AVF samples displayed more disorganized and random collagen fiber arrangements. Together, these results indicate that NO gel may help preserve native collagen architecture, which is critical for maintaining vessel flexibility and promoting successful AVF maturation. The combined statistical and visual analysis of collagen structure offers important insights into the role of NO 982 RANGE gel in AVF remodeling. Quantitative analysis showed no significant main effect of NO treatment on Anisotropy Index (AI) or Fiber Configuration Index (FCI), and although Orientation Angle (OA) did show a treatment effect, this primarily reflected locationdependent variability rather than structural disruption (Table 1). Importantly, a significant interaction between NO treatment and anatomical location was observed for both AI and OA, indicating that NO gel may influence collagen organization in a contextspecific manner. Complementing these findings, qualitative analysis further confirmed that NO-treated AVFs, non-AVFs, exhibited and NO-treated well-organized, non-AVFs predominantly parallel collagen fiber patterns, while untreated AVF samples often displayed random or disorganized arrangements. These consistent patterns suggest that NO gel preserves collagen structural integrity while promoting outward remodeling. Together, these findings highlight the potential of NO gel as a supportive agent in AVF development by maintaining healthy ECM organization without introducing structural disruption. This study provides valuable insights into the ability of NO to promote favorable collagen alignment and 983 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH enhance AVF maturation. These findings support the therapeutic potential of NO gel in enhancing AVF maturation by preserving collagen organization during vascular remodeling. By maintaining the structural integrity of the extracellular matrix without disrupting fiber alignment, NO gel may contribute to more reliable AVF development. This positions nitric oxide as a promising agent in the advancement of vascular access therapies and may help improve outcomes for patients undergoing hemodialysis. This approach could change how AVFs are managed and prepared for patients. If it works in clinical settings, it may help make dialysis access more reliable. It could also lower healthcare costs by reducing the number of AVF failures. Most importantly, it could improve treatment outcomes for millions of dialysis patients by making access last longer, lowering complication rates, and supporting better kidney health. REFERENCES [1] “Kidney Disease Statistics for the United States | NIDDK,” National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/ health-information/healthstatistics/kidneydisease#:~:text=Chronic%20kidney%20disease%20(CK D)%20affects 984 RANGE [2] Somarathna, Maheshika, et al. “Nitric Oxide Releasing Nanomatrix Gel Treatment Inhibits Venous Intimal Hyperplasia and Improves Vascular Remodeling in a Rodent Arteriovenous Fistula.” Biomaterials, vol. 280, 1 Jan. 2022, p. 121254, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ 34836683/, https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.biomaterials.2021.121254. [3] T. Vacek, S. Rahman, S. Yu, D. Neamtu, S. Givimani, and S. Tyagi, “Matrix metalloproteinases in atherosclerosis: role of nitric oxide, hydrogen sulfide, homocysteine, and polymorphisms,” Vascular Health and Risk Management, p. 173, Feb. 2015, doi: https://doi.org/10.2147/vhrm.s68415. [4] Y.-T. Shiu, J. I. Rotmans, W. J. Geelhoed, D. B. Pike, and T. Lee, “Arteriovenous conduits for hemodialysis: how pathophysiological vascular access to better modulate vascular response to durability,” American Journal the optimize of Physiology-renal Physiology, vol. 316, no. 5, pp. F794–F806, May 2019, doi: https://doi.org/10.1152/ ajprenal.00440.2018. 985 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 47 Research Reflection by Kevin Pan KEVIN PAN Faculty Mentor: Yan-ting Shiu (Internal Medicine, University of Utah) Participating in another semester of UROP would significantly advance my education, especially considering my career goal of working in the medical field. Through UROP, I have gained a solid understanding of research principles and acquired crucial skill sets that will greatly benefit my future 986 RANGE medical pursuits. Beyond the opportunity for compensated research, an additional semester allows me the time to gather more data, essential for the depth and quality of my research. Engaging in research helps me gain learning skills such as data analysis, literature review, research paper writing, and presenting findings. These skills are foundational in academia, providing me with the ability to critically evaluate information, synthesize research findings, and effectively communicate results to diverse audiences. Moreover, honing these skills during UROP will prepare me for future career endeavors, where the ability to conduct thorough research, analyze data accurately, and present findings persuasively are highly valued. This experience will not only deepen my understanding of research methodologies but will also empower me to contribute meaningfully to scholarly discourse and pursue professional aspirations in the medical field. The skills and experiences gained through UROP directly translate to my aspirations within the medical profession. Through UROP, I have developed critical thinking, analytical, and problem-solving skills that are essential for becoming a great doctor. Additionally, the ability to manage time efficiently is invaluable in the fast-paced environment of healthcare, where every minute counts. The opportunity to present research 987 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH findings has improved my communication skills, vital for conveying complex medical information to patients, colleagues, and other related people in the medical profession field. Ultimately, participating in UROP not only enhances my academic journey but also equips me with the skills necessary for success in my future career as a medical professional. 988 RANGE 48 Weight Regain Following Planned Weight Loss: A Qualitative Research Analysis of Influential Factors KATHERINE WALKER; TANYA HALLIDAY; SELENE TOBIN; VICTORIA MIRANDA; PATRICK GALYEAN; AND TATUM ANDERSON Faculty Mentor: Tanya Halliday Kinesiology, University of Utah) 989 (Health and OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ABSTRACT The prevalence of overweight and obesity has increased in recent decades and is casually related to multiple adverse health outcomes. One area that needs further investigation is weight regain that follows planned weight loss because less than one third of adults who intentionally lose weight are able to maintain 5% weight loss during the course of one year. The inability to maintain weight loss is a major setback to individuals aiming to lose weight. The purpose of this study was to gather information about the factors that influence weight regain following planned weight loss in an effort to create an individualized adaptive intervention plan based on patient feedback. METHODS: Adults (n=25; Age: 43.32 ± 20.76; BMI: 36.55 ± 9.63) who achieved a minimum of 7% body mass reduction in the two years prior to filling out the screening questionnaire and subsequently experienced weight regain completed assessment of anthropometrics (height and weight) and a structured qualitative interview. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim to allow for the coding of factors that affected weight loss maintenance. RESULTS: Participants specified that facilitators for weight loss maintenance were an intentional focus on diet and exercise and having a consistent routine, while 990 RANGE the barriers included life events, lack of time, mental health, and stress. Specific preferences for a weight loss maintenance program, included having an expert on nutritional information such as a dietitian involved in the program. Individuals also thought the use of a mobile application would be convenient way for the program to be delivered and desired a contact frequency individualized to their specific needs. The primary advantage of the adaptive intervention approach that was expressed was individualization and the main barriers were potential cost and time needed to participate. CONCLUSIONS: There are various barriers that individuals face in aiming to maintain weight loss including diet, intentional maintenance of a new routine, life stressors, and mental health. Individuals desire the delivery of a program from an educated individual who has experience helping others lose weight, such as a dietitian. An adaptive intervention approach could be a viable option for weight loss maintenance because of the individualization to the individual, though interviewees were skeptical of the results, cost, and time needed to participate in such a program. INTRODUCTION The prevalence of obesity and overweight has increased 991 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH globally over recent decades and doubled since 1980. In the United States nearly one third of adults are overweight and approximately two in every five adults have obesity or severe obesity.1 Obesity is a multifaceted disease that can begin in childhood and is associated with increased mortality, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, stroke, and cancer.2 Due to the variety of conditions that are comorbid with obesity and the associated increase in mortality, there is a vital need for effective strategies to combat obesity and enable individuals to both lose and maintain weight loss achieved to improve their overall health. The etiology of obesity is complex and impacted by various factors, including lifestyle and environment. One of the primary determinants of obesity is energy balance. Positive energy balance, higher energy intake than energy output, even small, over a long period of time can cause and perpetuate obesity. It’s been estimated that of the individuals in the United States who are obese, 50- 70% are trying to lose weight.3 Most of the efforts made to lose weight include altering diet and exercising habits in an effort to create a negative energy balance. However, these strategies are often not very effective long term due to the inability to maintain the intervention. 992 RANGE One potential treatment for obesity that promotes weight loss and has been shown to reduce comorbidities associated with obesity is bariatric surgery, though it is not without a risk of weight regain. Despite how effective this treatment can be, many individuals who would benefit from this surgery are not good candidates for surgery and any surgery, including this one, can have post- operational complications that may lead to further health issues.4 Another option is taking medication for weight loss, though this also doesn’t eliminate the risk of weight regain. Weight loss strategies that focus on altering lifestyle factors are often preferable over surgical or pharmaceutical interventions for individuals trying to lose weight because of their lower cost and less invasive nature. Though lifestyle interventions may be a favorable choice for losing weight for many, there are a variety of barriers that exist for losing weight through this method. Evidence indicates that there are multiple redundant metabolic mechanisms that exist to maintain body weight. These make it difficult for individuals to maintain weight loss because these mechanisms work against their efforts.5 One of these mechanisms is the decrease in resting energy expenditure (REE) that comes with weight loss.6 This decrease in REE persists after 993 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH weight loss due to the decreased energy needs to maintain the lower body weight. Lower REE may contribute to weight regain soon after weight loss by making maintaining a negative energy balance more difficult. Additional biological factors oppose long-term weight loss, including hedonic reward pathways in the brain that can overcome the homeostatic system and increase the desire to eat despite physiologic satiation in addition to the disruption of leptin responsiveness that may result from the intake of saturated fatty acids and subsequent hypothalamic inflammation.7 In addition to biological factors that work against weight loss, there are also many environmental and lifestyle factors that impact the ability of an individual to maintain weight loss long term. Some of the environmental factors include a built environment with limited opportunities for physical activity and active transport, sedentary leisure activities and jobs, pollutants that disrupt endocrine function and affect energy balance, and the prevalence of fast food and sugary beverages8. Lifestyle choices regarding frequency and type of physical activity in addition to diet directly impact the ability of an individual to maintain weight loss. It has been found in a meta-analysis9 that weight 994 RANGE regain often begins within 36 weeks after the conclusion of a weight loss intervention. Some factors in this metaanalysis were found to favor weight loss maintenance. These included the intervention type being a dietary intervention, either alone or with exercise; the duration of the intervention lasting 12 weeks, with no increased benefit from a longer intervention; the use of professionals, such as dietitians, in small groups; and counseling with a health professional at least once a month during the maintenance period. Studies have also indicated that some individuals with obesity don’t bring up their concerns about weight with their primary care providers (PCPs) which may be due to their skepticism about how effectively their doctor will be able management. 10 to help them with weight Individuals have also reported lower trust in their providers because of perceived PCP weight-related judgment.11 Individuals further noted being frustrated by receiving low-quality care and vague advice from their medical providers, in addition to expecting their providers to be better informed about treatment options.12 This indicates that there is a need for a better understanding of what patients expect and hope for in interventions that seek to promote their weight loss and long-term 995 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH weight loss maintenance. Understanding how individuals could be better supported in their ability to lose weight and maintain weight loss will enable the creation of better weight loss programs that help individuals have better results in not only their weight loss but their overall health. The purpose of this study is to gather information about facilitators and barriers for weight loss maintenance and preferred aspects of an adaptive intervention from individuals who have experienced clinically significant13 weight loss in the past two years and have a history of regaining weight. The goal is to conduct a qualitative interview with each participant to discuss their perspective and insights. Gathering this information will prove vital to having a basis for the creation of an adaptive intervention based on specific patient feedback. This will enable individuals to receive the support, resources, information, and coaching they need to be able to adequately maintain their weight loss and prevent weight regain. METHODS Study Design All procedures in this qualitative study were approved by the University of Utah Institutional Review Board. 996 RANGE Each participant provided written informed consent prior to any participation in study procedures. Participant Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria Participants were recruited either via an online screening form posted in Facebook and Instagram advertisements or by contact through email from the DSS list from their electronic health record. Inclusion criteria included all ethnic groups, males and females between the ages of 18-65 who had experienced at least a seven percent reduction in their body weight in the past two years, an initial BMI of 27 or higher, and experience with weight regain. Efforts were made to recruit participants from a variety of ethnic backgrounds to mimic the overall ethnic population makeup of the state of Utah. Exclusion criteria included weight loss resulting from childbirth, women who were pregnant, lactating, or less than 12 months postpartum, bariatric surgery in the past five years, and recent or ongoing treatment for a diagnosed eating disorder. Participants additionally had to be willing to travel to the laboratory space on the University of Utah campus for verification of their height and weight. 997 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Outcome Assessments Anthropometrics Prior to initiation of study procedures participants provided written informed consent. Following that, body weight (Tanita WB-800H Plus Digital Weight Scale) and height (Tanita WB- 800H Plus Height Rod) were measured in light clothing, without shoes by a trained research staff member, and BMI was calculated (kg/m2).14 Qualitative Interview Then, semi-structured interviews were conducted over a recorded video call (MS Teams) by trained qualitative research staff. Interviewers asked open-ended questions about how factors that contributed to weight regain. They were then asked about what went well in times when they were able to maintain weight loss. The remainder of the interview was focused on an adaptive intervention. The concept was explained and participants were asked specific questions about what would be advantageous about this strategy and what the drawbacks would be. They were asked about who they would want to deliver the program, preferred format, and preferred contact frequency during various aspects 998 RANGE of the program. Clarifying follow up questions were asked at the interviewer’s discretion to achieve clear responses from interviewees. Interviews were videorecorded and transcripts were created from each one for further analysis. Each participant was compensated with a $20 gift card for their participation in the study. Data Analysis Transcripts from each interview were the primary focus of analysis and each was uploaded into Atlas.ti for organization and coding. Two primary coders headed the project and met with two other coders who were involved in coding some of the interviews. These transcripts were read over multiple times by various researchers to ensure they were reliably understood and coders met regularly throughout the project to ensure all coding was consistent. Videos were available for reference in the case that there was any difficulty understanding the transcripts. An open-coding approach was used to develop codes based on themes raised by the interviewees. Coding outputs were evaluated and inconsistencies were discussed and resolved between researchers at regular meetings. Subcodes were created as more specific subtopics emerged throughout the interviews. A complete codebook was eventually developed and these codes and 999 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH subcodes were applied across all interviews. Consensus between all researchers and coders was reached on all codes. RESULTS Participant Characteristics A total of 232 individuals expressed interest in the study. Of the initial interest list, 38 qualified and responded to the research team, 26 attended the informed consent, and 25 attended the in-person interview visit. Thus, a total of 25 participants (56% female) completed the interview visit and were included in the trial. Participant characteristics are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Participant Characteristics Quantity of Participants (% Female) 25 (56) Age, years (mean, standard deviation) 46.1, 13.8 BMI, kg/m2 at time of interview (mean, standard deviation) 31.8, 6.1 Self-reported % weight loss (mean, standard deviation) 18.4, 0.07 % Caucasian, White 68 % Hispanic/Latino 20 % Other 12 1000 RANGE Themes Three primary themes emerged throughout the data analysis: factors influencing weight maintenance, needs and preferences in a weight maintenance program, and aspects of an adaptive intervention. Throughout these themes seven subthemes emerged as explored in following paragraphs. Theme 1: weight maintenance factors Interviewees explored various factors that influenced their ability to maintain weight loss and prevent weight regain. Their responses focused on both the factors that helped them maintain their weight loss and the influences that they noticed in times when they experienced weight regain. Subtheme 1.1: weight maintenance facilitators Interviewees described several facilitators in their efforts to maintain weight loss, with many mentioning that an intentional focus on diet and exercise was helpful. “But remaining vigilant about meal planning and eating, like, for me, eating three meals and exercising, those have been some of the things that have helped me to maintain weight.” (1:6 ¶ 19 in ID01) 1001 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH There was also a focus on finding ways to maintain motivation through a variety of sources. Some mentioned the importance of getting on the right medications to manage both weight loss and other conditions, such as mental health conditions. Participants also mentioned the importance of having a consistent routine to maintain habits. “I feel like the biggest thing is being more motivated and making sure that I don’t lose those habits. I think that’s also been another big thing that even if something does come up, I’m still doing something to try and keep that cycle and that rhythm going.” (11:8 ¶ 26 in ID12) Subtheme 1.2: weight maintenance barriers Participants expanded on barriers that impacted their ability to maintain weight loss and subsequently led to weight regain. Some of these factors were mental health, lack of time, and life events. “So I think the first thing that comes to my mind is just stress. … maybe there’s more on my plate and I’m not able to meal plan, or I’m not able to be as active, physically active.” (1:33 ¶ 7, in ID01)) “… I don’t know, life gets busy and then I just start eating, 1002 RANGE I’m pickin’ off my kids’ plate and whatever’s fast and easy. It was kinda hard to get back to exercising, all that, when working a lot too, so.” (9:3 ¶ 11 in ID10) Diet was an additional factor that participants associated with weight regain after weight loss. Interviewees mentioned trying a variety of diets that either didn’t work for them or weren’t sustainable. “[I] did a like very strict diet for several months, got to my goal weight, and then gained it all back after that. And I think it was because, for me it was just what I was doing was not sustainable for just like timewise, restricting-wise, and being able to keep up with that on a long-term basis was just kinda, it was easier just kinda go back to my old ways.” (9:44 ¶ 5 – 7 in ID10) Theme 2: needs and preferences in a weight maintenance program In response to inquiries about preferences for a program to assist in weight maintenance, participants mentioned several possible program components and how they would prefer that these would function. Subtheme 2.1: program experts Participants mentioned the value of having experts that are part of the program to help them stay accountable 1003 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and have accurate information and guidance that can help them navigate weight loss maintenance. “Well, I think, like you said, so actually having someone who is knowledgeable about weight loss or maintaining weight loss, ‘cause we’re talking about maintaining it, having someone there to guide you a little bit.” (20:19 ¶ 46 – 50 in ID21) They also mentioned the benefit of having someone who could give them personalized, specific information that could provide support. “Having someone to support me while I’m on the diet or the dieting program. So having like a personal counselor or a personal dietitian I think would be fantastic.” (24:12 ¶ 102 in ID25) Subtheme 2.2: tools Interviewees mentioned various methods and tools for actually delivering a weight loss maintenance program. Some mentioned apps and emphasized the benefit of meal guidance resources such as meal planning resources, dietary tips, and food logs. “I think apps certainly help. Recipes for meal planning would be something that could help. Just the basics on recommended dietary intakes for a certain person, for a 1004 RANGE male, for a female, that sort of thing. Or like how much fiber should a person consume in a day, you know those, some of those basic nutritional tidbits that are really important.” (1:16 ¶ 40 in ID01) They also mentioned the benefit of exercise plans and tips for helping individuals who haven’t been to a gym much in the past. Several individuals also emphasized the importance of a low-cost option for apps or other tools used by the program. Subtheme 2.3: communication frequency and methodology Participants mentioned various time intervals at which they would be preferred to be contacted depending on how at risk they considered themselves for weight regain. In the short-term when low risk for weight regain, some mentioned that weekly, biweekly, or monthly check-ins would be helpful, with others desiring more frequent check-ins. For long term low risk, individuals mentioned monthly, quarterly, or even yearly check-in, with the hope that they could customize their check-in frequency. 1005 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH “And maybe having a weekly check-in, being like, hey, are things going this week? Do you feel like you’re on track? Has anything come up” (11:26 ¶ 70 in ID12) “…maybe in the short term, weekly or even more frequently if necessary.” (14:17 ¶ 60 – 61 in ID15) “I guess once a month until I had established that it was under control and then once a quarter.” (16:17 ¶ 57 in ID17) “During times when things are going well in the short-term, maybe two to three times a week, just to check in on my diet. Just to check in on my exercising.” (24:20 ¶ 138 in ID25) For times when they would consider themselves at risk of regaining weight, individuals mentioned various check-in intervals, varying from daily to monthly. “Probably at least weekly I would think. But it’s like I’m always at risk of regain, always. I mean there’s not a day that goes by that I don’t think about it so it’s always there, so maybe every day.” (14:15 ¶ 57 in ID15) The method of preferred check-ins varied, but most individuals said they’d prefer a text because of the convenience but a phone or video call could add a nice personal touch. “I would maybe start out with the text and say, hey, are you 1006 RANGE maybe willing to have a Zoom call or can we touch base in any way? I think if you ask the person how they’d like to be contacted by a text or in an email, then go from there.” (8:21 ¶ 128 in ID08_31) “Yeah, I would say texting is just the easiest. But I can do email. Personally, I have social anxiety, so if I get random phone calls, I’m not a huge fan of that.” (2:22 ¶ 49 in ID02) Theme 3: adaptive intervention In each interview, the concept of an adaptive intervention was introduced to participants as follows: ‘Adaptive interventions use information about a person to decide when and how to intervene. In the context of weight regain prevention it would be designed to provide personalized support or coaching at the times when a participant is most likely to need it rather than being a set, ‘same for everyone’ program. The idea is that this more tailored approach will be more effective at preventing weight regain.’ Participants were then asked about their initial impressions and the potential advantages and disadvantages that they anticipated with an adaptive intervention. 1007 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Subtheme 3.1: advantages Many of the potential advantages mentioned by interviewees related to the customization of the program to an individual and their specific needs, the adaptation of the program to meet their changing lifestyle, and the accountability of having an intervention program that would keep them accountable. “The advantages I would see in that particular type of program would be the customization to my lifestyle. I feel that it would support me when I needed it, and then I would learn techniques to maintain my weight.” (24:9 ¶ 86 in ID25) Some also acknowledged the benefit of having a program run by experts with a thorough knowledge of the research relating to weight loss. “I definitely see advantage of that because you guys with the research and background could maybe guide me a little better than I can myself.” ( 20:14 ¶ 29 in ID21) Subtheme 3.2: disadvantages Interviewees also identified disadvantages to an adaptive intervention program that include the 1008 RANGE need to input information, track calories and other habits, and take time to meet regularly with the people running the program in addition to the potential financial burden of participating in a program like this. “It might be difficult to meet with someone on a regular basis. Recording, recording behaviors and recording food intake, and exercise and that, can also be a challenge.” (17:17 ¶ 79 in ID18) Individuals also expressed skepticism about an adaptive intervention because many of them have tried so many strategies to maintain weight loss and still struggled to find success. Many were skeptical that this approach would make much of a difference. “I don’t know. Maybe. The only thing I can think of is, here’s another opportunity to fail. And so if I’m trying this and it still doesn’t work for me, this is another opportunity to be unsuccessful. So I don’t know, I don’t know if I’d even wanna try.” (14:28 ¶ 29, in ID15) Participants also explained that unless the individual is self-motivated to actively participate in the program, there would likely be limited success. “I think the only reason that would keep myself or anyone 1009 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH from not getting help from the program is just not taking the initiative on their own, ‘cause like—it sounds like the intervention or the people are there that want to help, but ultimately it comes down to you, yourself need to want to like, engage.” (6:15 ¶ 45 – 47 in ID06) DISCUSSION The goal of this qualitative study is to better understand factors that impact weight loss maintenance and use patient feedback to develop an adaptive intervention to help with weight loss maintenance. From these interviews, insights were gathered about facilitators and barriers to weight loss, types of program experts, tools, and communication frequency that individuals would prefer for a program, and the advantages and drawbacks of an adaptive intervention approach. Participants explained that some of the major barriers to weight loss maintenance included the time involved, the need for constant vigilance in diet and exercise, life events and stress, and mental health. Facilitators for weight loss maintenance were intentionality with diet and exercise, motivation, and routine. In regards to the types of experts they’d hope would deliver a program, they mentioned people who are well educated on nutrition and weight loss and could give them individualized information, such as a dietitian. Helpful tools for a 1010 RANGE program that were mentioned included apps with nutrition information, meal planning resources, food and exercise logs, and exercise plans. Various check-in frequencies were suggested for both those at risk of regaining and those not at risk, but the consensus was that individuals should be able to select their preferred check-in frequency to individualize the program. Most preferred check-in via text message, email, or phone/video call. Interviewees additionally acknowledged the benefit of having a program tailored to their needs that would provide credible education resources and allow for informed professionals to aid in their weight loss maintenance. They were skeptical of the potential success of a program in addition to the cost and time involvement, especially since many participants emphasized that they have tried using so many other programs and resources in the past with varying success. Though various facilitators and barriers arose in the interviews as participants discussed their own experience with weight loss and weight regain, one that stood out was the influence of motivation. When focusing on factors that helped them lose weight, many discussed that they changed their eating and exercising habits, but after a while they loosened up a bit, weren’t as 1011 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH disciplined, or due to life events and stressors, they reverted to old habits. This indicates that the maintained motivation to lose weight and maintain that weight loss is an important part of the weight loss maintenance process. This finding aligns with previous literature that indicates that motivation is a key factor that facilitates weight loss, and waning motivation or focus can be a major barrier to weight loss maintenance15. Though individuals may regain some weight back, if they have motivation to keep trying, this may have a positive impact on their ability to maintain weight loss. It has been indicated that a motivation-focused weight loss maintenance approach has comparable results to a skillbased approach over an eighteen-month period16. Perhaps additional study can be done to investigate the effect of using motivational interviewing and other motivation-based techniques to specifically improve weight loss maintenance. The incorporation of motivation-focused resources could be incorporated into an adaptive intervention developed to aid in weight loss maintenance. Another factor that may aid in the amount of weight loss and weight loss maintenance is the incorporation of experts into a weight loss maintenance program. Various interviewees mentioned the benefit of having 1012 RANGE experts that administer the program or take part in its delivery to individuals attempting to maintain weight loss. Participants brought up various types of experts, with several indicating that they would like the incorporation of a registered dietitian (RD) into the program. Much of their responses to questions about barriers and facilitators of weight loss maintenance specifically related to diet. It has been indicated that the incorporation of RDs into weight loss programs is significantly associated with weight loss in participants, regardless of the amount of time the RD has in the role17. A key part of the involvement of RDs into weight loss programs is the individualized consultations that they provide for individuals. A meta-analysis conducted in 2019 indicated that RDs have a small but significant impact on the amount of weight individuals lose in their weight loss attempts18. An additional systematic review and meta-analysis19 indicated that weight loss interventions specifically among those with overweight and obesity that included at least five meetings with an RD had a larger effect size than controls, compared to those with four or fewer meetings. This indicates the importance of repeated meetings with a dietitian throughout an intervention program. 1013 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Additional research should be done in regards to the direct impact of RDs on long term weight loss maintenance. The incorporation of RDs and individualized patient consultations in an adaptive intervention weight loss maintenance program would be beneficial based on this evidence and patient feedback gathered in our interviews. Throughout their interviews, participants discussed various advantages of an adaptive intervention approach to a weight loss maintenance program in addition to expressing skepticism and concerns for the cost of such a program. The overall consensus among participants was that the adaptive intervention approach was a good idea and they’d like to take part in such a program, assuming that it could aid in their weight loss. It has been shown that the use of an adaptive intervention approach has a significant impact on the ability of individuals to maintain long term weight loss maintenance when compared to other weight loss programs that contact participants on a static once-per-month schedule20. The ability of an adaptive intervention to base an algorithm for reaching out to participants on the data they input themselves about how they are doing is a key factor that enables participants to get additional intervention in times 1014 RANGE when they are at a high risk for regaining weight. The use of this adaptive intervention approach should be further studied as a method for maintaining weight loss in the long term. Strengths and Limitations The strengths of this study include the in-depth and thorough interviewing of a variety of participants for their feedback and insights. This is one of the first qualitive studies to specifically present participants with the idea of an adaptive intervention plan and ask for their thoughts, which is a strength. The use of multiple independent coders who came to a consensus on all codes is also an important advantage in this study. However, this study is not without limitations. It should be understood that there may be some convenience sampling bias and response bias because participants filled out the screening form on their own from advertisements or emails. There was no randomization of participants interviewed from those who qualified; interviews were scheduled first with participants that were responsive and available. It should be noted that although height and weight for each participant were verified at the interview visits, there is no way to verify that participants truly lost 1015 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH or regained the amount of weight that they reported. Due to the nature of the qualitative study design, there may have been errors in understanding participant’s responses from the transcript of their interviews, especially because English is not the first language of all participants. CONCLUSIONS Obesity continues to be a prevalent and challenging health issue that affects much of the population. Though many individuals make efforts to lose weight, most eventually regain some or all of the weight they lose in these attempts. Individuals who have experienced weight regain have valuable insights into the unique barriers and facilitators for weight loss maintenance that should be taken into consideration by those developing weight loss maintenance intervention programs. An adaptive intervention approach could be an influential tool for promoting weight loss in a variety of individuals due to the adaptive nature, potential for individualization, use of program experts, and variety of delivery methods. The incorporation of the feedback of individuals who have experienced weight regain is a vital asset to the development of any weight loss intervention program. 1016 RANGE REFERENCES 1. Hales CM, Carroll MD, Fryar CD, Ogden CL. Prevalence of Obesity and Severe obesity Among Adults: United States, 2017–2018. NCHS Data Brief, no 360. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2020. 2. Kinlen D, Cody D, O’Shea D. Complications of Obesity. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine. 2018;111(7):437-443. doi:10.1093/ qjmed/hcx152 3. Blomain ES, Dirhan DA, Valentino MA, Kim GW, Waldman SA. Mechanisms of Weight Regain Following Weight Loss. ISRN Obesity. 2013;2013:1-7. doi:10.1155/2013/ 210524 4. Hachem C. Continuing Medical Education Questions: November 2017: Complications of Bariatric Surgery: What You Can Expect to See in Your GI Practice. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 2017;112(11):1656. doi:10.1038/ajg.2017.412 5. MacLean PS, Bergouignan A, Cornier MA, Jackman MR. Biology’s Response to Dieting: The Impetus for Weight Regain. American 1017 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 2011;301(3):R581-R600. doi:10.1152/ ajpregu.00755.2010 6. Schwartz A, Doucet É. Relative Changes in Resting Energy Expenditure During Weight Loss: a Systematic Review. Obesity Reviews. 2010;11(7):531-547. doi:10.1111/ j.1467-789X.2009.00654.x 7. Greenway FL. Physiological Adaptations to Weight Loss and Factors Favouring Weight Regain. Int J Obes. 2015;39(8):1188-1196. doi:10.1038/ijo.2015.59 8. Nicolaidis S. Environment and Obesity. Metabolism. 2019;100:153942. doi:10.1016/ j.metabol.2019.07.006 9. Machado AM, Guimarães NS, Bocardi VB, et al. Understanding Weight Regain After a Nutritional Weight Loss Intervention: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Clinical Nutrition ESPEN. 2022;49:138-153. doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2022.03.020 10. Ruelaz AR, Diefenbach P, Simon B, Lanto A, Arterburn D, Shekelle PG. Perceived Narriers 1018 RANGE to Weight Management in Primary Care—Perspectives of Patients and Providers. J GEN INTERN MED. 2007;22(4):518-522. doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0125-4 11. Gudzune KA, Bennett WL, Cooper LA, Bleich SN. Patients Who Feel Judged About Their Weight Have Lower Trust in Their Primary Care Providers. Patient Education and Counseling. 2014;97(1):128-131. doi:10.1016/ j.pec.2014.06.019 12. Bailey-Davis L, Pinto AM, Hanna DJ, et al. Qualitative Inquiry With Persons With Obesity About Weight Management in Primary Care and Referrals. Frontiers in Public Health. 2023;11:1190443. doi:10.3389/ fpubh.2023.1190443 13. Williamson DA, Bray GA, Ryan DH. Is 5% Weight Loss a Satisfactory Criterion to Define Clinically Significant Weight Loss? Obesity. 2015;23(12):2319-2320. doi:10.1002/ oby.21358 14. Calculate your bmi – standard bmi calculator. Accessed December 2, 2024. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/ 1019 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH educational/lose_wt/BMI/bmicalc.htm 15. Metzgar CJ, Preston AG, Miller DL, Nickols‐Richardson SM. Facilitators and Barriers to Weight Loss and Weight Loss Maintenance: a Qualitative Exploration. J Human Nutrition Diet. 2015;28(6):593-603. doi:10.1111/jhn.12273 16. West DS, Gorin AA, Subak LL, et al. A Motivation-focused Weight Loss Maintenance Program is an Effective Alternative to a Skill-based Approach. Int J Obes. 2011;35(2):259-269. doi:10.1038/ ijo.2010.138 17. Imanaka M, Ando M, Kitamura T, Kawamura T. Impact of Registered Dietitian Expertise in Health Guidance for Weight Loss. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(3):e0151456. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0151456 18. Williams LT, Barnes K, Ball L, Ross LJ, Sladdin I, Mitchell LJ. How Effective Are Dietitians in Weight Management? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Healthcare. 2019;7(1):20. doi:10.3390/healthcare7010020 1020 RANGE 19. Morgan-Bathke M, Baxter SD, Halliday TM, et al. Weight Management Interventions Provided by a Dietitian for Adults With Overweight or Obesity: an Evidence Analysis Center Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2023;123(11):1621-1661.e25. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2022.03.014 20. Ross KM, Shankar MN, Qiu P, et al. Design of Project STAR: A Randomized Controlled Trial Evaluating the Impact of an Adaptive Intervention on Long-Term Weight-loss Maintenance. Contemporary Clinical Trials. 2024;146:107707. doi:10.1016/ j.cct.2024.107707 1021 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 1022 RANGE 49 Atrapadxs en un Hoyo: Reproductive Justice and Environmental Health of Latina Mothers and Children in Salt Lake City Utah JASMINE AGUILAR LOPEZ AND LEANDRA HERNÁNDEZ Faculty Mentor: Leandra Hernández (Communication, University of Utah) 1023 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH A Senior Honors Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of The University of Utah In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Honors Degree in Bachelor of Science ABSTRACT This paper investigated Latina mothers’ perspectives of environmental health and reproductive justice, focusing on their understanding of their children’s health and well- being in Salt Lake County, Utah. The Great Salt Lake is a highly saline drying lake in Northern Utah and has become a large source of human-caused dust pollution. In addition to that, other factors such as refineries, seasonal inversions, redlining, and mining have exacerbated this pollution. Residents of Salt Lake City are experiencing adverse health effects due to their proximity to the lake and lack of information on how these impact nearby communities. During Fall 2024 and early 2025, I conducted a mixed-methods study which consisted of 51 completed surveys and 4 semistructured interviews with women who live in near proximity of the lake and are mothers. The 1024 RANGE survey and interviews were conducted in Spanish. Participants reported perceiving their health as generally good; however, they acknowledged concerns about the drying Great Salt Lake and other environmental factors affecting their well-being. This study highlights a critical gap in environmental public health awareness among Latina mothers, emphasizing the urgent need for targeted outreach and policy interventions to address their concerns. INTRODUCTION Asthma is one of the most common chronic conditions among children in the United States. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), approximately 5.5 million children under the age of 18 currently have asthma (CDC, 2022). In 2022, Utah reported that 10.9% of adults and 7.2% of children were living with asthma (Utah Department of Health, 2022). Rates are disproportionately higher among children of racial and ethnic minorities, who are more likely to live in low-income neighborhoods located 1025 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH near highways, refineries, and industrial zones (Clark-Reyna et al., 2020). In these environments, exposure to air pollution and other environmental hazards significantly reduces quality of life, especially when compared to their white, middle-class counterparts (Morello-Frosch et al., 2011). On the West Side of Salt Lake City, these disparities are stark. The area is home to a large Latinx population and has long experienced the effects of environmental racism, including proximity to polluting industries and limited access to green space and healthcare infrastructure (Wasatch Front Regional Council, 2021; Casey et al., 2017). Latina women—often mothers and caretakers—navigate a complex landscape where environmental health, reproductive justice, and family well-being intersect. This research is deeply personal and rooted in my own family’s experience. It began with my mother’s frantic search for a new place to live. As a Latina woman, she encountered barriers that many in our community face when attempting to escape environmental hazards: limited housing options, discrimination, and economic constraints. Despite her best efforts, finding a safe and affordable home that was free from the harmful 1026 RANGE effects of air pollution and industrial proximity seemed nearly impossible. My mother, like many in our community, could feel the toll of living in an area heavily impacted by pollution. She often remarked that she could literally feel the smoke in her lungs, and this constant exposure made her worry about its long-term effects. She questioned whether the air quality had already impacted her health and the health of her children. Her concerns mirrored those of many Latina mothers in neighborhoods on the West Side of Salt Lake City, where pollution levels are high, and access to clean air is limited. This personal experience served as a catalyst for exploring how environmental and reproductive justice intersect in communities like ours, and how these issues impact the health and well-being of Latina women and their families. Environmental justice refers to the fair treatment of all people regardless of race, income, or nationality in the creation and enforcement of environmental laws (U.S. EPA, 2023). Reproductive justice, a framework 1027 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH developed by women of color, expands beyond access to reproductive healthcare to include the right to have children, not have children, and to parent children in safe and healthy environments (SisterSong, 2021; Ross, 2017). This study sits at the intersection of both frameworks. This thesis explores how Latina women with children living on Salt Lake City’s West Side perceive environmental and reproductive justice as it relates to their health and well-being. Using a mixed-methods approach that integrates community-based interviews with public health and spatial data, the project aims to center the lived experiences of Latina mothers while contributing to broader conversations around justice, equity, and public health policy.’ LITERATURE REVIEW In this literature review, I will explore the intersection of reproductive justice and environmental justice, specifically focusing on how environmental factors, such as air quality and geographic disparities, influence maternal and child health. I will begin by examining the 1028 RANGE concept of reproductive justice, particularly in the context of marginalized communities, before diving into the environmental hazards that disproportionately affect these populations. By connecting these two concepts, the review aims to highlight the systemic inequities that impact both the reproductive rights and overall well-being of racial and ethnic minority groups, with a particular focus on the challenges faced by mothers and children in these vulnerable communities. Reproductive Justice For this study, I define reproductive justice as “the state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters relating to the reproductive system and its functions and processes” (Onwuachi-Saunders et al., 2019). Additionally, I incorporate the perspective of In Our Own Voice: National Black Women’s Reproductive Agenda, which frames reproductive justice around three core pillars: 1. The right to have children. 1029 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2. The right not to have children. 3. The right to nurture the children we have in safe and healthy environments. This research focuses specifically on the third pillar, as it aligns with the concerns of mothers who witness the declining health of their children and themselves due to the social determinants of health (SDoH) they face. The pressing issues is asthma, one of the most common chronic conditions among children in the U.S., is a key example of these health declines. In 2022, the state of Utah estimated that 10.9% of adults and 7.2% of children are suffering from asthma, with these rates being significantly higher among children from racial/ ethnic minority groups. These children often live in poor neighborhoods near busy highways and industrial zones, which expose them to higher levels of environmental pollutants. When comparing these children to their white, middle-class counterparts, they experience a lower quality of life due to their increased exposure to environmental hazards, particularly in areas with compromised air quality (CDC, 2022; Morello-Frosch et al., 2011). 1030 RANGE Environmental Justice The concept of Environmental Justice, introduced by Robert Bullard in 1993, is defined as the basic human right to live, work, play, go to school, and worship in a clean and healthy environment. The United States Environmental Protection Agency expands on this, emphasizing the just treatment and meaningful involvement of all people in decision-making processes, regardless of income, race, color, national origin, Tribal affiliation, or disability (U.S. EPA, 2023). This literature review focuses on the intersection of environmental justice with geographical locations, air quality concerns, and the awareness of environmental risks, especially as they relate to children’s health in marginalized communities. Geographical Disparities Numerous studies highlight the close relationship between racial/ethnic minority children and low-income families residing in neighborhoods near industrial zones and busy highways (Grineski, 2021). The spatial 1031 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH distribution of health hazards often burdens Hispanic and African American populations with the greatest cumulative environmental exposures (Crowder & Downey, 2010). Utah mirrors this pattern, as studies show that the presence of the Mormon church has historically directed minority groups, including Latinx folk who live on the West Side of Salt Lake City, an area with higher levels of pollution and proximity to industrial sites (Faber, 2020). This geographic concentration exacerbates the challenges these communities face in maintaining their health. Air Quality Children in areas close to industrial zones, freeways, and other pollution sources are at an elevated risk of exposure to particulate matter, which can infiltrate the lungs and contribute to respiratory illnesses such as asthma. A study conducted in the Salton Sea region of California illustrates how dust storms from industrial sites increase the likelihood of respiratory crises in nearby communities (Johnston et al., 2019). Similarly, communities on the West Side of Salt 1032 RANGE Lake City, particularly those in proximity to the Great Salt Lake, experience poor air quality due to both local industrial emissions and environmental phenomena such as inversions, which trap pollutants in the valley for extended periods, further compromising air quality (Beard et al., 2012). The elevated levels of particulate matter (PM2.5) in these communities significantly contribute to respiratory health issues among children, further reinforcing the disparities in health outcomes (Lee et al., 2024). Awareness of Environmental Risks to Children’s Health Latina mothers often demonstrate a heightened awareness of environmental risks and their potential impacts on their children’s health. Studies have found that Latina mothers exhibit concern about the visible effects of pollution, with many proactively engaging in risk mitigation measures such as washing fruits and vegetables to reduce pesticide exposure and reducing tobacco smoke exposure in their homes (Evans, 2002). Despite these efforts, a sense of powerlessness persists among some 1033 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH mothers, stemming from the lack of autonomy they feel in controlling their exposure to environmental risks. This feeling of helplessness is especially poignant in communities like the West Side of Salt Lake City, where environmental hazards are difficult to avoid, and access to resources that might mitigate these risks is often limited (Kamai, 2023). Understanding these challenges is essential for addressing the needs of Latina mothers and designing interventions that both support their proactive efforts and address the systemic barriers they face in managing environmental health risks. History of the West-Side The geography of Salt Lake City was built upon environmental racism. After the Great Depression, the U.S. federal government introduced mortgage lending guidelines as part of the New Deal to stabilize housing markets across the country. Developed by the federal Homeowners Loan Corporation (HOLC), these guidelines took the form of redlining maps that categorized city districts based on factors such 1034 RANGE as proximity to industrial areas, housing conditions, average income, and racial demographics to assess the risk of mortgage defaults in various neighborhoods (Faber, 2020) including Salt Lake City. This created a redlining map which designated areas with higher concentrations of pollution with residents of color who lived near industrial sites and were tied to the railroad industry, as “Hazardous” or “Definitely Declining.” On the contrary, predominantly white neighborhoods farther from industrial zones were labeled as “Still Desirable” or “Best.” (Table 1). Through these solidified city plans, it restricted Black and Latinx residents to own/rent properties in areas of town with more pollution. Figure 1 – Home Owners Loan Corporation Redlining Map 1938 1035 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH From 1860-1950, Salt Lake City was 99% white but since then has had a growing population of people than just the white alone. Utah’s first historic Latine communities comprised of Mexican immigrants that came due to the expansion of the railroads (Mayer et al., 1973) thus becoming a crucial part of Utah’s economy via work on railroads, mines, livestock, and agriculture. Due to the Latine population’s jobs being in areas around Pioneer Park and on the West Side of Salt Lake City in the 1930s, redlining continued perpetuate neighborhood divide. Today, 1036 Latine-identifying RANGE individuals make up 20.8% of Salt Lake City’s population, making them the second-largest demographic group after white residents, who account for 70.5% (U.S. Census Bureau, 2023). Latine communities remain predominantly concentrated on the west side of the city, with Interstate-15 serving as a dividing line between Latine and white populations. Inversion and Air Quality In December 2024, Salt Lake City experienced an unusual inversion, a weather phenomenon that has significant implications for air quality and public health. Inversions occur during winter when a layer of cold air, along with trapped pollution, becomes confined beneath a warmer air layer that acts as a lid, effectively reversing typical atmospheric conditions (Utah Department of Environmental Quality, 2024). These Utah inversions are often triggered by snowstorms, as the colder air settles near the surface. Geographic features, such as Salt Lake City’s Wasatch Mountain Range, can amplify the severity of inversions by shielding the valley from wind that might otherwise disperse pollutants. 1037 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Inversions play a significant role in air quality along the Wasatch Front. The combination of current pollution levels, vehicle emissions, industrial pollutants, and other local sources contributes to the trapping of pollutants, which significantly increases PM2.5 concentrations. These inversions can persist for days and often occur multiple times during the winter season, leading to prolonged exposure to poor air quality (Beard et al., 2012). A study conducted in Oman found that the frequency and intensity of inversions were associated with an increase in daily emergency hospital visits for four conditions (Abdul-Wahab, 2005). Additionally, Wallace et al. (2010) studied 674 people with asthma in Hamilton, Ontario, comparing their health on inversion days versus non- inversion days. They found that, during inversion days, there was a significant increase in certain immune cells in patients’ sputum, which indicates airway inflammation. Specifically, neutrophil and macrophage counts were higher on inversion days, but the study did not find a direct link between this inflammation and specific pollutants. Such events are more than weather phenomena; they are public health crises. Families living in historically neglected areas suffer the worst impacts, illustrating once again how environmental degradation and reproductive justice are deeply entwined. 1038 RANGE Terminal Lakes On the west side of Salt Lake City lies the Great Salt Lake (GSL), a terminal lake. Terminal lakes, also known as inland seas or saline lakes, are fed by rivers but lack outlets. As of 2023, the GSL has lost 73% of its water volume and 60% of its surface area (Abbott et al., 2023). This depletion is primarily driven by water diversions for agricultural, industrial, and municipal uses, as well as the needs of local ecosystems, such as bird species dependent on brine shrimp found in the lake. Additionally, reduced streamflow and climate change have exacerbated its decline (Wurtsbaugh et al., 2020). If water levels do not recover, long-term projections suggest significant adverse effects on the lake’s ecosystem and regional climate (Cohen, 2014). As the GSL continues to shrink, it is becoming a major source of dust emissions, contributing to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution and posing health risks to surrounding communities. For instance, at California’s Salton Sea, a one-foot drop in water levels resulted in a 2.6% increase in PM2.5 levels in nearby areas (Jones and Fleck, 2020). Wind-driven dust storms from the drying Salton Sea have already led to significant air quality deterioration in adjacent communities (Johnston et al., 2019). A similar pattern could unfold with the continued 1039 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH desiccation of the GSL. PM2.5 is a major environmental health hazard, as it is the leading environmental cause of mortality worldwide and is responsible for premature deaths in the United States. The literature reviewed thus far illustrates the complex interplay between reproductive justice, environmental justice particularly marginalized in and communities. From the historical legacy of redlining and its long-term effects on community health, to the contemporary environmental hazards posed by air quality, inversions, and the degradation of terminal lakes, the evidence points to the profound health risks faced by racial and ethnic minority populations, particularly children. As these factors directly influence reproductive health and maternal well-being, the need for systemic interventions becomes clear. This review also underscores the critical role of community awareness and agency in mitigating these risks, particularly among Latina mothers who take proactive steps to protect their children. However, the barriers to fully addressing environmental injustices are evident, 1040 RANGE as many of these mothers experience a sense of powerlessness in controlling their exposure to harmful environmental factors. In the following section, I will describe the methods employed in this study to further explore these issues. Through a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches, the study aims to assess the real- world impact of environmental health risks this population. METHODS The complete study was carried out from November 2024 to February 2025. Prior to the start of the research, I obtained human subjects approval from the University of Utah Institutional Review Board. All participants were provided with electronic consent forms prior to the start of the data collection. During the interviews, participants were reminded about their rights to withdraw, and the electronic consent form was brought up once again. Participant Recruitment To recruit participants for this study, I employed convenience combination (non-randomized) with snowball 1041 sampling sampling. in Snowball OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH sampling proved especially effective, as it allowed me to distribute a Qualtrics survey through my personal social media platforms, including Instagram and Facebook. The survey was initially launched in mid-November and remained open through late January. However, this first round of data collection was compromised by false responses and the presence of bot activity, rendering the data unusable. Consequently, the survey was reopened in early February, and data collection concluded by mid-February, once enough valid responses had been obtained. To broaden its reach, the survey was shared in multiple Facebook community groups, such as Mexicanas en Utah & Amigas, *Mexicanas Viviendo En Utah VIP, and Mamas Latinas en Utah!. It was also posted in additional local groups using keywords like “Latina,” “Mamas/ Mothers,” and specific city names associated with the West Side of Salt Lake City. This strategy created a true snowball effect, allowing the survey to be widely circulated and enhancing participant recruitment. At the end of the survey, respondents were given the opportunity to volunteer for a followup interview. To be eligible for the study, participants had to meet the following criteria: 1042 RANGE (1) identify as Latina (defined as a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race); (2) be 18 years of age or older; (3) be currently pregnant or have children living in the home; and (4) reside on the West Side of Salt Lake City. Qualitative and Sociodemographic Survey Data Collection Between January 2025 and February 2025, I conducted 4 interviews, all which were conducted in Spanish. I followed recommendations for obtaining data saturation for interviews. A semi-structured interview guide was used for the interviews. These interviews were conducted via Teams video conferencing; however, if the participants were not able to access Teams, they could opt to participate in the research via voice messages on Facebook’s Messenger. Interviews approximately lasted 30-60 minutes each. All these were audio recorded and then transcribed. Participants were selected from the Qualtrics survey based on their expressed interest in an 1043 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH interview. They completed a brief sociodemographic survey during both the survey and interview process to confirm eligibility. Participants received a $10 gift card in appreciation of their time and sharing their experiences. Data Analysis The textual data from the interviews were analyzed as one dataset. A rapid analytic approach using summary templates was used to analyze the textual data. I would read each transcript line by line and interpret this as qualitative data. A matrix was then created where I further condensed and simplified the data from each template into a matrix. This approach allowed for me to organize the textual data and compare the content across other interviewees. Below I will describe the themes that evolved from the analysis. RESULTS Participant Characteristics A total of 51 Latina Mothers participated in the 1044 RANGE Qualtrics survey section of the study. All mothers had to had lived on the West-side of Salt Lake City for at least a year. As indicated in Table 1, most of the mothers were from Mexico or other countries including United States of America, Venezuela, El Salvador, Dominican Republic, Bolivia, and Honduras. The participants’ ages ranged from the youngest being 21, the oldest being 67, and the mean age for this population is 42.7. The average amount of children these women was 2.37 kids with the low being 1 kid and the high being 5 kids. Table 1. Characteristics of Mothers and their children living along the Salt Lake Valley (N = 51) 1045 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH In the quantitative section of the Qualtrics survey (Table 2), participants generally described their children’s health as good. When asked, ‘How would you describe the overall health of your child(ren)?’ 43% of respondents rated it as very good, 41% as good, 6% as neither good nor bad, 8% as bad, and 2% were unsure. 1046 RANGE Regarding daily transportation habits, 42 out of 51 women reported needing to use their cars daily, while 8 said they used them most days. When asked, ‘What conditions impact the lives of your child(ren)?’ most participants reported none. However, 7 women mentioned asthma, 4 cited diabetes, 2 noted obesity and bronchitis, and 1 reported allergy, hyperthyroidism, cancer, mental health issues, migraines, and depression. Despite these generally positive health assessments, perceptions of pollution levels were concerning. When asked, ‘How high is the pollution rate in your community?’ 14% rated it very high, 45% somewhat high, 24% neither high nor low, 16% somewhat low, and 2% very low. Additionally, when asked whether pollution impacts their daily lives, 47% responded ‘definitely yes,’ 29% said ‘probably yes,’ 2% said ‘maybe,’ 8% said ‘probably not,’ and 14% answered ‘definitely not.’ While participants reported relatively good health outcomes for their children, their perceptions of pollution remained high, with many acknowledging its significant impact on their daily lives. Table 2. Qualtrics Questions Qualtrics Questions Personal vehicle usage 1047 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH UNDERSTANDING OF THE INTERSECTION BETWEEN HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT When it came to asking about, “On a scale from 1 – 5 (1 being not so much and 5 being very much) how well do you understand the intersection between the 1048 RANGE environment and your health?” the mean answer was 3.76 out of 5. Ways in Which Pollution Impacts Their Everyday Lives The Qualtrics study reveals the significant impact of pollution on various aspects of daily life in the Salt Lake Valley. To gain deeper insight, participants were encouraged to share their experiences and perceptions of how pollution affects their everyday lives. In response to the question, “How or in what way does pollution impact your everyday life (e.g., health issues, nearby factories affecting the scenery)?”, several recurring themes emerged, including limitations on outdoor physical activity, personal health concerns, and broader environmental issues, as outlined in Table 3. Table 3. Perceived Impact of Pollution on Daily Life in the Salt Lake Valley (Qualtrics Study) 1049 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 1050 RANGE 1051 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Outdoor Physical Activity Many participants expressed that air pollution restricts their ability to engage in outdoor activities such as running, walking, and exercising. As one respondent noted, “We like to run outside but out of the 7 days in the week, we are only able to run 4 or 5. When there is poor quality air, we don’t go out.” Other participants echoed similar frustrations, mentioning that poor air quality prevents them from walking their pets or 1052 RANGE enjoying outdoor recreation. These responses illustrate how pollution directly impacts daily routines and physical well-being. Personal Health and Respiratory Issues Concerns about pollution’s impact on health emerged as a dominant theme. Many participants described experiencing respiratory issues, with statements such as “Factory smoke affects our breathing” and “We inhale this pollution indirectly every day and in the long run there may be more consequences on our health.” Symptoms such as coughing, allergies, itchy throat, and increased asthma occurrences were frequently reported, reinforcing existing research that links air pollution to long-term health consequences. Some participants also expressed concerns about the cumulative effects of pollution, suggesting that while the impact may not always be immediately noticeable, it could have serious implications over time. Allergies and Increased Sensitivities Another common theme was the connection between pollution and allergies. Several participants noted that 1053 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH they had developed allergies they had never experienced before, with responses such as “I have developed allergies that I didn’t have before” and “Pollution and allergies.” Others mentioned symptoms such as eye irritation and sneezing, linking these directly to pollution exposure. These responses suggest that even individuals without preexisting conditions are noticing changes in their health due to environmental factors. Industrial Pollution and Environmental Concerns Many respondents pointed to industrial pollution as a major contributor to poor air quality in their communities. Concerns about nearby refineries and factories frequently emerged, with one participant stating, “We have refineries around my house (probably 4), and my kids get respiratory infections often.” Others described the strong presence of pollutants in specific areas, such as “Driving by the Lays factory off of 47 South, you can smell the oil in the air 24/7; that can’t be good to be around.” Additionally, concerns about excessive littering, landfill waste, and vehicle emissions were raised, further illustrating the multifaceted nature of pollution in the region. 1054 RANGE Air Quality and Community Well-Being The perception of pollution’s impact was overwhelmingly negative, with many participants emphasizing how it affects their quality of life. The statement “Polluted air affects quality of life” was commonly echoed, and some participants specifically mentioned how inversions worsen air conditions. One respondent observed, “When the inversion is so thick, we all feel it in our chests,” highlighting the immediate and tangible effects of pollution on respiratory health. Table 4. Semi-Structured Interviews Main Key Points Theme Mother’s Perspectives 1055 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The semi-structured interviews revealed six prominent themes regarding environmental health concerns among mothers: personal health concerns, water pollution and conservation, smog and air pollution, information gathering, environmental justice, and civic authority. These themes reflect a growing sense of vulnerability and a call for systemic change in 1056 RANGE response to conditions. worsening environmental Personal Health Concerns Mothers expressed deep concern for the health of their children and themselves, often connecting respiratory and skin-related illnesses to environmental degradation. One participant noted, “My son never got sick in Argentina… now he constantly has a runny nose, cough…” Similarly, others described the onset of new allergies and asthma flare- ups correlating with worsening air quality. Seasonal changes and proximity to industrial zones like refineries and the Salt Lake were frequently mentioned as exacerbating factors. Water Pollution and Conservation Water quality emerged as a critical concern, especially for those living near industrial sites like copper mines. Participants voiced unease about long-term health effects, stating, “I wonder if they can damage my body over time.” Additionally, there was frustration over local ordinances that conflict with conservation 1057 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH efforts, particularly regarding water usage for lawns, illustrating a disconnect between policy and sustainable living. Smog and Air Pollution Smog and airborne pollutants were frequently cited as visible and immediate threats. Mothers discussed the growing number of vehicles, population influx, and local factory emissions. One stated, “There are not enough resources for more people… the particles being lifted into the air are getting our community sick.” This theme was also tied to increased stress and concern over long-term community health outcomes. Information Gathering A common thread among participants was a lack of accessible, clear information about environmental health. While some relied on internet sources or personal education, others felt misinformed and unsupported. One participant shared, “There should be pamphlets which tell me how to get involved in my community.” 1058 RANGE Environmental Justice Participants showed a strong desire to take part in environmental stewardship but highlighted the need for collective action and education. Many had adopted practices like using reusable items or recycling but emphasized that broader community awareness is necessary. One mother remarked, “We already have plastic in our brains… So I think it really is important to do better.” Climate Change and Civic Authority Concerns about climate change were voiced in relation to shifting seasons and diminishing snowfall. Moreover, there was a pervasive sense of powerlessness regarding civic leadership and state-level responses to environmental degradation. One participant reflected, “I feel kind of… like it’s not going to happen. I don’t know if this state is really going to run out of water and turn into a desert.” Across all themes, mothers reported a general sense of maintaining personal and family health but also recognized the growing threats posed 1059 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH by their environmental conditions. Although many take proactive steps, such as conserving water or reducing plastic use, these efforts often feel inadequate in the face of rising pollution and insufficient systemic support. A recurring sentiment was one of helplessness, participants feel unequipped, underinformed, and lacking the institutional backing needed to drive meaningful change. This aligns with findings from Kamai (2023), highlighting the limited empowerment mothers feel in addressing health issues rooted in environmental injustice. DISCUSSION My study aimed to explore Latina women’s perceptions of the connection between environmental and reproductive justice and its impact on their own health, well-being, and that of their children as residents of Salt Lake City’s west side. Individuals in low- income and minority communities, such as Latina mothers in our study, are disproportionately exposed to high levels of pollution (Grineski, 2021). This reflects broader environmental justice concerns, as these populations often face systemic barriers 1060 RANGE to advocacy and intervention. The environmental hazards near the Great Salt Lake exemplify “slow violence” a gradual, cumulative harm to marginalized communities with little immediate attention or policy response (Nixon, 2013). My findings have critical public health implications for residents of the West Side of Salt Lake City. Exposure to pollution may contribute to increased asthma rates, higher stress levels, and reduced opportunities for physical activity due to poor air quality. Beyond the local context, these issues extend globally, as the drying of saline lakes and rising emissions exacerbate health disparities and climate change-related risks. It is crucial that policymakers and global health organizations recognize these harms and take proactive measures. One challenge is “label avoidance” a phenomenon where individuals refrain from acknowledging symptoms to avoid the stigma or consequences associated with a diagnosis (Hsieh & Kramer, 2021). Addressing this requires community-driven efforts to 1061 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH empower marginalized groups to voice their concerns. Future initiatives should explore partnerships with advocacy organizations to create community events and resources that amplify these voices and drive policy change. Without intervention, vulnerable populations will continue to bear the brunt of environmental injustices, worsening health disparities in the long term. LIMITATIONS This study provides insights into the lived experiences of Latina mothers and their children in the Salt Lake area. However, several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, survey fatigue may have affected participant engagement. Since the survey was distributed through social media, participants may have been more inclined to resume scrolling or may have been interrupted by other responsibilities, particularly as busy mothers. Secondly, I merged one-onone interview data with that of a focus group data to accommodate the needs of study 1062 RANGE participants time and my availability as well. I also found that when using one-on-one interviews, they gave the participants individual level experiences and perspectives, whereas focus group interviews gave me shared collective experiences or experiences of a community. Thirdly, this study does not capture the perspectives of all Latin American demographics in Salt Lake, Davis, and Utah Counties. With Mexican representation being the majority, I would have preferred to place greater emphasis on other nationalities, such as Venezuelans, Peruvians, and Colombians, as Utah’s Latin American population continues to grow in diversity. Lastly, aside from capturing the Latine community, I do recognize that it doesn’t capture the entirety of the West-side population. I chose not to include other demographic populations such as but not limited to White, Black, Asian, and American Indian, because I wanted to focus on my own community as well as my lived experience. Through my study, I observed that various Facebook groups reflected distinct cultural differences, which also required expanding the 1063 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH geographic scope to include different cities. Regardless, the participants showed eagerness and wanted a more studies like this to be conducted. CONCLUSIONS This study has important public health implications for Latinx mothers, their children, and the broader community. As mentioned previously, I do recognize that there is a gap and that not everyone on the West-side of Salt Lake City is being represented in this research. This leaves space for more research to be conducted including the population not investigated in this research. The case of the Salt Lake Area and its effects on the children and families living the area offers a preview into what is to come in the upcoming decades. As climate change progresses, experts in the fields of environmental justice and global health organizations anticipate significant increases in global emissions and air pollutants due to climate change’s contribution to poor air quality and subsequent increases in asthma and related respiratory conditions. Without any sort of 1064 RANGE intervention, Latinx individuals on the Westside can continue to experience poor health outcomes if these trends continue. More work must be done to involve individuals who are currently experiencing this and give them power to advocate for their communities. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I extend my deepest gratitude to Leandra H. Hernandez, PhD, for her invaluable guidance and mentorship throughout this research. I also sincerely appreciate the support provided by the Office of Undergraduate Studies and The Wilkes Center for Climate Science and Policy, whose educational and financial assistance made this work possible. Additionally, I am grateful to the Communication Department and the College of Humanities at the University of Utah for their generous travel support, which enabled me to present this honors thesis at the 95th Western States Communication Association Convention in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Additionally, an honorable mention to Robin Jensen, PhD for her support from afar. Through this project and support of my professors, 1065 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH without them, I wouldn’t have made it as far as receiving the Outstanding Undergraduate Researcher Award 2025 for the College of Humanities, I am so grateful for all those that have let me into their lives and believed in my why. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbott BW, Baxter BK, Busche K, de Freitas L, Frie R, Gomez T, et al. . 2023. Emergency Measures Needed to Rescue Great Salt Lake from Ongoing Collapse. https://pws.byu.edu/ great-salt-lake Abdul-Wahab, S. A., Bakheit, C. S., & Siddiqui, R. A. (2005). Study the relationship between the health effects and characterization of thermal inversions in the Sultanate of Oman. Atmospheric Environment (1994), 39(30), 5466–5471. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.atmosenv.2005.05.038 Beard, J. D., Beck, C., Graham, R., Packham, S. C., Traphagan, M., Giles, R. T., & Morgan, J. G. (2012). Winter temperature inversions and emergency department visits for asthma in Salt 1066 RANGE Lake County, Utah, 2003-2008. Environmental health perspectives, 120(10), 1385–1390. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104349 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Most recent asthma data. https://www.cdc.gov/asthma/ most_recent_data.htm Clark-Reyna, S. E., Grineski, S. E., & Collins, T. W. (2020). Racial/ethnic disparities in asthma hospitalization in the USA: A national level study. Population Health, 12, 100658. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.ssmph.2020.100658 Cohen, M. J., (2014) Hazard’s Toll: The costs of inaction at the salton sea. Pacifc Institute. https://pacinst.org/ publication/hazards-toll/#:~:text=It%20finds%20that %20worsening%20air,plan%20at%20the%20time%20o f Crowder, K., & Downey, L. (2010). Interneighborhood Migration, Race, and Environmental Hazards: Modeling Microlevel Processes of Environmental Inequality. American Journal of Sociology, 115(4), 1110–1149. https://doi.org/10.1086/ 649576 Faber, J. W. (2020). 1067 We Built This: OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Consequences of New Deal Era Intervention in America’s Racial Geography. American Sociological Review, 85(5), 739–775. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122420948464 Forno, E., & Celedon, J. C. (2009). Asthma and ethnic minorities: socioeconomic status And beyond. Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology, 9(2), 154–160. https://doi.org/ 10.1097/aci.0b013e3283292207 Grineski, S., Collins, T., Renteria, R., & Rubio, R. (2021). Multigenerational immigrant trajectories and children’s unequal exposure to fine particulate matter in the US. Social science & medicine (1982), 282, 114108. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114108 Hassan, D., Burian, S. J., Johnson, R. C., Shin, S., & Barber, M. E. (2023). The Great Salt Lake Water Level is Becoming Less Resilient to Climate Change. Water Resources Management, 37(6-7), 2697-2720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-022- 03376-x Hsieh, E., & Kramer, E. M. (2021). Rethinking culture in health communication: Social 1068 RANGE Interactions as intercultural encounters. Wiley Blackwell. Johnston, J. E., Razafy, M., Lugo, H., Olmedo, L., & Farzan, S. F. (2019). The Disappearing Salton Sea: A critical reflection on the emerging environmental threat of disappearing saline lakes and potential impacts on children’s health. The Science of the total environment, 663, 804–817.https://doi.org/10.1016 /j.scitotenv.2019.01.365 Jones, B. A., & Fleck, J. (2020). Shrinking lakes, air pollution, and human health: Evidence from California’s Salton Sea. The Science of the total environment, 712, 136490. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136490 Kamai, E.M., Calderon, A., Van Horne, Y.O. et al. Perceptions and experiences of environmental health and risks among Latina mothers in urban Los Angeles, California, USA. Environ Health 22, 8 (2023). https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s12940- 023-00963-2 Lee, L. Y., Kerry, R., Ingram, B., Golden, C. S., & LeMonte, J. J. (2024). Investigating the 1069 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Spatial Patterns of Heavy Metals in Topsoil and Asthma in the Western Salt Lake Valley, Utah. Environments, 11(10), 223.https://doi.org/ 10.3390 /environments11100223 Mayer, V. V., Morgan, P., Nelson, A., & Coronado, G. (1973). Working papers toward a History of the Spanish-speaking people of Utah: A report of research of the Mexican-American Documentation Project | American West Center Research Projects. https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ details?id=1396789 Morello-Frosch, R., Pastor, M., Sadd, J. L., & Shonkoff, S. B. (2011). The climate gap: Environmental health and equity implications of climate change and mitigation policies in California—a review of the literature. Climatic Change, 109(S1), 485– 503. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10584-011-0310-7 Nelson, R. K., Ayers, N., Madron, J., & the Digital Scholarship Lab. (n.d.). Mapping Inequality: Redlining in New Deal America – Salt Lake City, Utah. University of Richmond. https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/ 1070 RANGE redlining/map/UT/SaltLakeCity/c ontext#loc=12/ 40.7547/-111.8948 Nixon, R. (2011). Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/ j.ctt2jbsgw Onwuachi-Saunders, C., Dang, Q. P., & Murray, J. (2019). Reproductive Rights, Reproductive Justice: Redefining Challenges to Create Optimal Health for All Women. Journal of healthcare, science and the humanities, 9(1), 19–31. Oraka, E., Iqbal, S., Flanders, W. D., Brinker, K., & Garbe, P. (2013). Racial and ethnic disparities in current asthma and emergency department visits: Findings from the National Health Interview Survey, 2001-2010. Journal of Asthma, 50(5), 488-496. doi: 10.3109/ 02770903.2013.790417 Pulido, L. (2000). Rethinking Environmental Racism: White Privilege and Urban Development in Southern California. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 1071 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 90(1), 12–40. 0004-5608.00182 https://doi.org/10.1111/ Pulido, L. (2017). Geographies of race and ethnicity II: Environmental racism, racial capitalism and state-sanctioned violence. Progress in Human Geography, 41(4), 524–533. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132516646495 In Our Own Voice: National Black Women’s Reproductive Justice Agenda. (n.d.). Reproductive Justice. https://blackrj.org/ourcauses/reproductive-justice/ Ross, L. J., & Solinger, R. (2017). Reproductive Justice: An Introduction (1st ed.). University of California Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctv1wxsth SisterSong Women of Color Reproductive Justice Collective. (2021). What is Reproductive Justice? https://www.sistersong.net/reproductive-justice U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2023). Environmental justice. https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice Utah Department of Environmental Quality. (2024). Inversions. from https://deq.utah.gov/ air-quality/inversions 1072 RANGE Utah Department of Health. (2022). Utah Asthma Program Annual Report 2022. https://health.utah.gov/asthma U.S. Census Bureau quickfacts: Salt Lake City City, UtahQuickFacts Salt Lake City city, Utah. United States Census Bureau. (n.d.). https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/ saltlakecitycityutah/PST045223 Wallace, J., Nair, P., & Kanaroglou, P. (2010). Atmospheric remote sensing to detect effects of temperature inversions on sputum cell counts in airway diseases. Environmental research, 110(6), 624–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.envres.2010.05.011 Wasatch Front Regional Council. (2021). Equity in the built environment: Salt Lake County profile. https://wfrc.org/community/ equity World Population Review. (2025). Salt Lake City, Utah population 2024. https://worldpopulationreview.com/us-cities/ utah/salt-lake-city 1073 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Wurtsbaugh, W. A., Leavitt, P. R., & Moser, K. A. (2020). Effects of a century of mining and industrial production on metal contamination of a model saline ecosystem, Great Salt Lake, Utah. Environmental Pollution (1987), 266, 115072–115072. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.envpol.2020.115072 1074 RANGE 50 Research Reflection by Jasmine Aguilar Lopez JASMINE AGUILAR LOPEZ Faculty Mentor: Leandra Hernández (Communication, University of Utah) I would describe my undergraduate research as rewarding and unique. As a first-gen MexicanAmerican navigating academia, I am very grateful to have such a wonderful faculty mentor, Dr. Leandra 1075 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Hernandez, that would push me out of my comfort zone. This included applying to an out of state conference in Albuquerque, New Mexico and participating in Research Day on the Hill which I thought were unattainable. Dr. Hernández is filled with so much knowledge that it made writing this research fun and exciting, what has evolved as a pilot study in her class has now become my pride and joy. She has been instrumental in achieving my honors thesis goals and would recommend her to students who would like to strengthen their knowledge in environmental justice(EJ), Latinx communities, reproductive justice(RJ), and health communication. This project furthermore is my own lived experience. This piece is for my comunidad Latina on the Westside of Salt Lake City and my family who endlessly supported me! I wanted it to reflect the ongoing struggles of Latina women and the intersection between RJ and EJ, my own mother serving as a catalyst for the need of this type of research. I also wanted to give a voice to a community that does not feel like they have a say in the conversation. I hope through this I am able to spark more open conversations and make citizen science more accessible to members of my community. This project has led me to understand that our stories are data 1076 RANGE just waiting to be deciphered into real world evidence and is crucial for societal change! I will continue to keep myself involved in research. I already had in mind to further my education but this paper will serve as evidence to do just so. I will continue to have this paper in mind as I am navigating my full-time role within Pfizer’s Breakthrough Fellowship program. It has been a journey I will have so much gratitude for! 1077 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 51 Research Summary: Ethical Considerations Surrounding Xenotransplantation JESSICA ANN DAVIS AND MATT HABER Faculty Mentor: Matt Haber (Philosophy, University of Utah) Xenotransplantation—the transplantation of animal organs into human recipients—has emerged as a potential response to the severe shortage of human 1078 RANGE organs. While this practice offers promising avenues to save countless lives, it raises substantial ethical, societal, and scientific questions. Unlike conventional animal research, which aims to broaden therapeutic possibilities or advance biomedical knowledge, xenotransplantation, particularly breeding animals solely for organ harvesting, invites scrutiny around the ethical limits of instrumentalizing animal life. This focus on animals as a renewable resource for human benefit challenges societal values and ethical standards, prompting a reexamination of whether animals are reduced to mere commodities without intrinsic worth. This project will critically examine the ethical boundaries implicated in xenotransplantation, seeking to assess the broader societal and scientific ramifications of using animals strictly for organ production. The work will explore how such practices influence public perception, affect regulatory landscapes, and could shape the future of biomedical innovation. By addressing these issues, this research aims to spark a much-needed discourse on the moral boundaries of scientific progress. The outcomes will contribute to a more ethically-informed approach to xenotransplantation, providing valuable insight into the moral considerations that should guide future biomedical developments. 1079 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 52 Research Reflection by Jessica Ann Davis JESSICA ANN DAVIS Faculty Mentor: Matt Haber (Philosophy, University of Utah) During my undergraduate studies, I had the opportunity to conduct research that shaped my education and reinforced my passion for combining ethics and science in meaningful ways. Under the mentorship of my 1080 RANGE bioethics professor, I developed my honors thesis titled “Ethical Considerations Surrounding Xenotransplantation.” This project allowed me to explore the intersection of innovative medical technologies, ethics, and public health, sharpening my analytical and critical thinking skills while deepening my appreciation for the complex decisions that impact human and animal welfare. These experiences have prepared me for my next step: veterinary school, where I will continue to combine my passion for ethics, science, and animals. As someone who aspires to work in public health through veterinary medicine, I am motivated by the opportunity to address complex challenges at the intersection of human and animal health. My research experiences have deepened my understanding of these issues and equipped me with the skills and curiosity to make meaningful contributions to the field. 1081 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 53 The East Idaho Ethnic Minorities Oral History Collection SUJATA GANDHI Faculty Mentor: Matt Basso (History, University of Utah) The East Idaho Ethnic Minorities Oral History Collection is a collection of over 100 oral histories, totaling more than 85 hours, conducted between October 2023 and February 1082 RANGE 2024 with members of ethnic minority communities in the Eastern Idaho area. These oral histories provide insight into the collective development of cultural identity in a predominantly white, rural area of the state (2023/2024 Idaho Blue Book, 2023, pp. 309, 394-406; Idaho Department of Health and Welfare, 2022, pp.1-2). Some of the topics discussed by interviewees include citizenship, immigration, the role of language in preserving culture, the impact of education on cultural retention, deculturization, cultural hybridity, generational cultural shifts, historical recollections of the eastern Idaho area, experiences with disability, experiences as members of the LGBTQ+ community, resilience, historical and present-day discrimination, the Minidoka War Relocation Center (a WWII Japanese internment camp in Idaho), and segregation. Oral history has played a significant role in the preservation of minority culture (Kerr, 2016, pp.369-370), and this collection aims to continue this practice. People who have faced oppression are able to shape the narrative of 1083 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH their experiences, allowing them to humanize themselves within the public narrative (Srigley et al., 2018, pp. 337). This project built upon the history preservation efforts being undertaken by organizations in the eastern Idaho area that represent minority communities, aiming to create a resource that both preserves culture and educates. Rather than focusing on the “elites,” these interviews centered typical community members, following the practice begun by oral historians in the 1960s and 1970s (Shopes, 2002). To preserve the autonomy of interviewees, interviewees were able to adjust a release form for their interview to their individual preferences, and tribal governments were given authority alongside tribal member interviewees of the publication and use of their oral histories, drawing upon the practices recommended by Shell-Weiss (2019). Further, all of the interviews/transcripts were given to the interviewees for approval for publication (including conditional approval), and all interviewees were given full permission for use of their oral histories for all purposes. These oral history interviews will be accessible 1084 RANGE for free to the public through the Museum of Idaho’s website (Museum of Idaho, 2024) by October 2025. BIBLIOGRAPHY 2023/2024 Idaho Blue Book. (2023). Idaho Secretary of State. https://sos.idaho.gov/blue_book/ 2023/BlueBook_2023_2024.pdf Idaho Department of Health and Welfare. (2022, September 14). County Population Urban v. Rural. Idaho.gov. https://publicdocuments.dhw.idaho.gov/WebLink/ DocView.aspx?id=23351&dbid=0&repo=PUBLICDOCUMENTS&cr=1 Kerr, D. R. (2016). Allan Nevins Is Not My Grandfather: The Roots of Radical Oral History Practice in the United States. The Oral History Review, 43(2), 367–391. https://doi.org/10.2307/ 26427588 Museum of Idaho. (2024, December 3). Oral history – Museum of Idaho. Museum of Idaho. https://museumofidaho.org/oralhistory/ 1085 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Shell-Weiss, M. (2019). Good Intentions: Grappling with Legacies of Conflict and Distrust Surrounding a Native American Oral History Project One Generation Later. The Oral History Review, 46(1), 104–133. https://doi.org/ 10.1093//ohr//ohz004 Shopes, L. (2002, February). What Is Oral History? Historymatters.gmu.edu. https://historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/oral/what.html Srigley, K., Zembrzycki, S., & Iacovetta, F. (2018). Beyond women’s words : feminisms and the practices of oral history in the twenty-first century. Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. 1086 RANGE 54 Cultivating Empathy in the Age of AI: A Student-Editor's Philosophy ZABRINA LE Faculty Mentor: Rachel Bryson (Writing & Rhetoric Studies, University of Utah) INTRODUCTION With the use of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GAI) in higher education, many people are met with curiosity, confusion, and even fear. The use and 1087 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH conversations surrounding Artificial Intelligence (AI) prompted the 2025 issue of the Undergraduate Journal of Contemporary Issues and Media. Spring of 2024, I took a Technical Editing Course taught by Dr. Rachel Bryson. In this course, students were tasked at editing and collaborating with student-authors that submitted work for the journal. The theme of this year’s issue was on AI and GAI tools. We were brought a very unique opportunity to edit work that was about AI, made from AI, or took perspective on the issue surrounding AI. BACKGROUND The first few weeks of our Technical Editing course began with understanding the fundamentals of editing, the process of editing, and how to edit for audiences. These beginning weeks allowed us to understand editing with care and how to enact care as editors. “Care ethics recognizes that human dependence on others is universal” (Kwan, 2023). Being able to enact care, as editors, is crucial and inherent. Kwan (2023) talks about how care ethics recognizes human dependence on each other. With the rise of AI use, that dependence changes and almost decreases. Understanding those levels of care were crucial as we embarked on our editorial journey. Because our theme for the 2025 issue was on AI, editing with empathy and enacting care were topics we needed 1088 RANGE to understand. During the editorial process, we [student-editors] were given the freedom on how correspondence would work with our student-authors. Doctor Bryson gave us guidance and information on the best ways to edit and communicate with care. Most memorable for me, was being able to inquire more from my author. This method allows a more collaborative process between authors and editors. Using phrases like, “I’m having a hard time understanding the meaning of this sentence, would you mind adding more context”. Suggesting is also a valuable tool in editing with care— an example would be, “Maybe swapping these sentences would give your audience a better understanding of the topic”. When our semester of Technical Editing was over, Doctor Bryson presented the class an opportunity to use our experience as research. Because AI and the use of GAI tools are rising in academia, having student perspectives is crucial in understanding AI’s role in education and academia. This research opportunity would also include interviews from student-editors, as well as student-authors. The approach to our research used was autoethnographic— meaning we used our experiences for analysis in enacting care, navigating GAI tools, and communicating feedback. 1089 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH METHODS This research project, “Cultivating Empathy in the Age of AI”, was two semesters long— beginning in Fall of 2024 and ending after Spring of 2025. The research team consisted of 4 undergraduate students— Thabata Fay, Cora Romero, Emmerson Martin, and me. Our team also consisted of guidance form our Faculty Mentor, Rachel Bryson. Research surrounding care ethics and technical editing pedagogy was crucial before we began the interview process. As we waited for IRB approval, we researched and wrote our submission for publication. Alongside our background research and writing, we applied for the Conference on College, Composition, & Communication hosted in Baltimore, Maryland. With teamwork and ample support from our facilitator, we were accepted into the Conference for College Composition & Communication, as well as the annual Conference of the Utah Academy of Science Arts and Letters. These opportunities were an amazing honor, and further motivated us in our research. Randall (2023) identifies 14 care values but highlights Four Principles within those care values: Attentiveness, Mutual Concern, Responsiveness, and Trustworthiness. When diving into the four principles of values of care, cheerfulness caught my eye. How we respond can really 1090 RANGE impact the empathy of literature as well. “Going into interviews, it may be something to remember [cheerfulness]. How we respond to our peers is important”. This quote is a comment I left while reading Randall’s chapter on value ethics. Our research and readings, leading up to interviews, gives us [as researchers] the opportunity to enact care. In our TE course, we enacted care with our comments, but now we must enact a different level of care for our speech. Our second semester of as a research group is where we began interviewing previous classmates, from TE, and student-authors. The first set of interviews was conducted by Doctor Bryson. Doctor Bryson interviewed our own research group— Thabata, Cora, Emmerson, and I. This allowed us to watch how Doctor Bryson performed interviews and gave perspective on being an interviewee. The interviews— facilitated by student- researchers— were performed in two-on-one meetings. Cora and Tabitha were paired, while Emmerson and I were paired. Each pairing was assigned two student-authors and one student-editor to interview. During interviews, one person was taking notes while the other person asks questions. Our preliminary results reveal that many student-editors wanted to enact care and were hesitant to approach 1091 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH author. Phrases such as, “cared a lot”, “requires someone with empathy”, or “collaborative” was used when referencing the experience when talking about working in collaboration. EDITORIAL PHILOSOPHY: GAINED AND LEARNED One of the final assignments we had in Technical Editing was writing our editorial philosophy. My editorial philosophy states: Inclusivity and Language An editor’s objective is to provide clarity and legibility for the audience. My philosophy is rooted in accessibility and quality performance of written material. An editor must encourage an author to use inclusive language, while also supporting the author in their own writing style. If an author’s writing style contains problematic or inaccessible dialogue, it is essential for an editor to be mindful of the project at hand. If that author consistently aligns themselves with problematic or harmful work, I feel it is best to reconsider the collaboration. Using inclusive language allows for audiences to feel more at ease, and it will also connect the audience to the author. Readers that feel included and relate to written work, tend to consume 1092 RANGE more of an author’s work. Using inclusive language can also create a safe environment for readers. Grammar and Punctuation With grammar and punctuation, their uses are important for providing clarity and cohesion in writing. While they are important, grammar and punctuation aren’t the main priority when it comes to written work. Using “proper” grammar and punctuation is very subjective to the case and type of writing. The goal of grammar and punctuation is to bring clarity and cohesion but shouldn’t overshadow an author’s style of writing or the integrity of the piece. Policing grammar and punctuation is not my preferred method of communicating with an author. Being understanding and exhibiting empathy are methods I prefer. The content and quality of work will always be prioritized over what is “correct”. With this notion, having clarity is important for the audience. Grammar and punctuation should enhance the writing, not overshadow it. Quality and Style of work Striving for quality work is my priority as an editor. Assisting an author in creating the best work will benefit not only the author, but also the reader. When editing, 1093 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH I want to work diligently with an author to assure effective communication on both ends. The foundation of cohesive writing is cooperation. Cooperating and adhering to an author’s style is crucial as well. An author’s style will be protected, so long as it doesn’t fall under harmful or hateful speech. The style of work is what sets it apart, but it should also appeal to an audience. My role, as an editor, would be to advocate for readers and provide honest feedback to an author or company. Providing feedback that is honest, and representative of audiences is helpful to an author, but delivering this in an encouraging way that doesn’t undermine the author’s style. CONCLUSION With all the characteristics mentioned earlier, I want to approach all editorial revisions with empathy and advocacy. Being able to encourage an author to create their best work, while also advocating for reader’s needs is what I aim to do as an editor. The author’s style and quality are always emphasized in editing as well. As an editor, I will do my best to help an author’s writing. Clarity and cohesion are an editor’s objective when working with authors. In my future editorial 1094 RANGE process, I hope to work with many authors that prioritize quality work with the audience in mind. Discussions An editor’s philosophy attempts to share with companies and groups what an editor’s objective is. I feel an editor’s philosophy also extends to understanding our own personal objectives and missions in editing. This entry works to understand how editorial empathy and philosophy created and maintained. Our philosophy is curated through guidance from other Technical Communicators and maintained through working with authors. As I reflect on my editorial philosophy from then and from now, there’s some differences I want to point out. In my first section on Inclusivity and Language I would like to add the reason for using accessible language is not only for ease, but also for language that is representative of multiple groups and communities. Representation in materials is so important. As an editor, our purpose is to advocate for the audience. This is done by removing harmful language, limiting jargon, and uplifting voices. My stance on Grammar and Punctuation are the same in that their uses are to provide clarity and cohesion. Grammar and Punctuation are used as a tool— not as 1095 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH a defining feature. This is also how many editors feel about using GAI tools. In using GAI tools, editors must determine when to utilize them. Just like collaborating with our authors, we have to collaborate with AI to create ethical and inclusive materials. Our research not only focused on student’s experience with editing/writing on topics of AI, but also on coding and understanding our research. We found that studenteditors used AI for correspondence with authors more than for correcting author materials. Other tools of AI used could have also been grammar-checkers. From my editorial experience, I was especially worried about changing an author’s style or voice. I didn’t want an author to alter their words, so this led to me having trouble with providing feedback. Having ChatGPT as a resource to ask for kind ways to give feedback, allowed me to be an empathetic editor. Being a novice editor to another student was nervewracking. I had a lot of doubt about my ability going into it, but Doctor Bryson had provided us tools for how to be an empathetic and an inclusive editor throughout the semester. Not only did I have support from our faculty advisor, but also from other students in our class as well. Having that support system with one another was so crucial in the editorial process. Especially being 1096 RANGE novice editors, the more support we had meant the more support we can give to our authors. The collaboration process between other editors, editors and authors, and with audiences is crucial to creating cohesive and understandable written works. AI is growing in our world whether writers/editors want it— in understanding and ethically using AI, we can create accessible work that advocates for audience understanding. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kwan, J. (2023, May 5). Care ethics. Markkula center for applied ethics at Santa Clara University. https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethicaldecision-making/care- ethics/care-ethics.html Randall, T. (2023). Justice, Care, and Value: A ValuesDriven Theory of Care Ethics (1sted.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003367734 1097 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 55 Research Reflection by Zabrina Le ZABRINA LE Faculty Mentor: Rachel Bryson (Writing & Rhetoric Studies, University of Utah) This experience has encouraged me to continue exploring my editorial relationship with GAI tools. Not only was I able to explore research and learn the research process, but I’ve been able to explore new fields of writing. Post-grad, I plan on becoming an environmental writer or a grant writer for a non-profit 1098 RANGE organization. Being versatile in my writing will only amplify my writing abilities. Our project also gave me experience in collaboration with my Faculty Mentor and peers. With this project, our team has been able to go to two conferences- one for Utah Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters at UVU and the Conference for College Composition & Communication in Baltimore, Maryland. Being able to learn from other students and researchers has inspired and motivated me. These unforgettable experiences will continue to shape my editorial philosophy and shape my relationship with GAI tools. 1099 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 56 The Marginalization of Non-Black Women of Color (NBWOC) in Media, Academia, and Professional Spaces ALISHA RUIZ Faculty Mentor: Tracey Daniels-Lerberg (Writing & Rhetoric Studies, University of Utah) 1100 RANGE ABSTRACT This paper will focus on how the marginalization of non-Black women of color (NBWOC) in media, academia, and professional spaces contributes to their underrepresentation in research centered on racism in the workplace. Analysis will be done by gathering research regarding textured hair focusing on only Black women, as well as research that includes all WOC. Both will be compared to focus on why NBWOC were not included in much of the research on the subject of racial discrimination in the workplace. Other sources will be used to prove, or disprove, that the exclusion of NBWOC in research centered on racism in the workplace for all WOC is a choice. INTRODUCTION Does the marginalization of non-Black women of color (NBWOC) in media, academia, and professional spaces contribute to their underrepresentation in research centered on racism in the workplace? This paper will use the phrase Women of Color (WOC) to define a group of people who self-report their gender as female and whose race or ethnicity is Hispanic; Black; Asian American; Native Hawaiian; Pacific Islander; American Indian/Alaska Native; or multiracial. Women of color 1101 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH presently report to experience race-based discrimination while in their workplaces. Whether it comes to their coworkers, superiors, or clients, this has become a universal experience for most women of color within America. Numerous articles, studies, and academic papers have been published expressing this issue. However, almost all have a similar misconception. They use WOC to refer to only Black women and not as the umbrella term it is. Recently the underrepresentation of WOC has been acknowledged in academia as well as research and authors have worked to enhance the visibility of WOC in media as well as professional settings. Unfortunately, most overlook a critical demographic when discussing WOC, women of color who are not Black. Intersectional invisibility is a concept that would describe the underrepresentation of NBWOC in research. In this paper, we will dive into this concept and how the marginalization of non-Black women of color (NBWOC) in media, academia, and professional spaces contributes to their underrepresentation in research centered on racism in the workplace. The lack of representation and acknowledgment of non-Black women of color not only diminishes their presence in professional and social arenas but also perpetuates stereotypes and biases that 1102 RANGE affect their access to opportunities and their capacity to influence change in research as well as their daily lives. LITERATURE REVIEW Examining one of the many articles discussing a Black woman’s experience with textured hair (when the intended focus was WOC) it becomes clear that the reason for excluding WOC, when NBWOC are present in the data, often stems from the researcher’s failure to recognize that NBWOC can also have textured hair. The article, Hair Matters: Toward Understanding Natural Black Hair Bias in the Workplace suggests that Black women are only cast for lead roles or “good/ heroic characters” if they have long straight hair and Eurocentric features1. The author identifies actresses like Kerry Washington, Taraji Henson, and Nia Long as people who have openly expressed this distasteful truth about Hollywood and the media. In contrast, characters who portray negative stereotypes are cast with natural Afrocentric hairstyles. However, we are beginning to see more and more exceptions, an example it provided was Black Panther, where the actors were allowed to wear their natural hair for accurate representation (Dawson, 2019). This article gives a connection that negative connotations towards Black women who wear their natural hair are still 1103 seen within work OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH environments and its source is the media portraying this negative opinion. The authors do not provide examples of how textured hair is viewed in spaces that are also composed of NBWOC in their analysis of media representation. The paper then moves onto their primary data, which is collected from anonymous commenters on articles about natural hair. While many commenters suggest they identify as Black, others are vague and only share their experience/opinion on having natural hair. The authors do not confirm that all their respondents were Black, nor did they acknowledge that NBWOC can also have textured hair. As a result, the only certainty is that the commenters had textured hair, not that they were Black. This highlights a critical oversight in terminology—WOC or POC would have been more appropriate than “Black,” given that NBWOC (or possibly White women) with textured hair were included in the data collection. Next, we will observe an article that includes all WOC in its interpretation and why their insight is valuable in moving forward with research regarding NBWOC. Hair We Grow Again: Upward Mobility, Career Compromise, and Natural Hair Bias in the Workplace, believes that how a WOC feels about her natural hair in the workplace is due to self-reflection and how the 1104 RANGE woman sees herself with her natural hair (Summers, 2022). The author also believes that when the woman is confident in how she feels about her natural hair, this will impact how she thinks others feel about her hair. This can be important in continued research, because it brings up the idea that, when we do surveys about how women feel about their hair, it is going to depend/vary if it is based on self-reflection. The author also mentions that women will pick their career choices wisely based on their previous experiences so that discrimination does not happen again (Summers, 2022). This can also impact data collected by showing that a woman could now be content at her place of work based on her previous decisions to avoid discrimination. The author argues that WOC might feel pressured to change their career aspirations if they believe their natural hair may limit advancement opportunities (Summers, 2022). This is a strong example of how the experiences of NBWOC and Black women can provide insight into the racial discrimination faced by all women of color and how including all WOC in analysis can be beneficial for future research. These sources can work with each other in terms of what needs to be collected for data (what’s useful to know and what’s not). The first paper presents data on 1105 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH women with textured hair but limits its interpretation to Black women. In contrast, the second paper examines women of color more broadly, offering a more inclusive perspective on WOC’s experiences. Another suggestion is that the CROWN Act and other political interference have an important impact on how women of color and their coworkers see their natural hair. The authors in Hair We Grow Again: Upward Mobility, Career Compromise, and Natural Hair Bias in the Workplace mentioned that the Civil Rights Act of 1964(Title VII) prohibits discrimination based on race, sex, color, religion, or national origin, intended to improve equity for African Americans and women of color. This has allowed companies to enact policies to prevent discrimination. However, something more specific was needed for natural hair. This is when the CROWN act comes into play. The CROWN Act—Create a Respectful and Open World for Natural Hair—is designed to protect people of color from racebased hair discrimination in workplaces and schools. It aims to eliminate biases that may restrict opportunities based on hairstyles (Summers, 2022). Although, since the CROWN act, we have seen a rise in companies advertising a zero-discrimination zone, we have now seen new and different methods of discrimination. A 1106 RANGE study that supports this new era of discrimination is the Dove CROWN act study. This study was done by the JOY Collective and Dove in 2019, and they found that Black women are significantly affected by appearance-based biases. For instance, Black women are 1.5 times more likely to be sent home from work due to their hair and are 30% more likely to be made aware of formal workplace grooming policies. These statistics suggest that natural hair can negatively impact career advancement for Black women, but not NBWOC. With this new information in mind, we see now that although laws are in place, coworkers, clients, and bosses have now found new methods to continue what the CROWN act tries to get rid of. Both ideas should be kept in mind when thinking about an individual’s workplace and what representation of anti-discrimination that a company presents to its workers. It also brings into consideration whether these policies are being upheld in the field of work. Using the above ideas, we can connect interpersonal beliefs and environmental impacts, as well as political influences to how a woman of color, as well as their colleagues, can feel about their natural hair. Black women’s hair and natural hairstyles in the workplace: Expanding the definition of race under Title VII 1107 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH expands on the idea of how when someone goes in for an interview, they are often instructed to be themselves. However, unconscious or implicit bias influences how they are evaluated in the workplace. While they’re encouraged to be authentic, they may not realize that this “authentic self” is often measured against a standard (straight, white men) (Tchenga, 2021). Straying from this norm can create challenges in the workplace or even cause the worker to be a liability. To access key networks and promotion opportunities, one must be seen as fitting into the dominant workplace culture (Tchenga, 2021). Moreover, others’ perceptions of them impact evaluations of non-visual traits, such as their perceived competence or professionalism. How a boss/ supervisor or coworker sees a person of color as professional is entirely up to what they believe is professional or not. These morals/beliefs can be impacted by media and/or external factors. A common experience to come across is making a white colleague “uncomfortable”, and this prevents the worker from being accepted by their new workplace. Hence, women of color are motivated and/or pressured to achieve the looks of their white counterparts (Tchenga, 2021). This article, however, is centered on Black women, but can also be applied to WOC. The author agrees that not all of what Black women experience is the same as 1108 RANGE WOC. The author does, however, support the idea that textured/natural hair-based discrimination isn’t limited to Black people and encourages us to look further into other POC to understand their experiences as well. In reviewing the literature on women of color wearing their natural hair in the workplace, some researchers argue that how a woman experiences discrimination is influenced by the media, while others demonstrate it is their own personal beliefs as well as environmental factors that allow them to interpret their interactions, and still others believe that both can and do exist and that political influences can also have a say in their experience as well. All factors should be included when determining how a woman of color goes through their career with their natural hair. There are plenty of outside factors such as her family’s personal beliefs, the political influence that has power over the company she works at, self-reflection, as well as what her colleagues were made to believe is acceptable that influences her experience at work while wearing her natural hair. These factors have all shown particular importance in a WOC’s career based on the literature reviewed. The researchers seem to disagree or overlook whether NBWOC should be included in the area. While some focus specifically on Black women (despite using the 1109 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH term WOC), others include all WOC. The major issue with whether they should be included is the way we interpret their experiences. Black women, simply put, do not experience the same treatment as NBWOC. They are still dehumanized and considered the opposite of America’s beauty standards, while NBWOC are given more opportunities as well as a higher quality of life. Though, despite this difference, both have textured hair and experience racial discrimination. Importantly, this similarity is not enough for their experiences to always be grouped together and should inspire us to look at different forms of interpretation when looking at their data. Inclusion of NBPOC in POC studies and its Impact The company, StyleSeat, conducted a survey of 1,252 Americans about “their thoughts on natural hair in the workplace and what people of color have experienced as a result of wearing their natural hair” (StyleSeat, 2023). They discovered that 54% of POC feel discriminated against for wearing their natural hair. They also discovered that 60% of POC and 51% of white people say they “think people are discriminated against at work for natural hairstyles linked to racial identity” (StyleSeat, 2023). 1110 RANGE This study includes all POC but focuses on Black women as well as Hispanic women. Figure 1 describes the percentage of respondents who experience a specific situation of workplace discrimination due to their appearance. Figure 1. Tabled results of StyleSeat’s survey about the thoughts on natural hair in the workplace and what people of color have experienced as a result of wearing their natural hair for Americans. This survey provides valuable insight into the broader scope of experiences that could be represented in research results and analysis if studies were to include all people of color (POC), rather than focusing exclusively on Black Americans. By incorporating the diverse 1111 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH experiences of other POC communities, the survey demonstrates that we gain a more nuanced understanding of what it means to be a person of color in modern America. Such inclusiveness in research not only enriches our perspective but also avoids the limitations of a narrow demographic focus. Furthermore, this approach exemplifies the importance of categorizing data accurately, ensuring that individual experiences are neither overlooked nor generalized under broad labels. This careful differentiation allows for a more comprehensive and respectful portrayal of the varied realities faced by POC in America. In Figure 2, Dr. Berdahl also shows using Black women as well as NBWOC and refers to them as “Minority Women” (Berdahl, 2006). 1112 RANGE Figure 2. Predictions made by the additive and multiplicative versions of the double jeopardy hypothesis stated in Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy for minority women. This data shows us that “Minorities experience more ethnic harassment than Whites, and women experience more ethnic harassment than men” (Berdahl, 2006). Berdahl makes a point to show that all WOC should be included in research such as this as it makes a stronger argument that racism still exists in the workplace. 1113 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The Root of Exclusion of NBWOC in Research Although the previous articles support the idea that Black women are of importance when it comes to experiences of WOC in workplaces, Dr. Nimisha Barton suggests that the reason NBWOC are not represented well in research is because they often express that their “racial identity simply hasn’t shaped their lives or worldview” (Barton, 2022). This can be impactful when it comes to WOC filling out surveys and the researchers only find that Black women have sufficient evidence that proves discrimination within the workplace. This is only because they do not have a choice. This is connected to POC who are whitepassing or white-adjacent. POC with Eurocentric features experience less discrimination than POC who are not white-passing. Barton emphasizes that “It is high time that we acknowledge and reconsider how we as white-passing and white adjacent people of color participate in the project of white supremacy in our workplaces” (Barton, 2022). This information tells us that Black women are often emphasized when it comes to WOC because their experiences are more straightforward compared to NBWOC. NBWOC are reported as not confident that what they experience is tied down to their 1114 RANGE race/ethnicity, and this often prevents them from giving definitive answers in response to surveys. Choosing to be a POC is a Privilege Being able to choose whether you are a POC is a privilege that Black people are not given access to. This could be a possible explanation why NBWOC aren’t included in studies about women who identify as WOC. Barton further explains “white-passing people of color may visibly “pass” as white. They thus experience entry into the white world on account of certain phenotypic characteristics, and skin color above all. But white-adjacent people of color like myself, though quite visibly nonwhite, may nevertheless occasionally become insiders in the white world as a result of two separate but related factors” (Barton 2022). Black women are not given the option (or privilege) to not identify as WOC, so it is no wonder that they are the primary source for a WOC’s experience in the workplace. In Prisha’s TedTalk, Inhaling Anti-Blackness, Exhaling Liberation, she discusses how Black women are tired of being referred to as WOC and not Black women. She emphasizes that not only can this cause another group of people to be offended, but it offends Black women because they are labeled incorrectly. She states that by not using the term “Black”, we are avoiding the 1115 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH conversation that no one will listen to what we have to say if we are talking about Black people. We are avoiding the conversation of how Black people, and their experiences make some of us uncomfortable. This is unacceptable. She says that we can stand against this if we only use WOC and Black women when appropriate (Prisha, 2022). This will help NBWOC gain visibility in society while also charging towards uncomfortable conversations of preventing and destroying antiblackness. CONCLUSION NBWOC must be represented within research about WOC without overlooking the experiences of Black women. It has been seen that instead of authors using the term WOC to describe Black women, they use African American women or Black women to express their findings on Black women’s experiences. This has been deemed appropriate and is the best term (according to Black women) for them to be referred to as. Although it is critical to represent Black women in a field where they have previously been misrepresented or ignored, it is also critical that this past method is not continued for NBWOC in research as well. This can be avoided by stopping the misuse of the word WOC and/or including NBWOC in studies or surveys conducted for research 1116 RANGE centered on WOC. Dr. Nimisha Barton also suggests that for all WOC to be included in the research, NBWOC should start referring to themselves as WOC as well. “The first step is to recognize that never or even just rarely being made aware of your racial identity is, in and of itself, a sign of just how white passing and/ or white adjacent you are” (Barton, 2022). Once you recognize yourself as a POC, you can combat antiblackness within our society and finally allow your experiences to be included in research. Furthermore, it will emphasize the importance that Black women are women of color, but women of color are not Black women. This is important in preventing the harm of WOC as well as helping the visibility of WOC in research, academia, and professional settings. Footnote 1. Eurocentric features are defined as straight and light hair, large blue or green eyes, a small nose, or light skin tone (Dawson, 2019) BIBLIOGRAPHY Barton, N. (2022, December 28). Proximity to Whiteness: Anti-Blackness, People of Color, and the Struggle for Solidarity — Nimisha Barton, PhD. Nimisha Barton, PhD. 1117 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH https://www.drnimishabarton.com/redacted/ proximity-to-whitenessnbspanti-blackness-people-of- color-and-the-struggle-for-solidarity Berdahl, J. L., & Moore, C. (2006). Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy for minority women. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 426–436. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.2.426 Bowleg, L. (2012). The problem with the phrase women and minorities: Intersectionality—An important theoretical framework for public health. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 1267– 1273. Dawson, Gail A., Katherine A. Karl, and Joy V. Peluchette. “Hair Matters: Toward Understanding Natural Black Hair Bias in the Workplace.” Journal of leadership & organizational studies 26.3 (2019): 389–401. Print. Francis, Kula A., and Anna M. Clarke. Women of Color and Hair Bias in the Work Environment. 2023. Print. Greene, D Wendy. “Splitting Hairs: The Eleventh Circuit’s Take on Workplace Bans Against Black Women’s Natural Hair in EEOC v. Catastrophe Management Solutions.” University of Miami law review 71.4 (2017): 987. Print. 1118 RANGE Sesko, A. K., & Biernat, M. (2018). Invisibility of Black women: Drawing attention to individuality. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 21(1), 141–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430216663017 StyleSeat. (2023, May 15). 46% of people of color say employers could discrimination. do more StyleSeat Pro to decrease hair Beauty Blog. https://www.styleseat.com/blog/natural-hairdiscrimination-at-work/ Summers, LaTonya M., Tonya Davis, and Bilal Kosovac. “Hair We Grow Again: Upward Mobility, Career Compromise, and Natural Hair Bias in the Workplace.” The Career development quarterly 70.3 (2022): 202–214. Print. Tchenga, Doriane S Nguenang. “Black Women’s Hair and Natural Hairstyles in the Workplace: expanding the Definition of Race Under Title VII.” Virginia law review 107 (2021): 272–299. Print. The official CROWN Act. (n.d.). The Official CROWN Act. https://www.thecrownact.com/ Women of color – women in the states. (2015, June 1). Women in the States. https://statusofwomendata.org/ women-of-color/#spotlighteewoc 1119 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 57 Prized Possessions in Elderly Populations ANNA JO SHORT Faculty Mentor: James Tabery (Philosophy, University of Utah) INTRODUCTION Many people go through their lives collecting items. People have collections of rocks, unique buttons, or postcards. Some individuals 1120 form sentimental RANGE attachments to their belongings, and others prefer a minimalistic lifestyle that allows them to discard “clutter” at any chance. Some people hoard their belongings; holding onto meaningless items that many others deem as trash. I have observed these things in people of all ages, but since working as a receptionist for the past year at a local retirement home, I have also observed these behaviors in the elderly. I often find myself walking into a resident’s apartment to see their walls decorated with images, tables littered with books, and shelves stacked with trinkets. Amidst all of these belongings, I find myself wondering which item is the one they treasure the most. Then, I think of the saying, “You can’t take a U-Haul to Heaven.” If this is the case, and I’m fairly certain it is, I think of why they still own so many things; maybe it provides them with a sense of comfort while they wait out the inevitable? The first question I thought of is something other researchers have already pondered, and several studies have been conducted to determine the most commonly valued possession among the elderly. Many of these studies have reached the same conclusion; they agree that photographs are the most commonly cherished possessions of seniors (Tobin, 1996). 1121 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Additional research has discovered that there is a possible connection between the ownership of prized possessions and an elderly person’s happiness (Sherman & Newman, 1978). This is especially true when an older person moves to a new environment, such as a retirement home. Maintaining possession of their cherished item has been shown to help them ease into their new surroundings while nourishing their sense of self (Tobin, 1996). Unsurprisingly, many of the photos in the possession of elderly people feature images of the past and often include snapshots of people who have since passed away. The constant reminder of one’s family and their past can provide a sense of belonging to the owner of the photo, but it can also help to ease death anxiety (Tobin, 1996). I believe that photographs featuring deceased family members present a constant reminder of mortality. In turn, this may serve as a way for individuals, especially the elderly, to come to terms with their death. The senior living facility where I work houses about 265 residents in a ten-story building, and 1122 RANGE it incorporates apartments for residents in independent living, assisted living, and memory care. I am most familiar with the residents in independent living, as their health is often better than that of those in assisted living, which allows them to be more active. Because of our very active community, I chat with residents as they come up to my desk, or as they come and go from the building. As I said before, I also get to go inside the apartments to help them with small stuff, usually a television they can’t get to work. Because of my interactions with the same group of residents and my ability to peek into their homes, I figured that researching this topic for my project would be plausible and fun to conduct. Researching the topic of possessions and their impact on residents is practical at a retirement home that houses dozens of potential interviewees. Previous studies have concluded that photos are seniors’ most cherished possession, and the ownership of such improves their quality of life. I found this to be true in my research, but I also found that these cherished possessions have an impact on the anxiety an elderly person has regarding death. 1123 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH INTERVIEWS Resident #1, George I began my interviews with a resident with whom I share the closest connection. I will call him George. George usually finds himself sitting next to me in an empty chair behind the receptionist’s desk because he likes talking to me so much. I would say he likes to have conversations with me, but, I listen to him more than I speak. He repeatedly retells the same dozen stories, and I believe I have all of his stories memorized. Yet, I don’t mind listening to the renditions because he is an older gentleman with a great heart. I can see his genuine appreciation for having a friend, and I am more than happy to be that person for him. George’s history is particularly interesting. He is a Salt Lake native. He was born and raised in this city and graduated from East High School. Among the stories he tells me of his past are tales of traveling Europe with some notable Catholic priests, golfing with celebrities, his father’s highprofile involvement in the Democratic party, 1124 RANGE and stories of all the homes his family used to own. However, the most remarkable of these stories is that of his great-great-grandfather, John Moses Browning. That name should sound familiar, and what should sound even more familiar is this man’s most famous invention: the Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR). John M. Browning was born in 1855, in Ogden, Utah. At thirteen years old, Browning crafted his first gun while working in his father’s shop (Rattenbury, 2024). Throughout his life, Browning patented over 120 individual firearm mechanisms and sold them to name companies such as Winchester, Colt, and Remington (Rattenbury, 2024). George often tells me that he wishes his great- great-grandfather was a better businessman. He tells me that Browning was too young and uneducated to have a fair hand in the profitable inventions he made. George also continually quotes Browning, who supposedly always said, “If it’s good enough for Uncle Sam, it’s good enough for me!” This was a statement he made regarding the BAR, which the U.S. Army used, and its mechanisms are 1125 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH still applied to modern guns today (Rattenbury, 2024). George has several items in his possession; he has an older doll collection that belonged to his late mother, he collects rocks and Native American artifacts, and he has an impressive gathering of golf paraphernalia to show for his decades of dedication to the sport. However, the one thing he does not have anymore is Browning’s original M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle. Before moving to the retirement home where he currently resides, he lived in a different location. Upon moving into that location, they made George get rid of his guns. I guess they didn’t think it was wise for a then 85-yearold to have a rifle collection while living in an elderly community. I wanted to snap an image of his most prized possession, but since the gun was no longer under his ownership, doing so was impossible. However, a quick Google search of the gun yields thousands of photos of the machinery. But, George insisted that I not include one of those photos in my project. Instead, he had me 1126 RANGE take a photo of a framed image on his wall that pictured his great-great-grandfather holding the BAR. It hurts my heart to think that such a valuable item that undoubtedly had a worldwide impact, whether for good or for bad, is in the hands of someone whom George may not even know. Resident #2, Dolly The next resident I interviewed is someone I will call Dolly. Dolly is currently 92, and she is a strong, faithful member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Like George, Dolly was born in Salt Lake in 1932. She graduated from South High School (which is now a part of SLCC’s campus) at the age of seventeen in the year 1949. But, according to her, she was too young to get a job. So, she attended a business college run by the LDS church. About a year into her studies at the business college, Dolly had established a relationship with a man named Wesley. Dolly’s mother 1127 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH saw that their relationship was getting more serious, so she suggested that Dolly find employment now that she was old enough to hold a job. Doing so would allow Dolly to have some funds if she were to marry Wesley, whom Dolly affectionately calls Wes. The church had connections with a local insurance company, so Dolly became employed as a receptionist at the agency. In February of 1952, Dolly married the love of her life, Wesley, at the age of eighteen in the Salt Lake City Temple. As I interviewed her, she lovingly recalled her relationship with her late husband, to whom she was married for 61 years. Their loving marriage physically ended in 2012 when he passed away. Dolly had met him at church. One night she attended a church dance, and she danced with Wes. He scuffed up her new suede shoes at the dance, and she felt annoyed that her shoes were already marked up. But, to her dismay, the situation worsened when Wes started dancing with another woman. She hadn’t attended the dance as Wes’s date, but she felt fond of him and didn’t like to see him entertain the other 1128 RANGE girls. So, she left the dance early and walked home. But, to her surprise, Wes hadn’t forgotten about her. Roughly half an hour after she arrived home, Dolly’s father called for her. Wes was at the door, and he was distraught that she had left the dance early. They began to date after that night, and the rest was history. Shortly after their marriage, Wes was called to serve in the military, and he was stationed in Wisconsin. Upon going to Wisconsin, he insisted that Dolly, his young bride who was now pregnant, accompany him. She followed him to Wisconsin, but when her due date neared, she traveled back to Utah to give birth to her first child while surrounded by support from her family. I asked her how she felt about her husband not being in the delivery room. Her answer surprised me; she said that she was alone in the delivery room, and it didn’t even occur to her that her husband should be present. She told me that his absence didn’t matter, as back then they administered so many strong drugs to laboring women that she doesn’t even remember the births of her first three children. 1129 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Dolly ended up having “seven + one children.” She likes to say it this way because her youngest son, Nathaniel, was born ten years after their seventh child, so she always felt that he had grown up as a single child. Dolly and Wes raised their children in the LDS church, and Dolly served as the town’s crossing guard for a local elementary school. Wes often called Dolly a “quick change artist” because she was always in her Sunday best, in her crossing guard uniform, or wearing an apron as she bustled around the house tending to the children. His statement is accurate, as Darlene wore many hats. However, the role that Darlene valued the most was being a mother. Her most valuable possession isn’t an item that you sit on the shelf or a dazzling piece of jewelry that you keep in a chest. Instead, it is her family. Her mother and father, her brother and sister, her late husband and their eight children, their thirty-five grandchildren, eighty great-grandchildren, and one great-great-grandchild are the most valuable things in her life. Although it is impossible to gather all of these people together for one big family picture, Dolly was able to refer to two portraits that hung on the wall of her apartment. One of the framed images showed her children and their spouses, and the other showed her 1130 RANGE and Wes, their children and spouses, and some extended family members. These images served as a helpful point of reference when she explained her family’s dynamic, and they provided me with a visual of what her most prized “possessions” were. Dolly told me that she feels at peace knowing that she will see her deceased relatives when she dies and that her living family will join her in the future. Her belief in the teachings of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints provides her with this knowledge, and the rest is out of her control. These are the images she showed me: 1131 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Prized Possessions & Happiness Although George and Dolly didn’t technically identify photos as being their favorite item, they both referred to images that contained a visual representation of their actual prized possession. Interestingly enough, the identification of images as a person’s most prized possession is more common among the elderly rather than the younger generations. After conducting research among three generations, a study concluded that the middle and youngest generations valued furniture and stereos the most, respectively (Csikszentmihalyi & Rochberg-Halton, 1981). This is likely because as people age they find themselves downsizing and decluttering their spaces, which leaves 1132 RANGE less room for bulky items. On the other hand, younger generations usually have more space in their growing homes for larger items. Both Dolly and George reside in a retirement home, which undoubtedly restricts how much they own. For example, George doesn’t own the BAR anymore, and Dolly doesn’t house her entire family in her onebedroom apartment. Dolly told me that she tries to get rid of her material belongings as often as possible. A change in living arrangements has forced George to do the same, although he resists it. He does, however, proudly display the picture of his great-greatgrandfather. Similarly, Dolly clings to the images of her family because the photographs portray something that is far more valuable than any material item. This change in space is so common among elderly people, and a study conducted among residents in a nursing home found that those who managed to maintain ownership of their prized possessions were happier (Wapner et al., 1990). Those who were able to display their prized possession had also adjusted to their new living spaces better, leading to higher levels of satisfaction in their new situation (Wapner et al., 1990). Elderly residents enjoy placing their treasures around 1133 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH their new room to express themselves and help them feel at home in an unfamiliar place. One of the most important aspects of material possessions is their stable appearance. Material possessions are very important in the fact that they remain unchanged over time. The concrete items unphased by the passage of decades hold a sense of immortality within them and serve as an everlasting reminder of someone’s past identity (Tobin, 1996). Maintaining possession of the objects seniors adore the most aids in providing stability in a changing environment (Tobin, 1996). These symbolic items, whatever they may be, assist in “the continuity of self.” This is particularly essential during a period of life that may erode all sense of self and independence as the body ages and daily tasks become harder to perform (Tobin, 1996). Once again, these items are even more vital to happiness and adaptation to change when an elderly person transitions between living arrangements, especially to a retirement home or a nursing home. The unchanging nature of a photograph freezes a moment in time and preserves it forever. “The photograph not only represents what was once embodied in reality; eventually, it substitutes for that lost, irretrievable reality” (Gibson, 2008). This provides 1134 RANGE further evidence that when a senior settles into a new home, it’s not just the familiar decor that provides them with comfort, but their most cherished possession; most commonly identified as a photo. The photo likely features an image of the past, including family members and a happy memory in one frame. Although my study pool is small, the two people I interviewed in many ways reflect the findings of previous studies and the connection between happiness and cherished materials. Firstly, George mentioned that the item he places the most value in is no longer in his possession. Contrary to this, Dolly’s prized possessions, although not objects, are still alive and visit her frequently. This means that George has no interaction with his prized possession, and he cannot physically show it to others. Dolly, on the other hand, has living family members whom she can introduce to others and invite to her home. These factors may play a role in their different levels of happiness. For example, I previously mentioned that George repeatedly tells me versions of the same tales over and over, but what I failed to include was the absolute yearning he expresses to be young again, and the sadness and discontent he holds for his current living situation. He tells me of his travels and rich life experiences, many 1135 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of which some people would never even begin to dream of having the chance to experience. But, instead of fondly reminiscing on these memories, he always ends the stories with sorrow and expresses his jealousy that I am young and can “go out on the town whenever I want.” He thinks he misses out on everything good in life. He says the retirement home isn’t his “home,” and that he wants nothing more than to just leave. Dolly, conversely, seems completely content with her living situation and with the fact that she resides in a senior living facility. When she reflects on her past, she expresses gratitude for the hardships she endured and cherishes the fact that she created such a beautiful family. I’ve never heard her express that she wishes to be responsible for a family of ten again, but she tells me “It was so fun to have all those kids.” I imagine she’s forever grateful that she put herself through motherhood with eight children, but her hard work is done, and now she can reap the blessings by witnessing her family multiply exponentially. She knows what it is like to work towards something and be rewarded for it. She spent her entire life building something, and now her legacy lives on. As other academic studies conducted on the correlation between happiness and ownership of cherished possessions suggest, this difference in joy between 1136 RANGE Geroge and Dolly may be due to what items they have left to memorialize who they were. Specifically, their access to the item they value the most. Both have images that contain a photo of their most valued item, but Dolly’s image represents something she can still obtain; while George is unable to access the object in his photo. Prized Possessions & Death Anxiety Aside from increasing the happiness in a senior’s life, possessions can also help ease the aging process and eventual acceptance of death around them, as well as their future death. This is likely the case because many photographs kept by the elderly act as a memorial for those who have passed away (Holst-Warhaft, 2005). Both photos that represent Dolly and George’s prized possessions show individuals who have died. In Dolly’s family photo, her husband has since passed away, along with other relatives posing in the image. Browning is no longer alive, and he is the sole person in the image that George has hanging on his wall. This continual reminder of the temporary status of life calls to attention the mortality of human life. Often referred to as death anxiety, this feeling can be explained as the fear of the erasure of one’s existence (Greenberg et al., 1994). Death anxiety can be felt at any point in 1137 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH a person’s life, but it is likely to peak when a person knows they are nearing death, such as someone who is approaching the end of their natural life span (Chuin & Choo, n.d.). This period when someone is anticipating death, a state in which the self no longer exists, can be excruciating for people who have not accepted the idea of their death (Tomer, 1992). However, other studies have shown that the elderly population as a whole may not have the highest levels of death anxiety, and it can vary between individuals (Fortner & Neimeyer, 1999). Death elicits many feelings as a person thinks of their fate and the life they have lived to that point. Prized possessions, which have an established link to an elderly’s happiness, may impact death anxiety among seniors differently. For instance, Dolly told me that she hopes to not die at Thanksgiving because that’s when her mother and grandmother died. She said she would hate to die during Christmas as that would be inconvenient for her family. Instead, she expressed that she wouldn’t mind dying by the New Year. Every time I hear a resident discuss their death in such a nonchalant tone, I am always shocked that they can speak about something so serious in such a casual way. I am continually reminded that some people at this stage in life do not fear death, but yearn for it. While I don’t 1138 RANGE believe Dolly necessarily yearns for it, I think she has fully accepted the prospect that she will pass away shortly, and aside from scheduling conflicts that may arise as a result of her death, she doesn’t have much anxiety surrounding this event. This may be due to her sense of fulfillment in life, content with her current situation, and even access to her “prized possessions” that feature loved ones who have passed on. George, however, does not openly discuss his death. I feel that he has a much higher level of anxiety regarding his death than Dolly. He does recall all the events that have occurred in his life, which is common when someone nears death. But, reflecting on one’s life may evoke regret (Lehto & Stein, 2009). I think George regrets getting old, even though that was never under his control. His discontent with his life makes me suspect that he feels there is still much more to be accomplished. Because of this, he wishes to not die so he can have the chance to achieve the rest of his goals. I believe he hopes that the retirement home is a temporary situation while other things are worked out, and at some point, he can reinstate his life of freedom and travel. I know he would dislike the senior living facility where he currently resides to be his last home in life. I suppose he has 1139 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH anxiety thinking that until his death, this might be his last living arrangement. George’s lack of acknowledging the inevitable and living in the past produces death anxiety. This makes me worried that he won’t know to seize the present time until it’s too late. My observations of George’s behavior, especially about his death, make me wonder if his lack of acceptance could be due in part to his prized possession. Although I’m sure there are a plethora of other factors that play into his well-being and his denial of death, his lack of connection to his prized possession may partially contribute to how he feels about his aging process. His discontent may be connected to the fact that the image showcasing his prized possession presents an item that he no longer owns. Rather than sparking feelings of pride due to his family history, this image might cause him to feel longing for something that he no longer has. Dolly, on the other hand, still has access to her favorite things that are displayed in the image. Although the pictures freeze a look of youth and show faces untouched by time, she was still very present during the time the image was taken. So, the memories elicited by the family portrait that hangs on her wall are of admiration instead of yearning, because she feels a sense of identity and self 1140 RANGE in the image, rather than longing for a period that can never be revisited. CONCLUSION It’s human nature for people to collect material items. Especially in Western cultures, where brands and consumerism are driven by capitalism. Everyone competes to own the most of the best items. After decades of life on earth, elderly people have collected more than younger generations. But, which of these items are the most valuable in a sentimental sense, regardless of their monetary worth? And, how do the elderly decide which of their belongings is the one they cherish the most? Well, after analyzing previous studies conducted on this topic and collecting data from residents whom I personally interviewed, I have concluded that photos are the most valued objects among residents. However, I further discovered that it isn’t about the photo itself, but the subject featured in the photos. For Dolly, it was her beloved family members. As for George, it was one of his ancestors showing his famous invention. My results also matched those of previous studies that claimed the possession of a cherished item may increase 1141 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH life satisfaction among elders, as they can find a sense of identity and self in an object that doesn’t change over time. This aids in one’s transition between living arrangements as well. Displaying photos that show a loved one who has passed away can be a continual reminder of mortality, which can invoke self-reflection and one’s feelings about their death. This can decrease death anxiety if an elder grows to accept their fate, but as I observed in one of my interviewees, this is not always the case. Neither Dolly nor George had plans for the photos, nor the objects they depicted, after they passed away. I gathered that the things featured in the photos were much more important to them than any plan they could create for inheritance. BIBLIOGRAPHY Chuin, C. L., & Choo, Y. C. (n.d.) Age, Gender, and Religiosity as Related to Death Anxiety. Sunway Academic Journal. https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/ Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Rochberg-Halton, E. (1981). The Meaning of Things: Domestic Symbols and the Self. Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 224927533_The_Meaning_of_Things_Domestic_Symb ols_and_the_Self. 1142 RANGE Fortner, B. V., & Neimeyer, R. A. (1999). Death Anxiety in Older Adults: A Quantitative Review. Taylor & Francis Online. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ epdf/10.1080/074811899200920?needAccess=true Gibson, M. (2008). Objects of the Dead: Mourning and Memory in Everyday Life. Melbourne University Publishing. https://books.google.com/ bookshl=en&lr=&id=2kZUgcJvcswC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&d q=elderly+and+possession+of+photos+of+loved+ones&ots=i 83eL3k6M&sig=YDKXPfFEAhBuB9o7FlZsMGkcrq4#v =onepage&q&f=false Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Simon, L., & Breus, M. (1994). Role of Consciousness and Accessibility of Death-Related Thoughts in Mortality Salience Effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/ 1995-05334001.pdfauth_token=ded9f79b5cde4e15a5d8 b733dbbe0edcd0cb0d8f. Holst-Warhaft, G. (2005) Remembering the Dead: Laments and Photographs. Duke University Press. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/185345 Lehto, R. H., & Stein, K. F. (2009). Death Anxiety: An Analysis of an Evolving Concept. Research and Theory 1143 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH for Nursing Practice: An International Journal. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/ 2027.42/66464/ Death%20Anxiety%20An%20Analysis%20of%20an%2 0Evolving%20Concept.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Rattenbury, R. C. (2024). John Moses Browning. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/ John-Moses-Browning Sherman, E., & Newman, E. S. (1978). The Meaning of Cherished Personal Possessions for the Elderly. National Library of Medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ 892918/. Tobin, S. S. (1996). Cherished Possessions: The Meaning of Things. American Society on Aging. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44877948?seq=3. Tomer, A. (1992). Death Anxiety in Adult LifeTheoretical Perspectives. Pennsylvania State University. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/ 07481189208252594needAccess=true Wapner, S., Demick, J., & Redondo, J. P. (1990). Cherished Possessions and Adaptation of Older People 1144 RANGE to Nursing Homes. National Library of Medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2272702/. 1145 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 58 Research Reflection by Anna Jo Short ANNA JO SHORT Faculty Mentor: James Tabery (Philosophy, University of Utah) Conducting my research was enjoyable due to the freedom I had to dictate what topic I wanted to investigate and how I wanted to collect information. I didn’t want to focus solely on death while questioning 1146 RANGE the residents I chose to interview, but I wanted to tie my results back to the topic in some way. I wanted to avoid discussing death with the residents too much as I didn’t want to upset them. But, as I came to learn, not all elderly people are unsettled by the idea of their death, and neither should I. My time in the Introduction to Medical Humanities course, instructed by Dr. James Tabery, taught me this as well. This course, which was the class I conducted my research for, helped me alter my view on death. Initially, I viewed death as a fearful, emotional event. And while I still feel this in some ways, I also have come to see death as a biological process. This mechanical view of the body aided me in viewing the body’s aging process as a scientific matter and allowed me to detach from fearful emotions when discussing the prospect of death with my interviewees.||As for my future goals, my employment at the retirement home has guided me towards healthcare administration. I want to be involved in healthcare, and I feel that working on the administrative side would allow me to enact change. This research, which helped me get closer to two residents, provided me with insight into how elderly people feel about the past, present, and future. My research allowed me to foster closer connections with these residents and their unique situations, which will undoubtedly help me maintain a focus on residents/ 1147 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH patients in the healthcare system while I advance in my career. 1148 RANGE 59 Understanding Autism in Children With Congenital Myotonic Dystrophy HEBA ALHAMDANI Faculty Mentor: Melissa Dixon (Human Genetics, University of Utah) BACKGROUND Congenital myotonic dystrophy (CDM) is a severe, multisystemic neuromuscular 1149 disorder frequently OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH associated with cognitive and developmental impairments (Hageman et al., 1993; Harper, 2001). Recent studies suggest elevated autism spectrum disorder (ASD) traits in CDM, especially among children with comorbid intellectual disability (ID) (Angeard et al., 2017; Ekström et al., 2008; Douniol et al., 2008; Douniol et al., 2012). However, specific predictors of ASD traits and behavioral profiles linked to ID in CDM are not well understood. OBJECTIVE To characterize specific autism-related traits (i.e., social communication difficulties, restricted and repetitive behaviors, sensory sensitivities, daily living skills deficits, and behavioral dysregulation) in children with CDM and to examine their associations with intellectual functioning and other clinical characteristics. METHODS Thirty-two children (ages 3-13) with genetically confirmed CDM enrolled in a natural history study were assessed. Following informed consent, participants completed medical and neurological evaluations, physical function testing, and neuropsychological assessment. Intelligence was assessed using standardized cognitive tests (Wechsler 2003; Wechsler 2002); 1150 RANGE adaptive functioning was evaluated using the caregiverreport (Sparrow et al., 2005). Autism traits were assessed with three standardized proxy measures (Ehlers et al., 1999; Bodfish et al., 2000; Rutter et al., 2003). Intellectual disability (ID) classification was determined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (APA, 2013), criteria. Group differences in autism traits were examined using independent samples t-tests. Logistic regression was used to evaluate predictors of autism screening positivity, including ID status, age, sex, CTG repeat size, and speech delay. RESULTS Speech delay did not significantly predict ASD screening positivity. Intellectual disability was the strongest predictor: children with ID were over 65 times more likely to screen positive for ASD. Younger age was also associated with higher odds of ASD positivity. Children with ID exhibited significantly elevated ASD scores across all measures, particularly in social communication domains. CONCLUSION Intellectual disability, not speech delay, was the primary driver of ASD traits in CDM. These findings support the 1151 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH need for early, targeted neuropsychological screening and ASD-focused assessment in this high-risk population. REFERENCES American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association. Angeard, N., Huerta, E., Jacquette, A., Cohen, D., Xavier, J., Gargiulo, M., Servais, L., Eymard, B., & Héron, D. (2017). Childhood-onset form of myotonic dystrophy type 1 and autism spectrum disorder: Is there comorbidity? Neuromuscular Disorders, 28(3), 216–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.nmd.2017.12.006 Angeard, N., Jacquette, A., Gargiulo, M., Radvanyi, H., Moutier, S., Eymard, B., & Héron, D. (2011). A new window on neurocognitive dysfunction in the childhood form of myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1). Neuromuscular Disorders, 21(7), 468–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nmd.2011.04.009 Bodfish, J. W., Symons, F. J., Parker, D. E., & Lewis, M. H. (2000). Repetitive Behavior Scale–Revised (RBS- 1152 RANGE R) [Database record]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/t17338-000 Brook, J., McCurrach, M. E., Harley, H. G., Buckler, A. J., Church, D., Aburatani, H., Hunter, K., Stanton, V. P., Thirion, J., Hudson, T., Sohn, R., Zemelman, B., Snell, R. G., Rundle, S. A., Crow, S., Davies, J., Shelbourne, P., Buxton, J., Jones, C., Housman, D. E. (1992). Molecular basis of myotonic dystrophy: Expansion of a trinucleotide (CTG) repeat at the 3′ end of a transcript encoding a protein kinase family member. Cell, 68(4), 799–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 0092-8674(92)90154-5 Douniol, M., Jacquette, A., Cohen, D., Bodeau, N., Rachidi, L., Angeard, N., Cuisset, J., Vallée, L., Eymard, B., Plaza, M., Héron, D., & Guilé, J. (2012). Psychiatric and cognitive phenotype of childhood myotonic dystrophy type 1. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 54(10), 905–911. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012.04379.x Douniol, M., Xavier, J., Jacquette, A., Afenjar, A., Angeard, N., Heron, D., & Cohen, D. (2007). Phénotype psychiatrique des maladies neuromusculaires de l’enfant: revue de la littérature. Neuropsychiatrie De 1153 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH L Enfance Et De L Adolescence, 56(2), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurenf.2007.03.006 Echenne, B., & Bassez, G. (2013). Congenital and infantile myotonic dystrophy. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 1387–1393. https://doi.org/10.1016/ b978-0-444-59565-2.00009-5 Ehlers, S., Gillberg, C. & Wing, L. (1999). A Screening Questionnaire for Asperger Syndrome and Other HighFunctioning Autism Spectrum Disorders in School Age Children. J Autism Dev Disord 29, 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023040610384 Ekström, A., Hakenäs‐Plate, L., Samuelsson, L., Tulinius, M., & Wentz, E. (2008). Autism spectrum conditons in myotonic dystrophy type 1: A study on 57 individuals with congenital and childhood forms. American Journal Neuropsychiatric of Medical Genetics, Genetics 147B(6), Part B 918–926. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.30698 Ekström, A., Hakenäs‐plate, L., Tulinius, M., & Wentz, E. (2009). Cognition and adaptive skills in myotonic dystrophy type 1: a study of 55 individuals with congenital and childhood 1154 forms. Developmental RANGE Medicine & Child Neurology, 51(12), 982–990. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03300.x Fu, Y. H., Pizzuti, A., Fenwick, R. G., King, J., Rajnarayan, S., Dunne, P. W., Dubel, J., Nasser, G. A., Ashizawa, T., De Jong, P., Wieringa, B., Korneluk, R., Perryman, M. B., Epstein, H. F., & Caskey, C. T. (1992). An unstable triplet repeat in a gene related to myotonic muscular dystrophy. Science, 255(5049), 1256–1258. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1546326 Hageman, A., Gabreëls, F., Liem, K., Renkawek, K., & Boon, J. (1993). Congenital myotonic dystrophy; a report on thirteen cases and a review of the literature. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 115(1), 95–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-510x(93)90072-7 Health, D. of. (2023). IBIS-PH – Complete Health Indicator Report – Birth rates. Utah.gov. https://ibis.utah.gov/ibisph-view/indicator/ complete_profile/BrthRat.html?utm_source Hilton-Jones, D. (2002). Myotonic dystrophy, 3rd edition: major problems in neurology series, No 37: By Peter S Harper (Pp 436, pound55.00). Published by W B Saunders, London, 2001. ISBN 0 7020 2152 0. Journal 1155 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 72(3), 422a–4422. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.72.3.422-a Howe, S. J., Lapidus, D., Hull, M., Yeaw, J., Stevenson, T., & Sampson, J. B. (2022a). Healthcare resource utilization, total costs, and comorbidities among patients with myotonic dystrophy using U.S. insurance claims data from 2012 to 2019. Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13023-022-02241-9 Howe, S. J., Lapidus, D., Hull, M., Yeaw, J., Stevenson, T., & Sampson, J. B. (2022b). Correction: Healthcare resource utilization, total costs, and comorbidities among patients with myotonic dystrophy using U.S. insurance claims data from 2012 to 2019. Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13023-022-02401-x Johnson, N. E., Butterfield, R. J., Mayne, K., Newcomb, T., Imburgia, C., Dunn, D., Duval, B., Feldkamp, M. L., & Weiss, R. B. (2021). Population-Based Prevalence of Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1 Using Genetic Analysis of Statewide Blood Screening Program. Neurology, 96(7), e1045–e1053. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000011425 1156 RANGE Lord C, Luyster RJ, Gotham K, Guthrie W. (2012). Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition (ADOS-2) Manual (Part II): Toddler Module. Torrance, CA: Western Psychological Services. Prendergast, P., Magalhaes, S., & Campbell, C. (2010). Congenital myotonic dystrophy in a national registry. Paediatrics & Child Health, 15(8), 514–518. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/15.8.514 Rutter M, Lord C, Bailey A. (2003). The Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ). WPS. STATA Corp. (2020). STATA (Version 17.0, BE-Basic Edition) [Software]. STATA Corp Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—4th Edition (WISC-IV®). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment. Wechsler, D. (2002). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—3rd Edition (WPPSI-III®). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment. 1157 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 60 The Relationship of Demographics to Adverse Events Following Immunization Within the Utah BEEHIVE Study Population TYLER ALLISON; DANIKA NAKAI; FEIYUN YAN; JOSHUA GRIFFIN; JACOB MCKELL; HONGWEI ZHAO; ANDREW L. PHILLIPS; GERMAN L. ELLSWORTH; MATTHEW S. THIESE; AND SARANG K. YOON Faculty Mentor: Sarang K. Yoon (Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Utah) 1158 RANGE INTRODUCTION Misinformation surrounding COVID-19 vaccines has contributed to public scepticism, particularly regarding vaccine safety and potential adverse effects.[2] Antivaccine narratives have lowered vaccination intent among those Concerns susceptible about to Adverse such messaging.[2] Events Following Immunization (AEFI) may be a key factor in this hesitancy. Understanding how AEFI relates to demographic factors such as sex, race, and ethnicity is essential for addressing public concerns, improving vaccine confidence, and informing public health strategies. To increase knowledge related to AEFI of COVID-19 vaccines, we aimed to determine whether there is a relationship between AEFI, and the demographic factors using data collected in the BEEHIVE study. METHODS Data used was collected in the BEEHIVE study: A randomized, double-blind vaccine efficacy study. Participants were recruited from the Greater Salt Lake City area from Nov 2023 to Mar 2024. Vaccinated participants were randomized 1:1 into either the 1159 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Novavax (protein subunit) or the Pfizer (mRNA) booster groups. Participants completed an online enrolment survey, and an in-person vaccination visit. Booster recipients were monitored for adverse events, completing post-vaccination surveys (PVS) on Days 1, 2, and 7. For our analysis, boosted participants who finished 2 PVS (n=868) and were not withdrawn were considered. PVS answers were categorized to symptom/ no-symptom groups and answers were sorted into demographic and vaccination type categories. Each group’s percentage answer to each symptom was determined by normalizing the number of each response by the group size. Additional analysis was performed on symptoms shown to have a p-value less than 0.05 determined by a hypothesis z-test between group and non-group responses. Odds ratios and confidence intervals were determined for these cases by comparing the answers of respondents categorized into that group against the respondents categorized in all other groups. RESULTS In the vaccine comparison, the difference between the Novavax (n = 432) and Pfizer (n = 435) vaccines was significant for all symptoms except for nausea. In the race and ethnicity categories, white respondents (n = 783) showed significant difference from non-white 1160 RANGE groups for injection site swelling (p = 0.002) and muscle pain (p = 0.044). Hispanic respondents (n = 98) showed significant difference from non-Hispanic groups for muscle pain (p =0.01). In the sex assigned at birth comparison, the difference in symptoms between male (n = 390) and female (n = 477) was significant for injection site swelling (p = 0.00008), fatigue (p = 0.04), and nausea (p = 0.003). See figures A – B and G – J. Odds ratios and confidence intervals for significant symptoms determined the following: each symptom recorded except for nausea was more likely to occur in participants who received the Pfizer vaccine, Female respondents were more likely to experience injection site pain, injection site swelling, fatigue, and nausea, Hispanic respondents were more likely to experience muscle pain than non-Hispanic participants and white respondents were less likely to experience muscle pain and injection site swelling than other groups. See figures C – F. CONCLUSIONS Within the BEEHIVE study population, AEFI was shown to be affected by race, ethnicity, sex assigned at birth, and vaccine type. The sweeping differences in AEFI likelihood shown between the Novavax (protein subunit) and Pfizer (mRNA) vaccines suggest that AEFI 1161 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH is less commonly experienced by individuals who receive the Novavax vaccine compared with the Pfizer vaccine. Similar conclusions can also be drawn between female and male participants, suggesting that participants assigned female at birth are more likely to experience AEFI. Race and ethnicity are also suggested to influence AEFI, and further testing with larger datasets is needed for future studies. BIBLIOGRAPHY Biella, Marco, Graziella Orrù, Rebecca Ciacchini, Ciro Conversano, Donatella Marazziti, Gemignani. “Anti-Vaccination Attitude Vaccination Intentions Covid-19: Against and Angelo and A Retrospective Cross-Sectional Study Investigating the Role of Media Consumption.” Clinical Neuropsychiatry 20, no. 4 (n.d.): 252–63. Tran, Van Nhi, Hoang An Nguyen, Thi Thanh An Le, Thanh Tung Truong, Phuong Thao Nguyen, and Thi Thu Hoai Nguyen. “Factors Influencing Adverse Events Following Immunization with AZD1222 in Vietnamese Adults during First Half of 2021.” Vaccine 39, no. 44 (October 22, 2021): 6485–91. Werner, Felix, Nikoletta Zeschick, Thomas Kühlein, Philipp Steininger, Klaus Überla, Isabelle Kaiser, Maria 1162 RANGE Sebastião, Susann Hueber, and Lisette Warkentin. “Patient-Reported Reactogenicity and Safety of COVID-19 Vaccinations vs. Comparator Vaccinations: A Comparative Observational Cohort Study.” BMC Medicine 21, no. 1 (September 19, 2023): 358. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-023-03064-6. 1163 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 61 Role of the Oncogene E26 Transformation-Specific Sequence-1 in Arteriovenous Fistula Maturation Failure EMMA BREEN Faculty Mentor: Yan-Ting Shiu (Internal Medicine, University of Utah) Chronic kidney disease (CKD) affects about 15% of the 1164 RANGE adult population in the United States (U.S.) [1]. CKD has five stages, the last of which is called end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), or kidney failure, and requires transplantation or dialysis therapies. In the U.S., almost 70% of ESKD patients require hemodialysis for survival. The national costs of treatment for CKD are significant. In the U.S., one patient’s hemodialysis treatment costs $90,000 of Medicare expenditure per year [2]. For hemodialysis to function, a vascular access point must be created where blood is drawn from the body to the dialysis machine, cleaned, and then returned to the body. The most successful and economical vascular access option is the arteriovenous fistula (AVF) as it lasts the longest [2]. An AVF is surgically created by anastomosing the artery and vein, usually in an upper extremity [2]. After AVF creation, it must mature to become useful. Maturation failure often occurs in patients due to an excess of cell proliferation into the AVF’s lumen, called neointimal hyperplasia. When AVF maturation failure occurs, blood can no longer flow through the vascular access point and hemodialysis cannot occur. Neointimal hyperplasia occurs due to proinflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules that are released after the vascular injury inherent to AVF creation surgery. 1165 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH E26 transformation-specific sequence-1, or ETS-1, is an oncogene that has previously been associated with AVF maturation failure in a mouse model. The literature has previously established that ETS-1 causes neointima formation after endovascular injury by activating proinflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules in a mouse model [3], [4], [5], [6]. This work investigates whether ETS-1 also causes neointima formation after AVF creation surgery in a rat model. This was done by observing the effects of ETS-1 gene knockout through histological analyses of ETS-1 knockout (KO) rats and wild-type (WT) rats with AVFs and induced CKD. Morphometric analysis was used to quantify the open lumen percentage of AVFs in all four groups. Between the four groups, no statistically significant difference in open lumen percentage was found at both the week 1 and week 4 timepoints, likely due to small sample sizes. Further translational research into inhibition of the ETS-1 pathway may be worthwhile and lead to the development of therapies for prevention of neointimal hyperplasia and promotion of successful AVF maturation. By investigating ETS-1 inhibition as a potential therapy for neointimal hyperplasia formation prevention, this research could lead to improved AVF maturation rates, reducing the need for revisit surgeries and enhancing the quality of life for CKD patients. 1166 RANGE REFERENCE [1] “Chronic Kidney Disease Basics | Chronic Kidney Disease Initiative | CDC.” Accessed: May 09, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://wwwdev.cdc.gov/ kidneydisease/basics.html [2] A. M. Marsh, R. Genova, and J. L. Buicko Lopez, “Dialysis Fistula,” in StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 2024. Accessed: May 09, 2024. [Online]. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ books/NBK559085/ [3] W. Feng et al., “The Transcription Factor E26 Transformation–Specific Sequence-1 Mediates Neointima Formation in Arteriovenous Fistula,” J Am Soc Nephrol, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 475–487, Mar. 2014, doi: 10.1681/ASN.2013040424. [4] Y.-T. Shiu and E. A. Jaimes, “Transcription Factor ETS-1 and Reactive Oxygen Species: Role in Vascular and Renal Injury,” Antioxidants (Basel), vol. 7, no. 7, p. 84, Jul. 2018, doi: 10.3390/antiox7070084. [5] H. M. Northrup, Y.-T. E. Shiu, C. J. Tey, Y. He, and E. A. Jaimes, “Roles of Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 and ETS Proto-Oncogene 1 in Rodent Arteriovenous Fistula Development: TH- OR47,” Journal of the 1167 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH American Society of Nephrology, vol. 34, no. 11S, p. 14, Nov. 2023, doi: 10.1681/ASN.20233411S114d. [6] Y. Zhan et al., “Ets-1 is a critical regulator of Ang IImediated vascular inflammation and remodeling,” J Clin Invest, vol. 115, no. 9, pp. 2508–2516, Sep. 2005, doi: 10.1172/JCI24403. 1168 RANGE 62 Does Endothelial Cell Specific Knockout of EphA2 Protect Against Experimental Cerebral Malaria? NIA BROOKS; TRACEY LAMB; AND MARSHALL ROEDEL Faculty Mentor: Tracey Lamb (Pathology, University of Utah) 1169 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Did you know that the World Health Organization in 2012 reported that of the global population, those found in 109 different countries carried a 50% risk of malaria? Not only that, but the most vulnerable population under this concerning statistic happen to be young children. This data is highlighted in the following paper, Cerebral malaria – Mysteries at the Blood Brain Barrier, where authors L. Rénia, Wu Howland S., et. al. present the main argument is to prove that the blood brain barrier plays an essential role in the complications brought on by the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria, a severe form of malaria. According to the 2023 World Malaria report, the World Health Organization (WHO) African Region hosted approximately 94% of malaria cases, as well as 95% of malaria-induced deaths in 2022. As mentioned previously, young children are particularly at risk for severe cases and fatalities. In 2022, children under the age of 5 years made up 78% of deaths in the WHO African Region. To place the severity of this staggering majority into perspective, the second most affected region, WHO South-East Asia Region, only made up 10% of malaria cases and 3% of deaths in the same year. With global efforts, WHO has recorded that 44 countries and 1 territory have been certified as malaria1170 RANGE free. Countries in the African Region make up roughly 11% of those who have successfully eradicated malaria. One reason why African countries struggle to eradicate malaria may be due to the climate. Increasing temperatures and environmental rainfall and humidity may worsen efforts due to facilitating the idea environment for mosquitoes. Malaria is a vector-caused disease. Vector-borne diseases require transmittance via a vector. This can be an insect, rodent, or other animal that carries a particular pathogen. There are six Plasmodium species that can cause malaria; however, P. falciparum is the prevalent species. Infection occurs through the bite of infected Anopheles mosquitoes (the vector), who get infected through ingesting blood of another infected individual. As such, places where malaria run rampart are usually humid and can facilitate an advantageous environment for mosquitoes. When an infected mosquito bites a human or other animal, they introduce an infantile and motile spore form of P. falciparum, called a sporozoite, into the host’s system. In the liver, the sporozoite matures into the schizont intermediate form. When the parasite develops further, the parasite in its merozoite form, ruptures from hepatocytes and flow into the bloodstream. In the 1171 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH bloodstream, the infection is allowed to spread through the invasion on red blood cells where merozoites reproduce and infect more red blood cells. Cerebral malaria (CM) is a complication of Plasmodium infection that entails severe and often fatal swelling of the brain. CM is often characterized by coma and increased intracranial pressure [Laurent, et. al, 2012]. L. Rénia et.al. describe that “In more recent studies, it was shown that during [experimental cerebral malaria], brain edema resulting from leakage and accumulation of fluid into the parenchymal extracellular space was observed… and was associated with enlarged perivascular spaces” (Rénia, 2013). It seems as though the most logical solution to this issue would be a preventative inoculation to create widespread immunity. However, “[d]espite intense efforts, a universally effective anti-malaria vaccine is not yet available. There are multiple pathogen-specific barriers to effective vaccine development” [Postels, et. al., 2013]. The parasite that causes malaria is considered quite genetically and developmentally complex. With over 5000+ genes and a complicated life cycle that varies between vector (mosquito) and host (human), comprehension of its methods of gene regulation proves to be a bit difficult. Furthermore, additional studies show 1172 RANGE that quinine and artemisinin compounds have been used to treat severe cases of malaria, however prevailing drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium rendered the treatment ineffective [Nishanth, 2019]. P. falciparum, P. vivax, and P. malariae are three strains that have been confirmed to be drug-resistant. P. falciparum in particular is resistant to a majority of developed antimalarials, primarily chloroquine. Even those that receive treatment face a mortality rate of 20%. In 2010, 86% of roughly 655,000 people who died of CM, were children under the age of 5 [Postels et al., 2012]. Many of those who do survive faced long-lasting effects such as neurologic sequelae, speech impairment, and epilepsy [Idro et al., 2010]. While a vaccine may not be feasible at the current moment, there is a particular aspect of CM that can be highlighted upon, as it pertains to future therapies. CM is the result of the disruption of the blood brain barrier (BBB), which is a selectively semipermeable structure made up of the brain endothelial cells with imbedded tight and adherens junctions that limit the passage of unwanted solutes from the lumen of the blood vessels into the brain parenchyma. As put in the 2021 paper, Profiling of Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption in Mouse 1173 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Intracerebral Hemorrhage Models […], “As a dynamic structure, the BBB separates peripheral circulation from the brain” (Jia P, et. al., 2021). This is a vital role. The Central Nervous System (CNS) carry particular environmental requirements that differ from outside circulation and help maintain stability for the brain. As such, a semipermeable BBB carries the job of a gatekeeper, ensuring homeostasis for both environments. The endothelial cells receive signals from other cell types such as astrocytes, pericytes, and microglia which enhance barrier function. This cellular communication is facilitated by chemical messengers such as growth factors and cytokines. Fatal cases of CM are predominantly the result of intracranial hemorrhage and fluid collection in the brain after the BBB is disrupted (Postels, Douglas G., et al, 2012). The breakdown of the BBB is facilitated by the disruption of tight and adherens junction proteins. The direct cause of the tight and adherens junctions is still not understood. Understanding why this disruption occurs is necessary to lead for developing novel therapies to prevent death among CM patients. Scientific research on cerebral malaria has vastly improved due to the implantation of a reliable mouse model. But why? There used to not be a commonly 1174 RANGE agreed upon pathogenesis of human cerebral malaria since studies were limited by the availability of deceased human brain tissue as well as tests that can be safely administered to living patients. In the 2000 paper, Immunopathology of Cerebral Malaria: Morphological Evidence of Parasite Sequestration in Murine Brain Microvasculature, the authors strived to prove an effective mouse model that could be utilized to study the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria. Their work proved to be successful as stated that “… this is the first time that a murine CM model has been defined in which parasitized erythrocytes appear in close contact with the microvascular endothelium of the brain, resembling the pattern seen in humans” (Hearn, et. al., 2000). Infecting C57Bl/6J mice with Plasmodium berghei ANKA (Pb-A) provides an effective model of human cerebral malaria, as infected mice die of brain hemorrhage 6 to 10 days after infection. This is due to CD8+ T-cells, which are necessary for BBB disruption and eventual fatality. This model is referred to as experimental cerebral malaria (ECM) in the literature. EphA2, a part of the Erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular receptor (Eph) family, plays an integral role in cerebral malaria. EphA-ephrin-A binding can result in adhesion, cellular morphology alterations, and 1175 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH chemotaxis among cells. A previous study expressed that EphA2 is also associated with the reduction of endothelial cell-to-cell connections through the disruption of “…tight and adherens junction protein complexes” [Darling et al., 2020]. Evidence suggests that the pathogenic contribution to death and BBB breakdown by EphA2 originates from EphA2 that is expressed in endothelial cells located within the brain. A recent study found that “[i]n the absence of EphA2, PbA-infected mice maintained an intact BBB…at the onset of ECM in comparison to EphA2 sufficient mice” [Darling et al., 2020]. Furthermore, a global knock out (KO) of EphA2 has been shown to protect against death and BBB disruption in the mouse model of cerebral malaria. For clarification purposes, a global KO constitutes a complete absence of EphA2 from the the entire murine genetic makeup. It was found that an absence of EphA2 correlated with the absence of CD8+ T-cell accumulation in the brain [Darling et al., 2020]. EphA2 knockout was also shown to prevent cell to cell junctions’ downregulation in endothelia cells found in brain tissue. In a model proposed by a 2020 study, disruption of the BBB begins with blood cells infected with PbA attaching to receptors on endothelial cells located in 1176 RANGE brain tissue. This results in the start of the inflammatory response with cytokines LT-α and TNF-α upregulate EphA2 and ephrin-A1 ligand respectively. Released chemokines are responsible for the CD8+ T cell accumulation, which as previous stated, are essential for interferon-gamma accumulation. These T-cells also bring ephrin-A1 ligand to EphA2 on cerebral endothelial cells, activating said EphA2, a vital step in the pathogenesis of ECM. This results in the start of the NFκB pathway which causes the breakdown of tight and adherens junction proteins. As such, “vascular leakage, brain edema, and the development of other neurological symptoms…” arise [Darling et al., 2020]. From this proposed model, it is heavily implied that the deactivation of EphA2 localized on endothelial cells will prevent the breakdown of cell junctions, thus halting BBB disruption. To test this more directly, I seek to knock out EphA2 specifically in endothelial cells. I will compare these results with the effects of a global KO of EphA2 for similarities. If the results are similar to those reported in the paper, this supports the model that the protection conferred by EphA2 deletion comes from the inactivation of EphA2 in endothelial cells. If the cell specific KO of EphA2 yields substantially different results from those reported 1177 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH in the paper, then our model is likely incorrect, and EphA2 KO’s protection is mediated by EphA2 inactivation in another cell type or types. Further research is needed to determine the mechanism of EphA2 as it pertains to its relevance in BBB breakdown. If proven to play a vital part, EphA2 may be the key to prevent BBB disruption in its entirety. Furthermore, by isolating EphA2 in neuronal cells, it could be proven that this mechanism is localized and can be prevented in the affected area, as opposed to the whole body. In order to effectively target EphA2 in endothelial brain cells, a Cre-loxP system can be utilized. Past research has demonstrated that CD4+ and CD8+ Tcells are an important source of interferon-gamma in the brain in the cerebral malaria mouse model. Interferongamma is a cytokine that plays a role in the immune response. Astrocytes and microglia, both of which are important for brain immune signaling and blood brain barrier maintenance, had yet to be investigated to see if they make a significant contribution to interferongamma production in ECM. Last spring, I conducted a study utilizing flow cytometry, single-cell RNA sequencing, and in vitro assays, to show that microglia and astrocytes do not increase production of interferon1178 RANGE gamma protein or transcript in the brains of mice with ECM, suggesting that they are not important sources of interferon-gamma in ECM. In contrast, CD8+ T-cells were an important source of interferongamma in the brain, which allows for BBB disruption. Diving deeper, it is hypothesized that the cause of BBB disruption is due to endothelial junction damage. I proposed that an endothelial-cell specific knockout of EphA2 would be completed on C57Bl/6J mice infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA (Pb-A) in order to observe if the absence of this gene of interest could prevent the disruption of the blood brain barrier. This notion is supported through the research presented in the literature review. By restricting EphA2 knockout to endothelial cells, we can observe if EphA2’s activity in endothelial cells is the source of its contribution to pathogenesis of ECM. To procure a model necessary to carry out this experiment, a special mouse with a Cre-LoxP system needed to be bred. While my main outcome has remained constant, the introduction of the Cre-LoxP system has presented novel. In order to conduct this study, I began with a survival experiment to compare the effect of endothelial-specific Epha2 KO mice on death in ECM with the wild type 1179 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and global KO mice. I strived to repeat the experiment but perform an Evans blue assay in order to observe BBB breakdown and brain edema in endothelialspecific Epha2 KO, wild type and global KO mice. I also envisioned performing a brain luciferase assay looking at schizont brain sequestration in Endo specific Epha2 KO, WT and global KO mice in ECM using an engineered strain of PbA that expresses luciferase. qPCR would allow me to investigate how to maximize the harvest of cerebral endothelial cells for future analysis. My work would contribute by determining whether the protection conferred by global knockout of EphA2 is replicated in the endothelial cell-specific knockout of EphA2, which would further validate that Epha2 function in endothelial cells is necessary for ECM pathogenesis. Unfortunately, my survival experiment did not produce statistically significant results. I ran into issues with my control not behaving as it should and as a result, went through a long period of troubleshooting. I have since then, changed directions with my final thesis project. Instead, I will be looking at how Beta-Catenin is localized in the brain of healthy versus infected mice, as well as looking into its regulation as it is impacted by ECM pathogenesis. 1180 RANGE BIBLIOGRAPHY Darling, Thayer K et al. “EphA2 contributes to disruption of the blood-brain barrier in cerebral malaria.” PLoS pathogens vol. 16,1 e1008261. 30 Jan. 2020, doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1008261 Darling, Thayer K, and Tracey J Lamb. “Emerging Roles for Eph Receptors and Ephrin Ligands in Immunity.” Frontiers in immunology vol. 10 1473. 4 Jul. 2019, doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01473 Hearn J, Rayment N, Landon DN, Katz DR, de Souza JB. Immunopathology of Cerebral Malaria: Morphological Evidence of Parasite Sequestration in Murine Brain Microvasculature. Infect Immun 2000; 68:5364-76; PMID:10948166; http://dx.doi.org/10. 1128/ IAI.68.9.5364-5376.2000 Kim H, Kim M, Im SK, Fang S. Mouse Cre-LoxP system: general principles to determine tissuespecific roles of target genes. Dec;34(4):147-159. doi: Lab Anim Res. 2018 10.5625/lar.2018.34.4.147. Epub 2018 Dec 31. PMID: 30671100; PMCID: PMC6333611. Postels, Douglas G., et al. “Pediatric Cerebral Malaria: A Scourge of Africa Pediatric Cerebral Malaria: A Scourge 1181 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of Africa.” Future Neurology, vol. 8, no. 1, 2013, pp. 67-85. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/scholarlyjournals/pediatric-cerebral-malariascourge-africa/ docview/1285096201/se-2?accountid=15172, doi:https://doi.org/10.2217/fnl.12.84. Rénia, Laurent et al. “Cerebral malaria: mysteries at the blood-brain barrier.” Virulence vol. 3,2 (2012): 193-201. doi:10.4161/viru.19013 1182 RANGE 63 Research Reflection by Nia Brooks NIA BROOKS Faculty Mentor: Tracey Lamb (Pathology, University of Utah) My love for research developed from an aptitude for problem-solving and enjoyment of using self-logic to reason and justify the unknown. In January 2022, I joined the University of Utah’s pathology department and began working under the direction of Dr. Tracey Lamb and PhD candidate Marshall Roedel. My first 1183 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH project sought to determine primary sources of interferon-gamma cytokine production in the brain during Experimental Cerebral Malaria (ECM)pathogenesis. This project introduced me to several novel methods of cell analysis such as flowcytometry, single-cell RNA sequencing, and invitro assays. My mentor and I were able to conclude that out of the various cell types assessed (e.g., microglia, astrocytes, etc.), CD8+ T-cells proved to be an important source of interferon-gamma in the brain, which allows for Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) disruption. This lab experience allowed me to explore the use of murine models, practice tissue extraction, and become familiar with the immune system. In January 2022, I began working with Dr. Elliot Asare and Daniel Harkness on an analytical research study to gauge Black medical students’ interests in surgical careers. As a result of the study, I transitioned into aiding the development of the newly established Utah Summer Training Academy for Rising Surgeons (USTARS) program. For the past three summers, I have produced and distributed surveys using Qualtrics XM software to program participants. Once completed, I compiled data to analyze and develop into presentable reports. Working with the USTARS program provided a way for me to exercise my interest in medicine alongside my 1184 RANGE enthusiasm for involvement in diversity initiatives. These separate experiences made me wonder about the intersectionality between biomedical research and diversity studies, especially the mutual impacts of both fields. The 2022 Yale BioMed SURF Summer Program introduced me to dermatology research and what a career as a physician-scientist could look like. Under the direction and mentorship of, Dr. Keith Choate, Dr. Jing Zhou, and MS2 Mitra Mani, I investigated the effects of two different mutations on the expression of Cyclin G-Associated Kinase (GAK) in a patient presenting Acanthosis nigricans. The patient did not present underlying conditions that would characteristically warrant this condition. This patient did, however, have an inherited constitution splice mutation and a spontaneous insertion mutation in GAK, the latter of which results in a premature termination of protein translation. The two goals of the study were to explore how the GAK insertion mutation alters the GAK signaling pathway and how the constitutional splice mutation might alter RNA splicing. A key moment of this experience was attending the Foundation for Ichthyosis & Related Skin Types National Conference, where people worldwide came to hear the latest advances and professional counsel on these conditions. Through engaging in casual conversation, the sheer 1185 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH number of different stories each patient had to share astounded me. I saw and spoke to patients that represented a wide range of gender, ethnicity, nationality, and age. However, there was a particular interaction that instilled a new sense of purpose and inspiration as to why I chose this career path. I rejoined the Choate Lab the following summer as an AMGEN Scholar. Alongside Dr. Khadim Shah, I worked on the detection of DNA strand breaks in Ichthyosis with Confetti (IWC). IWC is caused by a frameshift mutation in the KRT10 gene that causes its mislocalization. Displaced keratin disrupts the normal keratin intermediate filament network and leads to nuclear instability and DNA damage. Some of this damage is repaired, leading to patches of revertant skin. In order to investigate the type of DNA damage occurring, we cultured U-2 OS cells transduced with KRT10 (both the mutant and normal). I plated harvested cells combined with agarose to perform two comet assays, which visualize DNA damage. An alkaline comet assay visualized single-strand DNA breaks while neutral comet assays visualized double-strand breaks. A greater difference in DNA Tail percentage between the mutant and wild-type in the alkaline comet assay implicated that single-strand breaks were the prominent form of damage. This conclusion can aid in narrowing what 1186 RANGE DNA repair mechanisms may be involved in IWC. As I prepare to graduate, I conclude my journey in the Lamb lab with the completion of my honors thesis. My thesis will cover the localization and regulation of beta-catenin during experimental cerebral malaria pathogenesis in hopes of investigating its effects on endothelial cell integrity. As grateful as I am for the research experiences I have had in my undergraduate career, I am even more excited to continue research in dermatopathology and apply it to improving patient care and education in underserved communities. 1187 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 64 Fecal Microbiota Transplant Increases Fecal Microbiome Diversity TATUM HEINER; DANIEL T. LEUNG; MARY VALLECILLO-ZUNIGA; ANN FLYNN; MARCO MARCHETTI; AND ALI AKEEFE Faculty Mentor: Daniel Leung (Internal Medicine, University of Utah) 1188 RANGE BACKGROUND The gut microbiota plays a key role in maintaining host health, supporting immune function, and resisting pathogen colonization. Disruption of the microbiota (dysbiosis) can lead to overgrowth of pathobionts–commensal microbes with disease-causing potential under certain conditions. Clostridium difficile infections (CDI) are a prime example of a disease linked to dysbiosis and excessive pathobiont carriage. Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT) has shown clinical success in restoring microbial balance and treating current CDI. Understanding how FMT alters microbial diversity and reduces pathobiont abundance is critical for optimizing therapeutic outcomes. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH Microbiota diversity refers to the variety and abundance of microorganisms in specific environments, including the human gut. Although microbiota diversity plays an important role in health, its significance is still not well understood and explored. Our study aims to investigate the shifts in microbiota diversity following Fecal Microbiota Transplant (FMT). We utilized a metagenomic approach to analyze differences in microbiota diversity 1189 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH between human subjects undergoing FMT procedures and healthy controls. METHODS We collected stool samples from C. difficile-infected individuals pre-FMT (day 0), and post-FMT (days, 14, and 56), and healthy controls (at days 0 and 14). We prepared DNA sequencing libraries using the NEBNext Ultra II FS DNA Library Prep for Small Genomes Kit, and performed Whole Genome Sequencing at 150×150 bp, 20M reads, and sampling on an Ilumina NovaSeq. We processed the reads with Prinseq, Trim Galore, and BWA to remove reads that map to the human genome. We analyzed microbiome diversity and taxonomic profiling with Kraken2 and Shannon- index using custom code in Python. RESULTS We demonstrate a markedly lower microbial diversity and higher pathobiont carriage in FMT recipients prior to transplantation, compared to healthy control individuals. However, by Day 14 post- transplantation, microbial diversity had risen, and pathobiont carriage reduced, relative to Day 0. These shifts suggest that the gut microbiota began to 1190 RANGE recover, restoring ecological balance and reducing pathobiont carriage. CONCLUSION Diversity significantly increased in FMT recipients by Day 14 post-transplant, approaching levels seen in healthy controls. The microbiome shift may support gut immune homeostasis by reducing pro- inflammatory pathobionts and increasing commensal diversity. Maintaining microbial diversity is important in preventing the overgrowth of harmful species. Overall, this study complements prior studies showing clinical efficacy of Fecal Microbiota Transplant (FMT). We show that FMT restores persons with lower microbiota diversity to levels of healthy controls by 14 days and highlights its therapeutic potential in microbiota-associated diseases. BIBLIOGRAPHY Jandhyala, S. M.; Talukdar, R.; Subramanyam, C.; Vuyyuru, H.; Sasikala, M.; Reddy, D. N. Role of the normal gut microbiota. World journal of gastroenterology: WJG 2015, 21 (29), 8787. Adak, A.; Khan, M. R. An insight into gut microbiota 1191 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and its functionalities. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 2019, 76, 473-493. Pushpanathan, P.; Mathew, G. S.; Selvarajan, S.; Seshadri, K. G.; Srikanth, P. Gut microbiota and its mysteries. Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology 2019, 37 (2), 268-277. Wang, J.-W.; Kuo, C.-H.; Kuo, F.-C.; Wang, Y.-K.; Hsu, W.-H.; Yu, F.-J.; Hu, H.-M.; Hsu, P.-I.; Wang, J.-Y.; Wu, D.-C. Fecal microbiota transplantation: Review and update. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association 2019, 118, S23-S31. Biazzo, M.; Deidda, G. Fecal microbiota transplantation as new therapeutic avenue for human diseases. Journal of clinical medicine 2022, 11 (14), 4119. Kim, K. O.; Gluck, M. Fecal microbiota transplantation: an update on clinical practice. Clinical endoscopy 2019, 52 (2), 137-143. Martinez-Guryn, K.; Leone, V.; Chang, E. B. Regional diversity of the gastrointestinal microbiome. Cell host & microbe 2019, 26 (3), 314-324. 1192 RANGE 65 Alterations in Alzheimer's Disease Phenotypic Features After Biodegradable Paclitaxel-Conjugate Treatment LANA HUA; DONNA CROSS; JIYUAN (JANE) YANG; SHANNOU LI; HASAN AL FARUQUE; RAGHAD ALJASSIMI; ASHTON JENSEN; JINDŘICH HENRY KOPEČEK; AND SATOSHI MINOSHIMA Faculty Mentor: Donna Cross (Radiology & Imaging Sciences, University of Utah) 1193 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH BACKGROUND Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by key pathophysiological features including the accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Amyloid plaques are specific to AD and consist of aggregates of β-amyloid peptides which are formed from amyloid precursor proteins (APP). NFTs are caused by misfolded tau which is a microtubule-associated protein that normally binds to microtubules and stabilizes them, however, in AD they become phosphorylated and dissociate from microtubules, forming the aggregates of which NFTs are composed. This research proposes microtubule-stabilizing drugs, namely paclitaxel (PTX), as a potential therapeutic option for AD. PTX is typically used in cancer treatments, and it is unable to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), so it must be administered via the intranasal route. This places limits on the efficiency and efficacy of this treatment for AD. To address this, Dr. Cross’s team patented a PTX nano-conjugate that can cross the blood-brain barrier and uses a “longcirculating polymer-drug delivery technology” that 1194 RANGE makes this drug more ideal as a therapeutic option for AD and allows it to be administered intravenously in lower doses. PTX provides stability to microtubules by binding to them and preventing depolymerization, potentially rescuing cognitive deficits. This research aims to evaluate whether the PTXconjugate is a viable treatment for AD. Using biodistribution studies, the ability of the PTX-AP2 conjugate to cross the BBB was measured. Additionally, toxicity studies assessed whether the PTX-conjugate had adverse effects on cells and major organs. The changes in the hallmark pathophysiological features of AD, namely amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, after treatment with the novel PTX-conjugate were analyzed. Finally, the results of the Radial Water Maze were used to evaluate cognitive alternations in memory and spatial learning, following PTX-conjugate treatment. METHODS Subjects Wild type (WT) mice and “Triple transgenic Alzheimer’s (3xTg-AD) mice” with a mutation in APP. Subjects were randomly assigned to treatment groups (PTX-conjugate or vehicle). 1195 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Treatment The novel PTX-conjugate was administered to 3xTg-AD mice ages 11-14 months to test the efficacy of the drug to change the progression of hallmark pathophysiological features such as basal neuroinflammatory responses and aggregated Tau as compared to previously published research with the generic PTX. Assessments • The HPMA copolymer was labeled with Cy5.5 and administered to mice. In-Vivo Imaging was taken for 72 hours following treatment to determine biodistribution. • Radial Water Maze was conducted with 3 phases: learning and acquisition, short-term memory, and long-term memory. A twofactor ANOVA test and a Helmert a priori individual comparisons test were taken. • Mice were euthanized, and their brains were collected for coronal slicing at 30 μm thickness. Slices were stained with glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) or Iba-1. Sections were also stained with AT8 antibody 1196 RANGE to measure tau phosphorylation with a Dapi co-stain. Confocal microscopy images were obtained. • IC50 values were measured using SHSY-5Y, a neuroblastoma cell line in mice, and bEND.3, endothelial cells, to determine cytotoxicity. Results Figure 1 – Synthetic scheme for the HPMA copolymer PTXconjugate containing AP2 Angiopep-2 (AP2) is a 19-amino acid peptide sequence (TFFYG GSRGKRNNFKTEEY) functioning as a brain drug delivery agent that targets the low-density lipoprotein receptor related protein (LRP1). AP2 optimizes therapeutic efficiency by mediating transcytosis across the blood-brain barrier and using a “long-circulating polymer-drug delivery technology,” reducing adverse effects. It also avoids efflux-caused multidrug-resistance as it’s cell entry and subcellular fate mechanisms are different. 1197 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2 – Biodistribution studies demonstrate AP2 crossed the blood-brain barrier Biodistribution studies using a Cy5.5 fluorescence signal show that Angiopep-2 is distributed to the brain when conjugated to an HPMA copolymer after injection with PTX-conjugate. An InVivo Imaging System using Ex/Em 675/720 nm was used to measure the Cy5.5 signal 0.5, 2, 4, 8, 24, 48, and 72 hours post tail vein administration to the mice. The AP2-linked polymer showed high efficiency in crossing the BBB compared to the control. 1198 RANGE Figure 3 – PTX-conjugate alters phosphorylated tau and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus of aged 3xTg-AD mice from 11-14 months Confocal microscopy images for 3xTg-AD mice treated with the PTX-conjugate or saline after the onset of pathology are shown. PTX-conjugate treatment showed reductions in microglial activation (iba-1) and reduced GFAP expression in astrocytes. A Dapi co-stain was used to co-localize the phospho-tau to the nuclei of the neurons. 1199 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 4 – P-PTX-AP2 Treatment Administered Via IV The two-factor ANOVA indicated statistically significant improvements in treatment response with the PTX conjugate compared to the generic PTX in 3xTg-AD aged mice between groups (F[2,32]=4.131, p=0.025) and (F[2,32]=3.823, group by days interactions p=0.032). A Helmert a priori individual comparisons test indicated that the PTXAP2-treated and WT mice performed significantly better than vehicle-treated 3xTg-AD mice (p0.007). PTX-AP2-treated mice did not differ significantly from WT (p0.921). 1200 RANGE Figure 5 – PTX-conjugate effect on gross organ toxicity between treated and non-treated groups H&E stain showed no gross organ toxicity in the major organs of treated mice, indicating the absence of significant adverse effects on the liver, lungs, heart, spleen, and kidneys compared to the non- treated group. Figure 6 – Cytotoxicity of PTX-conjugate on bEND.3 and SH-SY5Y bEND.3 endothelial and SH-SY5Y cells of cell the BBB lines mimicked and neurons, respectively. The IC50 values of the PTX-conjugate 1201 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH were higher for both cell lines compared to generic PTX. DISCUSSION The novel PTX-conjugate contains Angiopep-2 (AP2), a peptide that functions to facilitate drug transport across the BBB (figure 1). Biodistribution studies demonstrated that AP2 reached the brain in the 3xTg-AD mice, optimizing the therapeutic efficacy of the drug and allowing for low-dose intravenous administration (figure 2). Results showed alterations in phosphorylated tau and neuroinflammation in the histology of the 3xTg- AD coronal brain slices through the hippocampus (figure 3). These results were seen in aged mice treated with the PTX-conjugate after the onset of pathology from 11-14 months. Results of the Radial Water Maze indicate significant improvements in the cognition, specifically, spatial learning and memory, of PTXconjugate treated mice compared to vehicle-treated mice (figure 4). Finally, toxicity studies show no gross organ toxicity resulting from low-dose intravenous administration of the PTX-conjugate (figure 5). Additionally, cells tolerated higher concentrations of the PTX conjugate 1202 RANGE before cell death compared to those treated with generic PTX, indicating reduced cytotoxicity in the PTX conjugate (figure 6). CONCLUSION There are currently limited therapeutic options to treat AD, so there is a significant need for treatments that could positively impact the lives of those struggling with AD by improving cognition or reducing further cognitive decline. Results of this study have positive implications in the pursuit of AD treatments. Biodistribution results indicate that AP2 facilitates drug transport across the BBB, allowing for intravenous administration. Additionally, no gross organ toxicity was observed, and the cytotoxicity of the PTXconjugate was less than that of generic PTX. Results from the Radial Water Maze showed that the PTX-conjugate was successful in rescuing cognitive deficits in aged 3xTg-AD mice. Additional histology and immunostaining assays are to be completed and analyzed for alterations in key pathophysiological features of AD, including amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles associated with 1203 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH neurodegeneration after treatment with the PTX conjugate. Further studies regarding biodistribution and pharmacokinetics using I-125 radiolabeled PTXconjugate will also be conducted. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cross, D. J., Huber, B. R., Silverman, M. A., Cline, M. M., Gill, T. B., Cross, C. G., … & Minoshima, S. (2021). Intranasal paclitaxel alters Alzheimer’s disease phenotypic features in 3xTg- AD mice. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 83(1), 379-394. Gouras, G. K., Olsson, T. T., & Hansson, O. (2015). βamyloid Peptides and Amyloid Plaques in Alzheimer’s Disease. Neurotherapeutics, 12(1), 3-11. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s13311-014-0313-y Scheltens, P., De Strooper, B., Kivipelto, M., Holstege, H., Chételat, G., Teunissen, C. E., Cummings, J., & van der Flier, W. M. (2021). Alzheimer’s disease. The Lancet, 397(10284), 1577- 1590. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0140-6736(20)32205-4 1204 RANGE 66 Impact of Social Instability Stress on Hippocampal Oxytocin Receptor Expression LEYA JOSEPH; MORIEL ZELIKOWSKY; AND DONZELLE TAYLOR Faculty Mentor: Moriel Zelikowsky (Neurobiology & Anatomy, University of Utah) BACKGROUND Social instability stress (SIN) is a form of chronic stress 1205 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH marked by unstable environments, whether that be from frequent changes in peer groups or housing instability. While research has shown that SIN results in increases in mood disorders such as depression and anxiety as well as socioemotional behavior changes, the neural mechanisms of its effect on the brain are unknown. Oxytocin is a neuropeptide known for its role in maternal behavior, bonding/attachment, and social behavior. Previous studies have established that the CA2 and CA3 regions of the dorsal hippocampus (dCA2 and dCA3, respectively) are involved in social memory and interaction, and oxytocin receptors (OxtR) are highly expressed in these regions. However, the role of oxytocin in SIN is not well understood, revealing a gap in our knowledge of the relationship between oxytocin and chronic social stress. METHODS To understand the relationship between SIN and oxytocin signaling, 18 juvenile male mice were randomized into two groups. Mice were assigned to either the stable (STBL) group, where mice were stably housed with two cage mates, or the SIN group, where cage compositions were consistently rearranged such that, each mouse received two new cage mates every 48 hours for 3 weeks. Following the 3-week SIN period, 1206 RANGE mice were euthanized, their brains were extracted, flashfrozen, and prepared for histology. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) was performed on brain slices using an OxtR probe to target and visualize OxtR mRNA, and those slices were then imaged. Images were analyzed for OxtR expression using FIJI (ImageJ) by a blinded experimenter and statistical analysis of results was performed using a student’s t-test in GraphPad Prism. RESULTS We found that hippocampal OxtR expression was significantly increased in SIN mice compared to STBL mice following the 3-week SIN period (p < 0.05). This finding suggests that chronic SIN increases hippocampal OxtR expression, potentially sensitizing the dCA2 and dCA3 regions to changes in oxytocin signaling. Further, this finding implies that oxytocin signaling is impacted by SIN, highlighting a neurobiological relationship between a chronic social stressor and a “social” neuropeptide. Future directions include investigating the molecular identity of OxtR expressing neurons to determine whether SIN differentially impacts neuronal subpopulations. 1207 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY Froemke, R. C., & Young, L. J. (2021). Oxytocin, Neural Plasticity, and Social Behavior. Annual review of neuroscience, 44, 359–381. https://doi.org/10.1146/ annurev-neuro-102320-102847 Hodges, T. E., Eltahir, A. M., Patel, S., Bredewold, R., Veenema, A. H., & McCormick, C. M. (2019). Effects of oxytocin receptor antagonism on social function and corticosterone release after adolescent social instability in male rats. Hormones and behavior, 116, 104579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104579 Tzakis, N., & Holahan, M. R. (2019). Social Memory and the Role of the Hippocampal CA2 Region. Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00233 1208 13, 233. RANGE 67 Placental Lipid Droplet Accumulation in Uteroplacental Insufficiency: Preferential Trapping of DHA- Containing Triglycerides KIERA KEARNS; LISA JOSS-MOORE; AMARA FINCH; WESLEY CHIDESTER; BRIDGET RAYMUNDO; JAMES COX; AND ALAN MASCHEK Faculty Mentor: Lisa Joss-Moore (Pediatrics, University of Utah) 1209 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH BACKGROUND Fetal acquisition of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids or LCPUFA is critical for the appropriate development of organs including the brain and lung, this is particularly true of the omega 3 fatty acid DHA, and the omega 6 fatty acid, ARA. The organ responsible for conveying this lipid transfer to the fetus is the placenta. In uncomplicated pregnancies, the placenta processes maternal circulating lipids to free fatty acids, which are transported into cytotrophoblasts and syncytiotrophoblasts at the maternal-fetal interface of the placenta. These lipids can then be transported to the fetus, in a process that results in biomagnification of the LCPUFA, particularly for the fatty acids DHA and ARA, or lipids can be metabolized locally undergoing catabolic or anabolic metabolism. Our study focused on anabolic lipid metabolism, specifically the synthesis and storage of lipids. 1210 RANGE Figure 1: The placenta facilitates lipid transfer to the fetus to support development of organs including the lung and brain. Lipid storage in most tissues, including the placenta, occurs within lipid droplets, organelles with a central hydrophobic core of neutral lipids surrounded by a single layer of phospholipids and proteins. Lipid droplets are major regulators of cellular metabolism – in that they can act as hubs that coordinate pathways of lipid uptake, distribution, storage and use within the cell1. Some of these activities are accomplished by lipid droplets interacting with other organelles like mitochondria, allowing for coordinated lipid metabolism. The lipids 1211 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH in lipid droplets are mainly neutral lipids such as triglycerides and cholesterol esters, with 3 fatty acids incorporated into a triglyceride and one fatty acid into a cholesterol ester. Pathologic conditions of pregnancy, particularly those with a hypoxic component such as uteroplacental insufficiency or UPI, result in increased placental lipid accumulation and lipid droplet formation2. Dr Yoel Sadovsky’s3 group showed by Oil Red O stain, which binds lipids, that trophoblasts cultured in standard and hypoxic conditions retain lipids differently (Figure 3). Lipid droplets showed to be significantly increased in hypoxic conditions compared to the standard counterparts. Using a rat model, our group has previously demonstrated that UPI increases lipid droplet accumulation in the placenta, with worse effects in the 1212 RANGE male placenta (Figure 4). We also showed that term fetuses from UPI pregnancies have reduced circulating DHA and ARA fatty acids. While we have demonstrated lipid droplet accumulation in UPI, whether DHA and ARA fatty acids are being trapped in lipid droplets in UPI placenta is unclear. Figure 3: The images show oil red o-stained sections from male and female control and UPI placenta. Males are on the top and female are on the bottom. Increased red staining in the UPI male shows a greater lipid droplet accumulation adapted from https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-2265. 1213 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 4: Male and Female Control and UPI Placenta Lipid Droplet Accumulation 4 The small red dots are the lipid droplets which are significantly increased in hypoxic compared to standard conditions. As shown, male UPI placenta has significantly worse lipid accumulation. In this study we aimed to determine what lipid classes with DHA and ARA fatty acids are most readily trapped in the placenta in UPI. We hypothesized that, in the rat, placental lipid accumulation in UPI will 1214 RANGE favor increased trapping of neutral lipids containing DHA and ARA. METHODS All animal procedures were reviewed and approved by the University of Utah Animal Care and Use Committee, following the NIH Guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. UPI was induced in Sprague Dawley rats on embryonic day 19 via bilateral uterine artery ligation. The feto- placental units were then collected by c-section at term gestation or embryonic day 21. Untargeted lipidomics was used to determine lipid profiles in control and UPI placenta. For bulk analyses, MetaboAnalyst (https://www.metaboanalyst.ca/) was used to determine differential lipid levels, and Lipid Ontology enrichment analysis using LION software (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ 31141612/) was used to determine differential lipid metabolism pathways. For granular analyses, Graphpad Prism was used to determine differences in placental levels of specific lipid species. 1215 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH RESULTS For the bulk lipidomics data, there were no major differences between male and female placenta, so data is shown with the sexes combined. First, we used Metaboloanalyst to identify differential levels of lipid species in control and UPI placentas. There were 923 unique lipid species identified in the rat placenta, with 60 significantly increased and 43 significantly decreased in control and UPI placenta. Because we are interested in lipid classes increased in UPI, we focused on the increased species. Of these species over 90% were triglycerides (Figure 5). Figure 5: Volcano plot of lipid species in rat placenta To understand the metabolic processes associated with the differences in the bulk 1216 RANGE lipidomic results, we also performed an enrichment analysis using the LION software. Given the results from the bulk lipidomic analysis showing increased lipid droplet formation primarily through increased triglyceride, we also analyzed all the triglyceride species at a more granular level. UPI increased total triglycerides in both male and female placenta. We also examined triglyceride species containing at least one DHA fatty acid chain. UPI increased placental DHA containing triglycerides in male, but not female, placenta (Figure 6). While for triglycerides with at least one ARA chain, UPI increased levels in both male and female placenta. Cholesterol esters were the most abundant neutral lipid in the placenta, so we also looked at the effect of UPI on cholesterol esters. UPI did not affect total cholesterol esters in either male or female placenta. UPI decreased cholesterol esters containing DHA in female placenta without affecting male placenta. UPI increased cholesterol esters containing ARA in the male placenta without affecting female placenta. 1217 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 6: Individual circles are individual placentas from different litters. Males are on the left, females on the right. Control placenta shown as gray circles and UPI placenta shown as red circles, with bars as mean and standard deviation. CONCLUSION AND SPECULATION In conclusion, increased placental lipid accumulation in UPI placentas is characterized by an increase in neutral lipids, including those containing DHA and ARA fatty acids. We speculate that the accumulation of neutral lipids containing DHA and ARA in the UPI placenta 1218 RANGE prevents fetal acquisition of these bioactive fatty acids. We further speculate that the lipid droplet accumulation is driven by the increased PPARγ activity in UPI placenta and ongoing work is determining the cause-and-effect relationship between PPARγ activity and the lipid accumulation profiles shown previously. REFERENCES 1. Jarc, E., & Petan, T. (2019). Lipid Droplets and the Management of Cellular Stress. The Yale journal of biology and medicine, 92(3), 435–452. 2. W. Timothy Schaiff, Ibrahim Bildirici, Monica Cheong, Peggy L. Chern, D. Michael Nelson, Yoel Sadovsky, Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-γ and Retinoid X Receptor Signaling Regulate Fatty Acid Uptake by Primary Human Placental Trophoblasts, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, Volume 90, Issue 7, 1 July 2005, Pages 4267–4275, https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-2265 3. Bildirici, I., Schaiff, W. T., Chen, B., Morizane, M., Oh, S. Y., O’Brien, M., 1219 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Sonnenberg-Hirche, C., Chu, T., Barak, Y., Nelson, D. M., & Sadovsky, Y. (2018). PLIN2 Is Essential for Trophoblastic Lipid Droplet Accumulation and Cell Survival During Hypoxia. Endocrinology, 159(12), 3937–3949. https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2018-00752 4. Stephanie Skuby Chassen, Veronique Ferchaud-Roucher, Madhulika B. Gupta, Thomas Jansson, Theresa L. Powell; Alterations in placental long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism in human intrauterine growth restriction. Clin Sci (Lond) 15 March 2018; 132 (5): 595–607. doi: https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20171340 5. Barrett, E., Loverin, A., Wang, H., Carlson, M., Larsen, T. D., Almeida, M. M., Whitman, J., Baack, M. L., & Joss-Moore, L. A. (2021). Uteroplacental Insufficiency with Hypoxia Upregulates Placental PPARγ-KMT5A Axis in the Rat. Reproductive sciences (Thousand Oaks, Calif.), 28(5), 1476–1488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43032-020-00434-w 1220 RANGE 68 Inhibiting CDK9 and Autophagy in Pancreatic Cancer ISABELLA SCALISE; CONAN KINSEY; AND MARK SILVIS Faculty Mentor: Conan Kinsey (Internal Medicine, University of Utah) The majority of pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cases arise from mutations in KRAS, a GTPase involved in the MAP Kinase (MAPK) pathway. Inhibition of 1221 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the MAPK pathway upregulates autophagy, a process in which cells recycle their intracellular components to sustain nutrient demands under stressful conditions and can render targeted therapies ineffective. Combining trametinib, a MEK1/2 inhibitor (MEKi), with an autophagy inhibitor such as chloroquine leads to regression in in vivo mouse xenograft experiments as well as a response in a single pancreatic cancer patient (Kinsey et al., 2019). Chloroquine is a relatively weak autophagy inhibitor at FDA approved maximum doses and has many off-target effects. We are searching for drugs that are FDA-approved or in clinical trials and modulate autophagy for potential repurposing in novel combinations for rapid clinical translation. A preliminary FDA- approved drug screen suggested that cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) inhibition has an inhibitory effect on autophagy. CDK9 regulates transcription elongation by RNA polymerase-2 and is a negative prognostic marker for PDAC patient outcomes (Kretz et al., 2017). We demonstrate that the CDK9 inhibitors (CDK9i), AZD4573 and BAY1251152, inhibit autophagy in PDAC cell lines expressing an autophagic flux reporter (AFR) to a similar extent as chloroquine. To validate this finding, we used a HiBiTLC3 autophagy reporter which also demonstrated a potent inhibition of basal and trametinib-induced 1222 RANGE autophagy in multiple PDAC cell lines. Combination of MAPKi with CDK9i in PDAC AFR cell lines showed that both AZD4573 and BAY1251152 significantly blunt trametinib and KRAS inhibitor-induced autophagy. After determining synergism between trametinib and AZD4573 in vitro, a mouse xenograft pilot was initiated in which mice treated with a combination of trametinib and AZD4573 reached a stable disease phenotype after three weeks. MEKi in combination with CDK9i has potential to be an effective combination treatment and warrants further exploration to determine the most efficacious treatment settings in preclinical models. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kinsey, C. G., Camolotto, S. A., Boespflug, A. M., Guillen, K. P., Foth, M., Truong, A., Schuman, S. S., Shea, J. E., Seipp, M. T., Yap, J. T., Burrell, L. D., Lum, D. H., Whisenant, J. R., Gilcrease, G. W., Cavalieri, C. C., Rehbein, K. M., Cutler, S. L., Affolter, K. E., Welm, A. L., McMahon, M. (2019). Protective autophagy elicited by RAF→MEK→ERK inhibition suggests a treatment strategy for Ras-driven cancers. Nature Medicine, 25(4), 620–627. s41591-019-0367-9 1223 https://doi.org/10.1038/ OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Kretz, A.-L., Schaum, M., Richter, J., Kitzig, E. F., Engler, C. C., Leithäuser, F., Henne- Bruns, D., Knippschild, U., & Lemke, J. (2017). CDK9 is a prognostic marker and therapeutic target in pancreatic cancer. Tumor Biology, 39(2), 101042831769430. https://doi.org/10.1177/1010428317694304 1224 RANGE 69 The BASIC Trial: An ESKAPE from Transmission ALAYNA STODDARD; HARRIET HOPF; TOMMY BROWER; AND SETH EVANS Faculty Mentor: Harriet Hopf (Anesthesiology, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Since being given their own acronym in 2008, the ESKAPE pathogens— Enterococcus 1225 faecium, OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter spp. have continued to become increasingly resistant to antibiotic therapies. With only a few new antibiotics being discovered in the 21st century, and the propensity of pathogens to develop resistance to new antibiotics, it’s imperative that we get back to the basics of infection control to reduce the reliance on antibiotics. These basics, hand hygiene, handling of the intravascular (IV) catheter and IV tubing, environmental cleaning, and patient decolonization, have been shown to reduce surgical site infection, yet uptake is far from universal. The BASIC Study is a 2×2 factorial randomized trial design that aims to understand the barriers to implementing these basic infection prevention protocols. The experimental implementation strategies are informed by pathogen transmission data that is collected in the operating room, allowing the healthcare team to see exactly how and where these pathogens are spread. The hypothesis of this study is that an evidence-based infection protocol (EBIP) informed by transmission data and implemented with coaching support will reduce perioperative ESKAPE pathogen transmission events by 40%. 1226 RANGE INTRODUCTION Reducing the incidence of surgical site infections (SSIs) and healthcare-acquired infections (HAIs) is no small challenge for the healthcare team. These infections cause significant harm to patients and impose a substantial financial burden on healthcare systems. At the root of these infections are ESKAPE pathogens—a group of bacteria responsible for the majority of nosocomial infections (Haque, et. al.). These pathogens are not only highly resilient but are also becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotic treatments, exacerbating the risks they pose to patient safety (Rice). HAIs, particularly SSIs, are especially dangerous for individuals with compromised immune systems, with SSIs accounting for approximately 20% of all HAIs (Shepard). Of the 310 million surgeries performed annually (Dobson), 3-5% result in SSIs, equating to roughly 12.4 million cases per year. These infections double a patient’s risk of mortality (Brown, Loftus) and contribute to longer hospital stays, higher costs, and poorer outcomes overall (Zimlichman). The growing prevalence and antibiotic resistance of ESKAPE pathogens highlights an urgent need for effective prevention and control strategies. These 1227 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH microbes thrive in hospital environments, where they exploit high-touch surfaces and healthcare interactions to spread. To mitigate their impact, it is critical to understand the specific pathways of transmission and implement targeted interventions. Protecting patients from these infections is a key to improving healthcare outcomes and reducing systemic costs. The BASIC Study is an investigation into implementation strategies of evidence-based practices that can overcome the barriers that prevent the adoption of practices that decrease the transmission of the ESKAPE pathogens. These practices, often referred to as “The 4 Pillars,” include hand hygiene, intravascular catheter handling, environmental cleaning, and patient decolonization. Each one is designed to decrease pathogen transmission in the operating room, thereby protecting the patient from dangerous surgical site infections. METHODS The BASIC Trial is an ongoing multicenter, NIHfunded, Institutional Review Board approved clinical trial that assesses the effectiveness of two implementation strategies: Technical Assistance (TA; control) and Evidence- BasedInfectionProtocol (EBIP/ 1228 RANGE coaching). In this 2X2 randomized, factorial study, sites are randomized to EBIP with or without surveillance, surveillance alone, or control (TA). Technical Assistance involves monthly video calls that assess adherence to study protocol, Protocol involves while Evidence-Based monthly team-based Infection coaching sessions to help the anesthesia team work together to implement the infection prevention practices. Figure 1. 2×2 Factorial Randomized Trial Design. The University of Utah is assigned to the TA without assistance arm. Surveillance provides the bacterial presence and transmission data from the swabs collected from 1229 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the operating room. This feedback loop allows targeted adjustment of the infection control strategy. The hypothesis is that the combination of EBIP and surveillance will be most effective in reducing cross-transmission in the operating room and will reduce transmission events by at least 40%. The University of Utah site was randomized to the TA/no surveillance arm (control/control arm). Therefore, we do not receive EBIP, nor do we know what is involved for sites that do, and we do not receive surveillance data. Patient recruitment is done in the University of Utah Orthopaedic Center Spine Clinic. Inclusion and exclusion criteria are outlined in Table 1. Eligible Case 1 patients are identified and consented in the spine clinic. After consent is obtained, baseline swabs are collected in the clinic at least 10 days before surgery to ensure an accurate sample is collected. Case 2 patients are identified and approached for consent in the pre- op area on the day of surgery. Case 2 patients must be identified on the day of surgery because the operating room (OR) schedule is 1230 RANGE constantly changing, even up to the morning of surgery. Table 1: Inclusion and exclusion criteria for Case 1 and Case 2 patients Once a Case 1 patient is consented to the study, research staff collect a baseline sample in the clinic. This baseline sample must be collected at least 10 days before surgery to ensure the patient hasn’t started any form of decontamination protocol (e.g., nasal iodine, chlorhexidine wash, etc.) begins to ensure we are collecting an accurate baseline. We then follow these patients to surgery, where we collect pre-incision swabs from the patient’s groin, axilla and nose, OR, anesthesia provider(s), and the surgeon. These 1231 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH same swabs are repeated after the surgery closes. Further swabbing occurs in the post-anesthesia care unit (PACU). The patient’s nose, axilla and groin are swabbed as well as the area around the surgical site dressing. The bedrail is also swabbed. After the Case 2 patient is identified and consented, most of the same swabs are collected, excluding the baseline, surgeon and PACU swabs. Collecting swabs longitudinally to span the entire duration of the surgery allows us to determine if the pathogen transmission is occurring vertically, horizontally, or perioperatively. All swabs collected are sent to RDB Bioinformatics for ESKAPE pathogen analysis and data are reported to the central site. After both surgeries, the patients’ deidentified information is input into the RDB database and submitted to the central site. This data entry involves an extensive review of the patients’ electronic medical record (EMR) to determine preexisting conditions (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, cancer, immunosuppression, etc.), case duration, ASA status, prophylactic antibiotic therapy and any possible 1232 RANGE complications that occurred from surgery (e.g., unplanned ICU admission). 90 days after surgery, the patient’s record is reviewed to identify any HAI or SSI that occurred. At our site, the hospital infection control team tracks and manages these data as part of national registries, so the data are easily available. For patients who developed HAI wound cultures or other laboratory testing would be reviewed to determine what kind of pathogen caused that infection and what medications were used to treat it. CURRENT STUDY PROGRESS AND BARRIERS TO ENROLLMENT This study is primarily affected by two factors: the treatment courses prescribed by the surgeons and necessary staff to carry out the procedures outlined in the methods section. The wide geographical area captured in our patient population further presents a challenge to patients and surgeons when deciding whether to pursue surgical options. This variability can cause our caseload to fluctuate unpredictably depending on treatment outcomes for patients. 1233 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH It is also challenging to enroll patients during such a busy time. Scheduling follow-up imaging, labs, and patient education take priority over study enrollment and make it difficult to connect with patients who are eligible for the study. This hectic workflow is illustrated in Figure 2 and highlights the perfect storm that must occur before patients can be consented to the study. To address these hurdles, we’ve established a team of undergraduate research volunteers who collectively spend 16 hours in the spine clinic, which ensures someone will be available to connect with patients who are recommended for surgical treatment. This team also collaborates to collect swabs in the operating room. Figure 2. Spine Clinic Workflow 1234 RANGE Despite these challenges, our site has enrolled over half of all patients enrolled at the 12 sites participating in the trial, demonstrating the challenges are not unique to our site. Figure 3: Current participant enrollment progress. 1235 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH RESULTS Anticipated Data Analysis and Representation Figure 4. Hypothetical transmission map based on surveillance data collected from swabs. Figure 4 is an example of how the transmission data collected from the swabs will be presented (as a control site, we do not have access to the surveillance/transmission data during data collection). Collecting swabs longitudinally throughout the duration of both surgical procedures allows a pathogen’s path to be traced through the operating room. In this figure, a 1236 RANGE pathogen is first collected in the Case 1 patient’s nose. This pathogen is then transmitted through various high-touch reservoirs and eventually ends up in the Case 2 patient’s axilla thereby putting them at risk for developing an SSI. A key observation from these data is that the transmission reservoir was the anesthetist’s workspace. Figure 5 is a plot, taken from a previous study, the number of proportions of free wounds is decreasing at a faster rate without the infectionprevention bundle than with the bundle. This suggests that the infection-prevention bundle decreases the rate of SSI and increases the number of days a surgical site remains infectionfree. In the context of the current study, data for the EBIP and/or surveillance with feedback will be graphed as the equivalent of the infection prevention bundle. 1237 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 5: Kaplan-Meier plot used to visualize the proportion of infection free wounds over time. Figure 6: Transmission event barplot 1238 RANGE Figure 6 demonstrates, from a previous study, the number of transmission events of S. aureus, one of the ESKAPE pathogens, decreased with the infection prevention bundle versus the usual care. In this study, we would expect to see a similar decrease in transmission events with EBIP with surveillance.Figure 7 organizes instances of SSI by surgical specialty and by intervention method. This is a hypothetical figure that aligns with the hypothesis of the study and demonstrates fewer instances of SSI with the EBIP with surveillance across both orthopedic joint and spine specialties. Figure 7: Hypothetical bar plot breaking down percent SSI by implementation strategy and surgery type 1239 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH DISCUSSION We do not have access to transmission data at this time because the study is still ongoing. Additionally, because our site is assigned to the Technical Assistance (TA) without surveillance condition, we function as the control group. This design ensures that our team remains blinded to both intervention details and transmission data to preserve the integrity of the study’s findings. Should the final data reveal that the combination of EBIP and Surveillance resulted in the lowest number of pathogen transmission events, it would substantially reshape our understanding of how to increase compliance with pathogen transmission within the operating room environment. This outcome would provide compelling evidence that a comprehensive approach, which includes team-based coaching and real-time surveillance, is essential for reducing transmission of ESKAPE pathogens. Such findings 1240 RANGE would emphasize the importance of high-touch areas, particularly in the anesthetist’s workspace and post- anesthesia care unit (PACU), as critical reservoirs for transmission. Moreover, the implications for clinical practice would be significant. Beyond demonstrating the efficacy of EBIP and Surveillance, these results could inform the standardization of infection prevention protocols and guidelines in operating rooms. By identifying specific high-risk areas and employing evidence-based implementation strategies to improve adherence to guidelines, this research could lead to better patient outcomes. Given the substantial financial burden associated with these infections, such advancements could dramatically improve also improve the efficiency of healthcare systems. Finally, this study has broader implications for collaboration and education surrounding infection prevention protocols. The success of EBIP not only assesses the effectiveness of technical protocols but also fosters effective teamwork among healthcare 1241 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH providers, particularly reinforces the anesthesiologists. importance of This utilizing implementation strategies that prioritize education, engagement, and accountability within healthcare teams. By addressing both factors, this research could serve as a model for future studies aimed at reducing SSI and improving infection prevention practices across various clinical settings. Complication and side effect feedback to individual anesthesiologists is not a norm; if Infection Control Surveillance Data feedback to anesthesia departments or individuals is demonstrated to be effective in reducing cross transmission, then it could serve as a model for developing feedback systems to reduce other complications, such as acute kidney injury, cardiac complications, and postoperative readmission. BIBLIOGRAPHY Project Details per NIH Reporter: https://reporter.nih.gov/search/ K2pCU7vSnki4IlAz9Ghmxw/project-details/ 10618922 References Brown, Jeremiah. “The BASIC Trial: Improving Implementation of Evidence-Based Approaches and Surveillance to Prevent Bacterial Transmission and 1242 RANGE Infection.” National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 17 June 2021, reporter.nih.gov/search/ K2pCU7vSnki4IlAz9Ghmxw/project-details/ 10618922. Dobson GP. Trauma of major surgery: A global problem that is not going away. Int J Surg. 2020 Sep;81:47-54. doi: 10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.07.017. Epub 2020 Jul 29. PMID:32738546; PMCID: PMC7388795. Haque M, McKimm J, Sartelli M, Dhingra S, Labricciosa FM, Islam S, Jahan D, Nusrat T, Chowdhury TS, Coccolini F, Iskandar K, Catena F, Charan J. Strategies to Prevent Healthcare-Associated Infections: A Narrative Overview. Risk Manag Healthc Policy. 2020 Sep 28;13:1765-1780. doi: 10.2147/RMHP.S269315. PMID: 33061710; PMCID: PMC7532064. Loftus, Randy W., Javier H. Campos,The anaesthetists’ role in perioperative infection control: what is the action plan?,British Journal of Anaesthesia, Volume 123, Issue 5,2019,Pages 531-534,ISSN 0007-0912, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2019.07.013. Rice LB. Federal funding for the study of antimicrobial 1243 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH resistance in nosocomial pathogens: no ESKAPE. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(8):1079-1081. doi:10.1086/ 533452 Shepard J, Ward W, Milstone A, et al. Financial Impact of Surgical Site Infections on Hospitals: The Hospital Management Perspective. JAMA Surg. 2013;148(10):907– 914. doi:10.1001/ jamasurg.2013.2246 Zimlichman E, Henderson D, Tamir O, et al. Health Care–Associated Infections: A Meta- analysis of Costs and Financial Impact on the US Health Care System. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(22):2039–2046. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.9763 1244 RANGE 70 Research Reflection by Alayna Stoddard ALAYNA STODDARD Faculty Mentor: Harriet Hopf (Anesthesiology, University of Utah) Participating in the BASIC Study has been an incredible experience, offering unique insights into clinical research and infection control. Over the 2 years I’ve worked with this study, I have been involved in various 1245 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH aspects of the study, including patient recruitment in the clinic, swab collection in the operating room, data entry, and electronic medical record reviews. This hands-on involvement has deepened my understanding of the challenges of implementing evidence-based practices in complex clinical environments. These experiences have emphasized the importance of integrating research into clinical practice to address real-world healthcare challenges. Working under the mentorship of Dr. Harriet Hopf has been instrumental in shaping my professional aspirations. Her dedication to infection prevention and patient safety has inspired me to continue pursuing a career in medicine and clinical research. Her guidance has also improved my presentation, academic writing, and leadership skills, as evidenced by opportunities to present findings at departmental meetings and the UROP symposium. This experience has not only helped prepare me for medical school but has also inspired a lifelong commitment to advancing patient safety and improving healthcare outcomes through research. 1246 RANGE 71 Evaluating a Social Anxiety Neural Pathway: Silencing BNST To NAc Projecting Neurons Before Behavioral Assay CAITLIN TWEED AND MORIEL ZELIKOWSKY Faculty Mentor: Moriel Zelikowsky (Neurobiology & Anatomy, University of Utah) 1247 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ABSTRACT The nucleus accumbens (NAc) is traditionally known for its involvement in motivation. In recent literature, there has been a shift in focus to specifically social motivation (Trezza et al., 2011). The NAc contains neurons which lead to two opposing downstream paths – controlling both appetitive social behaviors and social avoidance behaviors(Kai et al., 2015). The Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis (BNST) region of the brain, known for its role in anxiety behaviors, projects to a small portion of neurons in the NAc, therefore the activity of the BNST can affect the activity of the NAc (van de Poll et al., 2023). This study explores the necessity of BNST projections to the NAc in social anxiety behaviors displayed by mice who have experienced long-term social isolation. Using a chemogenetic approach BNST to NAc projections were silenced in both isolated and group housed mice, before social behavioral experimentation. We found that certain social behaviors, such as social fear and social motivation, increased, while social hesitancy 1248 RANGE behaviors were reduced. This work further characterizes and identifies the connections between the BNST and the NAc. BNST to NAc projections play an important role in isolation induced social anxiety behaviors, but further research is necessary to determine how subpopulations of neurons control the individual behaviors associated with social anxiety. Ultimately, this work expands what is known about isolation induced social anxiety, a constant struggle faced by many that has become increasingly prevalent in the past decade, and the neural activity associated with anxiety- linked social behaviors (Loneliness in America, 2025). INTRODUCTION Social anxiety affects 12% of Americans over their lifetime, and the effects of mass social isolation on individuals following the COVID-19 global pandemic are recently coming to light (National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), n.d.). This study expands what is known about isolation induced social anxiety and the neural activity associated with social behaviors 1249 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH resulting from this isolation. It provides insight into how individuals who were socially and mentally affected by the pandemic, or other isolating experiences, may have been affected neurally. A 2021 Harvard report found 36% of Americans were experiencing extreme loneliness (LonelinessinAmerica, 2025). Whether that loneliness is due to their physical location, a loss in their life, or falling into a plethora of other hardships and coping through isolation, loneliness can lead to the development of social anxiety. In addition to the mental toll of the pandemic and other isolating situations, there has been a rise in diagnoses of social aversion disorders such as social anxiety, PTSD, and autism spectrum disorder (Goodwin et al., 2020; Sareen, 2014). Social connections are not only critical to the mental and emotional health of social species, such as mice or humans, but they also have a positive impact on physical health (Holt-Lunstad, 2024). The neural pathways underlying social anxiety behaviors, especially those consequent of social isolation, have yet to be fully investigated. Understanding these pathways is essential to developing treatments 1250 RANGE and therapies for these widespread disorders that affect many. The Nucleus Accumbens (NAc) Within the past 20 years, research on the nucleus accumbens (NAc) region of the brain has gained speed. Though a lot is yet to be discovered, it has been found and continually supported that the NAc receives reward signals coding for social motivation (Richey et al., 2014). The NAc is involved in social approach behaviors and dysfunctions of the neural pathways that include the nucleus accumbens play a role in social anxiety behaviors (Ma et al., 2020). These pathways, namely the mesocortical and mesolimbic, are particularly impactful on social motivation and anxiety when compared to the other major dopamine pathways of the central nervous system (Mathew et al., 2001). Activity decreases in neurons that synapse with the nucleus accumbens in cases of social apprehension and avoidance. A 2020 study on characteristics of neurons in the nucleus accumbens after experiencing “social defeat” 1251 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH found the physical structure of the neural dendrites had altered (Fox et al., 2020). The Bed Nucleus Stria Terminalis (BNST) While research on the NAc has been blossoming, so has the investigation of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) region of the brain. The BNST contains neurons with receptors to stress hormones and then sends outputs to brain structures that ultimately produce sustained fear responses (Davis et al., 2010). As it is associated with sustained fear, rather than startle responses and momentary stress, the BNST plays an important role in anxiety, “a sustained state of apprehension”, pathways (Walker et al., 2003). fMRI imaging of the human brain revealed that neurons in the BNST region were excited when participants experienced anxiety or were expecting anxietycausing stimuli (Lebow & Chen, 2016). Connecting the BNST to the NAc Many neurons originating in the BNST project to those in the nucleus accumbens, creating neural pathways that extend through both 1252 RANGE regions (Xiao et al., 2021). The connections between a region known for its role in anxiety, the BNST, and a region known for its role in social motivation, the NAc, have yet to be thoroughly investigated. In this study, the activity of the targeted BNST to NAc projecting neurons was manipulated and the changes in social behaviors were observed and analyzed. In order to also observe the role of these neurons after developing in social isolation, both socially isolated and group housed mice underwent the same neural silencing and behavioral assay. The general objective of this study was to investigate the role of BNST to NAc projecting neurons. Specifically, we evaluated the effect of silencing these neurons on the social anxiety phenotype in both socially isolated and group housed c57 mice. Silencing the connections between the BNST region and the NAc and then studying social behavior in isolated mice provides a foundation of neural knowledge concerning social anxiety pathways and associated behaviors to be built upon. Our work on researching the BNST’s role in 1253 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH social isolation induced anxiety has supported us in this next goal of further characterizing and identifying the connections between the BNST region and the NAc. It is unknown how necessary functionally and anatomically BNST projections to the NAc are for social anxiety behaviors to be displayed in mice who have experienced long-term isolation. Through dual virus injections that target BNST to NAc projections using a chemogenetic approach BNST neurons were silenced. Original behavioral experimentation, called Selective Access to Unrestricted Social Interaction (SAUSI), then revealed an isolated mouse’s presentation (or lack) of the social anxiety phenotype (Grammer et al., 2024). METHODS Phase 1: Isolation The C57BL/6 mouse was the selected model due to their genetic and inherited phenotypic uniformity (C57BL/6Mice, n.d.). They are also, like other mice strains, social creatures that show interest in interacting with others (Netser et al., 1254 RANGE 2020). All mice (n=24) were raised in a group housed setting before being randomly selected to be either group housed or isolated at six weeks old. Half of the sample were removed from their home cage and socially isolated (SI) (n=12) and the other half remained group housed (GH) (n=12). Phase 2: Intracranial Injections Three to seven days following isolation, each mouse received 2 sets of bilateral intracranial injections. After denoting the bregma point on the skull as the zero position, two craniotomies were performed in order to access the nucleus accumbens (NAc) at the anterior/posterior coordinate +1.98; one at the medial/lateral coordinate +0.75 and the other across from it at the medial/lateral coordinate -0.75. Two more craniotomies were performed to provide access to the BNST region. These were situated more posteriorly on the skull at an anterior/posterior coordinate of +0.95 and had medial/lateral coordinates of +/- 0.85 (Figure 2). Once all 4 craniotomies were made, 200 nL of a cre containing, retrograde virus 1255 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (retropENN.AAV.hSyn.HI.eGFP_ cre.WPRE.SV40) was injected at a rate of 50 nL/min through each anterior craniotomy positioned into the NAc bilaterally (at an A/P position of +1.98). It was placed at a dorsal/ ventral position of -4.5. This virus is cre dependent, and retrograde traveling. At each posterior craniotomy position (at an A/P position of +0.95), 150 nL of a cre-dependent inhibitory virus coding for Designer Receptors Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (DREADDs) (AAV2-hSyn-DIOhm4dimcherry) was injected at 50 nL/min into the BNST bilaterally. It was placed at a dorsal/ ventral position of -4.1. Before surgery mice were administered carprofen at a dose of 5 mg/ kg. Directly following surgery mice were provided additional analgesia to aid in healing (buprenorphine XR at a dose of 2.5mL/kg). In order to target BNST to NAc projecting neurons, cre was used. The virus injected into the NAc is expected to travel backwards through the neurons with terminals in the NAc. As the BNST-injected virus requires cre to express, it will only express in neurons that 1256 RANGE terminate in the NAc, where a cre containing, retrograde virus was injected. An experiment to test these viruses paired together was conducted in advance, and microscopy images proved successful viral expression (Figure 1). Neurons in the BNST that project beyond the NAc primarily expressed GFP. Viral expression of neurons projecting from the BNST to the NAc was tagged with mCherry. Figure 1. Expected Viral Expression. The anterior dorsal bed nucleus stria terminalis (adBNST) is the origin of neurons that project to the nucleus accumbens (NAc). a. BNST expected expression of virus. b. NAc expected expression of virus (SAUSI: An Integrative Assay for Measuring Social Aversion and Motivation | bioRxiv, n.d.) Phase 3: Social Behavioral Experimentation Four weeks were required for complete viral 1257 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH expression and social isolation. At 10 weeks old, all mice underwent an original behavioral assay titled Selective Access to Unrestricted Social Interaction (SAUSI). SAUSI requires five days of individually placing the test mice in an enclosure designed for free movement between two chambers (Figure 2). On day one, mice were placed into the empty chamber for five minutes each. Every 30 seconds, the mouse was guided through the tube and every 15 seconds the experimenter’s hand waved through the opposite chamber. This desensitized the mice to the experimenter and prevents the association of the experimenter’s hand with being directly interacted with. On day two, the same process was repeated as mice adjusted to the enclosure. On day three, each test mouse was placed into the enclosure undisturbed for five minutes and the control BALB/c mice were trained to avoid entering the tunnel via the foot shock board. Days four-five are the behavioral assay phase (Figure 3). On day four, test mice were injected with either Deschloroclozapine (DCZ) at a dose of 0.25 mg/kg, the ligand required to silence the targeted BNST to NAc neurons, or 1258 RANGE a control vehicle (DMSO and saline). Ten minutes after the injection, the mouse was placed into the enclosure for a three minute baseline phase. They were then kept in one chamber with the tube blocked off, as a control BALB/c mouse is placed in the opposite chamber. The tube is then unblocked and the test mouse is given unrestricted access to both chambers for ten minutes. The control mouse is kept in one chamber via foot shock boards (0.3 mAMPs) placed at the tube entrance. The foot shock boards were manually activated, as to avoid shocking the test mice. On day five, test mice are given the opposite injection than day four and the process is repeated. A different set of BALB/c mice were used on day five, preventing test mice from encountering the same control mouse twice. 1259 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2. Experimental Design. Full, week by week timeline of experiment. Behavioral assay in week 6 is detailed day by day. 1260 RANGE Figure 3. SAUSI Behavioral Test. The process of SAUSI test days 4-5. Phase 4: Behavioral Analysis Test mice were analyzed based on behaviors that were classified under social fear, social motivation, and social hesitancy (Table 1). Phase 5: Histology 90 minutes following the start of each mouse’s behavioral test phase, each brain was post-fixed in paraformaldehyde (PFA). This allowed for visualizable 1261 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH viral expression in the targeted neurons. The postfixation process began with immediately placing the removed brains in about a 4% PFA solution. Then brains were transferred to a 15% sucrose solution for 3 days, followed by another 3 days in a 30% sucrose solution. Brains were removed from solution and frozen at -80℃. Brains were frozen for 4-6 weeks, then sliced at 17℃ into 40 micron thick slices. Slices including the anterior and posterior nucleus accumbens (NAc) as well as the anterior and posterior bed nucleus stria terminalis (BNST) were mounted onto charged microscope slides. RESULTS This study aimed to investigate the consequent social behavioral changes in group housed and isolated mice when BNST to NAc projecting neurons were silenced. Our results, though overall not significant due to counteracting trends in certain behaviors, indicate an increase in the social anxiety phenotype in socially isolated (SI) mice. There was no significant trend in behavioral changes in group housed (GH) mice. Examination and Analysis of Descriptive Statistics After excluding the behavioral data from mice who did not exhibit expression of the DREADDS virus injected 1262 RANGE into the BNST (AAV2-hSyn-DIO-hm4di-mcherry) and mice who never entered the social chamber, the only behavior in which there a significant trend in count changes when the targeted neurons were silenced was prosocial initiation, categorized under social motivation (Figure 4). There was a significant decrease in prosocial initiation counts, indicating an increase in the social anxiety phenotype. Behaviors contributing to social fear, such as social freezing, did not have a significant change, but overall increased. This further supports the presence of social anxiety when the targeted neurons were silenced in socially isolated mice. Figure 4. Behavioral Indications of an Increase in Social Anxiety. When BNST to NAc projecting neurons were 1263 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH silenced the two categories of behaviors that saw an increase in social anxiety were social motivation and social fear. On the other hand, the trend in behaviors contributing to social hesitancy in isolated mice was negative, which is indicative of less social anxiety. There was a reduction in the time mice took to approach the connecting tunnel and enter the social chamber (Figure 5). There was no difference in tube reversals, so that second “chance” for hesitancy was also bypassed. Mice appeared to make decisions more quickly when the targeted neurons were silenced, but when they arrived at the social chamber still displayed socially anxious behaviors. Figure 5. Behavioral Indications of a Decrease in Social Anxiety. When BNST to NAc projecting neurons were 1264 RANGE silenced the category of behaviors that saw a decrease in social anxiety was social hesitancy. The trend in aggression was not significant, but the behavior appeared to decrease in both populations of mice (GH and SI), which is indicative of lower social anxiety. The Social Aversion score is a cumulative score designed to display the overall trend in each mouse’s social anxious behaviors. Of the statistics calculated, it is the strongest indicator of the presence of the social anxiety phenotype. It is calculated by combining all of an individual’s z-scores together. As z-scores are how many standard deviations from the average count/time an individual’s count/time is, behaviors that indicate less social anxiety when seen in higher counts, were flipped from negative to positive. A higher social aversion score is indicative of more socially anxious behaviors. The overall trend in social aversion scores of isolated mice showed no significant difference when the BNST to NAc projections were silenced. Neither did that of the group housed mice. The general trend in social aversion scores for socially isolated mice was positive, indicating an increase in the social anxiety phenotype. After fixing, slicing, and mounting the experimental brains, successful viral expression 1265 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH was found in the majority of subjects (Figure 6). In some brains either the shell or the center of the NAc showed viral expression. In others, both expressed the tagged viruses (Figure 6). Neurons found in the shell have been suggested to be more involved in social behavior than those in the center of NAc (Ambroggi et al., 2011). The entire BNST (dorsal and ventral) had GFP expression, while the targeted mCherry expressing neurons were primarily seen in the dorsal BNST. 1266 RANGE Figure 6A. 1267 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 6B. 1268 RANGE Figure 6C. 1269 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 6C. Figure 6. Images of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) in brain J taken with a fluorescent microscope. A. The right side of the brain with mCherry expressed in the shell of the NAc. B. The right side of the brain with GFP expressed, primarily surrounding/being diluted by the expressed mCherry. C. The left side of the brain with mCherry expressed in the center of the NAc. D. The left side of the brain with GFP expressed around the center of the NAc. 1270 RANGE DISCUSSION Silencing this specific projection from the BNST resulted in different behavioral trends than silencing the entire BNST. Overall, there was not a significant increase in social aversion in socially isolated or group housed mice when the BNST to NAc projecting neurons were silenced. This is likely because mice appeared to make quick decisions before entering the social chamber. So, the contribution of social hesitancy scores pulled the overall social aversion score down (indicating less of the social anxiety phenotype). Once in the social chamber, isolated mice then exhibited an increase in anxious behaviors. These mixed results of social aversion, decreased hesitancy but increased freezing/reactivity, point to many possible explanations that require further experimentation. The first would be that the specific social motivation and social fear neural pathways involve overlapping populations of neurons, likely including the targeted projections silenced. Both social motivation increased (as hesitancy decreased) and social fear increased therefore the same neurons may be 1271 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH involved in controlling both of those behaviors. In this explanation, the targeted neurons would be intermediate participants in multiple, prominent social behavior inducing neural pathways. Another likely explanation would be that there is one neuron or a subset of neurons, likely those silenced, projecting to multiple other neurons that belong to different pathways, some of which control social fear and some of which control social hesitancy. In this explanation, the targeted neuron would be near the beginning of multiple social pathways. It is possible the silenced neuron inhibits a neuron in the social hesitancy pathway while exciting a neuron in the social fear pathway, or potentially even more specific behavioral pathways. It is also possible that the targeted projections control a behavioral readout, rather than the emotional state. Different emotions can lead to different behaviors. While mice may be experiencing anxiety, which involves the entire BNST, these specific projections may control behaviors from the emotional state. There could 1272 RANGE be distinct subpopulations of neurons that control each behavioral action and its associated motor output, rather than contribute to an overall emotional state. If this were the case then the results would best be interpreted as just an output of behavior rather than contributing to the social anxiety phenotype, but the presence of multiple social behaviors is indicative of the social anxiety phenotype. None of these explanations are exclusive, and all could be true. Previous literature has shown an increase in social motivation when the entire BNST was silenced, which is contrary to previous BNST silencing work we have done (Emmons et al., 2021). But, this is not entirely contrary to the results of this experiment. This experiment supports both an increase in social motivation and an increase in social anxiety. As there has yet to be a consistent conclusion drawn on the effects of silencing BNST neurons on social behavior, it is likely that neurons in the BNST control many differing social and fear behaviors. Silencing the entire BNST doesn’t always lead to simply more or less anxiety, because the neurons participate in more complex, 1273 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH sometimes contradicting pathways. For example, the BNST neurons targeted in this study displayed an involvement in hesitancy and fear, but appeared to inhibit one and amplify the other. The scope of this study includes social anxiety born from social isolation as well as social anxiety due to the presence of a stranger. It only includes experimentation in which the targeted neurons were silenced, activation was done in a separate study. This research was limited by a sample size of 24 mice, which may have prevented the results from reaching significance and affected the generalizability of the results. There are also animal model constraints to consider. The findings are based on C57BL/6 mice, which may not fully translate to human social behavior and psychiatric conditions. The experiment was conducted within a restricted period (10 weeks), limiting long-term behavioral and neurobiological observations. Variability in viral expression efficiency and potential off-target effects of chemogenetic manipulation (DREADDs) may influence results, though brains of all experimental mice 1274 RANGE were imaged and those that did not express proper viral placement were excluded from behavioral data analysis. While SAUSI provides valuable insight into social interactions, it may not capture all aspects of social cognition or anxiety-related behaviors in mice, repeated experimentation using miniature, head mounted microscopes (miniScope) has already been underway to capture more real-time neural activity. The results of this project not only spark further research questions and experimental plans, but they carry significance in the fields of psychiatric and therapeutic research. The BNST to NAc projecting neurons exhibit a contribution to aspects of social behavior and anxiety, though these contributions may not be uniform. Those who suffer from mental illnesses and disorders, especially those that experience social aversion, don’t always experience the same struggles. Different individuals may need different treatments, based on their experiences. Being able to identify the specific effects of silencing the targeted neurons allowed for specific results and could lead to the 1275 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH development of specific treatments. Maybe an individual struggles with social motivation, but once they are socializing, they don’t feel anxious. Or an individual is eager to socialize, but spends the whole event hiding from others. Understanding their neural activity, aids professionals in treating their symptoms. Further manipulation of BNST and NAc neurons is necessary for understanding social aversion disorders. BIBLIOGRAPHY Accumbens Core and Shell in Incentive-Cue Responding and Behavioral Inhibition. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(18), 6820–6830. https://doi.org/10.1523/ JNEUROSCI.6491-10.2011 BioRender. (n.d.). Retrieved February 25, 2025, from https://app.biorender.com/illustrations/ 67be88e3f29d4d9e4ccc998a C57BL/6 Mice. (n.d.). Charles River. Retrieved February 25, 2025, from https://www.criver.com/ products-services/find-model/c57bl6-mouse 1276 RANGE CDC. (2024, July 19). Data and Statistics on Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). https://www.cdc.gov/autism/dataresearch/index.html Daniel, S. E., & Rainnie, D. G. (2016). Stress Modulation of Opposing Circuits in the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(1), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1038/ npp.2015.178 Davis, M., Walker, D. L., Miles, L., & Grillon, C. (2010). Phasic vs Sustained Fear in Rats and Humans: Role of the Extended Amygdala in Fear vs Anxiety. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(1), 105–135. https://doi.org/10.1038/ npp.2009.109 Emmons, R., Sadok, T., Rovero, N. G., Belnap, M. A., Henderson, H. J. M., Quan, A. J., Del Toro, N. J., & Halladay, L. R. (2021). Chemogenetic manipulation of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis counteracts social behavioral deficits induced by early life stress in 1277 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH C57BL/6J mice. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 99(1), 90–109. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.24644 Fox, M. E., Figueiredo, A., Menken, M. S., & Lobo, M. K. (2020). Dendritic spine density is increased on nucleus accumbens D2 neurons after chronic social defeat. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 12393. https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41598-020-69339-7 Goodwin, R. D., Weinberger, A. H., Kim, J. H., Wu, M., & Galea, S. (2020). Trends in anxiety among adults in the United States, 2008-2018: Rapid increases among young adults. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 130, 441–446. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.08.014 Grammer, J., Valles, R., Bowles, A., & Zelikowsky, M. (2024). SAUSI: An integrative assay for measuring social aversion and motivation (p. 2024.05.13.594023). bioRxiv. https://doi.org/ 10.1101/2024.05.13.594023 Holt-Lunstad, J. (2024). Social connection as a critical factor for mental and physical health: Evidence, trends, challenges, and future 1278 RANGE implications. World Psychiatry, 23(3), 312–332. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.21224 Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 10(2), 227–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352 Ike, K. G. O., de Boer, S. F., Buwalda, B., & Kas, M. J. H. (2020). Social withdrawal: An initially adaptive behavior that becomes maladaptive when expressed excessively. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 116, 251–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.neubiorev.2020.06.030 jhalper. (2025, February 26). The Rise of Social Anxiety Disorder in America. The Blueprint. https://www.bluekc.com/blueprint/healthier-living/ the-rise-of-social-anxiety-disorder-in-america/ Kai, N., Nishizawa, K., Tsutsui, Y., Ueda, S., & Kobayashi, K. (2015). Differential roles of 1279 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH dopamine D1 and D2 receptor-containing neurons of the nucleus accumbens shell in behavioral sensitization. Journal of Neurochemistry, 135(6), 1232–1241. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.13380 Lebow, M. A., & Chen, A. (2016). Overshadowed by the amygdala: The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis emerges as key to psychiatric disorders. Molecular Psychiatry, 21(4), 450–463. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2016.1 Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review—Julianne Holt-Lunstad, Timothy B. Smith, Mark Baker, Tyler Harris, David Stephenson, 2015. (n.d.). Retrieved March 4, 2025, from https://journals.sagepub.com/ doi/full/10.1177/1745691614568352 Loneliness in America: How the Pandemic Has Deepened an Epidemic of Loneliness. (2025, January 23). Making Caring Common. https://mcc.gse.harvard.edu/reports/loneliness-inamerica Ma, L., Chen, W., Yu, D., & Han, Y. (2020). 1280 RANGE Brain-Wide Mapping of Afferent Inputs to Accumbens Nucleus Core Subdomains and Accumbens Nucleus Subnuclei. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 14, 15. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fnsys.2020.00015 Mathew, S. J., Coplan, J. D., & Gorman, J. M. (2001). Neurobiological mechanisms of social anxiety disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(10), 1558– 1567. https://doi.org/ 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.10.1558 Netser, S., Meyer, A., Magalnik, H., Zylbertal, A., de la Zerda, S. H., Briller, M., Bizer, A., Grinevich, V., & Wagner, S. (2020). Distinct dynamics of social motivation drive differential social behavior in laboratory rat and mouse strains. Nature Communications, 11(1), 5908. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19569-0 Nock, M. K., Hwang, I., Sampson, N., Kessler, R. C., Angermeyer, M., Beautrais, A., Borges, G., Bromet, E., Bruffaerts, R., De Girolamo, G., De Graaf, R., Florescu, S., Gureje, O., Haro, J. M., Hu, C., Huang, Y., Karam, E. G., Kawakami, N., Kovess, V., … Williams, D. R. 1281 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (2009). Cross-National Analysis of the Associations among Mental Disorders and Suicidal Behavior: Findings from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. PLoS Medicine, 6(8), e1000123. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pmed.1000123 Reite, M., & Field, T. (Eds.). (1985). BEHAVIORAL BIOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL SERIES. In The Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation (p. ii). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/ B978-0-12-586780-1.50001-X Richey, J. A., Rittenberg, A., Hughes, L., Damiano, C. R., Sabatino, A., Miller, S., Hanna, E., Bodfish, J. W., & Dichter, G. S. (2014). Common and distinct neural features of social and non-social reward processing in autism and social anxiety disorder. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(3), 367–377. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss146 Sareen, J. (2014). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Adults: Impact, Comorbidity, Risk Factors, and Treatment. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 1282 RANGE Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 59(9), 460–467. SAUSI: an integrative assay for measuring social aversion and motivation | bioRxiv. (n.d.). Retrieved February 25, 2025, from https://www.biorxiv.org/ content/10.1101/2024.05.13.594023v2.full Social Anxiety Disorder—National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (n.d.). Retrieved March 4, 2025, from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/ statistics/social-anxiety-disorder Trezza, V., Damsteegt, R., Achterberg, E. J. M., & Vanderschuren, L. J. M. J. (2011). Nucleus Accumbens μ-Opioid Receptors Mediate Social Reward. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(17), 6362–6370. https://doi.org/10.1523/ JNEUROSCI.5492-10.2011 van de Poll, Y., Cras, Y., & Ellender, T. J. (2023). The neurophysiological basis of stress and anxiety—Comparing neuronal diversity in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) across species. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 17, 1225758. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fncel.2023.1225758 1283 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Walker, D. L., Toufexis, D. J., & Davis, M. (2003). Role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis versus the amygdala in fear, stress, and anxiety. European Journal of Pharmacology, 463(1–3), 199–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/ s0014-2999(03)01282-2 Walsh, J. J., Christoffel, D. J., Wu, X., Pomrenze, M. B., & Malenka, R. C. (2021). Dissecting neural mechanisms of prosocial behaviors. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 68, 9–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2020.11.006 Wu, Y. E., & Hong, W. (2022). Neural basis of prosocial behavior. Trends in Neurosciences, 45(10), 749–762. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.tins.2022.06.008 Xiao, Q., Zhou, X., Wei, P., Xie, L., Han, Y., Wang, J., Cai, A., Xu, F., Tu, J., & Wang, L. (2021). A new GABAergic somatostatin projection from the BNST onto accumbal parvalbumin neurons controls anxiety. Molecular Psychiatry, 26(9), 4719–4741. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-0816 1284 RANGE 72 Research Reflection by Caitlin Tweed CAITLIN TWEED Faculty Mentor: Moriel Zelikowsky (Neurobiology & Anatomy, University of Utah) My research experience has not only shaped my future career path, it has also shaped my outlook on the world. I now have a deeper appreciation for all of the work that has gone into the field of science and medicine. I 1285 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH look at every day inventions and discoveries and know that amazing human beings are behind them. I also now question everything. I wonder how everything works from the tiny ecosystems beneath my feet to the shampoo I wash my hair with. I am constantly curious and then consequently amazed. The existence of life is incredible, the ability to think is even cooler, and I love that I get to investigate it. I never want to stop learning about the world around me. Throughout my undergraduate education, I’ve been graced with many inspiring and patient mentors. Working in research can be intimidating and selfdeprecating. But, when my confidence has failed and my nerves have gotten the best of me, I’ve been able to rely on a supportive and understanding research team. My PI has been one of the coolest people and I’m grateful to work for her. My mentor has been a wonderful teacher, comforter, and supporter. My work in research has shown me that humanity and kindness are not just found in labs, but are essential to a functional lab. Learning that empathy, small joys, and community does not have to be sacrificed in order to be a respected and successful scientist, has been integral in my decision to stay in science. 1286 RANGE 73 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Surge and Altered PPARγ Isoform Ratios Precede Alveolar Formation in the Developing Rat Lung DANIEL WRAY; LISA JOSS-MOORE; WESLEY CHIDESTER; AND SOFIA LEVERATTO Faculty Mentor: Lisa Joss-Moore (Pediatrics, University of Utah) 1287 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH BACKGROUND The lung disease bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is prevalent in preterm neonates and is characterized by impaired alveolar development (1). Alveolar development depends on adequate nutrient provision at critical developmental stages. Nutrients critical for alveolar formation include the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs), specifically, the omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and the omega-6 arachidonic acid (ARA) (2). While the importance of essential fatty acids in lung development has been recognized for over a decade, recent clinical trials highlight potential negative consequences of postnatal supplementation with isolated DHA. In the N3RO trial, neonates received enteral DHA supplementation (3), and the MOBYDick Trial, neonates received maternal breast milk from mothers supplemented with DHA (4). Both trials demonstrated a potential negative impact of supplemental DHA on the development of BPD, and both trials studied neonates born at less than 29 weeks of gestation. An important consideration is the timing of lung development. The last two stages of lung development are the saccular and alveolar sages. In the saccular stage, the lung is characterized by thick cellular walls. As lung 1288 RANGE development continues, the saccular-to-alveolar transition takes place, where the lung is characterized by progressively thinner walls and smaller, more numerous alveoli with increased secondary septa. As the bulk formation of alveoli continues, the microvascular beds and alveolar refinement ensure a structure with appropriate capacity for gas exchange (Figure 1). In the human lung, the saccular-to-alveolar transition occurs late in gestation, and microvascular maturation and alveolar refinement continue postnatally. This is in contrast to the preterm human lung, which may be in the saccular stage at birth (5). Figure 1. Gross lung structure during the developmental time periods. Showing development from saccular stage, through the transition and finally the alveolar stage. Alveolar formation is in part mitigated by PPARγ, a lipid-responsive transcription factor. PPARγ is activated by a ligand, such as DHA. Activation of PPARγ results in its nuclear translocation, binding to a response element in a target gene, and subsequent expression 1289 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of the target gene. PPARγ target genes important in the developing lung include Perilipin 2, also known as Adipose differentiation- related protein, which is particularly important for the epithelial-mesenchymal transition that drives lung development. As for many transcription factors, regulation of PPARγ activity is complex and involves many additional aspects, including alternative splicing (6). Figure 2. Graphics demonstrating PPARγ alternative splicing, genomic PPARγ normally expresses exons 4,5 and 6 in the fully active mRNA variant. However, with high ligand activation, genomic PPARγ will alternatively splice excluding exon 5 creating the pparγΔ5 mRNA variant. Standard transcription of the gene produces a transcript that includes exons 4, 5, and 6. However, under 1290 RANGE conditions of high ligand activation, for example by DHA, PPARγ undergoes alternative splicing of exon 5. The transcript lacking exon 5 is known as pparγΔ5, and it codes for a dominant- negative or inactive PPARγ protein isoform (Figure 2). While the standard or fulllength variant codes for the active protein, the ratio of PPARγ to PPARγΔ5 reflects PPARγ’s activity potential. While we’ve shown that pparγΔ5 is expressed in the rat lung (7), its timing and relationship to lung fatty acid levels remain unclear. We hypothesize that essential fatty acids will vary across the saccular-to-alveolar transition and correlate with levels of pparγ/pparγΔ5, or the activity potential of PPARγ in the rat lung. METHODS For this study, we used lungs from Sprague Dawley rats at different postnatal ages. All animal procedures were reviewed and approved by the University of Utah Animal Care and Use Committee, following the NIH Guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. The rat lung undergoes the same developmental stages as the human lung, except with different timing. In the rat, the lung is in the saccular stage at term birth, with the saccular-to-alveolar transition and subsequent alveolar refinement occurring postnatally, similar to that of the preterm human lung. In this study, we examined 1291 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH rat lungs at postnatal day of life 0 and day 2, both representing the saccular stage, day of life 7 and 12 during the saccular-alveolar transition, and day of life 16 and 21 during the alveolar refinement stage. D0 rat pups were delivered by C-section at term, and all postnatal ages were delivered vaginally, with litters culled to 8 pups to ensure constant postnatal nutrition. Targeted lipidomics, performed by the University of Utah Metabolomics Core Facility, was used to measure DHA and ARA in the lung. Real-time RT-PCR was used to measure pparγ and pparγΔ5 mRNA levels. We used an assay-on-demand primer/probe set for pparγ, which covers the exon boundary between exon 5 and 6 (Rn00440945_m1, ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). To measure levels of pparγΔ5, we used a custom primer/probe set spanning the exon 4–6 junction (forward, CGAGAAGGAGAAGCTGTTGG; reverse, GCGGTTGATTTGTCTGTTGT; probe, CCCTGGCAAAGCATTTGTAT). For all measures, the comparative CT method was used, with GADPH as an internal control. Statistical differences were determined using ANOVA with post-hoc least squares analysis. 1292 RANGE RESULTS We first determined the concentration of the fatty acids in the lung over the developmental timeline. Data were analyzed by sex, and there were no differences between male and female lungs, so sexes are combined. Levels of DHA increase over the saccular stage and drop significantly during the saccular- to-alveolar transition, especially at day 12, rebounding somewhat during alveolar refinement (Figure 3). Figure 3. Lung DHA levels. Data are pmol DHA/mg of lung tissue at the developmental timelines studied. The bars are the mean, and the error bars are the standard deviation. 1293 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The circles represent lung tissue samples from individual rats. Asterisks represent a significant difference compared to the adjacent time point. ARA levels show a similar pattern to DHA, again with a decrease at day 12 toward the end of the transition and a slight rebound after (Figure 4). Figure 4. Lung ARA levels. Data are pmol DHA/mg of lung tissue at the developmental timelines studied. The bars are the mean, and the error bars are the standard deviation. The circles represent lung tissue samples from individual rats. 1294 RANGE Asterisks represent a significant difference compared to the adjacent time point. We then determined the relative amounts of DHA to ARA across the developmental timeline as this ratio is important for many cellular functions. The DHA to ARA ration decreases steadily throughout alveolar formation, again showing a significant dip at day 12 toward the end of the transition (Figure 5). Figure 5. The DHA to ARA ratio across the developmental timelines studied. The bars are the mean, and the error bars are the standard deviation. The circles represent lung tissue 1295 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH samples from individual rats. Asterisks represent a significant difference compared to the adjacent time point. We then determined how these fatty acid changes related to the expression of PPARγ and PPARγΔ5, particularly how they affected the ratio of PPARγ to PPARγΔ5, or the activity potential of PPARγ. The activity potential of PPARγ decreases before the saccular-to-alveolar transition and then increases during the transition and later alveolar refinement (Figure 6). Figure 6. The ratio of PPARγ to PPARγΔ5 across the developmental timelines studied. The bars are the mean, and the error bars are the standard deviation. The circles represent 1296 RANGE lung tissue samples from individual rats. Asterisks represent a significant difference compared to the adjacent time point. Finally, we assessed the correlation between the PPARγ activity potential and lung DHA as well as DHA/ARA. Both DHA and the DHA/ARA are significantly correlated with the PPARγ activity potential (Figure 7a, 7b). Figure 7a. the ratio of PPARγ to PPARγΔ5 relative to levels of DHA. The circles represent lung tissue samples from individual rats. 1297 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 7b. the ratio of PPARγ to PPARγΔ5 relative to the DHA to ARA ratio. The circles represent lung tissue samples from individual rats. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Here we showed that lung levels of DHA and ARA are high in the saccular stage of lung development and decrease through alveolar transition. We also showed that the PPARγ activity potential shows a reciprocal pattern with the DHA/ARA ratio, being low in the saccular stage and increasing through alveolar transition. Lastly, lung DHA and the DHA/ ARA ratio are significantly negatively correlated 1298 RANGE with PPARγ activity potential in all lung stages examined. We conclude that DHA and ARA levels and the PPARγ activity potential fluctuate in a coordinated manner during critical stages of alveolar formation. Given that PPARγ activity is vital to appropriate saccular-to-alveolar transition in the lung, and that DHA acts to reduce the PPARγ activity potential, we speculate that the normal decrease in lung DHA during the saccular-to-alveolar transition may facilitate PPARγ activity. We further speculate that isolated DHA supplementation during the transition may result in reduced PPARγ activity by increasing the production of PPARγΔ5, thus impairing alveolar formation and increasing BPD risk. BIBLIOGRAPHY Joss-Moore LA, Lane RH, Albertine KH. Epigenetic contributions to the developmental origins of adult lung disease. Biochem Cell Biol. 2015;93(2):119-127. doi:10.1139/bcb-2014- 0093 Wiedmeier JE, Joss-Moore LA, Lane RH, Neu J. Early postnatal nutrition and programming of the preterm 1299 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH neonate. Nutr Rev. 2011;69(2):76-82. doi:10.1111/ j.1753-4887.2010.00370.x Collins, C.T., et al., Docosahexaenoic Acid and Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia in Preterm Infants. N Engl J Med, 2017. 376(13): p. 1245-1255. Marc, I., et al., Effect of Maternal Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation on Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia-Free Survival in Breastfed Preterm Infants: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA., 2020. 324(2): p. 157-167. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.8896 .DiFiore JW, Wilson JM. Lung development. Semin Pediatr Surg. 1994;3(4):221-232. Aprile, M., et al., PPARγΔ5, a Naturally Occurring Dominant-Negative Splice Isoform, Impairs PPARγ Function and Adipocyte Differentiation. Cell Rep., 2018. 25(6): p. 1577- 1592.e6. doi: 10.1016/ j.celrep.2018.10.035. Cohen AJ, Chidester WR, Wray DT, et al. Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation in Postnatal Growth Restricted Rats Does Not Normalize Lung Function or PPARγ Activity. 1300 Biomolecules. RANGE 2025;15(4):551. Published doi:10.3390/biom15040551 1301 2025 Apr 9. OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 1302 RANGE 74 Research Summary: Supporting the Operations and Maintenance of the UUNET Weather and MEOP Air Quality Platforms in Northern Utah BRETT BOTKIN Faculty Mentor: John Horel (Atmospheric Sciences, University of Utah) The UUNET network of weather stations in northern 1303 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Utah is supported by researchers in the Department of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Utah. Sensors are deployed to monitor common meteorological parameters (temperature, wind, moisture, pressure, solar radiation) in rural and urban locations. Personnel are needed to ensure station operability and accuracy of observations. For example, anemometer bearings are replaced as needed and solar charging of batteries and precipitation gauge performance are monitored. Other deployed instrumentation for research projects includes air quality monitors (PM, Ozone), ceilometers, and eddy covariance sensors. The eddy covariance platforms have been installed near commercial evaporation ponds and exposed lakebed playa surrounding the Great Salt Lake to estimate evaporation and improve understanding of the lake’s water balance. Quality control goes hand in hand with fieldwork and plays a crucial aspect in UUNET’s operations. The Mobile Environmental Observing Platform (MEOP) project relies on a network of 15 electric buses and 3 light rail trains operated by the Utah Transit Authority. Each platform is outfitted with air quality equipment to monitor particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, PM10) and ozone as well as temperature and humidity. GPS sensors are used to provide geolocation 1304 RANGE information. Performing maintenance on MEOP equipment is done as needed or scheduled for twiceyearly visits to exchange filters and check wiring. When trains are in maintenance depots, quality assurance and control is critical for inferring and removing unwanted inside observations. I have always been interested in the weather and weather-related fields such as forecasting and storm spotting. Prior to going through the undergraduate instrumentation class and getting my position as Laboratory Technician in the Mountain Meteorology lab, I did not have much experience with electrical circuits, data transmission, and all the other aspects that goes along with instrumentation. Throughout the last two years of being a Lab Technician and gaining experience, my knowledge has grown immensely. In my experience, I have had the opportunity to go out into the field and perform maintenance on our network of weather stations, conduct repairs on various equipment ranging from dust monitors to anemometers, build new platforms of meteorological and air quality monitors to achieve various research goals, gain experience performing data 1305 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH management and quality control, and being a Teacher’s Assistant for the Environmental Instrumentation course. My skills have grown immensely through the expertise of Dr. John Horel and the members of his research group. I have a much higher confidence in the field and look forward to taking the skills I have learned and applying them to future opportunities. I have also enjoyed the research aspects of the position and am actively looking at positions to continue my growth in the field, including graduate school. 1306 RANGE 75 Precocious Scaphites and the Hydrodynamic Consequences of the Development of Ribbing GARRETT BUTLER; KATHLEEN RITTERBUSH; NICHOLAS HEBDON; MIKELIA HEBERER; DAVID PETERMAN; AND JUNJI CHOI Faculty Mentor: Kathleen Ritterbush (Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah) 1307 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ABSTRACT Basic conch geometry roughly constrains how different ammonites could balance and swim. But it remains unclear what costs – or advantages – are added by complex ribbing and other conch ornamentation. We present a case study with juvenile scaphite ammonites from the Western Interior Seaway of the Late Cretaceous. Scaphitid conchs typically change shape considerably through ontogeny. Juvenile planispiral conchs offer varied streamlining that reduces drag resistance when swimming. Adult conchs produce a hook-shaped body chamber that forfeits streamlining for hydrostatic stability. Ribbing, however, for many species persists throughout an individual’s life with little change in amplitude and wavelength. We weigh the hydrodynamic cost of ribbing in these juvenile conchs using computational fluid dynamic simulations (CFD). We create synthetic scaphitid 3D models of two representative shapes from specimens collected in the Upper Cretaceous Pierre Shale: an inflated discocone and a moderately compressed oxycone. We add simple ribs to each, for a total of four test cases. Flow simulations target a series of velocities from 1-20 cm/s on specimens 4-5 cm in diameter. Generally, an inflated conch shape generates more 1308 RANGE overall drag force than a compressed shape. Ribs, meanwhile, cause an inflated specimens yield drag force to be closer to those of a compressed specimen. We interpret this as a consequence of premature shear experienced at the ribbing interface along the conch flank, and at the umbilical shoulder. For juvenile scaphites, inflation and ornamentation cause opposing trade-offs in drag force with increasing turbulence. If our ammonites were traveling slower than one bodylength per second (or were smaller in size), compression and/or ribbing exacerbate drag force. If our ammonites were traveling faster than one body-length per second (or were larger in size), compression and/or ribbing reduce drag force. Between two individuals, the inflated form should favor maneuverability and acceleration, while the compressed form should travel greater distance for the same effort. Ribbed ornament appears to help the inflated conch behave more like a compressed conch. Collectively, juvenile scaphites appear to occupy every position within a highly constrained maneuverability-efficiencyspeed landscape. INTRODUCTION Ammonoid conchs with a spiral shape also feature many 1309 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH different styles of ornamentation, including ribs, nodes, tubercles, and spines. Possible functions of these morphological distinctions might relate to defense, sexual maturity, hydrostatics, or hydrodynamics. Here, we examine possible hydrodynamic consequences of ribbing with a simple test: do we see increase (or decrease) in swimming efficacy due to ribbing in juvenile scaphitd ammonoids from the Western Interior Seaway? We do not address developmental origins of ribbing structure, but rather contribute to a broader vision: an adaptive landscape analysis of ribbing. Overall, we find that there is a non-linear relationship between ribbing and efficiency, and highlight a marked reduction of negative pressure in compressed conchs. The development of ammonoid conch ribbing has long been regarded as a process of defense against breakage from predator attacks (Ward 1981). From first principles, however, complex surfaces should impact the underwater motion of ammonoid-sized objects. Drag coefficient is a function of velocity, direction of flow, object position, and shape and size (Mallick 2016). Work on cylindrical objects shows that applying a rough surface decreases the coefficient of drag while increasing the force of drag (Mallick 2016). Past efforts have been made to link morphological distinctions to ecospace occupation. The Westermann Morphospace method 1310 RANGE allows for a quantitative analysis of growth ratios to diagram morphotypes (Ritterbush and Bottjer 2012). Orientation of ammonoids in a hydrostatic and hydrodynamic setting is complex. The hydrostatic setting of scaphites has been researched extensively and has found that juvenile scaphites differed very little from the adult heteromorphs (Peterman 2020). This work also determined that front to back rocking is minimized in scaphitid ammonoids due to their mass distribution (Peterman 2020). Drag coefficient has been extensively examined in relation to the width growth ratio. Work completed on this subject found that shell inflation and umbilical exposure influence the hydrodynamic efficiency through a reduction of the coefficient of drag (Hebdon 2020). This work also outlines the process and tests the efficacy of CFD simulations in an ecological setting. By testing idealized Nautilus shells with experimental data using live Nautilus (Hebdon 2020). In separate work, this team has completed a Westermann Morphospace of smoothed specimens at various velocities. This work also found that the inflation ratio has major consequences for coefficient of drag (Hebdon 2020). This workflow begins with a collection and statistical analysis of planispiral schapitid ammonoids. Accurate 3D representative models are then designed 1311 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH using measured growth ratios of a given specimen. Basic, non-sinuous ribbing structure is then applied logarithmically around the exposed surface of the shell for analysis of the hydrodynamic consequences of ribbing and inflation. 3D models are then generated as CAD models within Ansys for use in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) such that ornament detail is not lost. Simulation architecture is implemented to balance a high resolution area surrounding the shell while reducing the total computational demand. A mesh is then generated using a polyhedra type mesh with the smallest polyhedra diameter 1/5 the ribbing wavelength (ribbed specimen) or umbilicus diameter (smoothed specimen). CFD simulations are prepared and set to 500 iterations for collection of measured data. Measured data is then used for various calculated data to be plotted against Reynolds Number within the computer program R. METHODS The collection of well preserved juvenile scaphitid ammonoids were chosen for their planispiral morphology and completeness of a 180deg section of conch. Twenty-eight specimens were measured by their 1312 RANGE various shape ratios (inflation, umbilicus diameter, aperture height) to be examined in a Westermann Morphospace Analysis (Ritterbush and Bottjer 2012). The specimens range in shape from spheroconic to oxyconic (Figure 1). The specimens chosen for further analysis represent the distinct variants within this sample: one inflated and one compressed specimen. Measured growth ratios of the chosen specimen are then applied to the computer program “The Shell GeneratorV2” by Olivia Jenkings. “The Shell GeneratorV2” creates accurate 3D models 1313 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH using measured growth ratios in the file type stereolithography (.stl) for low file size and general use in 3D modeling programs. (Figure 2) “The Shell GeneratorV2” also allows for use of “UV Skinwraps”, that are applied logarithmically along the surface of the model which allows for the addition of iterative ammonoid ornament. We used the open source 3D computer graphics program “Blender” to further prepare models for use in CFD. Synthetic soft bodies are created and sized to be 20% of the total diameter. This is done to eliminate large amounts of vortex drag from occurring at the otherwise flat aperture 1314 RANGE face of the conch. (Hebdon 2020) Four initial models were made with each the inflated and compressed specimen represented by a smooth and ribbed model. (Figure 3 B-C) A fifth model was made using a complete quarter whorl generated from a 3D scan of a 1315 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH physical specimen using the Array modifier has yet to be further tested. (Figure 3 D) Models undergo three modifiers to limit computational demand while maintaining resolution of umbilicus and ribbing. A triangle count of approximately 300,000 is targeted and models are then exported as .stl files. The multiphysics engineering simulation software Ansys is used for the generation of CAD models of specimens and further analysis of steady state fluid dynamics. The Fluid Flow (Fluent with Fluent Meshing) has four primary sections; geometry, meshing, set-up, and results. The first section, geometry, is used to generate a CAD model and to create “workspaces”. CAD models are made using a skinwrap tool set to parameters of a 0.1mm gap size and 6° angle threshold. Workspaces are cylinders/rectangular prisms made to create various areas of increasing size with decreasing resolution surrounding the shell model to balance desired data resolution with computational capabilities. (figure 4). 1316 RANGE Finished simulation schematics are then exported through Ansys to the next section, meshing. The meshing section is utilized to create a polyhedra type mesh of increasing polyhedra diameter for each workspace. Polyhedra diameter for the smallest workspace is chosen by taking 1/5 the measurement of the smallest detail desired to be analyzed. For smooth specimens 1/5 the umbilicus diameter was used and 1/5 of the ribbing wavelength for the ribbed specimens. (figure 5) 1317 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The intermediate workspace is meshed with a polyhedra diameter of 1/5 of the total diameter of the shell. The final workspace is sized using the full diameter of the shell. The meshing process is used to apply characteristics to the various regions created within geometry. The shell CAD model is used as a “body of influence” relative to the workspaces. The CAD model is described as “dead space” and the workspaces as regions for fluid flow. When meshing information is successfully set up a mesh can be generated and exported into the “set-up” section. The Set-Up section is utilized 1318 RANGE to prepare the meshed import for the process of iterative physical computational analysis. Set-up is used to communicate the user’s chosen parameters for future simulations. This includes; flow velocity, fluid density, etc. Profiles can be created to create output variables from force vectors. Force of drag and viscous shear stress relative to frontal fluid impact face are used for the scope of this analysis. Set-up is also used to determine how many iterations Ansys will calculate for any flow velocity. A 500 iteration minimum was used for each calculation and velocities ranging from 1/8 to 8x the body length. An increment of 1/2 times the body length was used. This data is then visually represented in the Results section using tools such as a planar vector profile and isosurface generation. (Figure 6 & 7) Data is physically represented within the Parameters tab 1319 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH as tabled values which can be readily prepared as a .csv file for analysis in the statistical computing and graphics software, “R”. R Core Team 2021) R is used to calculate values of the total coefficient of drag, separating various coefficients relating to drag (viscous, pressure) and for plotting data. Coefficient of drag is calculated using Equation 1. Equation 1. ⯑⯑ = (2 ⋅ ⯑⯑)/(⯑ ⋅ ⯑ ⋅ ⯑ 2 ) where A is the cross-sectional area relative to the YZ plane and Fd is the force of drag calculated using Ansys. The coefficient of viscous drag is calculated using Equation 2. Equation 2. ⯑⯑ = (2 ⋅ ⯑⯑⯑)/(⯑⯑⯑⯑ ⋅ ⯑ ⋅ ⯑ 2 ) with the viscous shear stress in the x direction denoted as Vss. The same cross-sectional area is used for A, density as rho, and velocity as U. The coefficient of pressure drag is calculated using Equation 3. Equation 3. ⯑⯑ = ⯑⯑ − ⯑⯑ The calculated coefficients of drag are then plotted against Reynolds Number, the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. The Reynolds Number is calculated using Equation 4. 1320 RANGE Equation 4. ⯑⯑ = (⯑ℎ⯑𝑙𝑙 ⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑ℎ ⋅ ⯑)/⯑ Here the velocity is denoted by U and liquid viscosity is denoted by v. RESULTS Plotting separated coefficients of drag against Reynolds Number compares the varied impact that ribbing or inflation has. Coefficient of pressure drag and the coefficient of viscous drag have been calculated using Equations 1 & 2 from the total coefficient of drag.(Figure 8) Here, each specimen; compressed smoothed, compressed ribbed, inflated smoothed, and inflated ribbed will be denoted as CS, CR, IS, and IR respectively. By comparing the positions of each specimen along the various drag coefficient plots allows 1321 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH for analysis of the impact on ribbing relative to inflation. For coefficient of viscous drag it is clear that inflation dominates the system as shown by clumping of CS & CR vs. IS and IR with an order from top to bottom of CS, CR, IS, IR. (Figure 9) Coefficient of pressure drag differs from these results dramatically. At low Reynolds Numbers an overlap between IS & CR coefficient values highlighting the overall effect of ribbing. With increasing turbulence comes an overall reduction of coefficient values, compressed specimens experience a greater decrease until a Reynolds number of approximately 2000. This demonstrates that the overall effect of ribbing is more intensive for specimens with a decreased inflation ratio. (Figure 10) 1322 RANGE These results are supported further by plotting each individual specimen’s various coefficients of drag plotted against Reynolds Number. (Figure 11) Plotting data in this way allows for analysis of a crossing point between a system dominated by viscous drag vs. a pressure drag. It is clear that the overall effect of ribbing or inflation on viscous drag has very little effect on the total system as the coefficient of viscous drag changes 1323 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH very little in slope and prospective y-intercept. Instead, each specimen varies greatly only in coefficient of pressure drag. Regardless of inflation the point in which the system changes from a viscous drag dominated system to one of pressure drag is decreased by approximately one-half of the Reynolds Number of the smoothed version. Furthermore, the crossing point is reduced by more than one-half in the case of the compressed specimen supporting the idea of greater impact with reduced inflation. (Figure 12) Visual nuances within analysis of pressure values using Ansys tools; isosurface volume, and planar surface allow for a more distinct interpretation of computational data. 1324 RANGE (Figures 6 & 7) Positive pressure zones occur where water is being displaced by the mass of the shell in front of the point of contact and does not change with the addition of ribbing, instead increasing with a larger inflation. Negative pressure zones decrease in magnitude for each, the compressed and inflated specimen with the addition of ribbing. This reduction is greatest near the umbilicus and is larger for the compressed specimen. DISCUSSION The data presented shows a consequence on the hydrodynamic characteristics of ammonoids due to the development of a simple ribbing structure. This data is not sufficient enough to rank the importance that hydrodynamics has on the development of ribs relative to other causes for development. However, ribbing does have a measurable effect on how a shell experiences drag while swimming. The magnitude of effect from ribbing is related to the inflation ratio of a specimen. These factors allow for the use of ribbing structures to be used within an adaptive landscape statistical analysis of ammonoids to better understand the ecological impacts of 1325 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH morphological distinctions. A possible result may be that compressed specimens develop ribbing preferentially relative to inflated specimens in a similar environment due to the overall effect of inflation. This may also lead to ribbing amplitude being on average lower than an inflated counterpart within an environment. This study does not provide conclusive reasoning for the fundamental physics that underlie the cause of a reduction of the coefficient of drag. Speculative reasoning surrounds the concept that ribbing structures increase the rate of vortex shedding. Kármán vortex streets are formed due to the conditions of the boundary layer of rigid body surfaces. Vortices form as water nearest to the conch is slowed relative flow further from the shell. Vortices from each side form together to pull the object back. The capability to reduce vortices through vortex shedding results in a reduction of vortex drag. Ribbing may induce vortex shedding by directing water by channeling flow through ribs parallel to flow, or skipping water over ribs that are perpendicular to flow. The disruption of water flow 1326 RANGE immediately surrounding a rigid body reduces the unified flow of vortices which slows their oscillatory constructive progression. The impact of parallel ribbing as compared to perpendicular ribbing is unknown. This claim is supported by the use of isosurface generation of turbulent kinetic energy values within Ansys. (Figure 13) By selecting large values of turbulent kinetic energy Kármán vortex streets can be visualized as they form behind the conch. For each the compressed and inflated specimens a reduction in the clarity or definition of these Kármán vortex streets can be seen with the addition of ribbing. The future goals of this project consists of three primary goals; (1)idealizing a workflow for generating “clean” CAD models from whorl sections of 3D scans, (2)collecting data on end member groups growth ratios relative to the Westermann Morphospace for a wider 1327 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH study of ammonoid groups, (3)and generating models utilizing a variety of ribbing structures. • The use of 3D scans within CFD remains difficult due to taphonomic pressure. Specimens that are considered well preserved often have extensive damage that would affect the examination of hydrodynamic properties. Idealizing the process of generating a synthetic model using an array modifier within Blender on the best preserved section allows for the best representation of complex ornamentation due to the difficulty of mimicking these structures. • This study focused on ammonoid specimens ranging between oxyconic and spheroconical end-members. By analyzing a wide variety of specimens on a range of Westermann Morphospace growth ratio values we can further examine the hydrodynamic consequence of ribbing. We can compare effects of growth ratios as well as evoluteness of ammonoids, that is umbilical exposure, as they relate to the effect change from ribbing. • While a simple ribbing structure such as is used within this study allows for a simpler 1328 RANGE process of examination. Analysis of the complexity of the ornamentation of ammonoids including; ribbing, nodules, and keels that are representative of a true species may allow for a more distinctive conclusion. This may allow for a clear positive relationship between an increase in complexity of ornamentation and hydrodynamic consequence to be determined. The secondary goals are as follows; Isolate the coefficient of vortex drag from the coefficient of pressure drag, and begin developing an adaptive landscape through statistical analysis of data. Each of these goals necessitate extensive data collection and thusly will remain long term goals. CONCLUSION We find that for each test case, the threshold for a system dominated by viscous vs pressure drag forces occurs at reduced levels of turbulence represented by Reynolds Number. Visual representations of pressure values using 2D and 3D modeling within Ansys supports these findings and highlights a reduction in negative pressure values. Negative pressure is reduced 1329 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH surrounding the umbilicus shoulder and behind the shell, the effect of reduction is greater for compressed specimens as compared to inflated specimens. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Tom Linn for the generous support in our collection of specimens and genuine hospitality. TJ Ferril, Tony Sams and the rest of the staff in the Protospace at the Marriott Library for providing a place to meet and a space to use for collaboration of research. The Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program and the Geology and Geophysics department at the University of Utah for their continued support in our work. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ward, P. (1981). Shell sculpture as a defensive adaptation in ammonoids. Paleobiology, 7(1), 96- 100 Mallick, Monalisa. (2016). VARIATION OF DRAG COEFFICIENT ON ROUGH CYCLINDRICAL BODIES. 10.13140/ RG.2.1.3202.3926. 1330 RANGE Ritterbush, K. A., & Bottjer, D. J. (2012). Westermann Morphospace displays ammonoid shell shape and hypothetical paleoecology. Paleobiology, 38(3), 424-446. Peterman, D. J., Hebdon, N., Ciampaglio, C. N., Yacobucci, M. M., Landman, N. H., & Linn, T. (2020). Syn vivo hydrostatic and hydrodynamic properties of scaphitid ammonoids from the US Western Interior. Geobios, 60, 79-98. Hebdon, N., Ritterbush, K., & Choi, Y. (2020). Computational fluid dynamics modeling of fossil ammonoid shells. Palaeontologia Electronica. Hebdon, N., Ritterbush, K., & Choi, Y. (2020). Assessing the morphological impacts of ammonoid shell shape through systematic shape variation. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 60(5), 1320-1329. R Core Team (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL https://www.R-project.org/. 1331 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 76 Research Reflection by Garrett Butler GARRETT BUTLER Faculty Mentor: Kathleen Ritterbush (Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah) During my undergraduate studies, I had the opportunity to engage in research that significantly enriched my academic experience and shaped my future aspirations. Working under the guidance of a faculty mentor, I 1332 RANGE contributed to a project focused on the impact of morphological change of shell shape has on swimming characteristic . This experience allowed me to develop critical thinking skills, learn to analyze complex data, and apply classroom knowledge to real-world challenges. One of the most valuable aspects of my research was learning how to approach problems methodically and creatively. Whether I was conducting literature reviews, running experiments, or troubleshooting unexpected results, I gained a deeper appreciation for the research process and the persistence it requires. This hands-on involvement also improved my ability to communicate scientific findings clearly, both in writing and in presentations. Participating in undergraduate research confirmed my passion for paleoecology and it has inspired me to pursue further studies and a career in this area. It not only solidified my academic foundation but also gave me the confidence to take initiative, ask meaningful questions, and continue contributing to knowledge in my field. 1333 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 77 Model Reconstruction of the Santa Fe Ice Cap During the Last Glacial Maximum RACHAEL NOBLE Faculty Mentor: Leif Anderson (Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah) ABSTRACT This study focuses on the reconstruction of the Santa Fe ice cap during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 1334 RANGE approximately 21-20 ka years ago. This was accomplished through the integration of geomorphic mapping along with a mass balance glacier model where the conditions for ice accumulation and persistence was analyzed. The model reached steady state after ~1900 years, closely matching the observed boundaries with deviations at the northwest and southwest margins, likely due to assumptions included in the surface mass balance model. Results identify temperature as the dominant driver of glaciation, with increased precipitation playing a secondary role. A mean annual temperature depression of 9.5℃ relative to modern temperatures in order to match geomorphic estimated LGM ice cap extents. These findings improve understanding of glacial sensitivity to past and future climate shifts near Santa Fe, New Mexico. METHODS Preserved glacial landforms of moraines and triplines were mapped using Google Earth Pro and Lidar hillshades (available through Opentopography.org/) to define LGM ice cap extents (similar to work done in Guido et al., 2007). These Geomorphic boundaries are a target for the glacier model used, which includes calculations of surface mass balance an dice dynamics across a two-dimensional grid (Anderson et al., 2018) 1335 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The mass balance portion of the model simulates snow accumulation and melt using modern PRISM climate reanalysis datasets (https://www.prism.oregonstate.edu/). Model inputs include monthly air temperature and precipitation fields, distinguishing between snow (below freezing) and rain (above freezing). Digital elevation models (DEMS) and climate data were processed using QGIS and Python, and the model was calibrated by iteratively adjusting mean annual temperature to match observed LGM glacier extents. RESULTS Starting from a deglaciated landscape, we ran the model to steady state with specific climate perturbations. For the simulation that best matched the LGM extents, the model reached steady state after ~1900 years, achieving a glacier wide mass balance of zero (as seen in Figure 1 A&D). Simulated boundaries closely aligned with observed geomorphic features (Figure 2). However, modeled ice extent deviations were noted at the northwest margin where ice thickness reached ~450 meters (Figure 1B) and the maximum velocity of the model at ~2 m/year (Figure 1C), and the southern margin having seen 1336 RANGE simulated extents past the drawn boundary. These deviations are likely due to the glacier model’s assumption of no aspect dependence. Using a more complicated model that incorporates shading and direct solar radiation will likely alleviate the strongest deviations between the modeled and geographicallydefined extents. We found that we required a mean annual temperature depression of 9.5 C to match the LGM ice extent. These findings confirm that colder temperatures were critical for sustaining LGM glaciers, while precipitation contributed secondary support. Figure 1. Glacier Dynamics and Mass Balance. A) Annual 1337 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH surface mass balance with accumulation (blue) and ablation (red) zones; B) Ice thickness map, with maximum thickness (~500 m) in main velocity and discharge channel; C) Surface velocity, showing faster flow in central regions; D) Ice volume evolution, reaching steady state after ~1,900 years.s. Figure 2: Best Fit Model Figure. Modeled ice extent during the Last Glacial Maximum with a simulation length of 2,000 years and a mean temperature reduction of 9.5°C from 1338 RANGE present. Ice thickness is shown with a blue gradient, and equilibrium line altitude (ELA), topographic contours, and estimated ice borders are indicated for reference. CONCLUSION This research illustrates the value of integrating geomorphic mapping with numerical modeling for reconstructing glacial extents. Results emphasize the importance of temperature as the primary driver of LGM glaciation, while deviations in modeled boundaries highlight areas for future improvement, such as incorporating wind effects, topographic shading, and higher-resolution datasets. These findings contribute to understanding midlatitude glacier responses to climatic shifts and provide a framework for future paleoglacial reconstructions. BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, L. S., Flowers, G. E., Jarosch, A. H., Aðalgeirsdóttir, G. Þ., Geirsdóttir, Á., Miller, G. H., Harning, D. J., Thorsteinsson, T., Magnússon, E., & Pálsson, F. (2018). Holocene glacier and climate variations in Vestfirðir, 1339 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Iceland, from the modeling of Drangajökull ice cap. Quaternary Science Reviews, 190, 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.04.024 Brakenridge, G. R. (1978). Evidence for a cold, dry full-glacial climate in the American Southwest. Quaternary Research, 9(1), 22–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(78)90080-7 Guido, Z. S., Ward, D. J., & Anderson, R. S. (2007). Pacing the post–Last Glacial Maximum demise of the Animas Valley glacier and the San Juan Mountain ice cap, Colorado. Geology, 35(8), 739–742. https://doi.org/10.1130/G23596A.1 Menking, K. M., Anderson, R. Y., Shafike, N. G., Syed, K. H., & Allen, B. D. (2004). Wetter or colder during the Last Glacial Maximum? Revisiting the pluvial lake question in southwestern North America. Quaternary Research, 62(3), 280–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.yqres.2004.07.005 Menking, K. M. (2015). Decadal to millennialscale solar forcing of last glacial maximum climate in the Estancia Basin of central New Mexico. Vassar College Environmental 1340 RANGE Research Institute. Retrieved from Vassar College. 1341 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 78 Key Climate Drivers for Winter Precipitation over the Southwestern U.S. NATE STOVAK AND THOMAS REICHLER Faculty Mentor: Thomas Reichler (Atmospheric Sciences, University of Utah) While precipitation anomalies in the Southwestern United States are moderately well predicted at seasonal timescales (Pan B. et al., 2019), the specific roles and 1342 RANGE interactions of key climate drivers for this region remain less well known (Portmann et al., 2009). In this study, five climate drivers were evaluated for their impact on the study region of California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and the Western half of Colorado/New Mexico. We evaluated these climate drivers against precipitation anomalies using a lead/lag correlational relationship with monthly climate driver data and Winter Precipitation data as a summed December, January, February, and March (DJFM) variable. All data came from ERA5 (Hersbach et al, 2020), the fifth generation ECMWF atmospheric reanalysis of the global climate covering the period from January 1957 to December 2024. Two of these climate drivers were identified as significant predictors of precipitation anomalies in the study region, specifically the El Niño– Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the stratospheric QuasiBiennial Oscillation (QBO). ENSO, commonly referred to as “El Niño,” has long been recognized as a major driver of precipitation anomalies over the region. It is a well-documented phenomenon in which changes in ocean temperatures along the Western Hemisphere tropics lead to widespread global shifts in precipitation patterns. Specifically, in the Southwestern U.S., it explains roughly 15% of all precipitation variability in the region. The stratospheric QBO measures wind 1343 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH speeds at 30 hPa above the tropics. It has a relatively consistent 28-month cycle, during which it shifts from westerly to easterly wind patterns. The QBO, previously not explored as a predictor of Southwestern U.S. precipitation, was also found to have significant influence on the precipitation variability over the region. Our analysis indicates that the QBO explains approximately 10% of the total variance in precipitation across the study region. Together, ENSO and the QBO account for more than 24% of the total variance in DJFM precipitation over the Southwestern U.S.. These findings not only enhance our understanding of the climate dynamics in the Southwestern U.S. but also provide valuable insights for improving future climate prediction models and preparing for potential climaterelated challenges in the region. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hersbach et al. (2020): The ERA5 global reanalysis, Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 146(73). Pan, B., Hsu, K., AghaKouchak, A., Sorooshian, S., & Higgins, W. (2019). Precipitation Prediction Skill for the West Coast United States. Journal of Climate, 32(1), 161–182. Portmann, R. W., Solomon, S., & Hegerl, G. C. (2009). 1344 RANGE Spatial and seasonal patterns in climate change, temperatures, and precipitation across the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(18), 7324–7329. 1345 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 79 Evaluating Spatial Relationships of Orographic Precipitation Gradients to Apply in Training a Convolutional Neural Network ANNABELLE WARNER Faculty Mentor: Courtenay Strong (Atmospheric Sciences, University of Utah) For regions of complex terrain, such as the western 1346 RANGE Continental United States (CONUS), many current atmospheric models lack the ability to produce precise precipitation forecasts. Our research group explored downscaling precipitation by predicting daily orographic precipitation gradients (OPG), which represent the relationship between precipitation and elevation. To accomplish this, the western CONUS topography was divided into facets (i.e., mountain faces), with each facet recording a daily precipitation observation, culminating in a dataset of about 40 years of daily observations. Daily OPGs of facets were then predicted using a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), which was trained on the OPGs and learned to identify patterns in the training data. Using daily OPGs to train the CNN revealed imitations of the training data due to varying lengths of precipitation observation records per facet. Therefore, this project sought to examine the spatial relationships between Western CONUS OPGs as a possible leverage to improve the CNN results. To evaluate OPG spatial relationships, I plotted the relationship between distance and the OPG correlation of facet pairs, and the relationship between distance and the difference in daily mean absolute OPGs of facet pairs. I hypothesized that the availability of precipitation observations may affect 1347 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the quality of formulated OPGs and therefore, the relationships between them. Implementation of filtering by length of precipitation record revealed the hypothesized results. Specifically, facets with longer precipitation records tended to reveal the expected exponentially decreasing relationship between distance and OPG correlation and a logarithmically increasing relationship between distance and difference in daily mean OPGs. In other words, neighboring facets should have similar OPGs, whereas non-neighboring facets should see a decrease in OPG similarity. These findings provide new insight into the western CONUS OPGs and a useful parameter in CNN training by which predicted OPGs are constrained to the expected spatial relationship. 1348 RANGE Figure 1. Filtering by increasing record length threshold reduces noise and reveals the expected exponentially decreasing relationship between correlation. 1349 distance and OPG OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2. Filtering by increasing record length threshold reduces noise and reveals the expected logarithmically increasing relationship between distance and difference in daily mean OPGs. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bohne, L., C. Strong, W. J. Steenburgh, 2020: Climatology of orographic precipitation gradients in the contiguous Western United States, Journal of Hydrometeorology, 21, 1723-1740, https://doi.org/ 10.1175/JHM-D-19-0229.1. Wilks, D. S. Statistical Methods in the Atmospheric Sciences. 4th ed. San Diego: Elsevier, 2019. 1350 RANGE 80 Research Summary: Goal Setting Among Women with BMI ?25 Planning a Pregnancy Involved in MAPS Coaching MAREN BUSATH Faculty Mentor: Sara Simonsen (Nursing, University of Utah) The purpose of this thesis was to describe the goals 1351 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH that women with overweight/obese BMIs who were planning a pregnancy made while participating in Motivation and Problem Solving (MAPS) counseling focused on enrollment and engagement in the Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP), a 12-month program designed to reduce the risk of Type II diabetes in those with diabetes risk factors. Identifying the types of goals that women set while participating in MAPS coaching can help us to understand how to increase enrollment and participation of reproductive-age women in the DPP. Obesity is strongly associated with developing Type II diabetes, and preventing obesity in women prior to pregnancy is particularly important because there are unique risks to both maternal and fetal outcomes. Previous studies have shown that women struggle to adhere to lifestyle interventions, but motivational interventions and goal setting can enhance the effectiveness of these interventions.. The participants in this study were women across the Wasatch front who were 18-40 years old, had an overweight or obese BMI, and were planning a pregnancy within the next 24 months. MAPS counselors contacted participants via telephone to identify each woman’s strengths and unique situations, and assist them in developing a “wellness plan” with goals set relating to enrolling and participating in DPP. Women received up to five MAPS 1352 RANGE calls over a16 week span. An analysis of the goals that the women set with their counselors showed that the goals made could be divided into two categories, DPP program participation-related goals and lifestyle goals. A total of 47 out of 48 women set a goal at their first MAPS Session. The most common goals at the first MAPS session were related to enrollment in the DPP program (64.6%) and nutrition (41.2%). A total of 46 out of 47 and 38 out of 41 women set goals at their second and third MAPS sessions, respectively. The most common goals for MAPS session 2 were engagement with the DPP program (51.1%) and goals related to nutrition (42.6%), while the most common goals for MAPS session 3 were engagement with the DPP program (36.6%), nutrition (29.3%), and using the HealthSlate app provided by the DPP(29.3%). A total of 20 out of 34 women set goals during MAPS call four and the most common goals were related to exercise (32.4%), nutrition (23.5%), and meeting with a DPP facilitator for assistance (23.5%). One woman out of four made goals during MAPS call five, and her goals related to nutrition (25.0%) and meeting with a MAPS facilitator for support (25.0%). Overall, the most common DPP program participation goals were enrollment and engagement while the most common lifestyle goals were related to nutrition, exercise, 1353 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH weight-based goals. Identifying where reproductiveage women commonly sought assistance with their goals during this study can help distinguish where this under-researched population can be supported as they strive to prevent obesity and Type II diabetes. 1354 RANGE 81 Research Summary: The Caregiving Experience for Children Diagnosed with Cancer: A Secondary Analysis SOFIA FLOWERS Faculty Mentor: Lauri Linder (Nursing, University of Utah) Each year thousands of children are diagnosed with 1355 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH cancer. Many of these children will have support systems that are also greatly impacted by their diagnosis. These support systems are oftentimes the children’s parents. Parents will also take on an informal caregiving role, doubling as both their parent and their medical advocate. Studying the parent caregiving perspective can provide valuable insights for the professional health care team and their practice. The purpose of this project was to characterize the symptom management and caregiving experiences of parents of school-aged children diagnosed with cancer. The project was a secondary analysis of the work conducted by Dr. Lauri Linder at Primary Children’s Hospital in Salt Lake City, Utah. Her work included conducting interviews with 21 parents during the content validity phase of developing two self-report instruments addressing parents’ management of their child’s symptoms. Out of 21 parents, 20 parent interview transcripts and written responses to content review surveys were included in this data analysis. Dr. Lauri Linder and Sofia Flowers coded 101 extracted excerpts from this larger data set using qualitative content analysis procedures to identify aspects of the parent caregiving experience. After coding the data, 9 categories were found and included: medication management, access to information and resources, access to person-based support, experience of 1356 RANGE managing and adapting, emphasis on the child response, emotional and cognitive responses, discerning and managing psychosocial symptoms, developing individual strategies, and uncertainty/lack of control. This secondary analysis can provide valuable insights for professional staff to enhance their practice to better attend to all aspects of patient care. This information can enhance clinical communication, aid in access to both informational and psychosocial resources, understanding of the emotional toll of the parent experience, and the differentiation between types of symptoms. 1357 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 82 Research Reflection by Sofia Flowers SOFIA FLOWERS Faculty Mentor: Lauri Linder (College of Nursing, University of Utah) My undergraduate research experience has been nothing short of amazing. As someone who originally wrote off research when I started undergrad, I never would have predicted that I would be in the place I 1358 RANGE am today. Since starting my project, I have developed a love for research and a passion for developing bedside manner in my nursing career. |My research has allowed me to bring a new perspective to light, that being the parent caregiving experience for a young child and the additional challenges they face. By understanding this perspective, it can help healthcare professionals transform the way they provide care and the admissions experience. My research has also allowed me to find presentation opportunities, both locally and nationally. Since completing my thesis, I have presented at the Utah Conference of Undergraduate Research (UCUR), the Office of Undergraduate Research Spring Symposium (2024), Western Institute of Nursing, Association of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology Nurses. I also will be presenting to Utah state legislators at the Research on Capitol Hill Event in February of 2025. Undergraduate research has added immense benefits to my time in college and has changed the way I pursue my degree. I am now a stronger scholar, more curious, and am highly considering a post-graduate program where I can continue my research pursuits. 1359 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 83 Developing an American Sign Language Glossary of Cardiometabolic/Cardiovascular Terms KRYSTAL NGUYEN AND MICHELLE LITCHMAN Faculty Mentor: Michelle Litchman (College of Nursing, University of Utah) 1360 RANGE BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE There are 1 million deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) individuals in the US who rely on American Sign Language (ASL) to communicate. Amongst this population, it is reported that DHH adult populations report more health problems compared to the general population, including diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD). This could be due to major health disparities that exist such as language barriers between DHH individuals and healthcare providers, resulting in inadequate levels of healthcare, and lacking forms of effective health education which results in low health literacy. An ASL glossary of diabetes terms was previously developed, which improved DHH populations’ understanding of their diabetes and supported diabetes self-management behaviors. An ASL glossary of cardiometabolic/CVD terms is lacking. The purpose of this project is to develop a cardiometabolic/CVD ASL Glossary to improve the health literacy of DHH populations, towards the prevention and self-management of CVD. The development of this educational resource is crucial in addressing the health disparities that exist within the DHH population and to make health education 1361 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH more accessible. Oftentimes, when an ASL interpreter does not understand a medical term, they will finger spell it (ex. v-e-i-n), which doesn’t relay the meaning of the term and can lead to miscommunication of information. The glossary also aims to provide comprehensive training to ASL interpreters with the hopes of preventing this from happening. METHODOLOGY The project will be completed in 5-phases with a team of Deaf and hearing members. Phase 1 will have project members gathering common CVD terms with simple definitions and 2-3 accompanying images. In phase 2, Deaf project members will meet to review the terms and determine which ASL signs need to be clarified, developed, or expanded upon. Here, the team will also document which terms do or do not have associated ASL signs. In phase 3, the completed signs will be discussed, and adjustments will be made as needed. In phase 4, all Deaf project members will meet to review and finalize the signs. Phase 5 will have the ASL signs video recorded by a certified deaf interpreter. Once completed, the ASL glossary of cardiometabolic/CVD terms will be used in a virtual chronic disease self-management behavior intervention. Additionally, it will be used to train ASL 1362 RANGE interpreters who facilitate communication between DHH individuals and their healthcare providers. RESULTS Since the project is ongoing, results have yet to be produced. Phase 1 is nearly complete with 59 terms identified. A final review of these terms and pictures is currently being conducted in preparation for phase 2. A grant has been submitted to help support the development of phases 2-5. CONCLUSIONS Health education and literacy are critical in supporting the self-management of chronic conditions, such as CVD. The ASL glossary of cardiometabolic/CVD terms has the potential to improve the health disparities that exist within the DHH population by providing accessible health education to DHH individuals to bridge potential gaps in health literacy. As well as providing training materials for ASL interpreters to better understand cardiometabolic/CVD terms and to assist in the communication between DHH individuals and their healthcare providers. This will help close any gaps in communication between DHH individuals and their healthcare providers so that DHH individuals can 1363 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH better understand their health, and for providers to better understand any concerns that an individual may have about their health. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hommes, Rachel E., et al. “American Sign Language Interpreters Perceptions of Barriers to Healthcare Communication in Deaf and Hard of Hearing Patients.” Journal of Community Health, 2018, pp. 956-961. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10900-018-0511-3. Kapoor, Ravish, et al. “Disparities Impacting the Deaf and Hard of Hearing: A Narrative and Approaches to Closing Health Care Gaps.” Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia = Journal Canadien D’Anesthesie, 2023, pp. 975-977. https://doi/org/10.1007/ s12630-023-02453-y. Lloyd-Jones, Donald M., et al. “Life’s Essential 8: Updating and Enhancing the American Heart Association’s Construct of Cardiovascular Health: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association.” Circulation, 2022, e18-e43. https://doi/ org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001078. McKee, Michael M., et al. “Assessing Health Literacy 1364 RANGE in Deaf American Sign Language Users.” Journal of Health Communication, 2015, pp. 92-100. https://doi/org/10.1080/10810730.2015.1066468. Mitchell, Ross E., and Young, Travas A. “How Many People Use Sign Language? A National Health Survey-Based Estimate.” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 2022, pp. 1-6. https://doi/org/ 10.1093/deafed/enac031. 1365 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 1366 RANGE 84 Onset and Offset Dynamics in Animal Models of Epilepsy: Response to Valproic Acid and Phenobarbital KISHORE JAY Faculty Mentor: Karen Wilcox (Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah) Epilepsy is a neurological disorder that affects more than 1367 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 3 million people nationwide and is characterized by sudden and recurrent seizures [1]. Epilepsy is commonly diagnosed using electroencephalography (EEG) to identify unusual electrical activity in the brain, characteristic of epilepsy syndrome. Current epilepsy treatments are administered based on symptom characteristics and EEG pattern analysis [2]. However, epilepsy treatment is complicated because seizure prognosis is highly variable. Additionally, similar clinical therapies produce different patient outcomes [3]. The lack of clarity in seizure characterization and the resulting ineffective treatment options stem from the limitations of current clinical classification systems. Saggio et al. [4] identified novel methods of classification, applying bifurcation theory to EEG shapes to identify “dynamotypes,” as applied specifically to epileptic seizures. Bifurcations define the transitions in the underlying behavioral dynamics that can be observed by changes in wave statistics, including onset and offset of oscillations, relevant to electrical wave propagation in seizures. The dynamotype describes the EEG pattern for the first 5 seconds (onset) and last 5 seconds (offset) of a seizure. This project aids the identification and classification of these seizure dynamotypes 1368 recorded through RANGE hippocampal EEG measured in the temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) mouse model, with the hypothesis that dynamotypes change over the course of seizure evolution and are affected by the administration of antiseizure medications (ASM). Categorization of these dynamotypes would improve the understanding of seizure properties by tracking the evolution of seizure conditions. The study design uses previously collected data to investigate how dynamotypes change over time and whether dynamotypes can predict drug response. The EEG from these mice collected five seconds of seizure onset and five seconds of seizure offset data. These data were analyzed via a machine learning algorithm as well as two trained researchers to categorize the seizures into the specific onset and offset dynamotypes. As previously stated, the categorization of these seizure characteristics can improve our understanding of seizure properties. By allowing capabilities to track the evolution of a patient’s seizure conditions, administration of anti-epileptic drugs will be made more purposeful and effective. This method of seizure classification could be the first step in the pathway from EEG to diagnosis to therapy, as the series of correlative 1369 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH observations are being performed in an in vivo epilepsy model. BACKGROUND Within the scope of this project, there are three onset dynamotypes, identified within the first five seconds of the seizure EEG: Supercritical Hopf (SupH), characterized by increasing amplitude of oscillations, Saddle-Node Invariant Circle (SNIC), characterized by increasing spike frequency, and Sub-critical Hopf (SubH), characterized by arbitrary patterns in amplitude and/or frequency. Identified in the last five seconds before seizure termination are the following three offset dynamotypes: SupH for decreasing amplitude of oscillations, SNIC for decreasing spike frequency, and SubH, characterized by arbitrary patterns in amplitude and/or frequency, as shown in Figure 1. In a published study by West et al. 2019 [5], a group of mice were administered kainic acid and observed to ensure the onset of status epilepticus (i.e., the occurrence of seizures that last for longer than five minutes as well as multiple seizures that occur consecutively within a short period) and regularity of seizures. The study subjects were monitored under 24/7 video and EEG recording. This provided the preliminary data sets to test our 1370 RANGE hypothesis that dynamotypes, based on EEG, change over a set period. The study quantified the detected seizures following the Racine scale, which ranks the strength of seizures from 1-5 based on observable behaviors, such as facial movements, head nodding, and forelimb clonus [6]. The Racine scale is commonly used to assess the severity of seizures in experimental models of epilepsy. The scale serves to standardize the evaluation of seizure severity, facilitating consistent comparison across studies and aiding in the assessment of therapeutic interventions in epilepsy research. 1371 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1. Onset and offset EEG dynamotypes of seizures, within the scope of this study. METHODS Animal Model and Seizure Monitoring To investigate seizure frequency and severity in the interamygdala kainic acid (IAK) mouse model of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), mice were continuously monitored using both video recordings and electroencephalography (EEG). This allowed for the precise detection of seizure events and their characteristics over an extended observation period. Study Design and Drug Administration A blinded, double-crossover study was conducted to assess the effects of two anticonvulsant drugs, valproic acid (VPA) and phenobarbital (PB), on seizure activity. Valproic acid has a complex and not yet fully understood mechanism of action, though it is believed to work by inhibiting both voltage-gated sodium channels and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors [7]. In contrast, 1372 RANGE phenobarbital primarily acts by inhibiting GABA receptors [8]. Comparing the effects of these two drugs could reveal whether seizure dynamotypes are more influenced by sodium channel inhibition or GABA receptor modulation. The study was structured as follows: • Baseline Monitoring: All mice were first subjected to a seven-day baseline period, during which their EEG signals were recorded without any drug intervention. • Initial Drug Administration: Following baseline recording, half of the mice were administered either VPA or PB, while the other half received a saline solution as a control. EEG monitoring continued for five days post- administration to assess any immediate effects on seizure frequency and severity. • Washout Period: To eliminate any residual effects of the administered compounds, a twoday drug washout period was implemented, during which no treatments were given. • Crossover Phase: After the washout period, 1373 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the treatment groups were reversed. The mice that initially received the drug were now administered saline, while the control group received the drug. EEG monitoring continued for an additional five days to evaluate changes in seizure characteristics under the new conditions. The blinded nature of the study ensured that researchers assessing seizure activity were unaware of whether a given mouse had received the drug or saline, preventing potential bias in data interpretation. Seizure Classification and Dynamotyping To systematically analyze seizure activity, seizures were classified based on their onset and offset dynamotypes—patterns that characterize the beginning and end of each seizure event. This process, referred to as dynamotyping, was performed by three independent graders: two human researchers and a machine learning algorithm trained for seizure classification. The grading was performed by the human graders using MATLAB software. To enhance accuracy and consistency in dynamotype classification, a consensus-based approach was used. A 1374 RANGE seizure onset or offset was only assigned to a dynamotype if at least two of the three graders agreed on the classification. If no agreement was reached, the seizure event was excluded from the dataset. Data Analysis The collected EEG data were analyzed to determine the frequency and duration of seizures under different treatment conditions. Statistical analyses were performed to assess the significance of observed changes in seizure patterns, including shifts in onset and offset dynamotypes across baseline, drug-dosed, and crossover conditions. RESULTS To investigate seizure frequency and severity in the IAK mouse model of TLE, mice were continuously monitored via video and EEG. A blinded, doublecrossover study was conducted to assess the effects of valproic acid and phenobarbital. Following a seven-day baseline EEG recording, mice were alternately administered either the drug or saline, followed by a washout period and a crossover of treatments. The seizure onset and offset classification was conducted through a “dynamotyping” approach that involved two human graders and a machine learning algorithm, with 1375 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH consensus among at least two graders required for inclusion in the final dataset. The outcomes of this study are presented below. 90-day Murine Study In the first 30 days of the 90-day murine study, seizure onset dynamotypes were predominantly arbitrarywaveforms (SubH), accounting for 78% of cases. However, as shown in Figure 2, this percentage gradually decreased over time, dropping to 59% in the middle 30 days and 49% in the final 30 days. A similar trend was observed in offset dynamotypes. During the first 30 days, SubH was the dominant classification (86%). By the final 30 days, however, the prevalence of SNIC and SupH increased, while SubH showed a significant reduction over time (KruskalWallis Test, p = 0.058). 1376 RANGE Figure 2. Ratios of onset and offset dynamotypes, recorded in the first, middle, and last 30 days of the 90-day observation period. Notice the downward trend of SubH in both onset and offset cases. The average seizure duration was analyzed based on onset dynamotypes (SupH, SNIC, and SubH) and then compared. A similar analysis was conducted for offset dynamotypes. As shown in Figure 3, the results indicate that onset dynamotype did not significantly impact seizure duration. However, seizures with an amplitudebased (SupH) or frequency-based (SNIC) offset were significantly shorter than those with an 1377 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH arbitrary-waveform (SubH) offset (Linear Mixed Model, p = 0.003, p = 0.0006). This suggests that seizures with a more structured offset pattern terminate more quickly than those with a randomized offset. Figure 3. Durations of seizures matched with onset dynamotypes (left), and durations of seizures matched with offset dynamotypes (right). Drug Cohort Study As shown in Figure 4, dosing with valproic acid (VPA) did not result in changes to seizure onset dynamotypes. In both baseline and dosed cohorts, the SubH dynamotype remained predominant, accounting for 77% and 72% of cases, respectively. However, VPA had a notable effect on offset dynamotypes. The percentage of SNIC offsets nearly doubled, increasing from 26% at baseline to 53% 1378 RANGE following drug administration. Phenobarbital, however, did not produce similar effects. Both onset and offset dynamotypes remained consistent between baseline and drug-dosed conditions, with no statistically significant differences observed. Figure 4. Ratios of onset and offset dynamotypes before and after dosing with anti-seizure medications. A. There was no significant change to onset dynamotype after VPA dosing. B. SubH offset significantly decreased between baseline and drug dosing periods, with a corresponding increase in SNIC offset (Kruskal-Wallis Test, p = 0.04). C and D. There was no significant difference between the drug and baseline period for both onset and offset dynamotype for PB. 1379 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH DISCUSSION This study evaluated the hypothesis that seizure dynamotypes evolve over time and may predict responses to anti-seizure medications (ASMs). Characterized by EEG analysis in a temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) mouse model, dynamotypes are certain measurable ways that a seizure signal starts and stops. By analyzing the dynamotype profiles of seizures at onset and offset, this research provides a foundation for improving diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for epilepsy. The findings demonstrate a clear temporal evolution of dynamotypes. Arbitrary-waveform (SubH) onset and offset dynamotypes dominated during the first 30 days, representing 78% and 86% of seizures, respectively. However, the prevalence of SubH decreased significantly over the 90-day period, with concurrent increases in frequency-based (SNIC) and amplitude-based (SupH) offset dynamotypes. These trends suggest that the dynamotype framework can capture subtle pathological shifts in seizure dynamics over 1380 RANGE time. The observed reduction in SubH dynamotypes would indicate an adaptation or progression in the underlying biochemical interactions, warranting further exploration into the mechanisms driving these transitions. These results align with studies that have examined bifurcation theory in seizure dynamics, which predict transitions between different seizure termination patterns based on neuronal excitability and inhibition [9]. Seizures terminating through frequency-based (SNIC) and amplitude-based (SupH) mechanisms may involve more stable inhibitory processes, whereas SubH patterns indicate greater variability and incomplete neuronal stabilization. The gradual decline in SubH offsets observed in this study supports the hypothesis that seizure networks undergo adaptive reconfiguration over time, potentially as a compensatory response to chronic seizure activity. While these findings support existing bifurcation models, they also differ from other previous works. Some studies suggest that 1381 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH seizure offsets are stochastic and arbitrary and do not exhibit predictable transitions over time [10]. However, the results of this study challenge this notion by demonstrating a statistically significant shift toward structured offsets over 90 days, suggesting that these transitions are not merely random but reflect a more fundamental change in seizure network properties. Furthermore, the observed reduction of SubH offsets raises important questions about whether long-term seizure activity itself alters network excitability in ways that favor structured termination patterns. Previous research in this area has shown that seizure-induced synaptic plasticity can promote specific network adaptations [11], but the role of dynamotype shifts in this process remains unexplored. Seizures with SupH and SNIC offsets were found to be significantly shorter than SubH offsets, suggesting that seizures that have a stereotyped and structured offset pattern can terminate more efficiently than those with arbitrary patterns. This finding implies that 1382 RANGE specific physiological or network-level mechanisms contribute to a more rapid resolution of seizure activity when the offset follows a predictable amplitude- or frequencybased trajectory. One possible explanation is that structured offset patterns, such as SupH and SNIC, may indicate a more synchronized and coordinated neuronal inhibition process, facilitating faster seizure cessation. This aligns with previous studies on seizure suppression mechanisms, which have shown that networkwide inhibitory synchronization often coincides with more abrupt seizure termination [12]. In contrast, arbitrary- waveform (SubH) offsets might reflect a more disorganized or incomplete inhibitory response, leading to prolonged seizure durations. This finding is consistent with computational models that predict irregular seizure offsets occur when inhibitory mechanisms fail to fully engage [13], and this could have important implications for predicting seizure severity based on offset characteristics, potentially providing a biomarker for intractable epilepsy. Analysis of drug effects on dynamotypes further 1383 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH highlights the potential clinical relevance of seizure profiling. VPA significantly increased the prevalence of SNIC offset dynamotypes, suggesting that it facilitates a transition toward structured seizure termination. This is consistent with studies showing that VPA enhances seizure inhibition through modulation of gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors and sodium channel inhibition [14]. The findings of this study suggest that VPA’s effect may extend beyond seizure suppression to actively restructuring the seizure termination process. Phenobarbital, on the other hand, showed no measurable effect on either onset or offset dynamotypes. While VPA enhances GABAergic inhibition as well as sodium channel inhibition, PB is known to only affect GABA receptors, and the finding that one significantly affects dynamotypes while the other doesn’t raises an interesting question: is the external manifestation of seizure dynamotypes dependent on the inhibitory postsynaptic potentials controlled by ion channels? Future studies should explore the extent of the 1384 RANGE relationship between post-synaptic ion channels and the dynamotypes that arise from them. While this study provides valuable insights, certain limitations must be acknowledged. First, the analysis was conducted using data from a single animal model of TLE, which may limit generalizability to other epilepsy types or other species, including humans. Future work should expand dynamotyping to other models of genetic epilepsy, focal cortical dysplasia, and absence seizures to determine whether similar temporal transitions occur in those cases. Second, the study relied on EEG hippocampal recordings, potentially overlooking dynamotype variations in other brain areas. Incorporating multi-region EEG or optogenetic techniques could provide a more complete picture of seizure network evolution. Finally, while our findings suggest that dynamotyping could inform ASM selection, prospective human studies are needed to determine whether pretreatment dynamotype profiles can predict patient-specific drug responses. This could be especially relevant for drug- resistant epilepsy, 1385 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH where ASM empirical. prescription remains largely However, despite these limitations, the results highlight the promise of dynamotyping as a novel approach to understanding and managing epilepsy. The identification of temporal changes in dynamotypes underscores their potential as indicators of epilepsy progression and therapeutic response approaches. If validated in human studies, dynamotyping could be integrated into clinical EEG analysis to provide personalized treatment recommendations. This would represent a major improvement over current seizure classification methods, which often rely on binary seizure/no seizure distinctions rather than detailed seizure evolution profiles. Furthermore, the significant shift in SNIC offset dynamotypes following VPA treatment suggests a biochemical link between ASMs and seizure termination dynamics, paving the way for more targeted therapeutic strategies. Future research should investigate whether specific molecular pathways, such as GABA receptor inhibition or post-synaptic ion channel mechanisms, drive these transitions. Lastly, the application of machine learning to dynamotype classification could improve real-time seizure monitoring. Current 1386 seizure detection RANGE algorithms focus primarily on onset prediction, but integrating offset prediction and dynamotype evolution could lead to more effective, rapid therapeutic strategies. By bridging the gap between EEG characterization, seizure modeling, and therapeutic response prediction, dynamotyping has the potential to transform epilepsy care by providing a framework for precision medicine in neurology. REFERENCE 1. S. L. Moshé, E. Perucca, P. Ryvlin, and T. Tomson, “Epilepsy: New advances,” The Lancet, vol. 385, no. 9971, pp. 884-898, Mar. 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/ s0140-6736(14)60456-6. 2. E. C. Wirrell, L. Laux, E. Donner, et al., “Optimizing the Diagnosis and Management of Dravet Syndrome: Recommendations From a North American Consensus Panel,” Pediatric Neurology, vol. 68, pp. 18-34.e3, May 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.pedneur.com/article/S08878994(16)31037-2/fulltext. 3. W. Löscher, H. Potschka, S. M. Sisodiya, and A. Vezzani, “Drug Resistance in Epilepsy: 1387 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Clinical Impact, Potential Mechanisms, and New Innovative Treatment Options,” Pharmacological Reviews, vol. 72, no. 3, pp. 606-638, Jul. 2020. DOI: 10.1124/ pr.120.019539. 4. M. L. Saggio, D. Crisp, J. M. Scott, P. Karoly, L. Kuhlmann, and M. Nakatani, et al., “A taxonomy of seizure dynamotypes,” eLife, vol. 9, Jul. 2020, Art. no. e55632. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.55632. 5. P. J. West, K. Thomson, P. Billingsley, T. Pruess, C. Rueda, and G. W. Saunders, et al., “Spontaneous recurrent seizures in an intraamygdala kainate microinjection model of temporal lobe epilepsy are differentially sensitive to antiseizure drugs,” Experimental Neurology, vol. 349, Jan. 2022, Art. no. 113954. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.expneurol.2021.113954. 6. J. R. Racine, “Modification of seizure activity by electrical stimulation: II. Motor Seizure,” Encephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, vol. 32, 1972. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/ 0013-4694(72)90177-0. 1388 RANGE 7. M. Rahman and H. Nguyen, “Valproic Acid (Divalproex Sodium),” PubMed, 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/ NBK559112/. 8. C. B. Lewis and N. Adams, “Phenobarbital,” PubMed, May 09, 2021. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/ NBK532277/. 9. V. K. Jirsa, W. C. Stacey, P. P. Quilichini, A. I. Ivanov, and C. Bernard, “On the nature of seizure dynamics,” Brain, vol. 137, no. 8, pp. 2210–2230, Aug. 2014, doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1093/brain/awu133. 10. M. A. Kramer et al., “Human seizures selfterminate across spatial scales via a critical transition,” PNAS, vol. 109, no. 51, pp. 21116–21121, Dec. 2012, doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1073/pnas.1210047110. 11. W.C. Chang et al., “Loss of neuronal network resilience precedes seizures and determines the ictogenic nature of interictal synaptic perturbations,” Nature Neuroscience, vol. 21, no. 12, pp. 1742–1752, Nov. 2018, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-018-0278-y. 1389 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 12. S. Toprani and D. M. Durand, “Mechanisms of Neurostimulation for Epilepsy,” Epilepsy Currents, vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 298–302, Sep. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/ 15357597231191887. 13. W. W. Lytton, R. Orman, and M. Stewart, “Computer simulation of epilepsy: Implications for seizure spread and behavioral dysfunction,” Epilepsy & Behavior, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 336–344, Nov. 2005, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2005.06.011. 14. C. U. Johannessen and S. I. Johannessen, “Valproate: Past, Present, and Future,” CNS Drug Reviews, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 199–216, Jun. 2006, doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1527-3458.2003.tb00249.x. 1390 RANGE 85 Research Reflection by Kishore Jay KISHORE JAY Faculty Mentor: Karen Wilcox (Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah) My future goal is to be able to make people’s lives better using the intersection of healthcare and technology as a tool, as a biomedical engineer. The Wilcox laboratory offered an internal lens into the process of drug development, synthesis, and evaluation that will be very valuable as I continue my education in the healthcare 1391 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH field. The data analysis and statistics techniques I have learned throughout this project expanded my quantitative reasoning skills which are integral to any engineer’s toolbox. Lastly, I have compiled studies and presented data both within the lab as well as other symposiums, and this experience in communication will prove beneficial as I further my career. 1392 RANGE 86 Effect of Great Salt Lake Dust on Transient Receptor Ion Channels and Lung Epithelial Cells CAITLIN PHAM AND CHRISTOPHER REILLY Faculty Mentor: Christopher Reilly (Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah) ABSTRACT As the Wasatch Front experiences more frequent droughts, a growing local concern is the resuspension 1393 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of Great Salt Lake Dust (GSLD) into the surrounding air from the exposed lakebed. It is suggested that GSLD represents an emerging environmental health threat, yet its effects and the underlying mechanisms driving adverse health impacts remain poorly defined. This study aimed to characterize the inflammatory and cytotoxic potential of GSLD using human bronchial epithelial cells as a model for inhalation exposure to GSLD, and the role of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels in mediating particle-induced inflammatory responses and cytotoxicity. The role of elemental composition and the modulatory effects of adenosine, a chemical constituent of GSLD, were also evaluated. BEAS-2B cells were treated with GSLD and dust from the Salton Sea, another saline lake, to evaluate whether dust-induced cellular responses were consistent across geographically distinct but compositionally similar sources. After assessing effects on cell viability, calcium signaling, and cytokine expression, results showed that GSLD induced stronger cytotoxicity and calcium flux than SSD, consistent with TRP channel activation. While both dusts induced pro-inflammatory cytokine expression as measured through IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression, a TRPV3 antagonist 007 only inhibited IL-6, while a TRPV1 antagonist LJO-328 inhibited both IL-6 and IL-8, suggesting channel-specific 1394 RANGE contributions to cytokine regulation. Adenosine, investigated for the first time as a possible TRPV1 antagonist and natural component of GSLD, significantly attenuated cytokine expression at higher concentrations, supporting prior suggestions that it may be a TRPV1 antagonist and that compounds associated with GSLD and similar dusts, including adenosine, may modulate TRP-mediated inflammatory responses to environmental dusts. Differences in dust source location and particle size did not significantly impact inflammatory outcomes, and compositional analysis using ICP-MS to determine elemental composition did not show evidence of a cause-effect relationship for any specific element tested. These findings collectively underscore the importance of specific chemical and biological components—such as adenosine—and interactions with specific cellular receptors in shaping cellular responses to dusts. Taken together, this study highlights the complex interplay between particulate matter composition and TRP channel-mediated stress responses, informing future research aimed at mitigating dust-induced inflammation and/or injury of airway epithelial cells and respiratory conditions impacted by inhaled dusts such as GSLD and SSD. 1395 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH INTRODUCTION Great Salt Lake Dust and Salton Sea Dust Air pollutants are known to cause lung inflammation, tissue damage, and the onset and exacerbation of asthma. A growing concern is Great Salt Lake Dust (GSLD), which is resuspended from lakebed sediment that contains a variety of salts, natural and anthropogenic pollutants, biological components, and even human pathogens. As a terminal lake, the Great Salt Lake is prone to accumulating pollutants because there is no outlet. When the Great Salt Lake loses water, larger areas of lakebed become dry and amenable to resuspension during high wind events, leading to pollutants such as arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel, chromium, lead, copper, selenium, organic contaminants, and cyanotoxins being transported through the air (Abbott et al., 2023). Inhaling this dust can put people at risk of developing acute and chronic respiratory illnesses. Supplemental Figure 1 illustrates such a dust event on April 21, 2022. Residents of the Salt Lake Valley are also routinely exposed to many forms of environmental air pollutants, such as Coal Fly Ash (CFA), geological dusts, wood/ wildfire smoke, industrial emissions, and diesel/vehicle 1396 RANGE exhaust. These particulate materials (PM) cause adverse effects on human health. PM2.5 is of concern because it often exceeds the EPA standard for “unhealthy” air quality in the Salt Lake Valley during the winter (Lamb et al., 2017). High concentrations of PM2.5 can trigger respiratory emergencies in already sensitive populations, such as the elderly, children, and asthmatics. PM2.5-10 has also been linked to increased risks for illnesses such as asthma, COPD, lung cancer, and other cardiovascular diseases. The composition of PM2.5 varies by location, aging, and origin, which can lead to different health effects through unique mechanisms. This highlights the need to study how various pollutant sources interact with and trigger adverse responses in target tissues. Dust events are linked to an increase in emergency room admissions, with data showing the number of ER visits per 10,000 people in each region following a dust event, along with the GSLD collection sites, emphasizing the public health impact of these pollutants (Supplemental Figure 2). The Salton Sea is a similarly shrinking saline lake in California that also has recorded dust events. Salton Sea sediments are known to contain pesticides and toxic metals such as selenium, cadmium, molybdenum, nickel, and zinc, and the significant decline in water level that 1397 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH is predicted between 2018 and 2030 will only exacerbate these effects (Frie et al., 2017). Like the Great Salt Lake, the Salton Sea is a terminal body of water without outflow, which allows for the accumulation of metals and pollutants. It has been shown that the exposed lakebed can release toxic chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide, arsenic, and pesticides into the air, affecting the air quality of the neighboring metropolitan areas of Los Angeles and San Diego (Marshall 2017). Since GSLD and SSD both originate from desiccating saline lakes and share similar particle characteristics, their elemental compositions are relatively similar, with only small differences (Supplemental Figure 3). Comparing their effects provides further insight into the broader health impacts of environmental geographically distinct regions. A B 1398 dust exposure across RANGE Figure 1A. Photograph of Great Salt Lake dust impacting the west side of the Salt Lake valley. The photo was taken from Skaggs Pharmacy Research Building at the University of Utah by Dr. Christopher Reilly. Figure 1B. Photograph of a dust storm at the Salton Sea, California, obtained from UC Riverside News. TRP Ion Channels Activation of transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channels, or TRP channels, by inhaled air pollution particles causes lung inflammation, among other effects. TRP channels are found in almost all cells throughout the body and can be activated by stimuli such as temperature, pain, and certain chemicals. TRPV1 (vanilloid-1) and TRPV3 (vanilloid-3) are activated by capsaicin 1399 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and carvacrol, and play roles in thermal sensation and pain, among other processes (Zhang et al., 2023). TRPV1 activation in the lungs causes coughing, while another channel, TRPV3, regulates human bronchial epithelial cell proliferation and wound repair (Nguyen et al., 2020). TRPA1 (ankyrin-1), another TRP channel of interest, is the only TRPA protein found in humans, and it is relevant to a wide array of diseases due to its sensitivity to many types of external stimuli, such as cold temperatures and chemical irritants (Zhang et al., 2023). Because of their important roles in sensory biology and inflammation, TRP ion channels are being explored as targets for drug development. TRP channels in general serve as molecular detectors of harmful environmental stimuli. Prior studies have shown that exposure to airborne capsaicinoids—like those found in pepper spray—induce acute respiratory inflammation and epithelial damage through TRPV1 activation (Reilly et al., 2003). Immortalized human airway epithelial cells, such as BEAS-2B and A549 cells, express 1400 RANGE TRPV1 mRNA. Higher transcript levels correlate with increased sensitivity to capsaicinoids, measured using proinflammatory cytokine mRNA induction and cytotoxicity, suggesting that TRPV1 expression levels may influence cellular vulnerability to particle/PM2.5-induced damage. TRPV1 overexpression in bronchial epithelial cells significantly amplified inflammatory response and apoptotic cell death, further confirming its role in mediating these responses. These findings support the relevance of TRP channels as environmental sensors that transduce harmful signals into inflammatory and toxicological outcomes in the respiratory tract. Calcium Signaling and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress A key mechanism of TRPV1 activation is the influx of calcium ions (Ca²⁺), which disrupts intracellular calcium homeostasis and can trigger downstream stress responses (DeeringRice et al., 2018). Exposure to capsaicinoids caused calcium-dependent production of IL-6, a proinflammatory cytokine, while calcium 1401 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH chelation using EGTA ablated this effect, linking calcium flux directly to cytokine expression (Reilly et al., 2003). Cytotoxicity could also occur independently of extracellular calcium, via endoplasmic reticulum calcium depletion, endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) and cell death (Reilly et al., 2003). These results highlight how TRPV1-mediated calcium flux can initiate inflammatory signaling and cell damage, making it a key area of interest for understanding dust-induced respiratory toxicity. Another study conducted by Nguyen et al., 2020 suggested that particulate matter (PM) can activate multiple TRP channels, triggering downstream cellular responses such as cytokine release, ERS, and cytotoxicity. Exposure to pine wood smoke particulate matter (WSPM) resulted in decreased TRPA1 expression and increased TRPV3 expression, changes that were associated with reduced ERS and cell death. These findings suggest that TRPA1 may contribute to ERS under certain PM exposures, while TRPV3 activation may play a protective 1402 RANGE role by pathways. dampening these stress-related Several TRP channels function as calciumpermeable conduits, and their activation is closely tied to inflammatory and stress responses. For instance, in human corneal epithelial cells, TRPV1 activation triggers calcium influx, which initiates MAPK signaling and results in elevated IL-6 and IL-8 release key cytokines also associated with ERS (Zhang et al., 2023). IL-8 is a chemokine that attracts neutrophils to sites of irritation or damage, and along with IL-6, is associated with ERS and cytotoxicity, making them useful indicators of cell stress in response to particulate matter (Tanaka et al., 2014). These findings suggest that TRP channel activation can play a key role in promoting inflammation and stress responses in epithelial cells. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES This project tested the hypothesis that GSLD and similar lakebed dusts would interact with TRP channels such as TRPV1 to promote inflammation and/or cell death using BEAS-2B human airway epithelial cells a model cell target 1403 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of inhaled dusts. To investigate this, experiments measured dose-dependent cytotoxicity of GSLD and SSD using a viability assay and assessed TRP-channel dependent calcium flux on cells treated with GSLD and SSD compared to other known positive controls for TRP channels. Puntambekar et al. (2014) found that analogues of adenosine could inhibit TRPV1- mediated calcium flux in HEK-293 cells stably expressing TRPV1, suggesting that adenosine may also inhibit TRPV1 in airway epithelial cells or other relevant pulmonary models. As a naturally occurring component of GSLD (Supplemental Figure 4), adenosine was thus tested as a potential antagonist for the first time in our lab, alongside other known antagonists of TRPV1 and TRPV3, to assess its potential to inhibit proinflammatory cytokine expression. The study also aimed to examine the impact of GSLD particle size and geographic origin on cytokine expression in airway epithelial cells. To support this investigation, GSLD samples underwent ICP-MS analysis to determine 1404 RANGE whether compositional differences in trace metal content between samples of different sizes and locations may drive differential inflammatory responses. Collectively, this work contributes to understanding how complex environmental particulates like GSLD interact with airway epithelial cells to promote inflammation and cell death. METHODS Chemicals The TRPA1 and TRPV3 agonist carvacrol was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. The TRPV1 agonist nonivamide, a capsaicin analogue, was purchased from Cayman Chemical. Dr. Jeewoo Lee from Seoul National University provided the TRPV1 antagonist LJO-328. The TRPV3 antagonist 2-(5-trifluoromethylpyridine-2ylsulfanyl)-1-(8-methyl-3,4dihydro-2H-quinolin-1-yl)-ethanone (abbreviated as 007) was synthesized as described by Deering-Rice et al., 2014. Adenosine was also tested as a potential TRPV1 antagonist (Puntambekar et al., 2004). Adenosine was purchased from Sigma Aldritch 1405 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and diluted to 50 mM in DMSO to prepare a stock solution to be used for all experiments. Cell Culture and Treatment BEAS-2B cells are an SV40 T-antigen immortalized bronchial epithelial cell line that models selected aspects of human airway epithelial cell responses to air pollution particles. For experiments, cells were plated in LHC9 media (Lechner and LaVeck medium; Life Technologies) for 48 hours prior to treatments (Lamb et al., 2017). The cells were then treated with GSLD and SSD suspended in LHC9 cell culture media for 24 hours. Supplemental Figure 5 shows microscope images comparing different GSLD samples at the timepoint of initial treatment vs 24 hours. LHC9 was the negative control for most experiments, while others included a low concentration of DMSO. Cell treatments containing GSLD or SSD also included 1X Pen-Strep, an antibiotic containing penicillin G and streptomycin that prevented bacterial contamination from the non-sterile dusts. For experiments using GSLD/SSD cotreated with an antagonist, cells were treated 1406 RANGE first with the antagonists for 1 hour, then with a combination of the antagonists and dusts for 24 hours, at which point the treatments were removed and the cells frozen for future analysis. Dust Collection The Reilly Lab collected dust samples from 7 locations along the Great Salt Lake shoreline, UT, and 2 locations at the Salton Sea, CA. From these locations, and from pools of materials, GSLD and SSD were size-fractionated using a 10-stage Andersen cascade impactor as described by Cowley et al. (2025). Stages 4-7 were combined to be used as PM2.5 for cell treatments in all cell-based experiments, except for experiments where size and location were tested as the independent variables (Figures 6 and 7). For the experiment testing particle size, a mixture of GSLD was size fractionated through the cascade impactor, with particle sizes depicted and quantified in Supplemental Figure 6. Each of the 7 stages, plus the pre-separatory stage and final stage, were kept isolated in 1407 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH separate collection bottles. For the experiment testing different site locations, each site location was size fractionated and stages 4-7 were combined for each location. Dojindo Viability Assay For the viability assay, cells were plated at 20k/ cm2 in a 96 well plate for 48 hours, then treated with dust concentrations ranging from 0-15 mg/ml in a 12-step serial 2x dilution for 24 hours. Viability was determined using the Dojindo reagent, a dye that turns orange when metabolized by live cells (Veranth et al., 2007). After a 30-minute treatment, a gradient in color was observed indicating that higher concentrations of dust caused cells to die and appear (i.e., the reagent solution was less orange). The absorption of the reagent was measured at 450 nm using a Molecular Devices plate reader. Data was normalized by dividing each value by the mean of the vehicle control group and expressed as fold change relative to control. 1408 RANGE Calcium Flux Assay Calcium flux assays are used to quantify TRP channel activation by measuring the changes in intracellular calcium (i.e., fluorescence intensity) in response to various treatments. To measure this, the BEAS-2B cells were incubated for 1 hour in Fluo-4-AM loading solution, a cell permeable fluorescent dye that is de-esterified in cells to yield a chelator that fluoresces when bound to calcium. Cells are then washed with a calcium buffer containing 0.75 mM Trypan Red and 1 mM probenecid to facilitate dye retention and to quench background fluorescence before imaging. An EVOS FL Auto Imaging System (Life Technologies) was used to measure changes in fluorescence immediately following treatment. The TRP agonists carvacrol and nonivamide were used as positive controls at concentrations of 500 μM. GSLD and SSD treatments were at concentrations of 180 μg/ cm. The data were normalized to the percent of maximum possible fluorescence induced by 10 μM ionomycin, a calcium ionophore that induces the maximum calcium influx. 1409 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH qPCR Gene Expression Analysis For all qPCR experiments, cells were plated at 25k/cm2 for 48 hours in 1 mL/well LHC9 media. They were then treated for 24 hours in 1 mg/ml of dust. Each treatment condition had 3 biological replicates. For experiments with co-treated cells, the cells were pre-treated with the antagonists for 1 hour. Subsequent cotreatments with the antagonist and dust were added to incubate for 24 hours. Antagonists included 20 μM LJO-328 and 50 μM 007, the same concentrations used by Cowley et al. on the HBEC3-KT cells. Adenosine was used at concentrations of 50 μM, 0.5 mM, and 1 mM. Dust co-treatments were at concentrations of 1 mg/ml of GSLD or SSD. Following the 24 hour treatment, the media was aspirated off and the cells frozen at –80 °C until ready for RNA extraction. Total RNA was isolated from the cells using PureLink RNA Mini Kit (Invitrogen; Carlsbad, CA) and stored at –80 °C. The RNA was then reverse transcribed into complementary DNA using the ABI High-Capacity cDNA Kit + 1410 RANGE RNase Inhibitor (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) and stored at -4 °C. Gene expression of IL-6 and IL-8 was measured using two-step reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (qPCR), via amplification of cDNA using the QuantStudio Real-Time PCR System with TaqMan™ Gene Expression Master Mix and gene-specific TaqMan probes. Gene expression was normalized to B2M, (β2-microglobulin) a housekeeping gene that is not affected by experimental treatments, environmental conditions, or disease states. IL-6 and IL-8 expression levels were analyzed using the ΔΔCt method to assess relative changes across treatment groups. ICP-MS 20 mg samples were prepared for each of the 10 size fractions of GSLD, as well as the 7 different site locations for GSLD and 2 sites for SSD. These samples were then sent to the University of Utah Iron and Heme Core Facility for ICPMS analysis using an Agilent 7900 spectrometer operated in He collision mode as described by 1411 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Cowley et al. (2025) to determine potential differences in elemental composition between the different size fractions and different site locations that may inform of mechanisms that impact potency as pro-inflammatory and/or cytotoxic agents. Statistical Analysis Data is represented as mean of biological replicates ± SD. Significance was determined using a one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc correction at the 95% confidence interval, unless otherwise stated. 1412 RANGE 1413 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 1414 RANGE Figure 2. GSLD and SSD cytotoxicity using a Dojindo assay. Figure 2A. The top four rows contained GSLD, and the bottom 4 contained SSD, with dust concentration starting at 15 mg/ml on the left, then 10 mg/ml, then decreasing by half until the lowest concentration at 0.01935 mg/ml. The lighter color wells indicate that the treatment was acutely cytotoxic. Figure 2B. Untreated BEAS-2B cells under a microscope after 24 hours. Figure 2C. BEAS-2B treated with 0.3125 mg/ml GSLD. Cells are still visible beneath the dust. Figure 2D. BEAS-2B treated with 10 mg/ml SSD. Cells are completely obscured from view. All images were taken using a 10× objective, and a scale bar is included for reference. Figure 2E. Results from repeated trial of the Dojindo, but with the addition of PenStrep. Statistical significance at 2.5 mg/mL was assessed using a one-tailed unpaired t-test of 4 replicates; GSLD was more cytotoxic than SSD (p = 0.02). GSLD and SSD were cytotoxic to BEAS-2B cells. 1415 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Previously, it was not known at which dust concentrations that BEAS-2B cells should be treated with to induce a cytotoxic response or the relative potency of these dusts as cytotoxic agents. Serial dilution demonstrated that BEAS-2B cells responded in a similar manner to the HBEC3-KT cells used in previous studies as a lung cell model (Cowley et al., 2025), with 60-70% viability at around 1 mg/ml, the concentration used for all subsequent experiments. In Figure 2A, the dark orange wells for SSD at the highest concentration suggest that bacterial contamination was present in the dust samples, causing the bacteria to metabolize the Dojindo agent which resulted in the darker colored wells despite higher concentrations being the most cytotoxic. This necessitated a repeat experiment with the addition of an antibiotic cocktail, PenStrep, to ensure that bacteria contamination did not affect experimental results (Figure 2E). PenStrep was also added to the cell media in all future dust treatments. The results from Figure 2E demonstrated that cell viability decreased exponentially as the dust concentration increased, reaching about 10% of cells alive at 15 mg/ml. At concentrations of 1-15 mg/ml, SSD was slightly more toxic to the BEAS-2B cells 1416 RANGE compared to GSLD, but at concentrations of less than 1 mg/ml, GSLD was more toxic. At 2.5 mg/mL, the approximate LD50 of GSLD, GSLD was significantly more cytotoxic than SSD. Microscope images (Figure 2B–D) support these findings by showing that higher concentrations of dust, particularly SSD, appeared to completely suffocate cells, contributing to cytotoxicity. Figure 3. Calcium flux assay with BEAS-2B cells treated with agonists. The graph represents the mean ± SD of 3 biological replicates. GSLD and SSD were compared to the positive controls carvacrol and nonivamide, which are known to induce calcium flux through their respective ion channels (TRPA1 and TRPV1). LHC9 media was the negative control. Relative calcium influx was normalized to 1417 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ionomycin as previously described in Methods. Statistical comparisons were relative to the control group LHC9 using one-way ANOVA with a Bonferroni correction. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01. GSLD induced calcium flux in BEAS-2B cells. GSLD treated cells demonstrated the greatest levels of calcium flux at a statistically significant difference. Comparatively, SSD did not appear to induce calcium flux when compared to LHC9. The positive controls of carvacrol (TRPA1 and V3) and nonivamide (TRPV1) appeared to induce calcium flux, though the difference was not statistically significant. Altogether, this supports the hypothesis that activation of TRPV1, V3, and/or A1 may be important in mediating responses of the cells to GSLD and SSD. A 1418 RANGE B Figure 4. Results of a qPCR experiment conducted on BEAS-2B cells cotreated with GSLD/SSD as agonists and adenosine (TRPV1), LJO-328 (TRPV1), and 007 (TRPV3) as antagonists. Adenosine (AD) was tested at a starting concentration of 50 μM, the same concentration used by Puntambekar et al. (2014). Statistical comparisons were made to the respective vehicle controls for GSLD and SSD, while LHC9 controls were compared to GSLD + media 1419 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH for significance. ***p < 0.001,****p < 0.0001. (A) IL-6 gene expression normalized to B2M. (B) IL-8 gene expression normalized to B2M. GSLD and SSD induced IL-6 and IL-8 expression via TRPV1 and TRPV3. SSD had a slightly stronger response than GSLD with respect to the induction of mRNA for both IL-6 and IL-8. LJO-328 successfully inhibited both IL-6 and IL-8 induction caused by GSLD and SSD in. With IL-8, 007 failed to inhibit both GSLD and SSD, whereas it did inhibit IL-6. This suggests that 007 selectively inhibits IL-6 but does not affect IL-8 expression induced by either GSLD or SSD, indicating a potential difference in the mechanisms regulating IL-6 and IL-8 induction. Adenosine (50 μM) did not inhibit cytokine response. Adenosine failed to inhibit IL-6 or IL-8 mRNA expression in response to either GSLD or SSD. The fold changes in IL-6 and IL-8 expression were not significantly different between the GSLD and SSD treatments with media alone and those with adenosine, as the values fell within the same error range. These 1420 RANGE results suggest that 50 μM adenosine may not have been a sufficient dose to antagonize TRPV1 under these conditions. Figure 5. Repeated experiment with increased concentrations of adenosine and combined LJO + 007 treatments. Concentrations were kept the same for LJO and 007, but they were used in conjunction to test the combined inhibitory power of the two compounds, since 007 previously was 1421 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH shown to not have a strong inhibitory effect on GSLD. Adenosine concentrations increased from 50 μM to 0.5 mM and 1 mM. Statistical comparisons were relative to the GSLD + media control. High concentrations of adenosine inhibited IL-6 and IL-8 induction with GSLD. A repeat of the experiment in Figure 4 shows that the hypothesis about adenosine having the potential to inhibit TRPV1 was correct. As the dosage of adenosine was increased from .050 mM to 0.5 mM and 1 mM, inhibition of IL-6 and IL-8 expression mRNA in cells treated with GSLD was observed. The fold change for both IL-6 and IL-8 decreased from about 5 at 0.5 mM to almost 0 at 1.0 mM, with statistically significant differences observed at both 0.5 mM and 1.0 mM concentrations (****, p < 0.0001), showing that the increase in concentration of adenosine is directly proportional to the decrease in gene expression. Since 007 had previously been shown to not have a strong inhibitory effect on GSLD, the combined inhibitory power of 007 and LJO was tested this time. The combined LJO and 007 1422 RANGE treatment successfully inhibited both IL-6 and IL-8 expression in GSLD treated cells with a statistically significant difference when compared to the GSLD control. While IL-6 levels in the LJO + 007 vehicle control were unexpectedly elevated, the treatment group remained significantly different from the GSLD + media control, suggesting that inhibition still occurred despite variability in the control baseline. IL-8 expression showed an even more pronounced reduction, indicating stronger inhibition. 1423 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 6. Effect of GSLD particle size on IL-6 and IL-8 expression in BEAS-2B cells. Cells were exposed to sizefractionated GSLD samples, with fractions organized from largest pre-separatory (PRE-SEP) stage to smallest final stage (FINAL). Supplemental Figure 6 shows the particle size distribution and corresponding impactor stages.Statistically significant differences were assessed by comparing each size fraction to the standard GSLD mix 1424 RANGE described in Methods. There were no statistically significant differences observed. Particulate matter size had minimal effect on IL-6 and IL-8 expression. A slight decrease in both cytokines was observed in the smallest three size fractions, but these differences were not statistically significant. Larger particle size fractions induced cytokine responses comparable to the full GSLD mixture, indicating that particles throughout the PM10 size range are capable of eliciting an inflammatory response in this model. Figure 7. IL-8 expression across different GSLD 1425 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and SSD collection sites. Due to a technical issue during plate preparation, IL-6 data is not included in this analysis. BEAS-2B cells were exposed to GSLD samples collected from seven distinct sites, as depicted in Supplemental Figure 7. Additionally, data from the SSD mix, along with two site-specific samples were included for comparative analysis. There were no statistically significant differences observed when the GSLD samples were compared to the GSLD mix, and the SSD samples compared to the SSD mix. Site location also had minimal effects on IL-8 expression. PM2.5 prepared from different GSLD collection sites showed relatively similar proinflammatory potency, except for sites 4.5 and 5 which were slightly lower than the others, though not at a statistically significant difference. The GSLD standard mixture, combined from all the sites, was about the average of all the locations, as expected. Since there were only two locations that SSD was collected from, the mixture seemed to more closely match the brown sample, while the gray sample, collected nearest to the existing water 1426 RANGE level, was less, though the difference was not statistically significant. Despite these differences, we were unable to identify potential causes of the differences in potency through elemental analysis using ICP-MS, indicating a role for other factors. One possibility could be differences in adenosine content, wherein sites with higher adenosine could be less potent. Alternatively, differences in particle suspension properties could impact settling rates and stimulation of cells. Further work is needed in this area. 1427 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 8. Trace metal content of GSLD samples measured by ICP-MS. Figure 8.A. Comparison across different particle size fractions. Figure 8B. Comparison across GSLD samples from seven distinct collection sites. Site location and particle size did not differ significantly in trace metal composition. ICP-MS analysis revealed consistent trace metal profiles across both particle size fractions and geographic collection sites of GSLD samples. The absence of significant variation suggests that the elemental composition of GSLD is relatively uniform, regardless of particle size or origin. This uniformity implies that other factors, such as organic components or particle morphology, may play a more substantial role in 1428 RANGE eliciting biological responses in airway epithelial cells. This supports the qPCR findings, which also showed minimal differences in IL-6 and IL-8 expression across the same variables. DISCUSSION This study investigated the pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic effects of particulate matter (PM) collected from the Great Salt Lake (GSLD) and the Salton Sea (SSD). The results show that both types of dust induce calcium flux, reduce cell viability, and upregulate inflammatory cytokine expression, in part via activation of TRPV1 and TRPV3, supporting the hypothesis that saline lake dusts can trigger harmful responses in the airways if sufficient material is inhaled. Results also support the use of BEAS-2B as a reliable airway cell model alongside the previously studied HBEC3-KTs (Cowley et al., 2025). GSLD induced a more robust calcium flux response compared to SSD, suggesting greater TRP channel activation, while both dusts produced comparable levels of cytokine expression in IL-6 and IL-8 expression, indicating similar downstream inflammatory 1429 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH outcomes. This aligns with the hypothesis that TRP channel activation contributes to GSLDinduced cellular responses. In particular, the magnitude of calcium flux induced by GSLD exceeded that of known TRP agonists such as nonivamide (TRPV1) and carvacrol (TRPA1/ TRPV3), indicating that GSLD may strongly activate TRPV1 or other calcium-permeable channels. This could suggest that TRPV1 plays a central role in mediating the observed calcium signaling and potentially downstream inflammatory effects, but that other pathways may also be involved. The qPCR results for IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA induction further support a TRPV1/ V3-dependent mechanism where both GSLD and SSD significantly upregulated IL-8 expression. This response was more strongly attenuated by the TRPV1 antagonist LJO-328, and not as significantly by the TRPV3 antagonist 007 alone, hence why we now use these antagonists as a combination. Interestingly, co-treatments with PM and 007 suppressed IL-6 expression but not IL-8, suggesting that TRPV3 signaling may be more 1430 RANGE tightly linked to IL-6 production, while IL-8 is predominantly TRPV1-driven. The combination of LJO-328 and 007 proved most effective, supporting previous conclusions from the studies with HBEC-3KTs, indicating possible signaling between TRPV1 and TRPV3 pathways. Unexpectedly, LJO-328+007 alone induced IL-6 even without GSLD, which may reflect off-target effects or a stress response triggered by dual inhibition of calciumpermeable channels, underscoring the delicate balance of homeostatic signaling in airway epithelial cells. Adenosine was investigated as a potential TRPV1 antagonist based on prior studies showing that its analogs can inhibit TRPV1-mediated calcium flux in HEK-293 cells. While adenosine did not inhibit cytokine induction at 50 μM, as originally tested, subsequent experiments using higher concentrations provided evidence that adenosine can inhibit GSLD induced IL-6 and IL-8 expression in BEAS-2B cells at concentrations of 0.5 mM and 1 mM. This outcome suggests that adenosine may function 1431 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH as a TRPV1 and/or TRPV3 antagonist in airway epithelial cells, pointing to the possibility of adenosine as a therapeutic candidate to mitigate inflammation induced by TRPV1/V3activating environmental PM such as GSLD. Future studies could also evaluate the efficacy of adenosine as a TRPV1/V3 antagonist in additional lung epithelial cell models, such as the HBEC3-KTs, to determine whether its inhibitory effects extend beyond BEAS-2B cells and using other forms of PM such as SSD. In experiments comparing GSLD from seven different site locations, only slight variation in cytokine induction was observed. Sites 4.5 and 5 showed mildly reduced IL-8 expression, but the differences were small and not statistically significant. Similarly, when ten different size fractions of GSLD were tested, no clear trends emerged. The smallest three size fractions showed a non-significant decrease in IL-8 expression that may potentially be related to compositional differences or the dose of PM/ cell area. What is significant is that the larger particle sizes still induced a cytokine response in IL-6 and IL-8 that was comparable to the GSLD 1432 RANGE standard mix, suggesting that even PM10 can be harmful to breathe. These findings suggest that while GSLD is overall pro-inflammatory, its biological activity is not strongly dependent on particle size within the PM2.5 range, nor on site-specific composition. Consistent with this, ICP-MS analysis revealed no significant differences in trace metal content across site locations or size fractions, indicating that elemental composition is relatively uniform throughout the sampled dust. Since GSLD is therefore pro-inflammatory regardless of site location and particle size, people who are at risk of exposure to windblown GSLD should also consider PM10 concentrations which tend to be much higher during dust events and of similar potency. Taken together, this work supports the conclusion that TRPV1 and V3 play a central role in mediating GSLD and SSD-induced inflammation in airway epithelial cells, and that this mechanism is at least partially calciumdependent. The ability of adenosine to inhibit IL-8 expression at higher concentrations suggests potential for therapeutic intervention. 1433 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH While site location and particle size do not appear to significantly influence inflammatory responses in BEAS-2B cells, this study highlights key mechanistic insights into PMinduced toxicity, particularly the role of TRP channel-mediated calcium signaling. The identification of adenosine as a potential TRPV1/V3 antagonist, offers a promising new avenue for mitigating inflammatory responses to saline lake dusts like GSLD and SSD. Further studies should validate these findings in additional lung epithelial cell models, such as primary human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs), to assess their generalizability. In particular, the existing GSLD and SSD samples collected from different site locations and sizefractionated could be repurposed to evaluate whether subtle compositional differences elicit more pronounced responses in primary cells. Finally, characterizing other endogenous components of dust, like adenosine and analogs, or synthetic adenosine mimetics will help clarify roles of this compound and pathway as protective for particulate mixtures. 1434 RANGE ACKNOWLEGEMENTS This work was made possible thanks to the expertise and contributions from the members of the Reilly laboratory, as well as support from the University of Utah Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program. I am grateful to Dr. Naina Phadnis for her support throughout these past two years of my thesis journey and for helping me find an outstanding lab in which I could thrive. I also extend my sincere thanks to Dr. Hye-Joo Kwon at the Utah Asia Campus for her thoughtful feedback and academic guidance during my time abroad while completing this thesis. I deeply appreciate the mentorship of Drs. Cassandra Deering-Rice, Erin Romero, and Greg Lamb for sharing their expertise in TRP channel biology, dedicating time to teach me various exciting lab techniques to study lung toxicology, and sharing their love of research with me. Their support and patience at every step have been instrumental in fostering my growth, and I will always treasure the 1435 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH knowledge and skills that they generously imparted to me. Above all, I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Christopher Reilly for his exceptional guidance and the unwavering support in all opportunities he has provided me with this past year. This would not have been possible without his dedication, understanding, and flexibility to accommodate my personal goals and time constraints. I am profoundly thankful to him and to the Reilly lab for granting me the privilege of completing my Honors Thesis with them, and for their generosity, encouragement, and commitment to my success. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbott B., Baxter B.K., Busche K., de Freitas L., Frei R., Gomez T., Karren M.A., Buck R.L., Price J., Frutos S., et al. 2023. Emergency measures needed to rescue Great Salt Lake from ongoing collapse. https://pws.byu.edu/ GSL%20report%202023. Cowley JM, Deering-Rice CE, Lamb JG, et al. 1436 RANGE 2025. Pro-inflammatory effects of inhaled Great Salt Lake dust particles. Part Fibre Toxicol. 22(2):2. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12989-025-00618-9. Deering-Rice CE, Nguyen N, Lu Z, Cox JE, Shapiro D, Romero EG, Mitchell VK, Burrell KL, Veranth JM, Reilly CA. 2018. Activation of TRPV3 by wood smoke particles and roles in pneumotoxicity. Chem Res Toxicol. 31(5): 291-301. https://doi.org/10.1021/ acs.chemrestox.7b00336. Deering-Rice CE, Mitchell VK, Romero EG, Abdel Aziz MH, Ryskamp DA, Krizaj D, et al. 2014. Drofenine: a 2-APB analogue with greater selectivity for human TRPV3. Pharmacol Res Perspect. 2(5): e00062. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/prp2.62. Frie AL, Dingle JH, Ying SC, Bahreini R. 2017. The effect of a receding saline lake (The Salton Sea) on airborne particulate matter composition. Environ Sci Technol. 51(15):8283-92. https://doi.org/10.1124/mol.117.109959. 1437 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Lamb JG, Romero EG, Lu Z, Marcus SK, Peterson HC, Veranth JM, Deering-Rice CE, Reilly CA. 2017. Activation of human transient receptor potential melastatin-8 (TRPM8) by calcium-rich particulate materials and effects on human lung cells. Mol Pharmacol. 92(6):653-664. https://doi.org/10.1124/ mol.117.109959. Marshall JR. 2017. Why emergency physicians should care about the Salton Sea. West J Emerg Med. 18(6):1008-09. https://doi.org/10.5811/ westjem.2017.8.36034. Nguyen ND, Memon TA, Burrell KL, Almestica-Roberts M, Rapp E, Sun L, Scott AF, Rower JE, Deering-Rice CE, Reilly CA. 2020. Transient receptor potential ankyrin-1 and vanilloid-3 differentially regulate endoplasmic reticulum stress and cytotoxicity in human lung epithelial cells after pneumotoxic wood smoke particle exposure. Mol Pharmacol. 98(5):586-97. https://doi.org/10.1124/molpharm.120.000047. Puntambekar P, Van Buren J, Raisinghani M, Premkumar LS, Ramkumar V. 2004. Direct 1438 RANGE interaction of adenosine with the TRPV1 channel protein. J Neurosci. 24(14):3663- 3671. https://doi.org/10.1523/ JNEUROSCI.4773-03.2004. Reilly CA, Taylor JL, Lanza DL, Carr BA, Crouch DJ, Yost GS. 2003. Capsaicinoids cause inflammation and epithelial cell death through activation of vanilloid receptors. Toxicol Sci. 73(1):170-181. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/ kfg044. Tanaka T, Narazaki M, Kishimoto T. 2014. IL-6 in inflammation, immunity, and disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 6(10):a016295. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a016295 . Veranth JM, Kaser EG, Veranth MM, et al. 2007. Cytokine responses of human lung cells (BEAS-2B) treated with micron-sized and nanoparticles of metal oxides compared to soil dusts. Part Fibre Toxicol. 4(2). https://doi.org/ 10.1186/1743-8977-4-2. Zhang M, Ma Y, Ye X, et al. 2023. TRP (transient receptor potential) ion channel family: structures, biological functions and therapeutic 1439 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH interventions for diseases. Sig Transduct Target Ther. 8:261. https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41392-023-01464-x. APPENDIX Supplemental Figure 1. Sequential snapshots of a dust event on April 21, 2022. The color scale indicates PM10 concentrations, with purple representing 0–10 μg/m³ and red indicating levels ≥100 μg/m³ (Cowley et al., 2025). Supplemental Figure 2. Shows number of ER admits/10k 1440 RANGE people in each region following a dust event, as well as collection sites for GSLD (Unpublished data provided by Dr. Christopher Reilly). Supplemental Figure 3. Elemental composition of GSLD and SSD PM2.5 samples determined by ICP-MS. Major elements (≥1% by mass) are depicted in a pie chart, while other elements are listed in descending order beneath the respective charts (Data provided by Dr. Christopher Reilly). 1441 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Supplemental Figure 4. LC-MS/MS analysis of baked GSLD extract. Supplemental Figure 4A. Base peak chromatogram (m/z 150–750) showing the most intense ion signal detected at each retention time. Supplemental Figure 4B. A compound detected at 9.19 minutes with m/z 268.07 was identified as adenosine. Its MS/MS fragmentation pattern matched a reference library with a cosine similarity 1442 RANGE score of 0.99 and a delta mass of 0.072 Da, confirming the presence of adenosine in the sample. (Data provided by Dr. Christopher Reilly). Supplemental Figure 5. Microscope images of BEAS-2B cells treated with GSLD,comparing the GSLD mix with GSLD from two specific sites at initial treatment vs 24 hours later. Supplemental Figure 5A. GSLD mix at 0 hr. Supplemental 1443 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 5B. GSLD mix at 24 hr. Supplemental Figure 5C. GSLD Site 4.5 at 0 hr. Supplemental Figure 5D. GSLD Site 4.5 at 24 hr. Supplemental Figure 5E. GSLD Site 6 at 0 hr. Supplemental Figure 5F. GSLD Site 6 at 24 hr. Supplemental Figure 6. Characterization of GSLD particle size distribution and morphology. Figure 6A. Stages of the Andersen Cascade Impactor and corresponding aerodynamic diameter range (provided by Dr. Christopher Reilly). GSLD deposition across each stage highlights the distribution of particles by size. Supplemental 1444 Figure B. Electron RANGE micrographs (5000X) of unfractionated GSLD. Supplemental Figure C. Electron micrographs (5000X) of GSLD PM2.5 (Cowley et al., 2025). Supplemental Figure 7A. Great Salt Lake sediment collection sites, locations of monitoring stations, and winds direction 1445 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH during highlighted dust events. Supplemental Figure 7B. Zoomed map showing the locations of GSLD sample collection sites used in this study (Cowley et al., 2025). Only the first six collection sites are shown in this image. Site 6 is farther north, located near Antelope Island in Syracuse, Utah, GPS coordinates: 41.048889, – 112.113611 (provided by Dr. Christopher Reilly). 1446 RANGE 87 Histone Lactylation: Identification of Reader Proteins ZHENYU YANG; GARRISON NICKEL; NICHOLAS PEDERSON; AND KATHARINE DIEHL Faculty Mentor: Katharine Diehl (Medicinal Chemistry, University of Utah) Histones are essential proteins that organize DNA into nucleosomes.1 They are also important for gene 1447 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH expression due to their role in regulating compaction and accessibility of the genome.2 Post-translational modifications (PTMs) on histones play a pivotal role in chromatin dynamics and transcriptional control.1,3 Histone lactylation(Kla) is a recently discovered PTM.4 There is a lot of interest in its hypothesized ability to link cellular metabolism to chromatin regulation.5 Kla involves the addition of lactate to lysine residues on histones, with lactyl-CoA as the proposed intermediate.6,7 Emerging evidence suggests that Kla functions as a dynamic epigenetic switch, modulating DNA accessibility and promoting gene transcription.4 Kla levels increase with glycolysis and lactate production and decrease when lactate is suppressed, making it a metabolic marker embedded in the chromatin landscape.4 Notably, Kla has been implicated in various biological processes, including macrophage polarization and tissue repair, and associated with diseases such as cancer, inflammatory disorders, and ocular melanoma, where it regulates oncogenes like YTHDF2.8–10 While Kla is enriched at gene promoter regions and correlates with elevated mRNA levels, the mechanisms by which it influences chromatin dynamics remain 1448 RANGE unclear. Recent findings suggest that reader proteins, which specifically recognize Kla, could mediate its effects. Known readers and erasers of Kla include Sirtuin family proteins (SIRT2 and SIRT6) and class I histone deacetylases (HDACs).11–13 These discoveries raise critical questions about the functional consequences of Kla interactions with chromatinbinding proteins and the regulatory pathways they control. In this study, we used semisynthetic nucleosome probes containing lactylation or acetylation at H3K9 and H3K18 to identify proteins that preferentially bind to lactylated histones. Proteins pulled down via co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) with nuclear extracts were analyzed using proteomics LC/MS-MS. From the identified proteins, RRP8, BTF3, PRMTI, and BRD7 emerged as hits of interest. Experiments determining the functional relevance of these proteins are ongoing. These findings identify histone lactylation (Kla) as a histone mark with potential dedicated reader proteins, supporting the model that Kla has unique functional roles in genome organization and gene regulation. Our work demonstrates the selective binding of specific proteins to lactylated histones, 1449 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH providing new insights into the chromatin landscape and its response to metabolic changes. Further research is ongoing to explore the mechanistic outcomes of these interactions and their implications for chromatin structure and function. REFERENCES 1. Barnes, C. E.; English, D. M.; Cowley, S. M. Acetylation & Co: An Expanding Repertoire of 2. Histone Acylations Regulates Chromatin and Transcription. Essays Biochem 2019, 63 (1), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.1042/ EBC20180061. 3. McGinty, R. K.; Tan, S. Nucleosome Structure and Function. Chem Rev 2015, 115 (6), 2255–2273. https://doi.org/10.1021/ cr500373h. 4. Jenuwein, T.; Allis, C. D. Translating the Histone Code. Science 2001, 293, 1074–1079. 5. Zhang, D.; Tang, Z.; Huang, H.; Zhou, G.; Cui, C.; Weng, Y.; Liu, W.; Kim, S.; Lee, S.; Perez-Neut, M.; Ding, J.; Czyz, D.; Hu, R.; Ye, Z.; He, M.; Zheng, Y. G.; Shuman, H. A.; 1450 RANGE Dai, L.; Ren, B.; Roeder, R. G.; Becker, L.; Zhao, Y. Metabolic Regulation of Gene Expression by Histone Lactylation. Nature 2019, 574 (7779), 575–580. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/s41586-019-1678-1. 6. Pucino, V.; Bombardieri, M.; Pitzalis, C.; Mauro, C. Lactate at the Crossroads of Metabolism, Inflammation, and Autoimmunity. European Journal of Immunology 2017, 47 (1), 14–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/eji.201646477. 7. Zhu, R.; Ye, X.; Lu, X.; Xiao, L.; Yuan, M.; Zhao, H.; Guo, D.; Meng, Y.; Han, H.; Luo, S.; Wu, Q.; Jiang, X.; Xu, J.; Tang, Z.; Tao, Y. J.; Lu, Z. ACSS2 Acts as a Lactyl-CoA Synthetase and Couples KAT2A to Function as a Lactyltransferase for Histone Lactylation and Tumor Immune Evasion. Cell Metabolism 2024, 0 (0). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.cmet.2024.10.015. 8. Zhang, D.; Gao, J.; Zhu, Z.; Mao, Q.; Xu, Z.; Singh, P. K.; Rimayi, C. C.; Moreno-Yruela, C.; Xu, S.; Li, G.; Sin, Y.-C.; Chen, Y.; Olsen, C. A.; Snyder, N. W.; Dai, L.; Li, L.; Zhao, Y. Lysine L- Lactylation Is the 1451 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Dominant Lactylation Isomer Induced by Glycolysis. Nat Chem Biol 2024, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41589-024-01680-8. 9. Yu, J.; Chai, P.; Xie, M.; Ge, S.; Ruan, J.; Fan, X.; Jia, R. Histone Lactylation Drives Oncogenesis by Facilitating m(6)A Reader Protein YTHDF2 Expression in Ocular Melanoma. Genome Biol 2021, 22 (1), 85. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-021-02308-z. 10. Li, F.; Si, W.; Xia, L.; Yin, D.; Wei, T.; Tao, M.; Cui, X.; Yang, J.; Hong, T.; Wei, R. Positive Feedback Regulation between Glycolysis and Histone Lactylation Drives Oncogenesis in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma. Molecular Cancer 2024, 23 (1), 90. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12943-024-02008-9. 11. Trujillo, M. N.; Jennings, E. Q.; Hoffman, E. A.; Zhang, H.; Phoebe, A. M.; Mastin, G. E.; Kitamura, N.; Reisz, J. A.; Megill, E.; Kantner, D.; Marcinkiewicz, M. M.; Twardy, S. M.; Lebario, F.; Chapman, E.; McCullough, R. L.; D’Alessandro, A.; Snyder, N. W.; Cusanovich, D. A.; Galligan, J. J. Lactoylglutathione Promotes Inflammatory 1452 RANGE Signaling in Macrophages through Histone Lactoylation. Molecular Metabolism 2024, 101888. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.molmet.2024.101888. 12. Moreno-Yruela, C.; Zhang, D.; Wei, W.; Bæk, M.; Liu, W.; Gao, J.; Danková, D.; Nielsen, A. L.; Bolding, J. E.; Yang, L.; Jameson, S. T.; Wong, J.; Olsen, C. A.; Zhao, Y. Class I Histone Deacetylases (HDAC1–3) Are Histone Lysine Delactylases. Sci Adv 8 (3), eabi6696. https://doi.org/10.1126/ sciadv.abi6696. 13. Jennings, E. Q.; Ray, J. D.; Zerio, C. J.; Trujillo, M. N.; McDonald, D. M.; Chapman, E.; Spiegel, D. A.; Galligan, J. J. Sirtuin 2 Regulates Protein LactoylLys Modifications. Chembiochem 2021, 22 (12), 2102–2106. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbic.202000883. 14. Nickel, G. A.; Pederson, N. J.; Faheem; Yang, Z.; Bulf, J.; Diehl, K. L. Sirtuin 6 Is a Histone Delactylase. bioRxiv September 29, 2024, p 2024.09.28.615627. https://doi.org/10.1101/ 2024.09.28.615627. 1453 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 88 Research Reflection by Zhenyu Yang ZHENYU YANG Faculty Mentor: Katharine Diehl (Medicinal Chemistry, University of Utah) My undergraduate research experience has been both intellectually enriching and transformative, significantly shaping my academic and career goals. My work focused on histone lactylation (Kla), a recently 1454 RANGE discovered post-translational modification that bridges cellular metabolism and chromatin regulation. Through this research, I explored how Kla functions as a dynamic epigenetic marker, influencing chromatin structure and gene transcription in response to metabolic changes. Using semisynthetic nucleosome probes and proteomics analysis, our team identified proteins that preferentially bind to lactylated histones, providing new insights into chromatin organization and its metabolic responsiveness. This hands-on experience not only deepened my understanding of epigenetics and histone biology but also honed my skills in experimental design, data analysis, and scientific communication. It has fueled my passion for research and affirmed my commitment to pursuing graduate studies, where I aim to further investigate the complex interplay between metabolism and gene regulation. 1455 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 1456 RANGE 89 Characterizing the Ability of Woodrat Gut Microbes to Detoxify Plant Toxins SAHANA BALAJI Faculty Mentor: Jack Jurmu (School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah) Herbivorous mammals that consume toxic plants provide valuable insights into host physiology- microbiome interaction. The Desert woodrat (Neotoma 1457 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH lepida) has developed the capacity to consume the creosote bush concentration (Larrea tridentata) of the with toxic a high compound nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA)(Arteaga et al., 2005). While earlier research has suggested that the gut microbiome plays a role in detoxification mechanisms, the particular microbial taxa involved are unclear (Kohl et al., 2014). In the present study, we cultured nearly 200 microbes from the gastrointestinal tracts of creosotefeeding woodrats. Using growth curve assays, we compared microbial resistance and tolerance to NDGA and identified numerous strains that grew or survived well in its presence. Of particular interest were Klebsiella pneumoniae and a novel isolate, JJ9F70, which grew well in NDGA-containing media, implying detoxification involvement. In contrast, Enterococcus faecalis was inhibited completely, validating NDGA’s selective toxicity. The results indicate that certain gut microbes allow woodrats to digest toxic food sources, thereby conferring ecological benefit along with insight into the evolution of symbiotic detoxification processes. Current work is aimed at elucidating the genetic basis of NDGA metabolism. Because many plant secondary metabolites are structurally similar to pharmaceuticals, the research may also yield greater insight into differences in drug metabolism among individuals in 1458 RANGE humans, thereby highlighting the significant biomedical relevance of research on non-model organisms. BIBLIOGRAPHY Acamovic, T., & Brooker, J. D. (2005). Biochemistry of plant secondary metabolites and their effects in animals. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 64(3), 403–412. Arteaga, S., Andrade-Cetto, A., & Cárdenas, R. (2005). Larrea tridentata (Creosote bush), an abundant plant of Mexican and US-American deserts and its metabolite nordihydroguaiaretic acid. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 98(3), 231–239. Dearing, M. D. et al. (2022). Toxin tolerance across landscapes: Ecological exposure not a prerequisite. Functional Ecology. Freeland, W. J., & Janzen, D. H. (n.d.). Strategies in Herbivory by Mammals: The Role of Plant Secondary Compounds. Source: The American Naturalist, 108(961), 269–289. Kohl, K. D., Weiss, R. B., Cox, J., Dale, C., & Dearing, M. D. (2014). Gut microbes of mammalian herbivores facilitate intake of plant toxins. Ecology Letters, 17(10), 1459 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Magnanou E, Malenke JR, D. M. (2009). Expression of biotransformation genes in woodrat (Neotoma) herbivores on novel and ancestral diets: identification of candidate genes responsible for dietary shifts. Molecular Ecology, 18, 2401–2414. Mangione, A. M., Dearing, D., & Karasov, W. (2001). Detoxification in relation to toxin Tolerance in Desert Woodrats Eating Creosote Bush. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 27(12). Mangione, A. M., Dearing, M. D., & Karasov, W. H. (2000). Interpopulation Differences in Tolerance to Creosote Bush Resin in Desert Woodrats (Neotoma lepida). Ecology, 81(8), 2067. 1460 RANGE 90 Elucidating the Effect of Light Quality on Plant Immunity AKILA CHALAPATHI AND HEEJIN YOO Faculty Mentor: Heejin Yoo (School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah) ABSTRACT As stationary organisms, plants have developed robust immune mechanisms to counteract daily challenges from pathogen attacks. Alongside biotic stressors, 1461 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH abiotic factors such as light significantly influence plant immunity. Within dense canopies, light availability varies, resulting in competition for light not only among different plants but also within the same plant. Upper leaves and taller plants receive more red light, while lower-positioned leaves and smaller plants are exposed to light enriched in far-red wavelengths. This shift in light quality triggers shade avoidance syndrome (SAS)—a response characterized by morphological changes like shoot elongation to improve light capture. Previous studies have reported altered pathogen resistance in shade-grown plants, but immune responses vary among species, suggesting that the impact of light conditions on plant immunity is species-specific. Moreover, the molecular mechanisms governing this relationship remains unclear. In this study, we used pepper plants to investigate how light conditions affect plant immunity. We compared programmed cell death (PCD), bacterial growth, and salicylic acid (SA) levels in plants grown under sun versus shade conditions. While additional data is needed for certain parameters, our study showed that several pepper cultivars exhibit significantly stronger and more rapid PCD under shade conditions compared to sun conditions. Further research will help establish a clearer link between these 1462 RANGE phenotypic responses and the underlying immune mechanisms. INTRODUCTION Plants are stationary organisms and therefore heavily rely on environmental signals to regulate their growth and development. Among these signals, light is a key factor that influences essential processes such as flowering, dormancy, and shade responses (Smith, 2000). Phytochromes and Shade Avoidance Response Plants can perceive the light using photoreceptors. A key photoreceptor is phytochrome, which detects red and far-red light allowing plants to respond to changing light conditions. This gene family, including PhyA, PhyB, and PhyC, is widely conserved in flowering plants (Ruberti et al., 2012). Daylight contains more red light than far-red light, but the ratio of red to far-red light can change depending on the environment. Under natural sunlight, light distribution varies within a plant canopy. Upper leaves of the canopy receive more direct red light, while lower leaves experience a different light environment due to light absorption and reflection by the upper leaves. Taller plants absorb most of the red light for photosynthesis, causing far-red light to be more 1463 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH likely transmitted and reflected down to smaller plants. As a result, leaves positioned lower in the canopy receive a reduced red/far-red light ratio, signaling competition for light (Smith, 2000). Phytochromes help plants sense these changes through two forms: Pr (inactive form, absorbs red light) and Pfr (active form, absorbs far-red light). When the red/far- red ratio decreases, it triggers a phenomenon known as shade avoidance syndrome (SAS) (Moreno and Ballaré, 2014). SAS helps plants compete for light by promoting stem elongation, larger leaves, and altered leaf angles (De Wit et al., 2013; Moreno and Ballaré, 2014). Plant Immune mechanism Unlike animals, plants lack specialized immune cells and must rapidly switch from growth to defense modes upon pathogen detection (An and Mou, 2011). Their primary defense mechanism includes physical barriers such as waxy cuticles, trichomes, and cell walls (Iqbal et al., 2021). However, when pathogens infect plant cells, plants activate their immune system. The first layer of defense, called pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), allows plants to recognize conserved pathogenassociated molecule patterns (PAMPs) using pathogen recognition receptors (PRR) located on their cell surfaces. This recognition initiates defense responses 1464 RANGE such as cell wall thickening and stomatal closure to block pathogen entry (Iqbal et al., 2021). In response, pathogens have evolved effector proteins that are delivered into plant cells. To counteract this, plants activate effector-triggered immunity (ETI). ETI is a stronger immune response that occurs when a plant’s intracellular resistance (R) proteins recognize these pathogen effectors. This often leads to localized cell death (hypersensitive response) to block the pathogen spread, as well as the activation of defense hormones like salicylic acid (SA) (An and Mou, 2011; Hua, 2013). During ETI in infected local tissue, uninfected tissue develops a broader resistance known as systemic acquired resistance (SAR) to enhance immunity throughout the plant in anticipation of potential pathogen spread (An and Mou, 2011). Does Shade Reduce Plant Immunity? Several studies suggests that plants grown in shade may become more susceptible to pathogens, viruses, and fungi. For example, Arabidopsis plants grown under low red/far-red light conditions are more susceptible to Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 and Botrytis cinerea (Gommers et al., 2017; De Wit et al., 2013). Arabidopsis plants with mutations in the phytochrome B (phyB), a major SAS regulator, have also shown 1465 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH increased susceptibility (De Wit et al., 2013). In addition, Arabidopsis plants grown in shade also produce reduced levels of glucosinolates and camalexin, two important defense-related metabolites (Cargnel et al., 2014). Similar trends have been observed in soybean and alfalfa, where plants grown under low light conditions were more susceptible to infection by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Verticillium alboatrum (Roberts and Paul, 2006). In cucumber, far-red light enhanced susceptibility to powdery mildew, while red light suppressed it (Roberts and Paul, 2006). Nicotiana tabacum mutants lacking phytochromes A and B (phyAphyB), which mimic shade conditions, showed increased necrosis following infection with Chilli veinal mottle virus compared to wild-type plants (Fei et al, 2019). Another study found that pepper plants grown under red light showed reduced susceptibility to Phytophthora capsica (Yang et al, 2023). These examples show how shade-grown plants can exhibit increased vulnerability to a range of pathogens, viruses, and fungal parasites. However, not all species respond to shade in the same way. For example, Geranium robertianum exhibit enhanced immunity under shaded conditions (Gommers et al., 2017). Similar observations have been reported in coffee plants infected with coffee rust and oak infected with powdery mildew (Roberts 1466 RANGE and Paul, 2006). These findings suggest that plant species have evolved distinct strategies to balance growth and defense mechanisms under varying light environments. Shade, Herbivory, and Defense Hormones Shade may also affect how plants defend themselves against herbivores. It is thought that plants grown in shaded conditions may be more susceptible to herbivory because shaded plants tend to have thinner leaves and fewer trichomes, making them easier for herbivores to eat. However, some studies show no increase in herbivory under shade (McGuire and Agarwal, 2005; Ballaré, 2014). For example, shade-grown cucumber plants had similar or lower levels of insect damage compared to sun-grown plants, possibly because their leaves were more nutritious, requiring herbivores to eat less (McGuire and Agarwal, 2005). On the other hand, Nicotiana longiflora plants with phyAphyB mutations showed increased susceptibility to herbivory. In this case, it was found that far-red light inhibited the expression and accumulation of phenolic defense compounds against herbivory (Izaquirre et al, 2006). These findings suggest that the link between shade and herbivory varies across species and may depend on species-specific defense strategies. 1467 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH There are several plant defense hormones, among which jasmonic acid (JA) and SA are two of the most wellstudied. JA helps protect against herbivores and fungal pathogens, while SA is important for bacterial and viral resistance (Moreno and Ballaré, 2014). Studies show that shade-grown plants have lower levels of both JA and SA, making them more vulnerable to infections (De Wit et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2023). For example, Arabidopsis phyAphyB mutants exhibit weaker SAR and lower SA signaling (Griebel and Zeier, 2008; Genoud et al., 2002). Similarly, Nicotiana tabacum phyAphyB mutants show reduced JA and SA levels and are more susceptible to Chilli veinal mottle virus (Fei et al., 2019). In peppers (Capsicum annuum), red light has been shown to enhance immunity against Phytophthora capsici by increasing SA levels through the activation of key defense genes (Yang et al., 2023). Practical Implications for Agriculture Although shade is often linked to weaker immunity in plants, many farmers use shade netting to improve crop quality and yield. Shade nets provide a cost-effective alternative to greenhouses and have been shown to increase fresh fruit yield in tomatoes and peppers (Masabni et al. 2016, Kittas et al., 2012, Rhoden et al., 1997). Shaded coffee plants also show reduced disease 1468 RANGE severity, likely because shade changes the microclimate surrounding the plants in a way that disrupts pathogen activity (Mouen Bedimo et al. 2008). In some cases, growing crops under controlled shade may even enhance immunity, depending on the crop species and the light quality provided. Understanding how light conditions affect plant immunity could help farmers balance shading practices to optimize both plant growth and disease resistance. OBJECTIVE This study aims to investigate how light conditions influence plant immunity in Capsicum annuum by measuring programmed cell death (PCD) rates, bacterial growth levels, and SA accumulation in sun- and shadegrown plants. BIBLIOGRAPHY An, C., & Mou, Z. (2011). Salicylic acid and its function in plant immunity. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology, 53(6), 412–428. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1744-7909.2011.01043. Ballaré, C. L. (2014). Light regulation of plant defense. Annual Review of Plant 1469 Biology, 65, 335–363. OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH https://doi.org/10.1146/annurevarplant-050213-040145 Cargnel, M. D., Demkura, P. V., & Ballaré, C. L. (2014). Linking phytochrome to plant immunity: Low red:far‐red ratios increase Arabidopsis susceptibility to Botrytis cinerea by reducing the biosynthesis of indolic glucosinolates and camalexin. New Phytologist, 204(2), 342–354. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13032 De Wit, M., Spoel, S. H., Sanchez‐Perez, G. F., Gommers, C. M. M., Pieterse, C. M. J., Voesenek, L. A. C. J., & Pierik, R. (2013). Perception of low red:far‐red ratio compromises both salicylic acid‐ and jasmonic acid‐dependent pathogen defences in Arabidopsis. The Plant Journal, 75(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/ tpj.12203 Fei, C., Chen, L., Yang, T., Zou, W., Lin, H., & Xi, D. (2019). The role of phytochromes in Nicotiana tabacum against Chilli veinal mottle virus. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 139, 470–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.plaphy.2019.04.002 Genoud, T., Buchala, A. J., Chua, N. H., & Métraux, J. P. (2002). Phytochrome signalling modulates the SA‐perceptive pathway in Arabidopsis. The Plant 1470 RANGE Journal, 31(1), 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1046/ j.1365-313X.2002.01338.x Gommers, C. M. M., Keuskamp, D. H., Buti, S., van Veen, H., Koevoets, I. T., Reinen, E., Voesenek, L. A. C. J., & Pierik, R. (2017). Molecular profiles of contrasting shade response strategies in wild plants: Differential control of immunity and shoot elongation. The Plant Cell, 29(2), 331–344. https://doi.org/10.1105/ tpc.16.00790 Griebel, T., & Zeier, J. (2008). Light regulation and daytime dependency of inducible plant defenses in Arabidopsis: Phytochrome signaling controls systemic acquired resistance rather than local defense. Plant Physiology, 147(2), 790–801. https://doi.org/10.1104/ pp.108.119503 Hua, J. (2013). Modulation of plant immunity by light, circadian rhythm, and temperature. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 16(4), 406–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.pbi.2013.06.017 Iqbal, Z., Iqbal, M. S., Hashem, A., Abd_Allah, E. F., & Ansari, M. I. (2021). Plant defense responses to biotic stress and its interplay with fluctuating dark/light 1471 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH conditions. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 631810. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.631810 Izaquirre, M. M., Mazza, C. A., Biondini, M., Baldwin, I. T., & Ballaré, C. L. (2006). Remote sensing of future competitors: Impacts on plant defenses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(18), 7170–7174. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0509805103 Kittas, C., Katsoulas, N., Rigakis, V., Bartzanas, T., & Kitta, E. (2012). Effects on microclimate, crop production and quality of a tomato crop grown under shade nets. The Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology, 87(1), 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14620316.2012.11512822 Masabni, J., Sun, Y., Niu, G., & Del Valle, P. (2016). Shade effect on growth and productivity of tomato and chili pepper. HortTechnology, 26(3), 344–350. https://doi.org/10.21273/horttech.26.3.344 McGuire, R., & Agrawal, A. A. (2005). Trade-offs between the shade-avoidance response and plant resistance to herbivores? Tests with mutant Cucumis sativus. Functional Ecology, 19(6), 1025–1031. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2005.01047.x 1472 RANGE Moreno, J. E., & Ballaré, C. L. (2014). Phytochrome regulation of plant immunity in vegetation canopies. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 40(7), 848–857. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-014-0471-8 Mouen Bedimo, J. A., Bieysse, D., Njiayouom, I., Deumeni, J. P., Cilas, C., & Nottéghem, J. L. (2007). Effect of cultural practices on the development of Arabica coffee berry disease, caused by Colletotrichum kahawae. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 119(4), 391–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10658-007-9169-x Rhoden, E. G., Gueye, M., Ekuka, G., Basquiat, P., Khan, V. A., & Hall, A. G. W. (1997). Use of shade in vegetable production: Hot pepper. AgEcon Search. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.256958 Roberts, M. R., & Paul, N. D. (2006). Seduced by the dark side: Integrating molecular and ecological perspectives on the influence of light on plant defence against pests and pathogens. New Phytologist, 170(4), 677–699. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469- 8137.2006.01707.x Ruberti, I., Sessa, G., Ciolfi, A., Possenti, M., Carabelli, M., & Morelli, G. (2012). Plant adaptation to dynamically changing environment: 1473 The shade OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH avoidance response. BiotechnologyAdvances,30(5),1047–1058. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.08.014 Smith, H. (2000). Phytochromes and light signal perception by plants—An emerging synthesis. Nature, 407(6804), 585–591. https://doi.org/10.1038/35036500 Yang, Y., Li, Y., Guang, Y., Lin, J., Zhou, Y., Yu, T., Ding, F., Wang, Y., Chen, J., Zhou, Y., & Dang, F. (2023). Red light induces salicylic acid accumulation by activating CaHY5 to enhance pepper resistance against Phytophthora capsici. Horticulture Research, 10(11). https://doi.org/10.1093/hr/uhad213 1474 RANGE 91 Mathematical Modeling of Metabolic Interactions in the Citric Acid Cycle ISAAC CLARK Faculty Mentor: Andrej Cherkaev (Mathematics, University of Utah) ABSTRACT The human body consists of highly complex and organized biochemical systems. There are countless mechanisms at work that make the body 1475 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH function. In this study, we formulate a system of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) to model the concentration gradients of the various chemicals found in the Citric Acid cycle. The Citric Acid cycle, also known as the Krebs or TCA cycle, is the primary energy creation mechanism in the cell efficiently breaking down food sources into the necessary components for Adenosine Tri-phosphate (ATP) synthesis. The model considers the interactions of each of these chemicals, and the speed of the reactions, necessary to maintain a stable equilibrium. We assume a semi-closed system contained in the inner membrane of the mitochondria to simplify the model and reduce the number of variables. Using approximate steadystate concentrations for each chemical while at rest, we optimize the reaction rate constants such that the concentrations remain steady-state. This allows us to observe, mathematically, the aspects of the body that are used to govern the production of ATP in the body and maintain homeostasis. Introduction The Citric Acid cycle is a central mechanism in cellular respiration, playing a critical role in energy production by converting biochemical energy from 1476 RANGE nutrients into usable energy in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). This series of enzymatic reactions occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. For a graphical representation of the Citric Acid cycle, see Appendix A. Despite its complexity, the Citric Acid cycle operates with incredible consistency, maintaining a equilibrium among the concentrations of its intermediates and products. This equilibrium is essential for sustaining life, as disruptions in the cycle can lead to metabolic imbalances and cellular dysfunction. Understanding the underlying dynamics that govern this stability is therefore of significant interest. In this project, we approach the Citric Acid cycle from a mathematical perspective. By constructing a system of ordinary differential equations (ODEs), which takes great inspiration from Bocharov et al., 2020 and pharmacokinetics, we aim to simulate the concentration gradients of the various chemicals within the cycle under the assumption of a semiclosed mitochondrial environment. That is, we have defined influx and outflux of certain metabolites and none for others, which is not necessarily the case in an applied setting. This is done for simplification as 1477 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH an open system would be too numerically complex and chaotic to be feasible mathematically. Our objective is to identify reaction rate constants that result in a steady-state system, where the concentrations of the chemicals remain constant over time. This optimization problem not only shows the quantitative relationships necessary for metabolic stability but also highlights the utility of mathematical modeling in understanding complex biological systems. Through this study, we hope to provide a framework that deepens our insight into how the Citric Acid cycle works to maintains homeostasis and supports energy production. METHODS The core of our system of ODEs to simulate the Citric Acid cycle is based around the kinetic reaction equation which is defined as: where the change in the value of x1 over the change in time t is equal to the rate at which x1 is produced by the reaction k0x0, minus the rate at which x1 is consumed by the reaction k1x1. For the system, we 1478 RANGE will assign each product in the cycle a variable as follows: There are also other substances produced and consumed by the system such as CO2, H2O, ADP, NAD+, HS-CoA enzymes, and other catalyzing enzymes, however, we will assume that these are in great enough abundance that their concentrations have a negligible effect on the core system itself and we will ignore these for the purposes of our model, establishing a semi-closed system. The first step in the cycle is the introduction of Acetyl-CoA into the inner membrane of the mitochondria. This is achieved through various means such as pyruvate decarboxylation and beta- oxidation. For the purposes of our model, we simply combine all these methods and assign it a single rate constant variable k0: Acetyl-CoA is then reacted with Oxaloacetate in the first step of the citric acid cycle to form Citrate and release an HS-CoA enzyme, which we represent as: 1479 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Citrate reacts with a catalyzing enzyme and is reconstituted into Isocitrate and is represented as: Isocitrate is combined with an NAD+ molecule and produces CO2, NADH, and α-ketoglutarate. NADH production will be accounted for in subsequent modeling steps. We will model this math- ematically as: α-ketoglutarate reacts with another NAD+ molecule and HS-CoA enzyme to produce NADH, CO2, and Succinyl-CoA. Again, NADH production will be accounted for in subsequent steps and model this reaction with: Succinyl-CoA reacts with a GDP molecule and H2O, releases the HS-CoA enzyme and produces GTP and Succinate. GTP is energetically equivalent 1480 RANGE so for the purposes of our model, it will be modeled as ATP. Like NADH, we’ll account for this in subsequent steps. This process is modeled as: The Succinate then reacts with FAD and produces Fumarate and FADH2. FADH2 is similar enough to NADH that we will group them together and model them under one variable. We’ll ignore the FADH2 for now and return to it later with the other NADH molecules. We’ll model this with: Fumarate reacts with H2O to become Malate: We finally reach the end of the cycle to where Malate reacts with a NAD+ molecule to produce NADH and Oxaloacetate: 1481 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH where Oxaloacetate is once again consumed with Acetyl-CoA to start the cycle over again: Now we can revisit NADH. Because NADH (and its equivalents) are a byproduct of the reactions in the Citric Acid cycle, it’s production is already modeled in the above equations, so the concen- tration of NADH is simply the product of those reactions which is modeled with the ODE 23 in our final system. ATP is similar, however, it includes a reaction component as NADH is consumed to generate ATP which is modeled as: This is a gross oversimplification of oxidative phosphorylation, however, for the purposes of the model and showing the behaviors of the concentration gradients it is “good enough.” The con- sumption and transportation of ATP out of the mitochondria is similarly simplified with: 1482 RANGE The rational for this oversimplification being that since the body is so incredibly complex that, under the already existing assumptions such as operating in a closed system, this simplification is moot and the model provides a close enough approximation to provide the deeper understanding of how the Citric Acid cycle works that it primarily sets out to do. With all variables and equations defined, we can assemble them into a system of ODEs, predicated upon equation 1: This is the final system of ODEs that will constitute 1483 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH our simulation for the Citric Acid cycle. Since our goal here is to identify the reaction rate constants ki such that our system maintains equilibrium at steady-state concentrations of the variables xi, we will define an optimization problem as: This ensures we get real, non-zero, values for ki such that the derivatives of all equations are zero. We assume that the body strives to create the needed amount of ATP with the least exertion. Under this assumption, the optimization problem attempts to estimate the minimum reaction rates ki so that it maintains constant concentrations of metabolites xi. Using known and estimated values of metabolite concentrations in the body, solving and simulating the system revolves around this optimization problem. RESULTS The model was simulated using Python. Using the following steady-state concentration values shown in table 1. 1484 RANGE The system of ODEs is optimized using 25 and the kinetic reaction rate constants ki are estimated as the values in table 2. 1485 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Running the simulation using the above ki values and randomly generated initial concentrations xi between [0, 1], we plot the change in concentrations over time and we get the following graph: 1486 RANGE Figure 1: Concentrations Here we observe a unique property of the system that no matter what concentration values we start with we always return to equilibrium at our steadystate concentrations in Table 1. To show this mathematically, and evaluate the stability of the system, we can compute the Jacobian matrix: 1487 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH If we evaluate the Jacobian with the values in tables 1 and 2, and compute the eigenvalues, we get the following: Table 3: Jacobian Eigenvalues Because the real part of all the eigenvalues are negative, this shows that the system of ODEs is asymptotically stable and will always converge to an equilibrium point with the optimized ki values. 1488 RANGE CONCLUSION Our results show that by optimizing reaction rate constants, the Citric Acid Cycle can be modeled as an asymptotically stable system, consistently returning to steady-state concentrations despite initial disturbances. This confirms the inherent optimization and stability of cellular metabolic regulation, even under simplified assumptions. The steady-state optimization reflects the body’s biological preference for metabolic efficiency, suggesting that the availability and regulation of enzymatic catalysts may have evolved to achieve minimal energetic cost. This model may help explain how cells dynamically regulate energy pro- duction in response to demand. This model necessarily simplifies a highly complex biochemical system. Factors such as feedback inhibition, transport of metabolites across mitochondrial membranes, and the role of oxygen and electron transport were not considered. These elements, while critical in reality, were excluded to focus on the cycle’s core dynamics and ensure feasibility. Future work should be done, as more complex and 1489 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH realistic model could provide greater insight into how our bodies functions. With applications to general biology, medicine, kinesiology, sports science, and various other fields that study energy systems, this is an important area of study with unrealized benefits to science as a whole. *The author acknowledges the support from NSF through RTG award (NSF DMS-2136198) **ChatGPT was used as a tool to aid in the ideation and drafting of this paper. All content and ideas are the original creations of the author. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alberts, B., Hopkin, K., Johnson, A., Morgan, D., Raff, M., Roberts, K., & Walter, P. (2019).Essential cell biology (5th). W. W. Norton & Company. Bocharov, G., Jaeger, W., Knoch, J., Neuss-Radu, M., & Thiel, M. (2020). A mathematical model of hif-1 regulated cellular energy metabolism. Vietnam Journal of Mathematics, 49(1), 119–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10013-020-00426-y Gibala, M. J., MacLean, D. A., Graham, T. E., & Saltin, B. (1998). Tricarboxylic acid cycle in- termediate pool 1490 RANGE size and estimated cycle flux in human muscle during exercise. AJP En- docrinology and Metabolism, 275(2), E235–E242. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1998. 275.2.e235 APPENDIX A: CITRIC ACID CYCLE DIAGRAM Figure 2: The Citric Acid cycle (Alberts et al., 2019) APPENDIX B: PYTHON CODE import numpy as np import matplotlib . pyplot as plt from scipy 1491 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH . integ rate impo rt solve _ivp from scipy . opti mize impo rt mini mize impo rt symp y as sp i m p o 1492 RANGE r t w a r n i n g s w a r n i n g s . fi l t e r w a 1493 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH r n i n g s ( ’ i g n o r e ’ ) # System of ODEs def TCA_cycle_model (t, y, k): Acetyl_Co A , Citrate , Isocitrate , Ketoglutarate , Succinyl_Co A , Succinate , Fumarate , Malate Oxaloacetate , NADH , ATP = y d Acetyl_Co A = ( k [0]) – ( k [1] 1494 , RANGE * Acetyl_Co A * Oxaloacetate ) d Citrate = ( k [1] * Acetyl_Co A * Oxaloacetate ) – ( k [2] * Citrate ) d Isocitrate = ( k [2] * Citrate ) – ( k [3] * Isocitrate ) d Ketoglutarate = ( k [3] * Isocitrate ) – ( k [4] * Ketoglutarate ) d Succinyl_Co A = ( k [4] * Ketoglutarate ) – ( k [5] * Succinyl_Co A ) d Succinate = ( k [5] * Succinyl_Co A ) – ( k [6] * Succinate ) d Fumarate = ( k [6] * Succinate ) – ( k [7] * Fumarate ) d Malate = ( k [7] * Fumarate ) – ( k [8] * Malate ) d Oxaloacetate = ( k [8] * Malate ) – ( k [9] * Oxaloacetate ) d NADH = ( k [3] * Isocitrate ) + ( k [4] * Ketoglutarate ) + ( k [8] * Malate ) – ( k [10] * NADH ) dATP = ( k [4] * Succinyl_Co A ) + (5 * k [10] * NADH ) – ( k [11] * ATP ) 1495 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH return [ d Acetyl_Co A , dCitrate , d Isocitrate , d Ketoglutarate , d Succinyl_Co A , d Succinate , d Fumarate , dMalate , d Oxaloacetate , dNADH , dATP ] # Rate constant optimization error function def steady_state_error (k, y0 ): sol = solve_ivp ( lambda t, y: TCA_cycle_model (t, y, k), (0 , 100) , y0 , t_eval =[100 ]) final_values = sol. y[:, -1] derivatives = TCA_cycle_model (0 , final_values , k) return np. sum ( np. abs( derivatives)) # Rate constant optimization function d e f 1496 RANGE o p t i m i z e _ k ( y 0 ) : i n i t i a l _ k = n 1497 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH p . o n e s ( 1 2 ) bounds = [(0.001 , 10) for _ in range (12)] result = minimize ( lambda k: np. sum ( k), initial_k , bounds= bounds , constraints ={’ type ’: ’ eq ’, ’ fun ’: lambda k: steady_state_error ( k, y0 )}) return result. x # Given initial conditions constants = [0.012 , 0.362 , 0.085 , 0.05 , 0.025 , 0.368 , 0.087 , 0.365 , 0.012 , 0.5 , 3.5] 1498 RANGE opti mal_ k = opti mize _k ( const ants) print (’ Opti mize d k:’, opti mal_ k) # Simulation space t_span = (0 , 5000) t_eval = np. linspace (* t_span , 100) # Random initial values y0 = np. random . rand (11) # Solution to the system 1499 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH solution = solve_ivp ( lambda t, y: TCA_cycle_model(t, y, optimal_k ), t_span , y0 , t_eval= t_eval) # Plot the results plt. figure ( figsize =(10 , 6)) metabolites = [’ Acetyl – CoA ’, ’ Citrate ’, ’ Isocitrate ’, ’ Ketoglutarate ’, ’ Succinyl – CoA ’, ’ Succinate ’, ’ Fumarate ’, ’ Malate ’, ’ Oxaloacetate ’, ’ NADH ’, ’ ATP ’] for i, label in enumerate ( metabolites): plt. plot( solution .t, solution . y[ i], label= label) pl t . x l a b 1500 RANGE e l ( ’ T i m e * ’ ) p l t . y l a b e l ( ’ C o n 1501 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH c e n t r a t i o n ( m M ) ’ ) plt. title (’ Metabolite Concentrations Over Time with Optimized k Values ’) pl t . l e g e 1502 RANGE n d ( ) p l t . s h o w ( ) # Variables x = sp. symbols(’ x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10 x11 ’) k = sp. symbols(’ k0 :12 ’) # System of ODEs dxdt = [ k [0] – k [1]* x [0]* x[8], 1503 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH k [1]* x [0]* x[8] – k [2]* x[1], k [2]* x[1] – k [3]* x[2], k [3]* x[2] – k [4]* x[3], k [4]* x[3] – k [5]* x[4], k [5]* x[4] – k [6]* x[5], k [6]* x[5] – k [7]* x[6], k [7]* x[6] – k [8]* x[7], k [8]* x[7] – k [9]* x[8], k [3]* x[2] + k [4]* x[3] + k [8]* x[7] – k [10]* x[9], k [4]* x[4] + 5* k [10]* x[9] – k [11]* x [10] ] J = s p . M a 1504 RANGE t r i x ( d x d t ) . j a c o b i a n ( x ) s t e a 1505 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH d y _ s t a t e _ v a l u e s = { x [0]: 0.012 , x [1]: 0.362 , x [2]: 0.085 , x [3]: 0.05 , x [4]: 0.025 , x [5]: 0.368 , x [6]: 0.087 , x [7]: 0.365 , x [8]: 0.012 , x [9]: 0.5 , x [10]: 3.5 } 1506 RANGE parameter_values = { k [0]: 0.0011412 , k [1]: 0.2742360 , k [2]: 0.0034839 , k [3]: 0.0135017 , k [4]: 0.0261262 , k [5]: 0.0441452 , k [6]: 0.0033095 , k [7]: 0.0137874 , k [8]: 0.0034206 , k [9]: 0.0163994 , k [10]: 0.0068624 , k [11]: 0 .0052111 } # Evaluate the Jacobian J_evaluated = J. subs( steady_state_values ). subs( parameter_values ) # Compute eigenvalues eigenvalues = J_evaluated . eigenvals () # Display results for i, ( eig , multiplicity ) in enumerate ( eigenvalues. items (), start =1): print( f’ Eigenvalue { i}: { eig}’) 1507 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 92 Establishing a Sample Preparation Protocol for Nanoscopic Fluorescence Electron Microscopy (nano-fEM) SOPHIA DAHLEN; BRITTANY GRAHAM; BRIAN MUELLER; AND ERIK JORGENSEN Faculty Mentor: Erik Jorgensen (School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah) 1508 RANGE ABSTRACT Nanoscopic Fluorescence and Electron Microscopy (nano-fEM) is a tool that combines the advantages of both fluorescence and electron microscopy – specific protein localization and subcellular context, respectively. However, the sample preparation methods for the two techniques are vastly different from one another, posing a challenge in using the sample for both types of microscopy. Yielding results that maintain optimal fluorescence and membrane contrast comparable to if the techniques had been performed independently is a key obstacle in establishing a protocol for nano- fEM. These experiments made necessary modifications to the standard protocols for the two techniques. Here, animals stained with fluorophores were high-pressure frozen, fixed, and embedded in resin, then checked to see if fluorescence was preserved. The concentration of osmium tetroxide was reduced to prevent the black staining from blocking emitted fluorescence. Lowicryl resin did not emit fluorescence but maintained sample fluorescence. The next steps for this experiment include microtome sectioning at the animal’s pharynx, followed by superresolution microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Successfully establishing a sample 1509 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH preparation protocol will reveal protein localization in the context of the cell morphology in the nerve ring. INTRODUCTION Problem The ultrastructure of cells can only be visualized by electron microscopy (EM). Such images can provide nanometer resolution images of organelles and biological membranes and reveal how diseases disrupt cell function. Nevertheless, EM cannot provide information on the location of proteins of interest within the cell. Protein localization can be visualized by fluorescence microscopy but lacks subcellular context. Superresolution fluorescence microscopy using blinking dyes can provide the location of proteins at nanoscale resolution in relation to other fluorescently labelled proteins. Nanoscopic fluorescence electron microscopy (nanofEM) combines the advantages of both types of microscopy to identify the locations of proteins in relation to the ultrastructure of the cell. An electron micrograph of a neuromuscular junction can show many vesicles present at the synapse, but the identity of the vesicle can only be determined by its 1510 RANGE protein composition. Larger proteins such as ribosomes are visible with EM but small proteins, like those that occupy the membranes of synaptic vesicles, cannot be seen with EM alone. For example, ATG-9 positive vesicles are present at the pre-synapse and do not carry or release neurotransmitter1. ATG-9 vesicles are indistinguishable from other synaptic vesicles visible by EM. Superresolution microscopy overcomes the diffraction limits of conventional fluorescence and light microscopy to provide high spatial resolution of proteins2. This technique provides highly accurate information about the specific locations of proteins, but only in relation to other proteins that are labeled within the sample. Nonetheless, superresolution microscopy is a tool that can make meaningful contributions to understanding protein-protein interactions and examining spatial relations between different proteins. Superresolution microscopy, however, cannot provide accurate and precise information about a protein’s absolute location within an organism at nanoscale resolution unless correlated to electron microscopy. When attempting to use the same sample for both fluorescence and electron microscopy, the largest obstacle is the major differences in the sample 1511 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH preparation between the two techniques. For instance, fluorescence microscopy requires appropriate selection and labeling with fluorophores and fixation of the sample. Sample preparation for electron microscopy is more extensive, requiring steps such as heavy metal staining, dehydration, and resin-embedding. RELEVANT BACKGROUND AND PREVIOUS LIMITATIONS To use the same sample for both fluorescence and electron microscopy, and later correlate the images, is not a new concept. In recent decades, there has been substantial work conducted on establishing a protocol for Correlated Light and Electron Microscopy, or CLEM, sometimes referred to as correlative 3 microscopy . Like nano-fEM, CLEM could be used to identify the locations of proteins within the biological ultrastructure. Establishing a sample protocol for CLEM has a nearly identical goal to that of nano-fEM: to find the perfect balance between preserving fluorescence and the EM imaging contrast without altering the biological ultrastructure. As opposed to CLEM, nano-fEM focuses on higher specificity rather than the general location of the proteins within an organism, with the ultimate goal of 1512 RANGE locating proteins with the same nanometer resolution as EM. Previous attempts to combine fluorescence and electron microscopy relied on fluorescent proteins such as GFP. However, fixed samples embedded in resin lacked the ability to fluoresce. GFP requires water to excite and fluoresce4, but EM samples must be dehydrated prior to resin embedding. A further drawback of fluorescent proteins imaged using conventional fluorescence microscopes is that they are diffraction limited. In the case of green light, localization of individual molecules at <450 nm is not possible. The fluorescent signal from a single GFP molecule would fill an entire synapse. As opposed to GFP, the dyes that bind to SNAPtags and HALOtags do not require water to fluoresce. The tag genetically fuses to the protein of interest, and the chromophores covalently bind to the proteins, rather than the proteins themselves being fluorescent. This is an irreversible linkage between the chromophore and protein, eliminating the concern for denaturation5. These tags are useful in superresolution microscopy because of their high specifically in labeling proteins and the brightness of the phtotoexcitable chromophores which is useful in achieving the ultra-high resolution provided by superresolution microscopy. 1513 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Ground-state depletion is used to isolate and collect photons from single active fluors one-at-a- time, overcoming the issues related to light diffraction. By having the fluorophores “blink” one at a time, the center of each light-diffracted blink can be mathematically determined by the program to a highly accurate, centralized point of where the protein of interest lies. To avoid the dehydration required for EM sample preparation, attempts have been made to image fluorescence in the intact sample, such as live cells, prior to fixation6. EM images taken after fixation were then correlated with the fluorescence images. Although this technique has been used successfully, the fact that the fluorescence imaging is prior to fixation is limiting when it comes to the accuracy of overlaying with the EM image. In the time between fluorescence and EM imaging, the biology of the live cell may have changed. Consequently, the location of the proteins may have changed, decreasing the accuracy of the overlay after EM. This method only provides a general idea of the locations of proteins within the cell, but it would be inaccurate to assume the location of proteins in the resulting fluorescence and EM images are exactly aligned. Methods have been developed to mark the locations of 1514 RANGE proteins within electron micrographs without the need for fluorescence imaging. In immuno-EM, proteins of interest can be localized using electron dense gold beads7. Gold beads are conjugated onto primary or secondary antibodies, where the antigen is the protein of interest. This method has multiple limitations: antibody specificity, if labeling is done after sectioning only antibodies on the surface of the section will be labeled, and the radius of the center of the gold bead to the protein of interest can be upwards of 40 nm. Blinking dyes may circumvent many of the issues with fluorescent proteins and immuno- labeling. However, fixation of EM samples typically employs glutaraldehyde and osmium tetroxide, and the latter may obstruct emitted fluorescence. Furthermore, glutaraldehyde is known to be autofluorescent8, interfering with the emitted fluorescent signal. Previous studies have reduced the concentrations of these fixatives to allow for successful fluorescence imaging, but this has been detrimental to the ultrastructure as seen by EM9. The primary objective for these experiments is to establish a protocol for both EM and fluorescence microscopy that would determine the location of proteins in relation to biological membranes. This information would allow for the creation of protein maps which can show the 1515 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH distribution of proteins of interest in relation to subcellular structures. PROJECT AIMS To establish a protocol, the aims of the project are threefold. First, it is necessary to identify the optimal fixatives, concentrations of fixatives and type of resin that preserve fluorescence while maintaining ultrastructure, particularly membrane morphology. Second, a fiducial marker must be identified so that the fluorescence and EM images can be overlaid, taking into consideration any shrinking or swelling the resin sections may undergo. Finally, the results gathered from both fluorescence and EM imaging will be mathematically superimposed to identify the exact location of specific proteins within the ultrastructure. METHODS Worm maintenance The model system used in the experiments is the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans which are about one millimeter in length with a simple nervous system. Worms are kept at 20℃ and have a generation time of about 3-5 days. The worms are raised on plates seeded with OP50, a bacterial strain of E. coli. The strain used 1516 RANGE in the experiment was snt-1(md290) II oxSi730[Psnt-1::unc-10a::halo, unc- 119(+) *ttTi5605] II ; oxSi598[snt-1::snapf cbunc-119(+)] IV. Worm Staining Staining for SNAPtags and HALOtags was performed with the dyes JF549cp and JF646, respectively, detected with 560 nm or 640 nm excitation10. The animals are washed with an M9 buffer solution to remove excess bacteria. After washes, the worms were resuspended in 195 µL of M9 buffer. The JF dyes are resuspended in DMSO (every 5 nmol of dye was resuspended using 5 µL of DMSO) and combined before being added to the worms in M9. The final concentration of dye is 25 µM. Concentration of DMSO should be closely followed since a DMSO concentration above 5% is lethal to worms. The worms are exposed to dyes for 2 hours in a dark environment before being washed and transferred to new OP50 plates. After 12 hours, the samples were checked under a dissecting microscope prior to highpressure freezing to ensure that the worms were dyed successfully. Sample Preparation Samples underwent high-pressure freezing using a Leica 1517 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH EM-ICE11 before being placed into cryotubes containing fixative and undergoing freeze substitution in a Leica AFS2. The fixative was composed of 0.02% osmium tetroxide, 2% paraformaldehyde, and 4.25% DI water. The freeze substitution protocol was as follows: -90℃ for at least 12 hours, increase by 5℃ per hour until the system reaches -60℃ and held a that temperature for 12 hours, increase by 5℃ per hour until the system reaches -20℃, and hold at -20℃ for at least 16 hours. Resin Embedding For eponate resin embedding, once samples reached -20℃ in the Leica AFS2, they were further warmed to room temperature. Samples were washed 6 times with freshly opened 100% acetone. Using freshly opened acetone is vital to properly dehydrate the samples. After washing, samples went through increasing concentrations of eponate resin (1.1 g araldite, 1.55 g eponate, 3.05 g DDSA, and 200 µL BDMA to make 100% resin – other resin concentrations are made by diluting this mixture with acetone) in acetone as follows: 30% eponate for 12 hours, 70% eponate for 8 hours, 90% eponate for 12 hours, then three 100% eponate exchanges spaced at least two hours apart. In the last 1518 RANGE 100% eponate exchange, the samples were transferred to molds and baked at 60℃ for 48 hours. For Lowicryl resin, after being held at -20℃ for 16 hours, samples were washed six times with freshly opened 100% acetone that had been pre-cooled to -20℃. After each wash, the samples were placed back into the Leica AFS2 to maintain -20℃. After washing, the samples went through increasing concentrations of Lowicryl resin (0.54 g Crosslinker D, 3.46 g Monomer E, and 0.02 g Initiator C to make 100% resin – other resin concentrations are made by diluting this mixture with acetone) in acetone as follows: 30% Lowicryl resin for at least 5 hours or overnight, 70% Lowicryl resin for 6 hours, 90% Lowicryl overnight, then three 100% Lowicryl resin exchanges incubating for two hours each time. After every exchange, the samples are returned to the Leica AFS2 to be held at – 20℃. After the final 100% Lowicryl exchange, the samples are returned to the Leica AFS2 where the resin is cured using the following protocol: -20℃ with UV light on for 48 hours, increase by 5℃ per hour until the system reaches 20℃, then hold at 20℃ for another 48 hours with the UV light on. After the resin is fully polymerized, the samples can be taken to be checked for the preservation of fluorescence in the sample. 1519 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Microtome Sectioning Each resin-embedded sample will undergo sectioning with a microtome with a glass knife, providing a sample set showing synapses within the length of the worm. Sections are collected at the pharyngeal region on silicone nitride grids that have been glow discharged to reduce their hydrophobicity. Imaging A superresolution staining protocol was followed12 in order to visualize the proteins fused with the SNAPtags and HALOtags. Sections are imaged for fluorescence using the Bruker Vutara superresolution microscope. Ground-state depletion is used to isolate and collect photons from single active fluors one-at-a-time, overcoming the issues related to light diffraction. By having the fluorophores “blink” one at a time, the center of each light-diffracted blink can be mathematically determined by the program to a highly accurate, centralized point of where the protein of interest lies. The modified protocol attempted to minimize the concentration of osmium tetroxide to a level that would still allow for satisfactory membrane contrast in EM and prevent the emitted fluorescence from being blocked. 1520 RANGE The process of chemical fixation, acetone washes, and resin embedding is all performed at -20℃. Lowicryl hardens over 48 hours under UV light, after which the sample is brought back to room temperature and ready to be checked for fluorescence. The samples then undergo microtome sectioning with a glass knife at 100 nm at the pharynx and the samples are collected on silicon nitride grids which are glow discharged to reduce their hydrophobicity. Silicon nitride grids are used in the place of pioloform grids because of concern for autofluorescence with pioloform and its fragility when exposed to a laser in superresolution microscopy. The sections first undergo fluorescence microscopy followed by EM imaging. RESULTS Strain Identity The gene unc-10 codes for the protein RIM, which is a scaffold protein that interacts with other proteins at the active zone to aid in the docking, fusion, and release of synaptic vesicles into the cleft13. The gene snt-1 codes for the protein synaptotagmin-1, which acts as a calcium ion sensor and triggers the release of neurotransmitters 1521 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH into the synaptic cleft in response to an action potential14. Fixative concentrations do not block emitted fluorescence The proper concentrations of the different fixatives were determined; osmium levels are minimized to allow for fluorescence but still be able at a high enough concentration to fix the membranes to be seen in EM. Paraformaldehyde glutaraldehyde (PFA) for was used crosslinking in place proteins of since glutaraldehyde is known to be autofluorescent. The concentration of osmium tetroxide used was reduced to 0.02%, which is considerably low for EM sample preparation protocol. Compared to the chemical fixation protocol for a sample undergoing just EM imaging which calls for a considerably higher osmium concentration of 1%, the worms appeared lighter in color post-fixation (Figure 1). When these worms were frozen, fixed and embedded in resin, the fluorescence from the staining performed prior to freezing and EM preparation protocols was visible under the dissecting microscope (Figure 3). The worms were also 1522 RANGE checked for successful staining prior, and the fluorescence was preserved. At this point, we know that the worms are transparent enough to allow for the emitted fluorescence to be seen, but it is not until the sample undergoes EM imaging that we can conclude that this concentration also preserves membrane contrast. Figure 1A (Sophia Dahlen) 1523 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1B (Sophia Dahlen) Figure 1. Worms post-fixation embedded in resin. A) The worms underwent a 0.02% osmium fixation, resulting in the worms being lighter in color and more transparent to allow for fluorescence. These animals are embedded in Lowicryl resin. B) Worms underwent fixation with a standard concentration of 1% osmium tetroxide and subsequent eponate resin embedding. Because of the increased concentration of osmium tetroxide, the worms are darker in color and more opaque, 1524 RANGE blocking any emitted fluorescence. Images were taken under a dissecting microscope. Lowicryl-based resin permits emitted fluorescence By embedding the frozen and fixed samples in a Lowicryl-based resin instead of the standard eponate-based resin, the emitted fluorescence is visible under a dissecting microscope. Because of the autofluorescence of eponate, the emitted fluorescence from the sample is overpowered if it is present (Figure 2). To determine if fluorescence is present in the sample itself, it was necessary to select a resin that does not autofluoresce. When the samples were embedded in a Lowicryl-based resin rather than eponate, the emitted fluorescence from animals that were stained prior to high-pressure freezing is preserved, indicating that not only was the Lowicryl not autofluorescent, but the protocol for embedding the sample within this resin did not block or hinder its emitted fluorescence (Figure 3). 1525 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2. A Skylan-S tagged worm that had undergone heavy metal staining with a reduced concentration of osmium tetroxide and protein fixation with 2% paraformaldehyde for EM along with exposure to a fluorophore for fluorescence microscopy. The sample was embedded in an eponate based resin following the standard protocol mentioned in Methods. The eponate resin is autofluorescent and any fluorescence emitted by the sample 1526 RANGE itself would not be visible. Image was taken under a dissecting microscope. Figure 3A (Sophia Dahlen) 1527 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 3B (Sophia Dahlen) 1528 RANGE Figure 3C (Sophia Dahlen) Figure 3D (Sophia Dahlen) Figure 3. Worms that have undergone heavy metal staining with a reduced concentration of osmium tetroxide and protein fixation with 2% paraformaldehyde for EM along with exposure to a fluorophore for fluorescence microscopy. Worms are embedded in Lowicryl resin. A) Fluorescence is visible in the nose of the worm. B) Bright field image of same sample (A). C) Fluorescence is visible in the nose of a different worm that was treated under the same conditions. D) Bright field image of the same sample (C). Images were taken under a dissecting microscope. 1529 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH DISCUSSION Nano-fEM using Sklyan-S Fluorophore The aforementioned protocol was performed on a strain that expressed Skylan-S, a photoswitchable green fluorescent protein with an excitation wavelength of 499 nm15. The strain used was oxEx2106pSAM643[Psnt-1::tom-20::skylans::let858utr; cb-unc-119(+)] pCFJ90[Pmyo2::mCh] unc-119(ed3) III where Skylan-S is tagged onto tom-20 which expresses a protein on the outer mitochondrial membrane responsible for the import of mitochondrial precursor proteins16. This was expressed under the neuron-specific psnt-1 promoter. By tagging a mitochondrial protein, the intent was to have an identifiable fiducial marker in both fluorescence microscopy and EM assuming that the fluorescence would be preserved when embedded in resin. Unlike strains containing SNAPtags and HALOtags, worms containing Skylan-S do not require a specific dying process prior to high pressure freezing. 1530 RANGE This strain underwent high pressure freezing and was chemically fixed using the following fixative recipe: 0.02% osmium tetroxide, 2% PFA, and 4.25% DI water – the same fixative concentrations used in the primary experiment. The stain with this fixative concentration was embedded in both an eponate-based resin (Figure 3) and a Lowicryl-based resin. The eponate resin was autofluorescent (Figure 3), blocking emitted fluorescence if it was present. Consequently, this procedure was performed again, but the worms were embedded in Lowicryl resin to test whether the autofluorescence from the eponate was overpowering the emitted fluorescence from the worm or if there was no fluorescence at all. When reconducted with Lowicryl resin, the worms did not exhibit any visible fluorescence under the dissecting microscope (Figure 4). This is likely because Skylan-S functions similarly to GFP since they are both fluorescent proteins. Dehydrating the samples in the sample preparation protocol destroys the protein’s ability to fluoresce. 1531 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 4A (Sophia Dahlen) 1532 RANGE Figure 4B (Sophia Dahlen) Figure 4. Strain with Skylan-S tagged onto tom-20 and embedded in a Lowicryl-based resin. A) No fluorescence is visible within the worm at an excitable wavelength for Skylan-S. If fluorophores were functioning as expected, the worm should be fluorescing down the length of the dorsal and ventral nerve cords and in the nerve ring in the pharyngeal area. B) Bright field image of the same sample. Images were taken under a dissecting microscope. BROADER IMPACTS Nano-fEM would allow for the localization of specific proteins not only in relation to one another, but also in relation to subcellular structures, for example, organelles. Such information could identify contents and components of vesicles, endoplasmic reticulum, and cell membranes. Knowing the precise location and distribution of proteins in a cell can identify the site and participants of biological processes. Furthermore, having this information can aid in identifying when cells are not performing their proper functions and what specific components are not operating correctly. This can be useful in the understanding and 1533 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH diagnostics of neurodegenerative diseases and other disorders not limited to the neurons. LIMITATIONS Although the fixative concentrations resulted in the worm being transparent enough to allow emitted fluorescence to be visible when embedded in resin, there are a few limitations within the experiment that prevent this developed protocol from being standardized in nano-fEM practice. The sample has yet to be imaged using EM. EM imaging will be necessary to determine if the reduction in heavy metal staining is still sufficient to visualize membrane contrast in EM. To verify that the membrane contrast is sufficient, sections can be collected from any part of the worm, likely the gonad, to ensure the morphology is intact. The Lowicryl-embedded worms that emitted fluorescence have yet to be sectioned and examined under the superresolution microscope. Only whole worms have been examined for the preservation of fluorescence. 1534 RANGE However, cured Lowicryl blocks that do not contain worms have been sectioned under the microtome to confirm that their hardness can withstand microtome sectioning at 100 nm. The strain used in the experiment fluorescently labeled snt-1 and unc-10, neither of which express proteins localized in the mitochondria. Without labeling a mitochondrial protein, samples under this strain lack a fiducial marker to overlay fluorescence and EM images. Although this experiment focused on preserving fluorescence in a resin-embedded sample, a different strain will need to be used in the future that specifically marks mitochondrial proteins. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the National Science Foundation (NeuroNex 2014862) and the National Institutes of Health (R01 NS034307), both awarded to Erik Jorgensen. Additional support was provided by the University of Utah Office of Undergraduate Research (Undergraduate Research Opportunity Award) awarded to Sophia Dahlen. 1535 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH REFERENCES 1. Sisi Yang, Daehun Park, et al. Presynaptic autophagy is coupled to the synaptic vesicle cycle via ATG-9, Neuron, Volume 110, Issue 5, 2022 2. Navid Rabiee, Super-resolution microscopy for protein imaging: Unraveling cellular architecture and function, TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, Volume 184, 2025, 118140, ISSN 0165-9936, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.trac.2025.118140. 3. Su, Y., Nykanen, M., Jahn, K.A. et al. Multidimensional correlative imaging of subcellular events: combining the strengths of light and electron microscopy. Biophys Rev 2, 121–135 (2010) 4. Kiran Bhaskaran-Nair, Marat Valiev, S. H. M. Deng, William A. Shelton, Karol Kowalski, Xue-Bin Wang; Probing microhydration effect on the electronic structure of the GFP chromophore anion: Photoelectron spectroscopy and theoretical investigations. J. Chem. Phys. 2015 Dec 5. Yao L, Zhang L, Fei Y, Chen L, Mi L, Ma J. 1536 RANGE Application of SNAP-Tag in Expansion Super-Resolution Microscopy Using DNA Oligostrands. Front Chem. 2021 Apr 30;9:640519. doi: 10.3389/ fchem.2021.640519. PMID: 33996746; PMCID: PMC8119759. 6. Polishchuk RS, Polishchuk EV, Marra P, Alberti S, Buccione R, Luini A, Mironov AA. Correlative light- electron microscopy reveals the tubular-saccular ultrastructure of carriers operating between Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane. J Cell Biol. 2000 Jan 7. Faulk WP, Taylor GM. An immunocolloid method for the electron microscope. Immunochemistry. 1971 Nov 8. Lee, K., Choi, S., Yang, C., Wu, H.-C., & Yu, J. (2013). Autofluorescence generation and elimination: A lesson from glutaraldehyde. Chemical Communications, 49(29), 3028–3030. https://doi.org/10.1039/ C3CC40799C 9. Watanabe S, Jorgensen EM. Visualizing proteins in electron micrographs at nanometer resolution. Methods Cell Biol. 2012 1537 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 10. Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Research Campus. (n.d.). JFX dyes. Janelia Research Campus. 11. Kusick GF, Chin M, Raychaudhuri S, Lippmann K, Adula KP, Hujber EJ, Vu T, Davis MW, Jorgensen EM, Watanabe S. Synaptic vesicles transiently dock to refill release sites. Nat Neurosci. 2020 Nov;23(11):1329-1338. doi: 10.1038/ s41593-020-00716-1. Epub 2020 Sep 28. PMID: 32989294; PMCID: PMC8054220. 12. Mueller BD, Merrill SA, Von Diezmann L, Jorgensen EM. Using Localization Microscopy to Quantify Calcium Channels at Presynaptic Boutons. Bio Protoc. 2024 Aug 20;14(16):e5049. doi: 10.21769/ BioProtoc.5049. PMID: 39210951; PMCID: PMC11349493. 13. Wu S, Fan J, Tang F, Chen L, Zhang X, Xiao D, Li X. The role of RIM in neurotransmitter release: promotion of synaptic vesicle docking, priming, and fusion. Front Neurosci. 2023 Apr 26;17:1123561. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1123561. PMID: 37179554; PMCID: PMC10169678. 1538 RANGE 14. Xu J, Pang ZP, Shin OH, Südhof TC. Synaptotagmin-1 functions as a Ca2+ sensor for spontaneous release. Nat Neurosci. 2009 Jun;12(6):759-66. doi: 10.1038/nn.2320. PMID: 19412166; PMCID: PMC2739891. 15. X. Zhang, M. Zhang, D. Li, W. He, J. Peng, E. Betzig, & P. Xu, Highly photostable, reversibly photoswitchable fluorescent protein with high contrast ratio for live-cell superresolution microscopy, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 113 (37) 10364-10369, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1611038113 (2016). 16. Schleiff E, Turnbull JL. Functional and structural properties of the mitochondrial outer membrane receptor Tom20. Biochemistry. 1998 Sep 22;37(38):13043-51. doi: 10.1021/bi9807456. PMID: 9748309. 1539 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 93 Enhancing Models of Optimal Polar Bear Movement in the Arctic Through Advanced Data Science and Image Processing RYLIE GAGNE Faculty Mentor: Jody Reimer (Mathematics, University of Utah) 1540 RANGE INTRODUCTION Global warming is causing significant changes to sea ice. As temperatures rise, sea ice is melting at an accelerated rate, leading to a reduction in extent and thickness. This melting is affecting younger, first-year ice, which is less resilient than older, multi-year ice. Additionally, the timing of sea ice formation and breakup is shifting, resulting in shorter ice seasons. The reduction in sea ice not only affects the physical landscape but also impacts the habitats and migration patterns of Arctic wildlife, such as polar bears, and contributes to further warming through reduced albedo (the reflection of sunlight) (Borzenkova et al. 2023). As climate change accelerates the loss of sea ice in the Arctic, it strains the relationship between polar bears and sea ice. Numerous studies have explored how polar bear movement is affected by sea ice dynamics, including the timing of its formation and melt, its drift, and its thickness (Platonov et al., 2014; Durner et al., 2017). Durner et al. (2017) found that increased ice drift contributed to greater energy expenditures for polar bears as they adjust their movements to stay within their home ranges. The biological cost of adapting to changing ice conditions can be seen via this increase in energy demand resulting in additional seal captures. 1541 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Yee et al. (2017) provides additional insight into the migration patterns of female polar bears from their maternal dens to sea ice in Western Hudson Bay. The study observed a reduction in movement compared to the late 1990s, likely due to earlier ice break-up driven by climate change. The implications of this shift include potential changes in reproductive cycles to adapt to the environment, accentuating the challenges polar bears face. These studies show just how much changing sea ice affects polar bears. As climate change reshapes their habitat, it’s clear we need more research to understand these challenges better. METHODS Previous research conducted in Dr. Jody Reimer’s lab has developed a model predicting the most energyefficient paths for polar bears across a habitat characterized by a mosaic of ice and water (Forrester et al., in prep). However, this model has only been applied to a highly simplified representation of Arctic sea ice, consisting of a random matrix of ice and water, limiting the applicability of the results to real-world scenarios. To address this limitation, satellite imagery of Hudson Bay was gathered and processed using the Sentinel Hub 1542 RANGE API. The study focused on a 100 km² region off the coast near Churchill, Manitoba—an area frequently traversed by polar bears during seasonal migrations. Two types of satellite data were utilized: Sentinel-2 optical imagery and Sentinel-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data. Optical imagery provides high visual detail but is restricted by cloud cover and limited daylight in winter months. SAR imagery, in contrast, is unaffected by atmospheric conditions or light availability, making it especially useful for Arctic environments. Combining both data sources allowed for expanded temporal coverage over the past ten years. For classification, the Sentinel-2 (optical) images were first normalized before applying a trained Random Forest model to predict whether each pixel represented ice or water. Sentinel-1 data were processed using the same model, without normalization, to account for differences in signal characteristics. Predictions from both data types were aggregated to create the most temporally comprehensive dataset possible. These binary ice-water predictions were then used as inputs to the energy-efficient path model developed by Forrester et al. (in prep), which calculates the least-cost routes polar bears could take across ice and water 1543 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH matrices, incorporating the differential energetic costs of walking versus swimming. To characterize spatial patterns in the ice distribution, Moran’s I was computed as a measure of spatial autocorrelation across all prediction dates. Additionally, sea ice concentration was calculated for each image and compared to corresponding concentration values from the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC), serving as an external validation metric for classification accuracy. RESULTS Sea ice concentration and the cost associated with the most energy-efficient path both followed seasonal trends, reflecting the cyclical formation and melting of sea ice throughout the year. As expected, the energetic cost of traversing the selected region in Hudson Bay increased during ice-free periods and decreased during peak ice coverage. In the model, the costs assigned to water and ice are arbitrary numerical values used to represent the relative difference in energy expenditure, with higher values for water reflecting the greater effort required for swimming compared to walking on ice. 1544 RANGE Table 1: Seasonal Variation in Polar Bear Movement Cost (2017–2024) Here is an example of the most-efficient path across sea ice found in Hudson Bay avoiding water (light blue) and prioritizing sea ice (dark blue). 1545 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Plot 1: Optimal Path Across Observed Sea Ice Geometry 1546 RANGE Plot 2: Temporal Trends in Ice Coverage and Spatial Clustering (2017–2020) Additionally, Moran’s I, which quantifies the spatial clustering of sea ice, exhibited a consistent seasonal pattern, indicating that the geometric structure of the ice shifts in a predictable manner across different times of the year. DISCUSSION These results serve as an initial validation that meaningful seasonal patterns in sea ice concentration, spatial structure, and path cost can be detected within a single region of Hudson Bay. The observed correlations between variables, such as sea ice concentration and movement cost, support the premise that these factors are interrelated in shaping polar bear energetics. However, because the analysis was limited to a single geographical area, it remains difficult to assess whether there is a long-term decline in ice conditions over the past decade, as would be expected in response to ongoing climate change. Broader spatial coverage and statistical analyses are necessary to detect more subtle interannual trends. 1547 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH CONCLUSION Future work will expand this analysis to additional regions within Hudson Bay that align with known polar bear movement patterns. With a broader spatial dataset, it will be possible to compute correlation coefficients between variables such as sea ice concentration, spatial clustering, and energetic path cost. This will help determine which factors most significantly influence polar bear energetics. As more regions are incorporated, it is anticipated that long-term trends in sea ice and their impact on polar bear movement will become more apparent, offering clearer insights into the ecological consequences of climate change. BIBLIOGRAPHY Borzenkova, I. I., Ershova, A. A., Zhiltsova, E. L., et al. (2023). Arctic sea ice in the light of current and past climate changes. Izvestiya, Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics, 59(Suppl 1), S35–S46. https://doi.org/10.1134/ S0001433823130042 Durner, G. M., Douglas, D. C., Albeke, S. E., Whiteman, J. P., Amstrup, S. C., Richardson, E., Wilson, R. R., & Ben-David, M. (2017). Increased Arctic sea 1548 RANGE ice drift alters adult female polar bear movements and energetics. Global Change Biology, 23(9), 3460–3473. Forrester, N., Golden, K. M., & Reimer, J. R. Energetically optimal polar bear pathways; insights from percolation theory. In preparation. Platonov, N. G., Rozhnov, V. V., Alpatsky, I. V., Mordvintsev, I. N., Ivanov, E. A., & Naidenko, S. V. (2014). Evaluation of polar bear movement patterns in relation to sea ice drift. Doklady Biological Sciences, 456(1), 191–194. Yee, M., Reimer, J., Lunn, N. J., Togunov, R. R., Pilfold, N. W., McCall, A. G., & Derocher, A. E. (2017). Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) migration from maternal dens in Western Hudson Bay. Arctic, 70(3), 319–327. 1549 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 94 Research Reflection by Cooper Gangi COOPER GANGI Faculty Mentor: Ayako Yamaguchi (School of through the Biological Sciences, University of Utah) Working in the Yamaguchi lab Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program over the fall semester has enriched my college experience and taught me necessary research skills that cannot be 1550 RANGE developed in the classroom alone. I joined the Yamaguchi lab primarily to work with animals and learn biology lab techniques as all my previous experience had been in chemistry labs. The biggest lesson I’ve received over my time is that experiments are unpredictable, and there are far more variables to consider in a real lab compared to a manicured teaching lab. In science, you fail, a lot as I’ve learned. One of the most valuable skills I’ve gained is how to fail. Designing properly controlled experiments to catch failure, taking notes of everything done during experiments to see what might have caused that failure, and learning that it is okay to scrap procedures and return to the drawing board – these are all foundational skills for a researcher I’m glad to have developed in my undergraduate. I’ve gained far more confidence in my research ability and identity as a scientist, and I plan on applying these lessons and newfound confidence to the challenges I will surely face in graduate school. I am incredibly excited to begin the next stages in my career, and I am incredibly grateful for the experiences that brought me on this path. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aronitz, E. M., Kamermans, B. A., & Duffy, K. R. (2021). Development of parvalbumin neurons and perineuronal nets in the visual cortex of normal and 1551 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH dark-exposed cats. neurology, 529(11), The Journal 2827–2841. of comparative https://doi.org/ 10.1002/cne.25127 Collins, L., & Brunjes, P. (2019, September 30). Wiley Online Library | Scientific Research Articles, journals, books … Wiley Online Library. Retrieved October 19, 2022, from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ de Winter, F., Kwok, J. C. F., Fawcett, J. W., Vo, T. T., Carulli, D., & Verhaagen, J. (2016). The chemorepulsive protein Semaphorin 3A and perineuronal net-mediated plasticity. Neural plasticity. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC4738953/ Dick, G., Tan, C. L., Alves, J. N., Ehlert, E. M. E., Miller, G. M., Hsieh-Wilson, L. C., Sugahara, K., Oosterhof, A., van Kuppevelt, T. H., Verhaagen, J., Fawcett, J. W., & Kwok, J. C. F. (2013, September 20). Semaphorin 3A binds to the perineuronal nets via chondroitin sulfate type E motifs in rodent brains. The Journal of biological chemistry. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC3779733/ Edwards, JA, Risch, M, Hoke, KL. (2020, October 16). 1552 RANGE Dynamics of perineuronal nets over amphibian metamorphosis. J Comp Neurol. Retrieved October 18, 2022 from https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.25055 Gaál, B., Rácz, É., Juhász, T., Holló, K., & Matesz, C. (2014). Distribution of extracellular matrix macromolecules in the vestibular nuclei and cerebellum of the frog, Rana esculenta. Neuroscience, 258, 162–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.neuroscience.2013.10.080 Hijazi, S., Smit, A., & Van Kesteren, R. (2023, July 7). Fast-spiking parvalbumin-positive interneurons in brain physiology and Alzheimer’s disease. Nature. Retrieved April 8, 2024, from https://www.nature.com/articles/ s41380-023-02168-y Lledo, P.-M., Alonso, M., & Grubb, M. S. (2006, March 1). Adult neurogenesis and functional plasticity in neuronal circuits. Nature News. Retrieved October 18, 2022, from https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn1867 Luo, F., Wang, J., Zhang, Z., You, Z., Bedolla, A., Okwubido-Williams, F., Huang, L. F., Silver, J., & Luo, Y. (2022). Inhibition of CSPG receptor PTPσ promotes migration of newly born neuroblasts, axonal sprouting, 1553 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and recovery from stroke. Cell reports, 40(4), 111137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111137 Potter, K., & Yamaguchi, A. (2005, July 01). AndrogenInduced Vocal Transformation in Adult Female African Clawed Frogs. Wikipedia. Retrieved April 8, 2024, from https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/ jn.01279.2004 Reichelt, A. C. (2020, August 15). Is loss of perineuronal nets a critical pathological event in Alzheimer’s disease? eBioMedicine. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://www.thelancet.com/journals/ebiom/article/ PIIS2352-3964(20)30322-4/fulltext Slaker, M. L., Harkness, J. H., & Sorg, B. A. (2016, December). A standardized and automated method of perineuronal net analysis using Wisteria floribunda agglutinin staining intensity. IBRO reports. Retrieved October 19, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pmc/articles/PMC5507617/ Tewari, B., Chaunsali, L., Prim, C., & Sontheimer, H. (2022, September 23). A glial perspective on the extracellular matrix and perineuronal net remodeling in the central nervous system. Frontiers. Retrieved April 1554 RANGE 8, 2024, from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/ 10.3389/fncel.2022.1022754/full3/ 1555 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 95 Research Summary: Probing the Mechanism Of Colossal Magnetoresistance in EuCd₂P₂ Via High-Pressure Transport Measurements AUDREY GLENDE Faculty Mentor: Shanti Deemyad Astronomy, University of Utah) 1556 (Physics & RANGE This thesis presents a comprehensive high-pressure study of the layered antiferromagnet EuCd₂P₂, a phosphide compound that exhibits colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) in the absence of mixed valence, Jahn-Teller distortions, or a perovskite structure. Using diamond anvil cells (DACs) combined with cryogenic transport and AC magnetic susceptibility measurement systems, we have mapped the pressure–temperature phase diagram of EuCd₂P₂. I will discuss how these results provide insight into the interplay between magnetic ordering, anisotropic lattice compression, and electronic transport. High-resolution synchrotron X-ray diffraction (XRD) reveals that EuCd₂P₂ retains its trigonal P3̅*m1 symmetry up to 14.9 GPa, with no structural phase transitions. However, anisotropic lattice compression and subtle anomalies in the lattice parameters suggest a pressure-induced isostructural transition that likely enhances interlayer Eu–Eu magnetic exchange. In both AC susceptibility and resistivity data, I observe a sharp, pressure-dependent shift in the Néel temperature (T⯑) from 11 K at ambient pressure to nearly 20 K at 5 GPa, confirming that magnetic order in EuCd₂P₂ is highly tunable via compression. The resistivity peak, associated 1557 with magnetic OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH scattering, tracks the magnetic transition closely and shows a dramatic suppression in magnitude with pressure—indicating enhanced metallicity and reduced spin disorder. Together, these findings demonstrate that CMR in EuCd₂P₂ arises not from structural transitions but from pressure-enhanced magnetic fluctuations and spin-carrier coupling. The sharpness of both the temperature and field dependence of this effect positions EuCd₂P₂ as a promising material for low-temperature magnetic sensors and antiferromagnetic spintronic devices. This work supports the establishment of EuCd₂P₂ as a rare example of fluctuation-driven CMR in a structurally stable, low-carrier system, advancing the understanding of spin-mediated transport in quantum materials and providing a platform for future studies of topological, magnetic, and correlated phenomena under extreme conditions. 1558 RANGE 96 The Sperm Racetrack: A Novel Microfluidic Method for Motility-Based Sperm Separation LAUREN HULSE AND NITIN PHADNIS Faculty Mentor: Nitin Phadnis (School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah) INTRODUCTION Around 15% of couples globally face infertility issues [1], with male factors accounting for approximately 1559 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 20-30% of these cases [2]. A 2015 study by Agarwal revealed that 30 million men worldwide experience symptoms of infertility [2]. This condition can be attributed to various causes in males specifically, such as environmental factors, infections, or azoospermia — a complete absence of sperm due to hormonal imbalances or anatomical issues like injuries to the male genitalia. An additional contributing factor to male infertility is genetic disorders that impact fertility by causing sperm dysfunction via distorting alleles. Distorting alleles are selfish alleles that alter cell behavior – in this case sperm behavior – homologous by sabotaging alleles at their some non-distorting point between spermatogenesis and fertilization [3]. This phenomenon has been seen across a wide range of species, from Drosophila to mouse [4-5]. One way that these selfish alleles could gain an advantage over other alleles is by making the selfish sperm swim faster, enhancing the transmission of their genetic material to future generations. Understanding this swimming-related distortion could lead to a greater understanding of male infertility and help aid in the generation of more effective treatments. To accomplish this identification and characterization, we must be able to sort, and separate sperm based on 1560 RANGE their swimming speed. Unfortunately, existing techniques for handling swimming sperm do not allow fast-swimming sperm to be separated from slowswimming sperm. Currently available sperm-sorting techniques largely function to merely separate dead or immotile sperm from motile sperm. The typical motile sperm selection methods used for assisted reproductive technology (ART) include the swim-up technique and density gradient centrifugation. [6] These techniques cause cellular damage by increasing the level of cell-to-cell contact. This produces high levels of reactive oxygen species which has been shown to cause cellular damage and sperm dysfunction [7], inhibiting the effectiveness of ART and complicating the further study of the differences between fast and slow sperm [8]. Fortunately, advancements in microfluidics make possible the development of sperm sorting devices that cause minimal cellular damage by avoiding centrifugation. Microfluidics is an emerging field that involves the manipulation of fluid volumes on the microscale using channels with dimensions ranging from tens to hundreds of micrometers [9]. Several innovative microfluidic devices have been engineered to use biological behaviors of sperm, most 1561 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH notably rheotaxis. [10-16] Rheotaxis is a passive physical process in which sperm orient to swim against a counterflow force. [17] Like how wind pushes the largest surface of a weathervane to align it with the wind direction, the long, light tails of sperm are pushed by the counterflow force to orient them into the flow. Currently available rheotaxis-based devices sort motile sperm from non-motile sperm with minimal damage but do not separate sperm based on their relative swimming abilities. Therefore, there is an obvious need for a microfluidic device that addresses the two above shortcomings. The device should preferably use a biology-inspired design that harnesses sperm’s natural response to counterflow (rheotaxis) to systematically sort a semen sample based on the speed of the sperm in a sample. The device must also allow for an effective extraction of the separated subgroups post-sorting for a more detailed investigation into the genetic differences between the sperm. With such a device, we will be able to identify and characterize the genomic loci that drive variation in swimming speed. The ‘Sperm Racetrack’ aims to achieve these design requirements through a simple design: a straight channel with evenly spaced extraction ‘ports’, and the application of counterflow to the straight 1562 RANGE channel. It ultimately aims to aid in promoting the identification of a new source of male infertility, which could lead to new fertility treatments. BACKGROUND Several microfluidic devices have been designed and developed as alternatives to the swim-up procedure and density gradient centrifugation in recent years. The microfluidic devices currently available specifically harness sperm’s properties of chemotaxis, thermotaxis, and rheotaxis, to create gradients to which sperm respond. [10-16] . In the context of sperm swimming, chemotaxis involves the movement of sperm towards chemical attractants, such as progesterone, released by the egg. Sperm respond to these chemical attractants by swimming faster and straighter. [6] Thermotaxis is similar: sperm orient faster and swim straighter as they get nearer to warmth. There is about a 2°C difference between the oviduct and the fertilization site, naturally attracting the sperm towards the egg.[6] Both principles can be recreated in vitro via a progesterone or temperature gradient in a microfluidic channel, but these gradients can be difficult to maintain over time. Rheotaxis more sustainably mimics microenvironment of the oviduct in vitro the than chemotaxis or thermotaxis. In vivo, this counterflow is 1563 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH created by the flow of cervical mucus in the oviduct. [18] Rheotaxis can be induced in vitro through the introduction of counterflow at a similar rate to the rate of mucosal flow in the oviduct. Several microfluidic devices that harness rheotaxis have been previously created, including Sarbandi’s 2021 biomimetic microfluidic device [15], and Sharma’s 2022 device [16]. Both unique designs did separate sperm based on motility but could not sort motile sperm into groups based on their relative motility. They also could not extract the separated groups without re-mixing the separated motile and immotile sperm. Our device overcomes both shortcomings by sorting sperm into groups based on their swimming speed rather than motility and actually extracting the groups of sperm without mixing fast and slow groups. The separated groups will then be subjected to behavioral, morphological and, in the future, genetic assays. These assays will allow us to identify the characteristics of sperm that make them good or bad swimmers, and to relate these changes to male infertility and other phenomena of general biological interest such as segregation distortion and sperm competition. Ultimately, we hope that this device will lead to better 1564 RANGE understanding of sperm biology and potentially better treatments for male fertility. Design The overall design of the device is a straight channel in which sperm will swim, plusadditional design elements for inserting and extracting sperm and fluids, and a vacuum layer for removing unwanted bubbles. The microfluidic device was initially designed in AutoCAD (Product Version V.58.M.214, AutoCAD 2025) (Figure 1). The design consists of a vacuum layer and a flow layer separated by a 100-micron silicone membrane. The flow layer will hold the counterflow media and the introduced sperm sample, sitting on top of the membrane. The flow layer features a 6.5 cm straight channel with a width of 2 mm. This mimics the anatomy of the vaginal canal, at a microfluidic level. The channel has 7 evenly spaced extraction ports along it, labeled E7-1 in Figure 1. They are spaced 0.50 cm apart. This allowed for a separation of sperm into 6 subgroups based on their relative speed, allowing for a range of swim speeds and motilities to be analyzed. These are blocked by solid plugs made of 1.0 mm-diameter optical fiber during the run, but used to extract the sample post-run. Each port has a specific function. From top to bottom (Figure 1), the ports are as follows: first is the 1565 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH counterflow port (C). This is where the counterflow is introduced to the device. The following 6 ports of the device are the extraction ports. These are used to remove the sample from the device post- sorting. Next is the injection port (E1), which is the location where semen samples are introduced. Finally, we have the waste port (W), making any removal of excess media/sample possible. We created a vacuum layer to remove problematic bubbles from the flow layer that might prevent sperm swimming or alter counterflow rates. It sits below the membrane and the flow layer and will be attached to a 30 cc syringe to create a vacuum effect via a syringe lock. The vacuum layer also features several cross patterns forming ‘columns’ to prevent membrane deflection, which could create uneven counterflow rates. 1566 RANGE 1567 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1. (Left) AutoCAD drawings of the Sperm Racetrack. (Right) Rendition of fabricated device from Fusion360. Fabrication The fabrication process of the device was based on rapid prototyping methods, using soft lithography (printing of soft materials). Broadly, molds were laser-cut for all layers of the device, which were then cast in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), and bonded using plasma etching techniques, as is standard in soft lithography. The use of a mold allowed for the creation of 3D structures on the microscale. Specifically, molds were laser-cut from the AutoCAD channel designs out of 3M Scotchcal Marking Film (3M, Product ID: SC 50-12 White), a material like electrical tape, and mounted them onto square Petri dishes. These were then cast the molds in PDMS and cured overnight in an oven set at 70°C (Figure 2a). After curing, the PDMS was removed from the mold to reveal the flow and vacuum layers. Next, extraction ports were then punched into the flow layer with a 1.0 mm hole punch. The channel was then masked with laser cut 3M Scotchcal Marking Film, cut to match the dimensions of the flow channel. 3 minutes of Corona Plasma Etching on both the PDMS-cast flow layer and one side of the 100-micron silicone membrane to bond them together. 1568 RANGE After bonding the flow layer and the membrane, a 1.0 mm port was punched into the vacuum access channel, through both the PDMS and the silicone membrane, to allow for access to the vacuum layer. The vacuum layer with a laser cut piece of marking film matching its dimensions, and 3 minutes of corona etching on both the vacuum layer and the other side of the membrane to bond all layers together. The device was placed back into the 70°C oven overnight to seal the bonding. The final device is shown in Figure 2b. Figure 2. Fabrication and Experimental Setup. Top: 1569 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Fabrication process. PDMS filled molds, with laser-cut CAD design inlaid. Bottom: Fully bonded device (quarter for scale) Clinical Sample Acquisition All 3 semen samples used in this experiment were obtained from adult males visiting the Utah Center for Reproductive Medicine. All were consented under an IRB-approved protocol at the University of Utah by Kenneth Aston in the Department of Andrology. Race Protocol The device specifically mimics the gentle counterflow seen in the oviduct in vitro. Several preliminary experiments were completed, which will not be mentioned here, to determine that a counterflow of 0.092 ul/min elicited the rheotaxis response of sperm. On average, sperm swim at around 50 m/sec [19], thus it should only take ~22 minutes for the sperm to swim the full length of the channel (~6.5 cm). To account for slower sperm, and for individuals who do not have highly motile sperm, the sperm were allowed to swim for 30 minutes against the counterflow before extraction. 1570 RANGE We first prepared the device by blocking the extraction ports and the injection port with small segments of 1.0 mm optical fiber. The counterflow port was then connected to a syringe pump holding a 100 uL Gastight Glass Syringe (Model 1710 TLL, PTFE Luer Lock), via 1.0 mm polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tubing (Masterflex transfer tubing, microbore PTFE, 0.22” ID x 0.042” OD). Next, the waste port was routed to a collection container with the same PTFE tubing. The vacuum layer is connected to the 30cc syringe (Global Medical Products, Model 1202543 30 CC Luer lock Syringe) via this tubing, and the ‘vacuum’ is created via the syringe lock. To create an environment with all the appropriate components for sperm to survive, the device was filled with Human Tubal Fluid (HTF) + 1% Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) (Sigma Aldrich Corporation, MR-070-D). The addition of 1% BSA aids in lubricating the channel to prevent sperm sticking to the channel. Once the device was filled, and no air bubbles were present in the channel, the syringe pump was set to 0.092 ul/min. This counterflow speed was maintained throughout the race. Subsequently, 2.5 microliters of semen sample was introduced to the device via a 1-10 um micropipette, into the injection port. Following this, 1571 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the injection port was re-blocked with optical fiber. The sperm were then allowed to swim for 30 minutes in the microfluidic channel. The experimental setup was observed via a Nikon Eclipse TE300 Inverted Microscope, with a 20x magnification objective. See Figure 2c for the experimental setup illustrated. (Figure 3) Following the 30 minutes of sperm swimming, the process of recording the results of the race and collecting the separated sperm was begun. Each segment of the device was recorded using an AmScope 4k Series 2160P Camera (also, pure sample videos were taken before loading the device). Each segment was then extracted by loading HTF + 1% BSA into the first port of the segment, pushing the sample out of the subsequent port into a cryotube. (Figure 3) The extraction is done in sequential order from the waste segment – segment 6 of the device. 2 ul of each aliquot was placed on individual glass slides and recorded video with the AmScope camera. A Makler sperm counting chamber was used to count the number of sperm in each aliquot. Following this visualization and counting, the aliquots and pure samples were stored at -80°C to allow for future genetic assays to be performed. 1572 RANGE Figure 3. Experimental setup and extraction method. Counterflow is introduced from the left side, and sperm is introduced to the device via the 1st port to the left of the waste port. Vacuum is created via the port designed into the vacuum layer. Each extraction port is blocked with a small portion of 1.0 mm optical fiber. The sorted sperm are extracted through the infusion of HTF + 1% BSA via a syringe pump into the right port of a targeted segment. The extracted solution of sperm + media is collected through the left port of the targeted segment. Swimming Characterization with CASA In keeping with best practices, all videos were analyzed using the CASA plugin in ImageJ v1.51k [20]. CASA measures several aspects of sperm swimming through motion tracking 1573 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH algorithms. It produces several key behavioral parameters, such as the sperm’s curvilinear velocity (VCL), straight-line velocity (VSL), and average path velocity (VAP). All velocities are reported in um/sec.The VCL describes the point to point velocity of the sperm per second. The VSL is calculated using the straight line distance between the first point and the last point of a sperm track, and represents the straight-line distance that the sperm traveled. The VAP represents a smoothed version of the VCL to ignore the side to side movements of the sperm head. It also provides details about the sperm’s linearity, wobble level (sperms head movement side-to-side calculated by VAP/ VCL), and the percent motility of sperm in the video. [20] Sperm linearity describes the amount of curvature in a sperm’s swimming path, and is determined by dividing VSL/VAP. Preliminary processing using the base model of CASA revealed that the originally included algorithms could not efficiently differentiate between immotile sperm and debris in the channel. To combat this issue, three new motion tracking algorithms were added to the 1574 RANGE CASA plugin, to aid in optimizing sperm tracking. These included a minimum net distance traveled by the sperm in pixels (over the whole video), a minimum net distance traveled (in pixels)/frame of video, and an option to print an associated ID for each individual sperm tracked. These new additions ultimately served to focus the tracking to only be on sperm, not on any non-moving debris present in the channel. This optimized plugin was ultimately run on videos thresholded to only include sperm heads. The parameters listed in Figure 4 were used in all analyses. 1575 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 4. CASA parameters used in all analyses. Sperm Distribution Along Channel Investigation of the distribution of sperm along the channel was also undergone. This involved loading 2 uL of the extracted aliquots onto a Makler Sperm Counting Chamber. The number of motile and non-motile sperm in each row of 10 squares were counted. These numbers correspond to millions of sperm/ mL of sample. This information can provide insight between 1576 RANGE the competition between sperm based on their swimming speed. Sample Size 3 separate samples were run on separate devices to test the variability of samples. Additionally, 1 of these samples was run on 3 separate devices to test the variability between devices. The goal is to run more tests on this device in the future to generate more data and better describe the effectiveness of our design. Statistical Method All data is expressed as a mean  standard deviation. Statistical analyses were performed via linear models of the behaviors of sperm in different segments of the device. The specific behavior characteristics tested included VSL, VAP, VCL, linearity, and wobble level. Differences were considered significant when p < 0.05. All linear models were of the form statistic ~ segment, where statistic is VSL, VAP, or similar, and segment is the number-coded segment between two ports from which the data was collected. Segments are numbered starting 1577 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH with the segment between the waste port and the sperm inlet port, which is segment 0. RESULTS We first wanted to determine whether sperm were actively swimming into different segments of the channel. To investigate this, we used a Makler sperm counting chamber to quantify sperm distribution along the channel (Figure 5). We counted motile and non-motile sperm separately. The results showed a clear decrease in sperm count as we moved along the length of the channel, confirming that the device functions as intended, and that sperm are indeed swimming into successive segments. They also indicate that sperm only effectively swam to the fourth segment of the device. We thus only included data from segments 0-4 in the rest of our analysis. 1578 RANGE Figure 5. There is a clear decrease in the number of both non-motile and motile spermas you move further along the channel. X axis: segment number, where 0 is the segment between the waste and sperm input ports, 1 is the segment between the sperm input port and the first extraction port, and 2+ are the segments between extraction ports. Next, we sought to determine whether the sperm present in the later segments were swimming faster than the majority located in the initial segments. To address this, we compared the straight-line velocity (VSL) and average path velocity (VAP) of sperm throughout the entire channel. Specifically, we 1579 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH analyzed data from videos of extracted aliquots and from videos recorded within the device (Figure 6a/b). Our analysis revealed a significant (p = 0.003 and p =1.53e-6, for VSL and VAP respectively) increase in both velocities in the sperm filmed within the device. Our linear model allows prediction of VSL and VAP based on segment number. Additionally, we observed a consistent increase in VCL (curvilinear velocity) and VSL across the channel, regardless of video source. Notably, the increase in VCL was more pronounced than the increase in VSL. Figure 6. Sperm that traveled farther along the device swam faster. A) The VAP of both the data collected from the extracted aliquots and the in-device videos show a significant upward trend as you move along the segment. “Extracted” refers to sperm measured in a glass slide after extraction from the device, while “In Device” refers to sperm measured inside 1580 RANGE the device after the run was completed. “Pure” refers to sperm taken directly from the original sperm sample. B) The VSL shows a similar upward trend, but there is a less significant relationship between this velocity parameter and the distance swam along the segment. Computer-Assisted Sperm Analyzer (CASA) provides further insights into sperm behavior outside of velocity parameters. One of these behaviors is the sperm’s linearity (LIN). We analyzed LIN using the same two video sources (extracted aliquots and in-device samples) as we did for VCL and VSL (Figure 7). The results were inconclusive: sperm from in-device videos exhibited a slight increase in linearity, while sperm from extracted aliquots showed a slight decrease. However, neither trend was statistically significant (p = 0.146 for in-device and p = 0.09 for extracted). Additional data and further analysis may clarify the relationship between linearity and the distance swum by sperm. 1581 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 7. There is no significant relationship between linearity of sperm swimming and distance swam along the channel. This can be seen from the differing trend lines produced from the videos of the extracted aliquots and the videos from within the device. Finally, we examined the characteristics of swimming for sperm in later segments, focusing on the wobble (WOB), or side-to-side head movement, and VCL across the channel in both video types (Figure 8a/b). Our results showed a significant increase in VCL in the later segments, indicating that sperm swam faster along curvilinear paths as they progressed. This 1582 RANGE suggests a potential relationship between the curvature of sperm movement without counterflow and their speed and distance when swimming with counterflow. WOB, however, showed an insignificant decrease along the channel (p = 5.50e-5), which contradicts the hypothesis that faster sperm show greater head wobble. Notably, the later segments in the racetrack contain fewer sperm (see Fig. 5), reducing the number of sperm measurements in the later segments. This may reduce our power to detect relationships between WOB and other sperm swimming metrics. Figure 8. Curvilinear velocity increases along the channel, but not due to higher sperm wobble. A) There is a significant upward trend in the VCL as you move along the channel. This is true for both the data collected from the extracted aliquots and that from the videos taken in the device. B) There 1583 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH is a slight decline in WOB as you move along the channel, however it is insignificant. These results indicate that the device presented is capable of effectively separating sperm based on their swimming speed via the induction of rheotaxis. However, interpretations for the behaviors responsible for the difference in swimming speed, such as wobble and linearity, are largely inconclusive. DISCUSSION The aim of this study was to develop a biologically inspired microfluidic platform that can systematically sort a semen sample based on the speed of the sperm in a sample. In addition to sorting, the system must also offer a means for extracting the separated sperm. Current spermsorting methods, such as the swim-up and density gradient centrifugation, create reactive oxygen species that cause damage to the sperm cells. The Sperm Racetrack combats this damage and meets the additional design requirements by harnessing the biological behavior of sperm known as rheotaxis in a microfluidic environment and providing extraction ports to 1584 RANGE remove sperm post-sorting. We tested the microfluidic device with various semen samples and analyzed each extracted aliquot using the ImageJ plugin CASA. This measured both swimming speed and swimming behavior. The results of this analysis, in combination with a sperm count of each segment, indicate that the Sperm Racetrack is capable of separating sperm based on swimming speed. The effectiveness of the microfluidic device is evident from the distribution of sperm across the device after sorting (Figure 5). The number of both non-motile and motile sperm decreases as they move further along the channel. This shows that sperm successfully traveled through the channel. Additionally, it confirms the device’s ability to separate sperm effectively, as fewer fast-swimming sperm (which travel farther) were observed compared to slower or non-swimming sperm. In addition to the sperm distribution, the CASA analysis revealed key trends in sperm swimming behavior across each segment. The first parameter, average path velocity (VAP), 1585 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH represents the point-to-point velocity of sperm along an average path calculated by an embedded algorithm in the plugin. As shown in Figure 6A, VAP increased significantly as sperm moved further along the channel in both videoed in-device samples and extracted samples. Another velocity parameter, straight-line velocity (VSL), measures the velocity between the first and last points on the sperm’s average path over the recorded time. Figure 6B shows a similar upward trend in VSL as sperm progressed along the channel, for both in-device and extracted samples. These correlations between VAP, VSL, and swimming distance confirm that the Sperm Racetrack effectively separated sperm based on swimming speed. The final velocity parameter analyzed by CASA was curvilinear velocity (VCL), which measures the pointto-point velocity of sperm along their actual path over the recorded time. As shown in Figure 8A, VCL increased significantly with the distance swam along the channel.This demonstrates the microfluidic device’s ability to separate sperm by swimming speed and suggests a potential relationship between the curvature of sperm movement without counterflow and their speed and distance when swimming with counterflow. Further research is needed to explore this phenomenon. 1586 RANGE CASA also provides insights into sperm swimming behavior beyond velocity parameters. One such parameter is wobble (WOB), which measures the intensity of a sperm’s side-to-side head movements. Figure 8B shows a slight decline in WOB as sperm move further along the channel, but this change is not significant. This suggests no clear relationship between side-to-side head movements and the distance swam. For example, non-progressive sperm with high WOB may fail to move past the first segment of the device. Another parameter is linearity (LIN), which describes the straightness of a sperm’s swimming path. Figure 7 compares LIN trends for in-device and extracted samples. In-device samples show higher linearity due to counterflow, which causes sperm to orient upstream and swim more directly. Extracted samples, lacking counterflow, exhibit more circular swimming patterns and reduced linearity. Interestingly, the downward trend in LIN as extracted sperm moved further suggests a potential link between path straightness and swimming distance. However, the current data are insufficient to confirm this relationship. Further research is needed to investigate these observations. While these results do indicate the success of the Sperm Racetrack, the device does still have limitations. The 1587 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH length of the channel in this version of the device is clearly too long, as the sperm fail to swim past the 4th segment. This could be shortened in future versions to reduce material costs. The straight nature of the channel is also limiting to the amount of sample that can be introduced into the device. Creating an injection ‘bowl’ or a circular portion of the device around the injection port may help to increase the amount of semen that can be introduced. This would allow for more sperm to be introduced, and thus more sperm to be extracted, making further testing, such as sequencing, more effective. Finally, the Sperm Racetrack protocol is very extensive. The operating time is long, and there are several steps in the testing protocol that require expertise and training to perfect. Streamlining this protocol to make it simple for any individual to use would be the best way to overcome this limitation. Despite these limitations, the Sperm Racetrack was effective in not only separating sperm based on swimming speed, but also in providing an extraction method for removing the sperm. This is evident from the presence of sperm in the sperm count data (Figure 5), as all sperm counts were taken from extracted aliquots. This extraction method makes this microfluidic 1588 RANGE device unique from existing devices that sort sperm based on speed in a microfluidic channel. While many utilize rheotaxis as a method for orienting the sperm and allow sperm to swim into different ‘segments’ based on their speed, [15-16], none of them have provided an effective method to extract the sperm for further genomic testing. To conclude, we have designed, manufactured, and tested a device that separates sperm based on swim speed and allows extraction of sperm from the device in fastand slow-swimming aliquots. We hope to use this device as a platform to delve into further genomic investigation into the mechanisms behind sperm swimming differences and explore the role these mechanisms play in male infertility. REFERENCES 1. I. D. Sharlip et al., “Best practice policies for male infertility.” 2. A. Agarwal, A. Mulgund, A. Hamada, and M. R. Chyatte, “A unique view on male infertility around the globe,” Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, vol. 13, no. 1, Dec. 2015, doi: 10.1186/s12958- 015-0032-1. 1589 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 3. R. L. Verspoor, T. A. R. Price, and N. Wedell, “Selfish genetic elements and male fertility: Selfish genes and sperm,” Dec. 07, 2020, Royal Society Publishing. doi: 10.1098/ rstb.2020.0067. 4. L. Winkler and A. K. Lindholm, “A meiotic driver alters sperm form and function in house mice: a possible example of spite,” Chromosome Research, vol. 30, no. 2–3, pp. 151–164, Sep. 2022, doi: 10.1007/ s10577-022-09695-4. 5. N. Phadnis and H. A. Orr, “A single gene causes both male sterility and segregation distortion in Drosophila hybrids,” Science (1979), vol. 323, no. 5912, pp. 376–379, Jan. 2009, doi: 10.1126/science.1163934. 6. S. Gupta and A. Kumar, “The Human Semen,” in Basics of Human Andrology, Springer Singapore, 2017, pp. 163–170. doi: 10.1007/978-981-10-3695-8_11. 7. A. Zini, A. Finelli, D. Phang, and K. Jarvi, “INFLUENCE OF SEMEN PROCESSING TECHNIQUE ON HUMAN SPERM DNA INTEGRITY BASIC SCIENCE,” 2000. 1590 RANGE 8. R. R. Henkel and W.-B. Schill, “Sperm preparation for ART,” 2003. [Online]. Available: http://www.rbej.com/content/1/1/ 108http://www.rbej.com/content/1/1/108 9. G. M. Whitesides, “The origins and the future of microfluidics,” Jul. 27, 2006. doi: 10.1038/ nature05058. 10. S. M. Knowlton, M. Sadasivam, and S. Tasoglu, “Microfluidics for sperm research,” Apr. 01, 2015, Elsevier Ltd. doi: 10.1016/ j.tibtech.2015.01.005. 11. R. Samuel, H. Feng, A. Jafek, D. Despain, T. Jenkins, and B. Gale, “Microfluidic-based sperm sorting & analysis for treatment of male infertility,” Jul. 01, 2018, AME Publishing Company. doi: 10.21037/tau.2018.05.08. 12. A. Jafek et al., “An automated instrument for intrauterine insemination sperm preparation,” Sci Rep, vol. 10, no. 1, Dec. 2020, doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-78390-3. 13. H. Y. Huang, H. T. Fu, H. Y. Tsing, H. J. Huang, C. J. Li, and D. J. Yao, “Motile human sperm sorting by an integrated microfluidic system,” J Nanomed Nanotechnol, 1591 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH vol. 5, no. 3, 2014, doi: 10.4172/ 2157-7439.1000199. 14. B. S. Cho, T. G. Schuster, X. Zhu, D. Chang, G. D. Smith, and S. Takayama, “Passively driven integrated microfluidic system for separation of motile sperm,” Anal Chem, vol. 75, no. 7, pp. 1671– 1675, Apr. 2003, doi: 10.1021/ac020579e. 15. I. R. Sarbandi, A. Lesani, M. Moghimi Zand, and R. Nosrati, “Rheotaxis-based sperm separation using a biomimicry microfluidic device,” Sci Rep, vol. 11, no. 1, Dec. 2021, doi: 10.1038/s41598-021- 97602-y. 16. S. Sharma, M. A. Kabir, and W. Asghar, “Selection of healthy sperm based on positive rheotaxis using a microfluidic device,” Analyst, vol. 147, no. 8, pp. 1589–1597, Mar. 2022, doi: 10.1039/d1an02311j. 17. Z. Zhang et al., “Human sperm rheotaxis: A passive physical process,” Sci Rep, vol. 6, Mar. 2016, doi: 10.1038/srep23553. 18. V. Kantsler, J. Dunkel, M. Blayney, and R. E. Goldstein, “Rheotaxis facilitates upstream navigation of mammalian sperm cells,” Elife, 1592 RANGE vol. 3, May 2014, doi: 10.7554/elife.02403. 19. B. M. Carlson, “The Reproductive System,” in The Human Body, Elsevier, 2019, pp. 373–396. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-804254-0.00014-4. 20. Wilson-Leedy JG, Ingermann RL. Development of a novel CASA system based on open source software for characterization of zebrafish sperm motility parameters. Theriogenology. 2007 Feb;67(3):661-72. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2006.10.003. 1593 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 97 Supermassive Black Hole Growth via Tidal Disruption Events AUBREY JONES AND BEN BROMLEY Faculty Mentor: Ben Bromley (Physics & Astronomy, University of Utah) The origin and growth of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) remain fundamental questions in astrophysics, with the underlying mechanisms still poorly constrained by observational data. One plausible growth channel, 1594 RANGE with evidence from tidal disruption events that occur when stars stray within their tidal radius of a SMBH, is stellar accretion. To investigate this possibility, we examine a binary capture mechanism as a means of facilitating stellar accretion, and assess the contribution to SMBH growth. Utilizing the model presented by Bromley et. al (2012), we develop a computational framework to simulate the growth of SMBHs across a range of galactic environments. This approach enables a systematic exploration of how stellar accretion may drive SMBH mass evolution under varying galactic conditions. In a data set of over 90 galaxies from Hannah et. al (2023), we identify two SMBHs for which stellar accretion may be a driver of recent black hole growth. Closer to home, a recent analysis of observed hypervelocity stars from the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) implicates binary interactions with a massive black hole (Han et. al, (2025). Every hypervelocity star produced in this way leaves a bound partner that may be accreted by the black hole. This evidence bolsters our own conclusions that the LMC’s black hole is presently growing through the accretion of captured stars. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bromley, B. C., Kenyon, S. J., Geller, M. J., & Brown, W. R. (2012) Binary Disruption of 1595 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Massive Black Holes: Hypervelocity Stars, S Stars and Tidal Disruption Events, The Astrophysical Journal, 749, L42, doi: 10.1088/ 2041-8205/749/2/L42 Jiwon, JH., El-Badry, K., Lucchini, S., Hernquist, L., Brown, W., Garavito-Camargo, N., Conroy, C., & Sara, R.. (2025) Hypervelocity Stars Trace a Supermassive Black Hole in the Large Magellanic Cloud, arXiv eprints, arXiv:2502.00102, doi: 10.48550/ arXiv.2502.00102 Hannah, C. H., Seth, A. C., Stone, N. C., & van Velzen, S. (2024), Counting the Unseen. I. Nuclear Density Scaling Relations for Nucleated Galaxies, The American Astronomical Society, AJ, 168, 137, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/ad630a Hills, J. Hyper-velocity and tidal stars from binaries disrupted by a massive Galactic black hole. Nature 331, 687–689 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1038/331687a0 1596 RANGE 98 Explicating the Substrate-engaged Signals for Type 3 secretion of FlgJ in Salmonella enterica JULIANNA MATTEIS; KELLY HUGHES; AND FABIENNE CHEVANCE Faculty Mentor: Kelly Hughes (School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah) ABSTRACT The bacterial flagellar motor is representative of one of 1597 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the most vital micro- mechanical machines in biology. Flagellar rotation allows cells, in this case Salmonella enterica bacteria, to navigate and move towards nutrients or away from toxic substances and facilitates bacterial pathogenesis. The flagellum structure is commonly divided into three parts: a basal body, hook, and filament. Biosynthesis of the bacterial flagellum in Salmonella enterica depends on the secretion and assembly of numerous proteins for its construction, including the subject protein of this study, FlgJ. Many of the proteins required for the structure and assembly of the flagellum are secreted from the cytoplasm by a flagellar-specific type III secretion (T3S) apparatus assembled at the cytoplasmic base of the structure. A related T3S system in Salmonella is used to construct a hypodermic-like structure related to the flagellar basal structure, called the injectosome. Effector proteins are secreted through the injectosome into host cells by Salmonella and other infectious bacteria to facilitate pathogenesis. A component of the flagellar basal body is the rod structure. The rod is divided into proximal and distal rod half-structures. The rod acts as a drive shaft and assembles in the periplasmic space from the secretion apparatus within the cytoplasmic membrane through the cell wall to 1598 RANGE the outer membrane. The proximal rod polymerizes to the cell wall after which the FlgJ cap is added to the tip of the completed proximal rod. FlgJ serves two roles. FlgJ has muramidase activity and effectively chews a hole in the cell wall. FlgJ is also a scaffold that allows distal rod subunits to assemble beneath it until the rod reaches the outer membrane. Through a series of mutagenesis techniques, the characteristics of the rod cap protein, FlgJ, could be explored to help understand its role in the type III secretion system. The research conducted in this study utilized a fusion of β-lactamase (Bla) to the cap FlgJ to both select and quantify secretion. Bla is normally secreted into the periplasm through the cell’s general secretion system called the Sec secretion pathway. Once in the periplasm, Bla folds into an active conformation where it confers resistance to beta- lactams such as ampicillin. If the Sec secretion signal is removed from the Bla protein, it will not get secreted into the periplasm, and cells are ampicillin-sensitive (ApS). However, Bla lacking its sec secretion signal can be fused to secreted flagellar proteins, 1599 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and if a Fla-Bla chimera is secreted into the periplasm via the flagellar T3S system, it will fold into an active conformation and confer ampicillin resistance (ApR) to the cell. My research utilized a genomic editing method known as λ-red recombination to engineer FlgJ-Bla fusions with parts of FlgJ deleted to determine which residues of FlgJ were needed for FlgJ-Bla secretion. A genetic method, phage transduction, was used to move genetic markers from one strain to another to make genetic combinations of alleles. I was able to make a series of 10 amino acid, in-frame, deletions of a FlgJ-Bla fusion, which could then be tested for their ability to be secreted in different genomic backgrounds. Phenotype characteristics such as motility and minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) to ampicillin resistance allowed me to determine if the FlgJ-Bla constructs were functional for FlgJ activity and how efficiently they were secreted into the periplasm. One significant finding resulting from this research was the discovery that the fusion of β-lactamase (Bla) to full1600 RANGE length FlgJ (FlgJ-Bla strain) did not interfere with FlgJ function. The FlgJ-Bla fusion allowed normal flagellum assembly as the bacteria expressing a FlgJ-Bla fusion exhibited wild-type motility. The characterization of deletion alleles of the FlgJ-Bla fusion allowed for the identification of specific amino acid (AA) signals that target FlgJ for secretion. This will allow future researchers to understand how the type III secretion system recognizes the amino acid signals that target substrates for INTRODUCTION Each year, millions of individuals are infected with Salmonella worldwide, consequently leaving many of those infected suffering from physiological distress. Salmonella enterica, a gram-negative, prokaryotic bacterium can elicit high levels of virulence, despite it being only microns in size. Its rod-shaped body and helical extensions, called flagella, allow the bacteria to propel itself effectively in liquid environments, which also facilitates pathogenesis. The corkscrew motility of counterclockwise spinning flagella allows the bacteria to propel 1601 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH themselves forward in different liquid environments, whereas clockwise rotation allows the bacterium to change direction if the cell senses it is going in an unfavorable direction. Approximately 70 genes comprise the flagellar regulon, creating a nanomachine with complex morphology (Chevance et al., 2017). The structural components of the flagella can be discerned into three portions: the basal body, a membrane-embedded protein that spans from the cytoplasm to the outer membrane; a ~55 nm flexible hook that protrudes from the outer membrane and attaches to the hook-filament junction; and the filament, which extends off the hook, whose rotation propels the Salmonella enterica cell. A flagellar-specific type III secretion apparatus assembles at the cytoplasmic base of the structure. Numerous proteins are required to complete flagellum assembly that are secreted from the cytoplasm within the cell. Something particularly unique about this type III secretion system (T3S) is its ability to differentiate specific proteins as early and late secretion- substrates. Within the structure of this nanomachine, the hook-basal body and rod are composed of early 1602 RANGE secretion-substrates, while the filament is a by late secretion-substrate. When the hook reaches its terminal length the flagellar T3S apparatus undergoes a secretion-specificity switch from early to late secretion-substrate selectivity. The genes of the flagellar regulon are expressed in a transcriptional hierarchy of three classes of promoters: Class I, Class II, and Class III. Their expression is coupled to flagellum assembly. The products of the class I promoter genes (flhCD) facilitate RNA polymerase recognition of class II promoter genes. Class II promoters direct transcription of genes needed for the construction of the hook-basal body (HBB). The formation of the HBB structure is instigated by the formation of the MS-ring, composed of FliF protein subunits, within the cytoplasmic membrane. Following the formation of the MS-ring, the C-ring, which is in the cytoplasm, is formed from proteins FliG, FliM, and FliN, which create the rotor of the flagellar motor. Following rod assembly, described earlier, the structures of the P-ring and L-ring are formed respectively around the distal rod to make a bushing in the outer 1603 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH membrane (Daofeng et al., 2022). During HBB assembly, the protein FliK acts as a molecular ruler be taking temporal measurements of the length of the growing structure as it is secreted out of the cell. This protein controls the length of the hook and is secreted before the filament substrates (Minamino et al., 2009). Once the hook reaches the expected length of ~55 nm, FliK catalyzes the substrate-specificity of the secretion apparatus and instigates late substrate secretion mode. FlgM, which inhibits the class 3 promoter specific transcription factor, 28, prior to HBB completion is a late secretion substrate. As FlgM is secreted, σ28 is free to transcribe the late substrate- encoding class 3 genes. Figure 1. Illustrating the Flagellar Type III Secretion System (Doafeng et al., 2022). To understand how the FlgJ protein is 1604 RANGE secreted from the cytoplasm, one must understand how it is recognized by the flagellar type III secretion (T3S) system for targeted secretion. The hook-basal body (HBB) structure of the flagellum acts as the flagellar motor onto which the long external filament polymerizes. The HBB contains a driveshaft, called the rod. The rod assembles within the periplasmic space, which is the region between the inner and outer membranes of Gram-negative bacteria. A proximal rod assembles first from the inner membrane to the cell wall. The protein FlgJ can be classified as a rod-cap and assembles itself on the tip of the proximal rod. Its muramidase activity digests a hole in the cell wall, allowing the distal rod to assemble. Two crucial signals in FlgJ can be found in both the N-terminal and C-terminal domains. The N- terminus’ role is to facilitate polymerization to allow the distal rod to be built, while the Cterminus creates a hole in the cell wall to advance assembly (Cohen et al., 2014). Before the distal portion of the structure is complete, FlgJ must be dislodged, which is believed to be done by the protein FlgD, which is the hook cap protein. Based on previous research, it was noted that FlgD was continuously secreted into the periplasm during PLring formation, which supports that FlgD is the 1605 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH determining factor for dislodging FlgJ at the time the L-ring is assembled. The synthesis of the L-ring thus removed the hook-cap FlgJ (Cohen et al., 2014). The distal rod is composed of FlgG protein subunits, and these polymerize beneath the FlgJ cap until the structure reaches the outer membrane. Figure 2. Salmonella enterica Basal Body Structure (FlgJ located in “Distal rod”) (Hendriksen et al. 2021) Fusionofβ-lactamasetoFlgJ: To study the secretion dynamics of flagellar proteins, β-lactamase was used as a reporter enzyme 1606 RANGE throughout the experiment. This approach leverages the fusion of β-lactamase (Bla) to target flagellar proteins, enabling quantifiable detection of any secretion within the cell. The gene encoding βlactamase was fused to the gene encoding the flagellar protein of interest, in this case, FlgJ, which allows the production of a fusion protein that retains both flagellar functionality and β-lactamase activity. Bla must be secreted into the periplasm to fold into an active conformation where it will then cleave β-lactams, such as ampicillin, and confer antibiotic resistance (Chevance et al., 2023). Without its Secsecretion signal, Bla is not secreted, but if fused to a flagellar secretion signal then Bla is secreted through the flagellar T3S system and results in ampicillin resistance (ApR). 1607 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 3. The secretion of FlgJ-Bla into the periplasm and folding into an active conformation, conferring ampicillin resistance. A characteristic of FlgJ that becomes of interest in this proposal is the finding that the fusion of β-lactamase (Bla) to FlgJ (FlgJ-Bla strain) does not interfere with FlgJ function to prevent flagellum assembly as the bacteria-expressing a FlgJ-Bla fusion shows wild-type motility, 1608 RANGE which provided an experimental phenotype for FlgJ function. When testing the FlgJ-Bla strain on a motility plate, it was surprising to see that it had a motile function unlike its FlgB-Bla and FlgC-Bla counterparts, which are found in the rod component of the flagellar system but exhibited non-motile phenotypes. MATERIALS AND METHODS Bacterial strains and Media Strains used in this study were derived from Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium wildtype strain LT2. Cells were cultured in lysis broth (LB: Bacto-tryptone 10g/L, Bacto- yeast extract 5g/L, NaCl 5 g/L). Antibiotics were added to LB at the following final concentrations: 100 µg/ml sodium ampicillin (Ap), 12.5 µg/mL chloramphenicol (Cm), 15 µg/ mL tetracycline-HCl (Tc), 50µg/ml kanamycin sulfate (Km), 100 µg/mL carbenicillin, as needed. Apex agar (12g/L) was used for the preparation of a solid medium. 1609 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Insertion of the pSIM5 Plasmid The pSIM5 plasmid encodes functions needed for Lambda-Red dependent genome editing. To introduce the pSIM5 plasmid into recipient cells, a donor strain containing the pSIM5 plasmid. The donor strain was grown in LB broth at 30°C (pSIM5 is temperature- sensitive for replication) in the shaking incubator until cell growth reached late log phase. P22, a bacteriophage, was used to infect the Salmonella enterica cells for the transduction process. Transduction is the process where infection phage such as P22 will package non-P22 DNA and introduce it into newly infected cells. P22-H5, a lytic phage, was used after cells were purified following transduction to be sure they can be re- infected. This screens against P22 phage resistant transductants following purification. The recipient strain, TH24148 was grown in an LB culture at 37°C until an OD of ≈ 0.4-0.6. The recipient strain was infected with the P22 in a 1:10 dilution and incubated at 30°C for 60 min before plating to allow for expression of pSIM5-encoded chloramphenicol resistance. 1610 RANGE 100 µL of the incubated culture, alongside the diluted phage stock, was plated on a green plate and incubated overnight. Using a 0.1 mL pipette, a line of H5 phage lysate was applied down the middle of a green plate and allowed time for the liquid to soak in. Single, lightgreen colored colonies were picked from the green plates were streaked across H5 to check for P22-sensitivity as part of the posttransduction purification process. Once colonies were purified, they were streaked on LB-Cm plates and kept at 4°C. FlgJ tetRA Cassette The tetRA cassette is a tetracycline-resistance element from transposon Tn10. The TetA protein is an efflux pump in the inner membrane that pumps tetracycline from the cytoplasm. The TetR protein is a transcriptional repressor that inhibits its own expression and tetA expression in the absence of tetracycline. The tetRA cassette is a useful genetic tool in that it can be selected for and against. Insertion of tetRA into the Salmonella chromosome confers resistance to tetracycline (TcR), but the presence 1611 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of the TetA pump in the membrane makes the cells sensitive to lipophilic toxic compounds such as fusaric acid. Thus, cels expressing TetA will die on fusaric acid-containing medium, which we call tetracycline-sensitive (TcS) medium because it is a selection for loss of the tetRA element. The strain TH24148 contains the flgJ-bla fusion. This strain was used as the wild-type precursor from Salmonella enterica where tetRA marker was inserted replacing 10 amino acids in the flgJ coding sequence, creating 10 equal-sized segments, that of which were deleted by oligonucleotide-directed genome editing replacement of the tetRA cassettes via -Red recombination. PCR products were purified via ethanol precipitation. PCR program: tetRA-Phusion program 98° C – 2 minutes for 1 cycle 98° C – 30 seconds, 56° C – 30 seconds, 72° C – 1 minute 10 seconds for 30 cycles 72° C – for 2 minutes for 1 cycle 1612 RANGE λ-Red Recombination Red recombination is an efficient way of targeting distinct chromosomal locations for genome editing. Using only a small portion of the 5’ end of the targeted DNA sequence in Salmonella enterica, specific recombination proteins facilitate the recombination at those sequences (Karlinsey, 2007). Exonucleases are used to degrade the 5’ ends of the linearized DNA, creating single-stranded portions ready to be targeted for recombination. A binding protein attaches itself to the single-stranded region and invades any homologous regions within the plasmid. Gam, which in an inhibitor of RecBCD, prevents degradation of the single-stranded portions while the exonucleases generate the 3’ ends which will be fully recombined (Karlinsey, 2007). Plasmid pSIM-5 (CmR) or pSIM-6 (ApR), encodes for the λ-Red recombinase and was used experimentally to facilitate λ-Red targeted mutagenesis for FlgJ. The pSIM plasmids contains a temperature-sensitive origin of replication and thus was grown at the permissive temperature of 30°C, in the presence of Ap or Cm. The λ-Red functions are induced via a temperatureinducible promoter. The selection of tetracyclinesensitive (TcS) recombinants was done on zinc- fusaric 1613 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH acid selection media, which were used for further experimentation. Main procedure used for λ -red recombination during this research is as outlined: 1. Cells were grown in 1 mL culture at 30°C overnight 2. Subculture 1:100 culture diluting 250 µL of the overnight culture in 25 mL of LB media. Grow the cells at 30° C until it reaches an OD of approximately 0.2 3. Heat shock cells in the 25 mL flask at 42° C for 15 minutes to induce the l-red proteins 4. Ice the cells for 5-10 mins 5. Transfer the cells to a 50 mL falcon tube 6. Spin down cells at max speed for 10 minutes using a centrifuge 7. Discard supernatant, ensuring that the pellet is undisturbed 8. Add 25 mL of ice MQ water and resuspend cells via vortexing 9. (Repeat steps f-h) 10. Following the discarding of the supernatant 1614 RANGE the third time, vortex the pellet to ensure that all cells are resuspended in the remaining water in the Falcon tube. Ensure that cells are always on ice during transition periods. 11. Electroporate the tetRA-PCR (100ng up to 300ng) into 50 µL of washed cells. Using the correct electroporation programs, electroporate cells alongside a no- DNA cell control. 12. Immediately after electroporation, add 800 µL of LB media into the cuvette and resuspend electroporated cells by pipetting up and down and transfer the cells to a culture tube. 13. Incubate all culture tubes at 37° C for 45 minutes 14. Plate 300 µL of each culture on LB, TcS, and incubate overnight at 37° C 15. The following day, streak 12 independent, TcR colonies for isolation on LB plates at a temperature of 42° C 16. Test the 12 colonies previously picked on TcS plates, and LB plates and incubate at 37° C 17. Circle on LB plates which colonies are TcS on the TcS plates. (Can test other antibiotics 1615 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH using this method. Figure 5. Components of the Lambda-Red Recombineering system (Kenkel, 2016). 1616 RANGE Figure 6. Overview of using Lambda-Red Recombineering system to replace a gene of interest with an antibiotic resistance cassette (Kenkel, 2016). 1617 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Sequencing of FlgJ-Bla deletions: Following λ-Red mutagenesis, mutants were grown in LB overnight cultures. Cultures were diluted using sterile water and boiled at 96° C for 10 minutes to be used as a template in a PCR reaction. The PRC product was subject to agarose gel electrophoresis, confirming that the small DNA fragments of the correct size were obtained. Purification of the PCR products was completed by a Qiagen purification kit before being sent off for Sanger Sequencing analysis. NCBI Nucleotide Blast, a computer program, was used to analyze the chromatogram and confirm that the clean deletions of FlgJ were in the correct base pair position without undesired mutations. Construction of Strain in ΔflgBC Background Construction of FlgJ strains were selectively tightened in the ΔflgBC background (which excludes the rod and hook component of the flagellar structure). This was experimentally achieved using transduction, a technique used in 1618 RANGE the Hughes’ lab (see instructions for integration of pSIM5 plasmid). FlgJ-Bla Motility Assays Experimentation was done to test the bacterial motility (Mot+) of strain TH24148 (FlgJ- Bla) grown from freezer stocks, streaked on fresh LB plates to form single colonies which would then be poked into soft-agar motility plates. The degree of the motility was compared to that observed for the wild-type Mot+ strain, LT2. Meanwhile, I tested the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) to ampicillin for the strain expressing the FlgJ-Bla fusion constructs. The parental FlgJ-Bla expressing strain formed colonies on protease peptone bile-salts (PPBS) Ap15R plates and was motile. Screening of FlgJ mutants in ΔflgBC Background: All FlgJ strains used during experimentation were fused to β-lactamase, to detect the level of secretion. If FlgJ-Bla was secreted into the periplasm of the cell, it would fold into an active conformation and confer ampicillin resistance. The level of ampicillin resistance for each of 1619 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the FlgJ deletions in a ΔflgBC background was determined using a minimum inhibitory concentration assay (MIC). Further analysis was done via a Western Blot to determine the effects of the deletion constructs on protein expression or stability to recognize if there were any important residues in the regions of FlgJ including amino acids 20-50. Colonies from both ΔflgBC mutants and flgB+C+ were evaluated for ability to assemble into a functional structure, which is determined as able to secrete the FlgM protein and transcribe Class III genes. Tetrazolium-Lactose plates (Tz-Lac) and MacConkey Lactose (Mac-Lac) plates were utilized to determine class 3 promoter expression levels in strains expressing the lac operon from a class 3 flagellar promoter. Assays on the Mac-Lac plates will present a color gradient from a white, to light pink, to pink, to red with increasing lac operon expression. Colonies that are pink to red in color will demonstrate that lactose is being fermented, while colonies that display little color indicate that lactose is not being fermented in the cell and class 3 promoter express is off indicating 1620 RANGE that the HBB was not assembled. On the other hand, Tz-Lac plates display an inverted color pattern compared to Mac-Lac. White colonies would suggest that the gene expression of the strain is high, while a red color suggests that the overall class 3 promoter expression is low. RESULTS ΔflgBC flgBC MIC assays Effect of FlgJ deletions on FlgJ-Bla secretion in the periplasm (in a rod mutant background): 1621 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Ampicillin Resistance via MIC FlgJ deletion (ApR under 2-fold dilutions) TH29213 6 (Δ amino acids 2-10 of FlgJ) TH29151 6 (Δ amino acids 11-20 of FlgJ) TH29152 0 (Δ amino acids 21-30 of FlgJ) TH29153 12.5 (Δ amino acids 31-40 of FlgJ) TH29154 3 (Δ amino acids 41-50 of FlgJ) TH29155 6 (Δ amino acids 51-60 of FlgJ) TH29156 12.5 (Δ amino acids 61-70 of FlgJ) TH29157 12.5 (Δ amino acids 71-80 of FlgJ) TH29158 12.5 (Δ amino acids 81-90 of FlgJ) TH29286 12.5 (Δ amino acids 91-100 of FlgJ) 1622 RANGE TH29159 12.5 (full-length FlgJ) LT2 0 (strain lacking the FlgJBla fusion) An MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration) assay was done to determine the lowest concentration of ampicillin was required to inhibit the growth of FlgJ-Bla expressing background. This strains assay in the provides ΔflgBC important information about the effectiveness of specific deletions on FlgJ-Bla secretion. 1623 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Tz-Lac and Mac-Lac Agar Assays 1624 RANGE Mac-Lac Assay Tz–Lac TH29213 (Δ 2-10) Pink/Red Light Pink TH29151 (Δ11-20) Pink/Red Light Pink TH29152 (Δ21-30) Pink/Red Light Pink TH29153 (Δ31-40) Light Pink Dark Red TH29154 (Δ41-50) Light Pink Dark Red TH29155 (Δ51-60) Light Pink Dark Red TH29156 (Δ61-70) Light Pink Dark Red TH29157 (Δ71-80) Light Pink Dark Red TH29158 (Δ81-90) Light Pink Dark Red ΔflgBC flgBC background 1625 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH TH29286 (Δ91-100) White/Pink Pink TH29159 Dark Pink Light Pink LT2 White Dark Red FlgJBlaMotilityAssaysResults(Photographmissing2-10,91-100) 1626 RANGE DISCUSSION This research project was designed to explore regions within the first 100 residues of the FlgJ protein of Salmonella enterica that would affect its ability to function in HBB formation or its ability to be recognized as a substrate for the flagellar T3S system. FlgJ has an integral role within the flagellar system, acting as a scaffold capping protein for flagellar distal rod formation. Research has shown that the function of FlgJ is to facilitate the polymerization of the distal rod, creating a hole in the peptidoglycan layer (cell wall) during flagellum assembly. This process allows for the rod component of the 1627 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH flagellar system to elongate to the outer membrane of the cell, advancing the assembly of the basal body (Hirano et al., 2001). By constructing a series of deletions in flgJ coding for regions within the first 100 amino acids in a FlgJ-Bla fusion construct, critical regions were determined in FlgJ for it to be properly secreted and assembled in the flagellar system. Even though specific amino acids were pinpointed in this research, our results demonstrate how an earlier signal in amino acids 21-30 may affect the secretion dynamics of FlgJ, compared to another early secretion substrate, FlgB, that had been previously characterized. The Hughes’ lab found that phenylalanine residue F45 of FlgB was essential for its secretion. FlgJ also contains phenylalanine at amino acid 44, which I initially thought would be important for secretion. Deletion of residues 41 – 50 prevented FlgJ-Bla secretion, which would be consistent with F44 being an important residue. This would have to be verified by specifically targeting the F44 residue to determine effects of single amino acid substitutions at residue 44 on FlgJ-Bla secretion. 1628 RANGE The deletion of 21-30 amino acid region in FlgJ (TH29152) resulted in a complete loss of ampicillin resistance, suggesting that this region in the sequence plays a key role in the secretion of FlgJ, provided that the FlgJ-Bla protein lacking residues 21-30 is stable. Reduced secretion in other regions such as 31-40, and 41-50 align more with the findings with a the similar FlgB protein, but implicate that there is a more complex, nuanced role of how FlgJ interacts within the T3SS. Again, this would depend on whether these FlgJ-Bla constructs are stable. The proteins that comprise the flagellum must successfully be secreted and assembled to result in a motile phenotype and to facilitate pathogenesis. FlgJ, unlike other Bla fusion proteins in the structure, remained motile with a fusion to Bla. The fusion of FlgJ-Bla allowed us to assay for secretion, as it only requires a small amount of protein for the rapid response of secretion to take place, but the motility assays exhibited the functional consequences of FlgJ secretion. For example, the segments of deletions in the central and C-terminal regions 1629 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of FlgJ exhibited wild-type motility, despite the varying levels of ampicillin resistance. This observation notes that FlgJ’s ability to facilitate flagellar assembly and confer motility may not be directly tied to is efficient secretion as previously presumed. However, the phenotypic differences observed from the motility of TH29153 and TH29154 suggest that there may be downstream effects on flagellar function. The screening of the FlgJ mutants on Mac-Lac and Tz-Lac agar plates allowed for further insight into the secretion dynamics of FlgJ. The phenotypic analysis on the Mac- Lac agar revealed that strains with mutations in the Cterminal region (e.g. TH29286, TH29159) displayed a shift in colony color from pink to white, suggesting a defect in lactose fermentation, which may have a dependable showing of flagellar disfunction. The defect in lactose fermentation may highlight proper flagellum assembly, hindering the ability of these mutants to navigate the medium and form colonies. Interestingly, colonies that were white or light pink on the Mac-Lac assays showcased a different level of secretion activity on the Tz1630 RANGE Lac assays, exemplifying the connection secretion and function of the flagellar system. Further experimentation will be done to evaluate the level of expression within the specific segments of deletions. This research provides valuable insights into the complex regulation of the proteins that comprise the flagellar system in Salmonella enterica, highlighting regions of FlgJ that are important for its recognition and transport through the T3SS. The finding that certain deletions do not completely reduce the motility or secretion implies that there may be a level of flexibility in the system, which will require the study of other proteins in the T3S system to fully understand secretion-targeting signals. Further experimentation of FlgJ will help to narrow in on specific amino acid residues that define FlgJ’s secretion signal. Additionally, future research could expand on the use of βlactamase fusion within the T3S system to study the dynamics of other flagellar proteins within the structure, or even in broader applications regarding bacterial virulence. 1631 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH In summary, this work contributes to the growing understanding of how bacteria regulate flagellar assembly and secretion using small tools, such as FlgJ, embedded within their systems. To have a better understanding on the world around us, one should look more closely and notice the unseeable mechanisms that have a big impact. This research was not only about the story of FlgJ, but rather how such small things, like proteins and cells, can hold so much character, offering new avenues for the study of bacterial properties and pathogenesis. APPENDIX FlgJ deletions in wild-type background: 1632 RANGE Strain Number TH29059 (Δ 2-10) TH28440 (Δ 11-20) TH28664 (Δ 21-30) TH28657 (Δ 31-40) TH28572 (Δ 41-50) TH28573 (Δ 51-60) TH28574 (Δ 61-70) TH28575 (Δ 71-80) TH28577 (Δ 81-90) TH28576 (Δ 91-100) TH 29213 (Δ 2-10) TH 29151 (Δ 11-20) TH 29152 (Δ 21-30) TH29153 (Δ 31-40) Chromosome Genotype Operation ΔflgJ9253::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 2-10) λ-Red flgJ8650::bla ΔflgJ9253::tetRA(deletion of a.a.11-20) λ-Red flgJ8650::bla ΔflgJ9274::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 21-30) flgJ8650::bla λ-Red ΔflgJ9273::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 31-40) flgJ8650::bla λ-Red ΔflgJ9256::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 41-50) flgJ8650::bla λ-Red ΔflgJ9275::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 51-60) flgJ8650::bla λ-Red ΔflgJ9258::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 61-70) flgJ8650::bla λ-Red ΔflgJ9259::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 71-80) flgJ8650::bla λ-Red ΔflgJ9261::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 81-90) flgJ8650::bla λ-Red ΔflgJ9260::tetRA(deletion of a.a. λ-Red 91-100) flgJ8650::bla ΔflgBC6557 ΔflgJ9253::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 2-10) T flgJ8650::bla ΔflgBC6557 ΔflgJ9253::tetRA(deletion of a.a.11-20) T flgJ8650::bla ΔflgBC6557 ΔflgJ9274::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 21-30) T flgJ8650::bla ΔflgBC6557 ΔflgJ9273::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 31-40) flgJ8650::bla 1633 T OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH TH29154 (Δ 41-50) TH29155 (Δ 51-60) TH29156 (Δ 61-70) TH29157 (Δ 71-80) TH29158 (Δ 81-90) ΔflgBC6557 ΔflgJ9256::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 41-50) T flgJ8650::bla ΔflgBC6557 ΔflgJ9275::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 51-60) T flgJ8650::bla ΔflgBC6557 ΔflgJ9258::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 61-70) T flgJ8650::bla ΔflgBC6557 ΔflgJ9259::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 71-80) T flgJ8650::bla ΔflgBC6557 ΔflgJ9261::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 81-90) T flgJ8650::bla TH 29286 ΔflgBC6557 ΔflgJ9260::tetRA(deletion of a.a. 91-100) (Δ 91-100) flgJ8650::bla T ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Kelly T. Hughes and Fabienne F.V. Chevance for guiding me through this research, as well as the other members involved in Hughes’ lab that helped create this story of FlgJ. BIBLIOGRAPHY Chevance, F., & Hughes, K. (2023). Β-lactamase (BLA) reporter-based system to study flagellar type 3 secretion in Salmonella. BIO1634 RANGE PROTOCOL, 13(12). https://doi.org/10.21769/ bioprotoc.4696 Cohen, E. J., & Hughes, K. T. (2014). Rodto-hook transition for extracellular flagellum assembly is catalyzed by the L-ring-dependent rod scaffold removal. Journal of Bacteriology, 196(13), 2387–2395. https://doi.org/10.1128/ jb.01580-14 Hendriksen, J. J., Lee, H. J., Bradshaw, A. J., Namba, K., Chevance, F. F., Minamino, T., & Hughes, K. T. (2021). Genetic analysis of the Salmonella FliE protein that forms the base of the flagellar axial structure. mBio, 12(5). https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.02392-21 Hirano, T., Minamino, T., & Macnab, R. M. (2001). The role in Flagellar Rod Assembly of the N-terminal domain of Salmonella FlgJ, a flagellum-specific muramidase. Journal of Molecular Biology, 312(2), 359–369. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmbi.2001.4963 Karlinsey, J. E. (2007).‐Red genetic engineering in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. 1635 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Methods in Enzymology, https://doi.org/10.1016/s00766879(06)21016-4 199–209. Kenkel, B. (2016). LAMBDA Red: A homologous recombination-based technique for genetic engineering. Addgene blog. https://blog.addgene.org/lambda-red-ahomologous-recombination-based-techniquefor-genetic-engineering Minamino, T., Moriya, N., Hirano, T., Hughes, K. T., & Namba, K. (2009). Interaction of FliK with the bacterial flagellar hook is required for efficient export specificity switching. Molecular Microbiology, 74(1), 239–251. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2009.06871.x Qu, D., Jiang, M., Duffin, C., Hughes, K. T., & Chevance, F. F. V. (2022). Targeting early proximal-rod component substrate FlgB to FlhB for flagellar-type III secretion in Salmonella. PLOS Genetics. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pgen.1010313 1636 RANGE 99 Research Summary: Using Data Science Tools to Understand Inhibitor Structure Impact on Non-Proportional Bifurcated FROMP Rates with Cleavable Comonomer DHF RACHEL MUHLESTEIN; MATTHEW SIGMAN; AND TIMOTHY MCFADDEN Faculty Mentor: Matthew University of Utah) 1637 Sigman (Chemistry, OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH We present a data-driven workflow to assess the effects of monomer and inhibitor choices on the rate and pot life of Frontal Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization (FROMP) ruins the Grubbs generation II catalyst. A single-node decision tree classification model, based on a phosphine structural descriptor, was developed to differentiate between pot lifetimes. Additionally, a nonlinear kernel ridge regression model was employed to predict how inhibitor and comonomer selectivity influence the FROMP rate. The original data set has been expanded to include a more dynamic DHF range and additional monomer concentrations for pot life evaluation. This analysis offers criteria for selecting material networks, including cross-linked thermosets and degradable materials. 1638 RANGE 100 The Effects of Smoke Intensity on Ponderosa Pine Physiology AINSLEY NYSTROM AND WILLIAM ANDEREGG Faculty Mentor: William Anderegg (School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah) Anthropogenic warming has significantly increased wildfire frequency and severity; climate change is responsible for nearly half of the wildfire-burned area 1639 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH in the western United States. Extreme wildfire events lead to prolonged smoke exposure, impacting tree physiology by altering photosynthetic processes. Past research on the impacts of smoke on tree physiology has found paradoxical results: smoke can both inhibit and enhance photosynthesis, as light scattering by aerosols can enhance photosynthesis, and reductions in photosynthetic activity are possible through biochemical disruptions. Additionally, particulates found in smoke can become embedded on the leaf’s surface, increasing leaf water loss. This research investigated the relationship between smoke exposure and tree physiology, aiming to clarify the broader impacts of anthropogenic warming on ecosystem stability and forest resilience under changing climatic conditions. This study seeks to understand the effects of varying smoke intensities on Pinus ponderosa photosynthetic traits. Key physiological metrics, such as chlorophyll fluorescence, thermotolerance, photosynthetic efficiency, and cuticular conductance, are used to assess overall tree help and plasticity after exposure to a smoky environment. Results show that low-intensity smoke had minimal effects on chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), while highintensity smoke led to increased variability and a 1640 RANGE significant pre-dawn decline, suggesting impaired Photosystem II function. Cuticular conductance (gmin) increased significantly under low smoke exposure, possibly due to aerosol-induced cuticle damage or incomplete stomatal closure. Still, surprisingly, no significant change of gmin was observed under highintensity treatment. This divergence suggests concentration-dependent effects of smoke aerosols on leaf water regulation. Additionally, the impact of smoke introduces substantial variability into multiple metrics of leaf health and raises questions regarding the carbon assimilation process. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abatzoglou, J. T., & Williams, A. P. (2016). Impact of anthropogenic climate change on wildfire across western US forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(42), 11770–11775. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1607171113 Baker, N. R. (2008). Chlorophyll Fluorescence: A Probe of Photosynthesis In Vivo. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 59(Volume 59, 2008), 89–113. https://doi.org/ 10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092759 Berrang, P., Karnosky, D. F., & Bennett, J. P. (1991). Natural selection for 1641 ozone tolerance in OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Populustremuloides: An evaluation of nationwide trends. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 21(7), 1091–1097. https://doi.org/10.1139/x91-150 Bita, C., & Gerats, T. (2013). Plant tolerance to high temperature in a changing environment: Scientific fundamentals and production of heat stress-tolerant crops. Frontiers in Plant Science, 4. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fpls.2013.00273 Burkhardt, J., & Pariyar, S. (2014). Particulate pollutants are capable to ‘degrade’ epicuticular waxes and to decrease the drought tolerance of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Environmental Pollution, 184, 659–667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.04.041 Burkhardt, J., Zinsmeister, D., Grantz, D. A., Vidic, S., Sutton, M. A., Hunsche, M., & Pariyar, S. (2018). Camouflaged as degraded wax: Hygroscopic aerosols contribute to leaf desiccation, tree mortality, and forest decline. Environmental Research Letters, 13(8), 085001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aad346 Calder, W. J., Lifferth, G., Moritz, M. A., & Clair, S. B. St. (2010, April 1). Physiological Effects of Smoke Exposure on Deciduous and Species—Calder—2010—International 1642 Conifer Journal Tree of RANGE Forestry Research—Wiley Online Library. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2010/ 438930 Daudet, F. A., Le Roux, X., Sinoquet, H., & Adam, B. (1999a). Wind speed and leaf boundary layer conductance variation within tree crown: Consequences on leaf-to-atmosphere coupling and tree functions. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 97(3), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0168-1923(99)00079-9 Daudet, F. A., Le Roux, X., Sinoquet, H., & Adam, B. (1999b). Wind speed and leaf boundary layer conductance variation within tree crown: Consequences on leaf-to-atmosphere coupling and tree functions. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 97(3), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0168-1923(99)00079-9 D’Evelyn, S. M., Jung, J., Alvarado, E., Baumgartner, J., Caligiuri, P., Hagmann, R. K., Henderson, S. B., Hessburg, P.F., Hopkins, S., Kasner, E. J., Krawchuk, M. A., Krenz, J.E., Lydersen, J. M., Marlier, M. E., Masuda, Y. J., Metlen, K., Mittelstaedt, G., Prichard, S. J., Schollaert, C. L., … Spector, J. T. (2022, May 7). Wildfire, Smoke Exposure, Human Health, and 1643 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Environmental Justice Need to be Integrated into Forest Restoration and Management—PMC. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9076366/ Duursma, R., Blackman, C., Lopez, R., Martin-StPaul, M., Cochard, H., & Medlyn, B. (2018, August 25). On the minimum leaf conductance: Its role in models of plant water use, and ecological and environmental controls—Duursma—2019—New Phytologist—Wiley Online Library. https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/full/10.1111/nph.15395#nph15395-abs-0001 Grantz, D. A., Zinsmeister, D., & Burkhardt, J. (2018). Ambient aerosol increases minimum leaf conductance and alters the aperture–flux relationship as stomata respond to vapor pressure deficit (VPD). New Phytologist, 219(1), 275–286. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15102 Grogan, P., Burns, T. D., & Chapin III, F. S. (2000). Fire effects on ecosystem nitrogen cycling in a Californian bishop pine forest. Oecologia, 122(4), 537–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420050977 Jones, M. W., Abatzoglou, J. T., Veraverbeke, S., Andela, N., Lasslop, G., Forkel, M., Smith, A. J. P., Burton, C., Betts, R. A., Werf, G. R. van der, Sitch, S., 1644 RANGE Canadell, J. G., Santín, C., Kolden, C., Doerr, S. H., & Quéré, C. L. (2022, April 11). Global and Regional Trends and Drivers of Fire Under Climate Change—Jones—2022—Reviews of Geophysics—Wiley Online Library. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/ 10.1029/2020RG000726 Koch, I., Kahmen, A., & Burkhardt, J. (2024). Aerosol deposition affects water uptake and water loss of beech leaves (p.2024.12.19.629383). bioRxiv. https://doi.org/ 10.1101/2024.12.19.629383 Marias, D. E., Meinzer, F. C., Woodruff, D. R., & McCulloh, K. A. (2017). Thermotolerance and heat stress responses of Douglas fir and ponderosa pine seedling populations from contrasting climates. Tree Physiology, 37(3), 301–315. https://doi.org/10.1093/ treephys/tpw117 Min, Q. (2005, March 22). Impacts of aerosols and clouds on forest‐atmosphere carbon exchange—Min—2005—Journal of Research: Online Atmospheres—Wiley Geophysical Library. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/ 2004JD004858?utm_source=chatgpt.com 1645 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Murchie, E. H., & Lawson, T. (2013). Chlorophyll fluorescence analysis: A guide to good practice and understanding some new applications. Journal of Experimental Botany, 64(13), 3983–3998. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/ert208 Myhre, G., D. Shindell, F.-M. Bréon, W. Collins, J. Fuglestvedt, J. Huang, D. Koch, J.-F. Lamarque, D. Lee, B. Mendoza, T. Nakajima, A. Robock, G. Stephens, T. Takemura and H. Zhang, 2013: Anthropogenic and Natural Radiative Forcing. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Nowroz, F., Hasanuzzaman, M., Siddika, A., Parvin, K., Caparros, P. G., Nahar, K., & Prasad, P. V. V. (2023). Elevated tropospheric ozone and crop production: Potential negative effects and plant defense mechanisms. Frontiers in Plant Science, 14, 1244515. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fpls.2023.1244515 Pellegrini, A. F. A., Hedin, L. O., Staver, A. C., & 1646 RANGE Govender, N. (2015, May 1). Fire alters ecosystem carbon and not plant nutrient composition in tropical savanna—Pellegrini—2015—Ecology—Wiley Online stoichiometry nutrients or but Library. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ 10.1890/14-1158.1 Rastogi, B., Schmidt, A., Berkelhammer, M., Noone, D., Meinzer, F. C., Kim, J., & Still, C. J. (2022). Enhanced Photosynthesis and Transpiration in an Old Growth Forest Due To Wildfire Smoke. Geophysical Research Letters, 49(10), e2022GL097959. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL097959 Sack, L., & Scoffoni, C. (2010, May 28). Minimum epidermal conductance (gmin, a.k.a. Cuticular conductance). PROMETHEUS. https://prometheusprotocols.net/function/gasexchange-and-chlorophyll-fluorescence/sto matal-andnon-stomatal-conductance-and-transpiration/ minimum-epidermal-conductance-gmin-a-k-acuticular-conductance/ Sandberg, D. V., Ottmar, R. D., & Peterson, J. L. (2002). Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on air. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-Vol. 5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky 1647 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Mountain Research Station. 79 p., 042. https://doi.org/ 10.2737/RMRS-GTR-42-V5 Swanepoel, J. W., Krüger, G. H. J., & van Heerden, P. D. R. (2007). Effects of sulphur dioxide on photosynthesis in the succulent Augea capensis Thunb. Journal of Arid Environments, 70(2), 208–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.12.014 Teskey, R., Wertin, T., Bauweraerts, I., Ameye, M., Mcguire, M. A., & Steppe, K. (2015). Responses of tree species to heat waves and extreme heat events. Plant, Cell & Environment, 38(9), 1699–1712. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/pce.12417 Zhamsueva, G. S., Zayakhanov, A. S., Starikov, A. V., Dementeva, A. L., Khodzher, T.V., & Golobokova, L. P. (2024). Component Composition of Aerosols and their Dynamics in the Atmosphere of the Baikal SouthEastern Coast. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 24(2), 230161. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.230161 Zhang, W., Feng, Z., Wang, X., & Niu, J. (2014). Impacts of elevated ozone on growth and photosynthesis of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu et Cheng. Plant Science, 226, 182–188. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.06.005 1648 RANGE 101 Utilizing Climate Models and Remote Sensing Data to Characterize Future Vegetation-Climate Feedbacks in Western US Ecosystems MAKAYLA PATRICK; JIAMING LU; MARYSA M. LAGUE; AND JONATHAN A. WANG Faculty Mentor: Jonathan A. Wang (School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah) 1649 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH As the effects of climate change intensify, it is imperative that we gain a comprehensive understanding of the intricate relationships that make up the coupled climate system. While changes in climate impact the vegetated land surface, the reverse is true as well – changes in vegetation can impact the climate system through the water, energy, and carbon cycles. Climate models are essential for understanding how these changes to the land surface cover can lead to changes in both local and remote climate. By comparing the output of climate model simulations to remotely sensed observations of vegetation dynamics, we begin to be able to characterize how vegetation is coupled to climate. In this study, we evaluate the impact of vegetation change on surface climate. We conduct land surface model simulations forced with NEON Flux Tower data to determine the importance of vegetation cover on the local surface climate; these are compared to coupled Earth System Model simulations using the Community Earth System Model (CESM) that explore the effects of dramatic forest change over the entire Great Basin region of the Western US. While these idealized CESM simulations help us understand the physical connections between vegetation and regional climate, one of our primary goals in this project is to understand the climate 1650 RANGE effects of observed recent vegetation change. To this end, we use remote sensing-based data sets of tree and shrub cover from the Rangelands Condition, Mapping, and Analysis platform (RCMAP) and land cover type from the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) to characterize multi-decadal (2000-2021) changes in plant functional type distribution. We identify vegetation changes resulting from multiple specific processes, including changes due to wildfires, woody plant encroachment, agricultural development, and logging activities. Wildfires are identified using the Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity dataset, while other processes are identified by analyzing specific land cover change trajectories from NLCD. We then leverage these observational datasets to generate input files for CESM, allowing us to evaluate the impact of vegetation change processes on several aspects of the Earth system including carbon and water flux changes. We expect that processes reducing vegetation cover such as wildfires will lead to temporary declines in local carbon and water fluxes, while processes that increase vegetation cover such as woody plant encroachment may lead to an increase in the fluxes. These predictions provide information on the impacts of past vegetation change on climate which can be used to determine 1651 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH necessary policy actions to take to protect not just the Great Basin, but the broader region as well. BIBLIOGRAPHY Danabasoglu, G., J.-F. Lamarque, J. Bacmeister, D. A. Bailey, A. K. DuVivier, J. Edwards, L. K. Emmons, et al. “The Community Earth System Model Version 2 (CESM2).” Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems 12, no. 2 (2020): e2019MS001916. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS001916. Ge, Jianjun, and Chris Zou. “Impacts of Woody Plant Encroachment on Regional Climate in the Southern Great Plains of the United States.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 118, no. 16 (August 27, 2013): 9093–9104. https://doi.org/10.1002/ jgrd.50634. Lawrence, David M., Rosie A. Fisher, Charles D. Koven, Keith W. Oleson, Sean C. Swenson, Gordon Bonan, Nathan Collier, et al. “The Community Land Model Version 5: Description of New Features, Benchmarking, and Impact of Forcing Uncertainty.” Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems 11, no. 12 (2019): 4245–87. 2018MS001583. 1652 https://doi.org/10.1029/ RANGE Swann, Abigail L S, et al. “Continental-Scale Consequences of Tree Die-Offs in North America: Identifying Where Forest Loss Matters Most.” Environmental Research Letters 13, no. 5 (May 1, 2018): 055014. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaba0f. Teuling, Adriaan J., et al. “Observational Evidence for Cloud Cover Enhancement over Western European Forests.” Nature Communications 8, no. 1 (April 2017): 14065. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms14065. Vilà-Guerau de Arellano, Jordi, Huug G. Ouwersloot, Dennis Baldocchi, and Cor M. J. Jacobs. “Shallow Cumulus Rooted in Photosynthesis.” Geophysical Research Letters 41, no. 5 (2014): 1796–1802. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL059279. 1653 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 102 Research Reflection by Makayla Patrick MAKAYLA PATRICK Faculty Mentor: Jon Wang (School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah) This semester, my undergraduate career is coming to a close, and I’m incredibly grateful for all of the research opportunities I’ve had the chance to explore over the past year. My project began as a Wilkes Scholar proposal 1654 RANGE in which I aimed to study the effects of deforestation on Salt Lake City. The idea was sparked after learning that the Oquirrh Mountains were once relatively forested before industrial activity swept into the valley and the trees were cleared. I couldn’t help but wonder how such a dramatic change might have affected not just the area’s biodiversity, but also the local climate of the Salt Lake Valley. I’m double majoring in Atmospheric Science and Biology. While those subjects are clearly connected from an ecological standpoint, it’s been difficult to find research projects that truly integrate both disciplines to answer questions like the one I had about the deforestation of the Oquirrhs. While taking a course from Dr. Marysa Lague in the Atmospheric Sciences department, I learned that her research centers around running climate models. She had even previously modeled how total deforestation can impact climate. I knew I had found someone who could help me explore my questions. Together, we created a Wilkes Scholar proposal and began a project that compared NEON data with a small-scale climate model run. This gave me my first taste of the power of integrating two disciplines to tackle a broader, more complex problem. 1655 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH I enjoyed the project so much that I reached out to Dr. Lague to continue working on it, this time expanding the scope beyond the Salt Lake Valley. For this new phase, I wanted to include real-world observations to support the model data, so we reached out to Dr. Jon Wang in the Biology department to see how we could incorporate remote sensing data into the project. Joining Dr. Wang’s DYCE lab has been one of the most rewarding research experiences I’ve had. Everyone in the lab is incredibly supportive and always willing to help when a problem arises-which I’ve appreciated, especially since I’ve encountered many technical challenges while expanding this research. Although climate models involve a lot of coding, at the time we began the joint project, I didn’t have much experience with programming-particularly not with the specific packages required for our work. There have been several setbacks, from learning how to navigate the university’s CHPC system to figuring out how to analyze remote sensing data using QGIS. It’s also been an exciting challenge to figure out how to make two very different systems work together. While the conceptual side of my project merges Atmospheric Science and Biology beautifully, the technical methods used in each field are quite distinct and have required 1656 RANGE creative workarounds to bring everything together. Over the last several months, I’ve developed many new technical skills that I know will be invaluable going forward-especially if I pursue interdisciplinary research in graduate school. Thanks to my experience in the lab, I’ve had the opportunity to present my research at several conferences. These experiences have helped me significantly improve my science communication skills and find engaging ways to share my work. Interdisciplinary research is essential for addressing complex environmental challenges, and I’m deeply grateful to have had the chance to contribute to such work as an undergraduate. 1657 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 103 Rationality of Spider Web Construction: Caloric Consideration MADISON PEARCE; ANDREJ CHERKAEV; CHARLES GODFREY; AND KAYLEE PHO Faculty Mentor: Andrej Cherkaev (Mathematics, University of Utah) ABSTRACT This paper offers insight into the delicate balance of spiders’ energy expense versus intake that their web 1658 RANGE achieves from a mathematical optimization perspective. Orb-weaver spiders build intricate and symmetrical webs that take a significant amount of energy to construct. This paper explores the caloric needs that a spider’s web demands and their effectiveness at catching prey under the physics and geometry constraints. By minimizing the caloric expense and maintaining effectiveness at catching prey one can optimize the ideal web for energy efficiency of a spider. We begin by exploring how an orb weaver constructs its web and the energy cost of each material in the web. Then we explore the caloric makeup that a spider has. Finally, we explore the calories spiders gain from catching prey. From there a mathematical model is created in two parts; calories out and calories in. The model incorporates constraints related to the nature of structural integrity and the biology of the spider. By using optimization techniques we are able to minimize the material cost and therefore energy of an orb weaver’s web. INTRODUCTION Spiders evolved from a species called trigonotarbids that roamed the earth nearly 400 million years ago [10]. Spiders did not always produce silk but through evolution evolved to produce silk to prevent eggs and prey from drying out. For roughly three hundred 1659 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH million years spiders were strictly ground living species, catching prey and living on the ground [10]. However, around 100 million years ago, insects started to evolve to have wings and this is when spiders evolved to build sticky webs higher up to catch prey. With this evolution came the earliest type of web to evolve called the orb webs [10]. The geometric design of the webs has not changed throughout much of evolution which shows its robust and optimized structure. The previous research done on orb weaver spiders is limited in terms of energy calculations. There was some research done by zoologist Linden E. Higgins on weight gain of spiders and foraging habits [5]. Most of the research has to do with geometric properties of the web structure. This included research done in the Journal of Composites Science on angle between the radial threads and breakage patterns that occur when prey hits the web [8]. They found the angle to be between 11 and 14 degrees: 1660 RANGE Figure 1. Unmeasured Spider Web (a) and Measured Spider Web (b) [8]. As well as the physical properties of spider silk have been studied extensively, and many of the factors, such as tensile strength, average density, and average weight have also been researched. Most parameters we used in the model were averaged out over large data sets, so they are seen to be representative of the real values. The main purpose of this paper is to explore the caloric expense an orb weaver spider experiences while creating this orb web. The 1661 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH intention of investigating spider web optimization is to understand the effectiveness of spider webs while material and energy cost for the spider is minimal. As nature is economical and optimized this paper uses a reverse optimization technique. This means we assume spider web structure is already optimal and try to model the caloric needs it takes to build the web. With reverse optimization there can be multiple solutions depending on what is considered optimal and what constraints are applied to the system. Another thing to note is as this is a biological model it is by principle probabilistic. For this paper we assume prey size is hard to specify so it is assumed to be random. Web-building Process of Orb Weaver Spiders First, it is crucial to understand how a spider builds the web. The process of creating a web for an orb weaver species is very calculated and is done in the same process of steps each time. The first step in web making is to make the basic shape of the web starting with some anchor threads. As for the placement of these threads, it is still not fully understood how the spider 1662 RANGE decides where to put them. There are numerous hypotheses proposed by various researchers [12]. Once the anchors are in place the spider then makes the frame threads. The frame sets the size of the web and gives an idea of how wide the spider needs to go with their circular threads. After the basic outline of the web is made with the anchor and frame the spider then goes in and starts creating radii threads. Radii threads are meant to give structure and rigidity and essentially anchor down the web. In addition to structure, these radii threads must be close enough so the spider can balance and walk on them to get to prey. The radii threads are created in a pattern that evens out the tension the structure experiences. For example, it will create a radial thread and then move to create the same radial thread in the opposite direction [12]. This way the tension is even in the web and there is not a point that is feeling more stress and potential to break at this stage in the process. After the spider creates this pair of radial threads it goes to the center of the web called the hub and tugs at all of the radial threads. By tugging 1663 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the spider can tell where there is a lack of radii and fill in those gaps. The last step is to create the capture threads. The spider moves in a spherical manner using all of its eight legs to hold onto the radii while moving along the web [12]. This creates a somewhat evenly spaced mesh-like structure. The silk used for spiral threads has a sticky adhesive applied to it while the spider is producing this section of the web [2]. This process is more or less the same for all orb weaver species, with some constraints and characteristics being unique to a species environment and evolutions [3], [4]. The basic structure for the spider web is shown in Figure 2. 1664 RANGE Figure 2. Typical orb weaver web showing types of threads and structure [11]. Assumptions in Model Some generalizations such as average spider weight, weekly caloric intake, and certain environmental factors were assumed. These factors include inclement weather, availability of space to build the web, and a steady supply of possible prey. It was assumed because environmental factors influence webs equally 1665 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and are subject to the principle of randomness, they may be discarded as constraints. Most orb weavers across different regions are subject to similar environmental constraints and all build web structures alike. This means that parameters like specific species, environment, weather, etc. were beyond the scope of the paper. According to a source called Arachnoboards, the people who raise orbweavers in captivity claim the average orbweaver consumes an insect of similar size over the course of a week [1]. This amounts to anywhere between 10% and 25% of the spider’s body mass daily. In the calculations ahead, we use the same percentage of intake to body weight as a rough estimate of caloric intake required daily. For example, an average orbweaver spider weighs around 80 mg, and has a caloric value of 50 calories [1], [6]. It therefore needs around 10 calories a week or 1.4 calories daily. Each gram of silk contains an average of 22.08 calories, and with the average web weight of .366 grams, each web contains about .02 calories. If we assume that it takes our spider five times the caloric capacity of the web to produce her web, we find the web requires 6-8% of it’s daily caloric intake 1666 RANGE to build. This means the spider needs to be consuming approximately .12 calories per day just to build a web. Since all orb weaver spiders build similar web structures, and are of a similar size, we also took the parameter of spider size out of our model. Web size is proportional to the size of the spider so this parameter becomes a scalar value. With the basic model one can scale each equation to be larger or smaller to fit the type of spider they choose to focus on. This also makes constraining prey size easier as well, as there is a correlation between the size of the spider and the size of the prey it hunts. From the research gathered, the main difference between radial threading and spiral threading is not a difference in silk type, more the adhesive material that covers the spiral threads. Because the main focus of this model is the radial angle between the radial threads, we’ve elected to add the extra caloric output required to produce the adhesive for the spiral threads to our list of assumptions. We think this is acceptable because it is a proportionality constant for each web, which is dependent on the total length of spiral webbing. Other assumptions were made in narrowing down some parameters. Some of the bigger assumptions were: 1667 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH • The spider will build its web in an area in which it will have a minimum population of prey. • the caloric output needed to produce the silk for the radial threads. • The caloric output needed to produce the adhesive for the spiral silk • the daily caloric intake of an orbweaver MODEL We modeled energy in versus out accounting for calories. Our goal is not only to model minimized material cost of the web but also to capture the trade-offs involved in maintaining functionality for prey capture. This model considers both the energetic cost of silk production and the potential energy return from successful prey capture, providing a framework to evaluate different web designs in terms of efficiency. To simplify the model of caloric expense of a spider web, we assumed a set of parameters. The first two parameters being number of radial threads, ⯑. By varying this parameter the web becomes more or less dense. Similarly, the number of 1668 RANGE spiral threads, ⯑, is another parameter affecting density. We also used two parameters ⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑𝑙, ⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑𝑙 for calories per silk type of spiral and radial threads respectively. The first part of our model involves the energy required to build the spiral and radial threads in the web. We used the number of threads ⯑ and took the length of those threads which is the radius, ⯑, of the web for the radial threads, and radial calories, ⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑𝑙, required to produce the respective radial silk: Then to find the energy required to make the spiral threads, we took the number of spiral threads ⯑ and spiral calories, ⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑𝑙, needed to produce the spiral type of silk. We represent the added calories required for the adhesive by . Note, this value will be 1669 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH some positive, non zero number. This becomes the first equations in the spider web energy model: From here we can model the energy or calories needed to build the entire spider web: In this model, ⯑ is some constant that represents the energy required to build frame, anchor threads and the probability that the web will be destroyed and the spider will need to rebuild. For the purpose of simplification, we consider these amounts to be negligible as it is a smaller amount of energy compared to the total energy to build the web. Therefore, we neglect k because it is hard to determine due to the nature and randomness of building the frame and anchors. Under the constraints listed below the effectiveness of the web is fixed meaning the web is optimal. This means the web uses minimal energy so should be modeled as: 1670 RANGE The second part of our model concerns the calories that the spider intakes from the web (ie. the prey caught in the web). Here we assume that with the increase in density, the web should be more effective as the mesh gets denser and flying insects have a higher likelihood of getting trapped in the web. To model the calories in, we used an area-based approximation. By this we can estimate the surface area that the threads take up in the total area of the web. First consider the silk length: In this equation ⯑ is the number of radial threads and the radius, ⯑, of the spider web; resulting in the sum of the silk length used to make the radial threads. Then for the spiral threads, we take the number of spiral threads, ⯑, and the circumference of the circle that the spiral threads create, 2π⯑ where ⯑ is the radius of the circle the spiral threads create. From here we then model the entire area of the web if it were a dense disk: 1671 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Using both of these equation we model the ratio of silk in the area of the web: γ is essentially how much of the web is catching the prey. We also claim how many prey fly through the web and what the caloric value of that prey is. The number of prey that fly through a web depends on the environment. For the purpose of the model, we can represent this as a variable α. This α is a probabilistic value greater than 1, assuming the spider chooses a “prey rich” environment. The caloric value of prey depends on the size of the prey which is dependent on the size of the spider. We can represent this as ⯑⯑⯑⯑⯑. Combining all of these aspects we can model the calories in as: 1672 RANGE Now we have both calories in and calories out model so the total net energy is: , The average orb weaver spider is about half an inch in size, and creates a web that’s 20 times its size in diameter, so the web is 10 inches in diameter. The area of the web is The length of silk that it produces, using n = 6, m = 4, and R = 2, 3, 4, 5 we find This leads to a gamma value of 1673 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Physical Constraints As a general rule we assume the spider keeps at least 20 percent of its total calories at all times. This accounts for keeping the spider alive and having the ability to reproduce. This net energyshould ideally be close to or greater than zero. This would mean that the spider is eating more than the calories they spent building the web. This would leave the spider in a position to have the energy to catch prey, fix the web in the case of damage or restart a new web. If the net energy were a negative number then this would mean the spider is spending more energy than it is intaking. This could mean the spider does not have enough energy to catch prey and therefore would not survive. In order for the spider web to be functional and the model to be effective, we assumed a list of constraints. The constraints are in the form of inequalities as there is no set optimal number that is perfect for a spider web but rather certain thresholds or inequalities that need to hold when the web is minimized. The first constraint to consider is: 1674 RANGE This constraint makes sure that the energy gained from prey is greater than or equal to the calories spent to build the web. If this inequality is valued then the spider does not have enough energy to build the web or catch prey. This deems the web ineffective as it does not serve its purpose of catching prey to sustain the spider. The next constraint follows that: This constraint ensures that the spider has enough calories to begin with when the spider builds the web. If the calories required to build the web are bigger than what the spider can physically have, then the spider may die due to lack of energy. This constraint also controls the density of the web. If we strictly look at the effectiveness of a web to catch prey, then it makes sense that the more dense the web the more effective it is. However, this is not physically possible as the spider does not have enough energy to build a completely dense web with no gaps. This constraint controls the density of the web. 1675 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Geometric Constraints The last constraints concern the structural integrity of the web. The structural constraints are: By having the number of radial threads be at least six, the web has structural stability and allows the spider to balance in the web. In reality, the number of radial threads is significantly higher but this is a lower bound to give structure to the web. It also should be an even number as the radial threads are created in equal and opposite direction to even out the tension in the web [12]. Lastly, if the web is too dense then the spider does not have the energy to build the web so it should not be so dense that it depletes the spider of all of its energy. On the other hand, if the web is not dense enough then prey can just fly through the gaps of the web between radial and spiral threads which means the web is not catching prey. This density condition means there can be a certain box of acceptable densities as there is not 1676 RANGE a set density that is the best. This range of density is dependent on prey size, the smaller prey the more dense the web should be and the bigger the prey the less dense it needs to be. The Effectiveness of the Web For our model, we want to preserve the effectiveness of the web with highly specialized structures designed to stop, trap, and hold prey. The web must absorb the kinetic energy of fast moving flying insects, such as flies and mosquitoes, without breaking or allowing the prey to escape [9]. Sticky spiral threads ⯑ adhere to the insect on impact, while the radial threads ⯑ provide structural support and absorb force. This dual function ensures the prey remains trapped until the spider arrives, enhancing the efficiency of the web without requiring the spider to expend additional energy in pursuit. From the energetic standpoint, a spider weighing 0.366 grams would spend approximately 112 calories to build a web which is about 18% of the energy it gained, corresponding to about 4-day building of a 20.6 cal/day [7]. However, for example, the average fly yields only 0.0067 cal upon consumption, so a spider must trap and consume approximately 14 such prey items to break even energetically. Given that orb-weavers often catch just 2-3 insects per web, they depend critically on the web’s 1677 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH mature spiral and radial threads to maximize capture success and minimize costly web replacements. Indeed, rebuilding an orb web can cost 7-15 times per spider’s daily maintenance energy, underscoring the value of durability. Resilient web architectures in optimizing net caloric gain. To preserve the effectiveness of the orb web, our model integrates prey‐capture efficiency with mechanical resilience by explicitly accounting for silk material properties and architectural geometry. An orb web typically comprises 20–35 radial threads arranged at 10–15° intervals, overlaid by a spiral of capture threads spaced 2–10 mm apart to match local prey dimensions. When an insect of mass ⯑ and velocity ⯑ collides with the web, its kinetic energy is converted into elastic potential energy where k denotes the local stiffness of the silk (Young’s modulus ranging from 2 to 37 GPa) and ⯑ the resulting deflection. Spider silk’s remarkable toughness, tensile 1678 RANGE strengths of 1,000–1,400 MPa and extensibility up to 30%, ensures that this energy transfer occurs without fiber failure. By optimizing the number and spacing of radial threads, spiders increase the stopping distance ⯑, thereby reducing the average force on individual fibers and preventing rupture. Anchor and frame threads further enhance compliance, effectively doubling the web’s overall energy absorption capacity under high‐impact conditions. The resulting radial–spiral network thus functions as a finely tuned safety net, sufficiently rigid to distribute and dissipate sudden loads, yet flexible enough to deform and recover, thereby maximizing prey retention, preserving the spider’s caloric investment in silk production, and minimizing the frequency of costly web reconstruction. This mixed with the physical and geometric constraints, the web is deemed effective. CONCLUSION This paper presents a mathematical model to explain the energy efficiency of the orb-weaver spider webs accounting for caloric expenditure and intake. By analyzing the process of web construction and the 1679 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH biological constraints of the spider, we saw that an orb weaver spider balances material use while preserving web effectiveness. Our model offers insight into the complex interplay between mathematics and physics that allows spiders to maximize their survival with minimal energy waste. Through defined constraints and key assumptions, we show how orb weavers can maintain structural integrity and prey capture efficiency within their limited caloric budget. Therefore, this work may help us deepen our understanding of natural “engineering” and model the energy a spider takes to build the web. FUTURE RESEARCH There are some directions we would like to continue research, namely, expanding the model based on continuous membrane mechanics. This could include accounting for the kinetic and elastic potentials that the web experiences as a result of catching prey or similar issues with force dynamics. This is a valid avenue of research, although it is currently out of the scope of this paper. Some other areas to look into are the environmental factors (weather, economical principle of nature, etc.) that affect web development, as this study made some 1680 RANGE generalizations regarding specific factors. One area of particular interest is to investigate whether the findings regarding web optimization carry over from different species of spider, or if the optimization changes mostly on environmental factors. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special thanks to Andrej V. Cherkaev for the mentoring, and to the NSF for funding through the RTG award (NSF DMS-2136198). REFERENCES [1] Arachnoboards, Orb Weaver feeding, n.d. [Online]. Available: https://arachnoboards.com/threads/orb- weaver-feeding.339663/ [2] Forest Preserve District of Will County, Nature Curiosity: Why Is Spider Silk Sticky?, Sep. 9, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.reconnectwithnature.org/news-events/ the-buzz/nature-curiosity-why-is-spider-silk-sticky/ [3] Harmer, A. M. T., Blackledge, T. A., Madin, J. S., and Herberstein, M. E., “High-performance spider webs: integrating biomechanics, 1681 ecology and OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH behaviour,” J. R. Soc. Interface, vol. 8, pp. 457–471, 2011. doi: 10.1098/rsif.2010.0454. [4] Herberstein, M. E. and Tso, I.-M., “Evaluation of formulae to estimate the capture area and mesh height of orb webs (Araneoidea, Araneae),” J. Arachnol., vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 180–184, 2000. [Online]. Available: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3706020 [5] Higgins, L. E., “Direct evidence for trade-offs between foraging and growth in a juvenile spider,” J. Arachnol., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 37–43, 1995. [Online]. Available: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3705908 [6] Porter, D., Vollrath, F., and Shao, Z., “Predicting the mechanical properties of spider silk as a model nanostructured polymer,” Eur. Phys. J. E, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 199–206, 2005. doi: 10.1140/epje/e2005-00021-2. [7] Prestwich, K. N., “The energetics of web-building in spiders,” Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Physiol., vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 321–326, 1977. [8] Regassa, Y., Lemu, H. G., Sirabizuh, B., and Rahimeto, S., “Studies on the geometrical design of spider webs for reinforced composite structures,” J. 1682 RANGE Compos. Sci., vol. 5, no. 2, p. 57, 2021. doi: 10.3390/ jcs5020057. [9] Walker, J., “What do orb webs catch?” Bull. Br. Arachnol. Soc., vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 95–98, 1992. [Online]. Available: https://britishspiders.org.uk/system/files/ library/090303.pdf [10] Welton, R. K., “Spider Evolution – 3d Trigonotarbid and the Spiders from Tars,” The Bristol Dinosaur Project, Nov. 17, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://dinoproject.blogs.bristol.ac.uk/2020/11/17/ rachel-spiders/ [11] Wijerathna, T., “An investigation of the variations in morphometry and the web architecture of the giant wood spider (Nephila pilipes) in forest and non-forest habitats in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka,” 2016. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.35074.27846. [12] Zschokke, S., “Early stages of orb web construction in Araneus diadematus Clerck,” Rev. Suisse Zool., vol. 2, pp. 709–720, 1996. [Online]. https://bio.staern.li/pdf/zschokke1996rsz.pdf 1683 Available: OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 104 Searching for Planet Hosts Among Stars With Cold Debris Disks ELISABETH PENDERGHAST; BEN BROMLEY; AND SCOTT KENYON Faculty Mentor: Christopher Reilly (Physics & Astronomy, University of Utah) Our project, Searching for Planet Hosts Among Stars with Cold Debris Disks, focuses on identifying potential exoplanet host stars within a new, as-of-yetunpublished catalog of stars exhibiting cold debris rings- structures often associated with planetary formation. To accomplish this, a machine learning 1684 RANGE algorithm was developed and trained on a dataset of confirmed planet host stars to identify key features indicative of planetary companions. The model was validated using real world data from the NASA Exoplanet Archive and Gaia Data Release 3, and further refined by incorporating edge cases such as systems with stellar companions, which can complicate detection. Once validated, the algorithm was applied to the cold debris disk catalog to flag likely planet hosting candidates. The resulting list of candidate planet hosts represents a promising starting point for follow-up studies aimed at direct exoplanet detection. By narrowing the field to stars with the strongest astrometric and photometric signatures of planetary companions, this work provides a scalable framework for future exoplanet discovery. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kenyon, S. J., & Bromley, B. C. 2008, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 179, 451, doi: 10.1086/591794 Najita, J. R., & Kenyon, S. J. 2023, ApJ, 944, 125,doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/acac8f Wyatt, M. C. 2008, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 1685 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 105 The Impact of Single Amino Acid Substitutions in the CheA Linker 3 Sequence on the Chemotactic Signal Transduction Pathway of Escherichia coli SAVANNAH ROMNEY Faculty Mentor: John Parkinson (School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah) 1686 RANGE ABSTRACT Every motile cell can monitor and track its chemical environment, a behavior known as chemotaxis (1). The chemotaxis machinery of bacterial cells like Escherichia coli (E. coli) enables them to move toward beneficial chemicals (attractants) and away from harmful ones (repellents). Central to this process is signal transduction which allows cells to monitor their extracellular environment and generate an appropriate response (11). At the core of E. coli’s chemotaxis machinery lies the CheA signaling protein, often called its “central processing unit” (7). CheA is responsible for several functions of the signal transduction process, including autophosphorylation. For autophosphorylation to occur, two domains of the CheA protein, P4 and P1, must be in close proximity to interact. A short, flexible linker connecting the P3 and P4 domains of CheA, referred to as L3, plays a significant role in the movement of the P4 domain toward the P1 domain to promote interaction. To understand the structural and functional significance of the third linker of histidine- kinase CheA, I made single amino acid substitutions at each position of the 6-residue linker. Codon changes in the cheA gene were chosen to encode amino acids with various chemical properties. I classified each mutant based on its ability to 1687 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH support chemotaxis and tested protein expression levels and stability by means of western blot techniques. I further characterized these mutants through Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) assays of CheA activity in living cells. These data determined whether a mutant kinase functioned as well as the wild type, or if it had a functional defect that interfered with the communication between the chemoreceptors and CheA. I found that 22 out of 28 of the amino acid substitutions that I created severely impaired the chemotactic behavior of the bacteria. I also concluded that all mutants had protein expression levels comparable to those of wildtype, indicating that the mutant proteins are expressed and stable in the cell. Finally, I assessed how well the serine receptor Tsr communicated with the mutant CheA proteins and determined that some CheA lesions decreased sensitivity to serine and others abrogated CheA autophosphorylation ability. INTRODUCTION E. coli is a model organism commonly used in molecular biology and biochemistry research because it is easy to handle in the lab and is highly diverse. It is found naturally in the digestive systems of healthy humans and 1688 RANGE animals (10). E. coli signal transduction is widely studied. Researchers have developed a current working model of the E. coli receptor system that shows how a bacterium responds to stimuli in its external environment. Each E. coli cell has clusters of chemoreceptors that sense chemicals in their extracellular environment. The protein kinase, CheA, will respond to information transmitted through the transmembrane chemoreceptors. This transduction of signals ultimately makes its way to the flagella and produces a movement that responds to external stimuli in the cell’s environment (9). Current research on this behavior aims to understand the signal transduction process on a molecular level. At this time, the predicted structures and roles of proteins in the receptor systems are well understood (14). However, there is less certainty about the sensitivity of the receptor systems to mutational changes. Creating mutations in the receptor systems of E. coli is a current method used to identify how changes to the amino acid sequence of the protein change its conformations and functionality (7). The CheA protein has 5 domains, each joined to one another by linkers. One linker in particular, L3, is small and possibly 1689 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH flexible. L3 is thought to be responsible for a movement in the P4 domain of the CheA protein that promotes a productive interaction with the P1 domain that transfers a phosphate group from the P4 domain to the P1 domain. BACKGROUND History of E. coli in the Laboratory The discovery of E. coli occurred in 1884 when microbiologist and pediatrician Theodor Escherich discovered the organism when studying gut health in infants. Escherich, after whom E. coli was named, was the first person to isolate and characterize the bacterium (10). Over time, researchers recognized that E. coli was a versatile bacterium ideal for laboratory use and manipulation. As time progressed, researchers began studying how E. coli interacted with its extracellular environment. Julius Adler was known as a pioneer in the field of molecular biology. In 1960, Adler discovered that E. coli sensed its external chemical environment to move in a favorable direction (2). E. coli cells move toward higher concentrations of favorable amino acids by controlling the direction of flagellar movement (4). While E. coli cells move toward “attractive” chemicals, the cells do not move linearly. Instead, these prokaryotic 1690 RANGE cells complete “random walks,” or a combination of “runs” and “tumbles.” Runs are forward swimming movements produced when the flagella of the cell rotate in a counterclockwise (CCW) direction. Tumbles interfere with run episodes and randomize the next direction of forward travel. Tumbles occur when the flagella are signaled to rotate in a clockwise (CW) direction (7). These responses to the cell’s chemical environment promote movement toward favorable extracellular environments and away from unfavorable ones. This behavior is known as chemotaxis (Refer to Figure 1). 1691 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH CONTRIBUTING RESEARCH ON E. COLI CHEMOTAXIS Core Complex Structure Following the discovery of bacterial chemotaxis, researchers looked at the molecular mechanisms that allow E. coli to respond to extracellular stimuli. E. coli interacts with the extracellular environment through chemoreceptors that bind specific amino acids (3). These chemoreceptors are one component of a “core complex” that connects different parts of the E. coli receptor system (14). Each core complex contains six receptor molecules arranged as two trimers, a homodimeric kinase (CheA), and two copies of a scaffolding protein (CheW) (15). Figure 2 depicts the components and interactions between these “core complexes.” Researchers learned that many core complexes are networked into large arrays that cluster at the two poles of the cell. Together, these arrays initiate transmission of stimulus signals from the transmembrane chemoreceptors to the flagellar motors of the E. coli cell to produce the 1692 RANGE appropriate locomotor response to extracellular chemical environment (16). the Types of Chemoreceptors There are a variety of chemoreceptors that bind specific ligands in the E. coli receptor system. The two most abundant E. coli chemoreceptors are Tsr and Tar. Tsr chemoreceptors bind primarily serine and several other amino acids at their extracellular binding site (15). Serine is an attractant for E. coli, so when serine is detected, the cell responds accordingly by deactivating 1693 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the kinase CheA. Tsr receptors are also able to identify repellents in the extracellular environment, encouraging the opposite cellular response (16). Tar receptors bind aspartate, another attractant amino acid. When aspartate is detected, the cells similarly deactivate the kinase to continue movement in the forward direction (16). While the research community knows a lot of information about the structures of these chemoreceptors, the molecular signaling mechanisms from the ligand binding site of the receptor to the terminal end of the receptor that interacts with CheA are largely unknown. CURRENT FINDINGS ON THE HISTIDINE KINASE, CHEA CheA Domains CheA is the histidine protein kinase responsible for receiving signals from the transmembrane chemoreceptors and transmitting that information to the flagellar machinery to promote appropriate movement in E. coli (12). The CheA histidine protein kinase has five domains connected by short linkers (5). Each protein domain of CheA has a unique function 1694 RANGE in signal transduction. The P1 domain of CheA bears a histidine residue that is the site of CheA autophosphorylation. The P2 domain binds CheY/CheB, two auxiliary proteins involved in the signal transduction process. CheY obtains phosphoryl groups from CheA and then interacts with the flagellar motors to trigger CW reversals and cell tumbling. The P3 domain in CheA subunits self-associates to form CheA homodimers, the active form of the protein. The P4 domain binds the small molecule phosphodonor ATP and upon interaction with the P1 domain transfers a phosphate group to P1 (14). The molecular mechanisms that control interactions between the P4 and P1 domains are not well understood (7,12). The P5 domain in each CheA subunit binds to a CheW adaptor protein to assemble core signaling units and to bring CheA under chemoreceptor control. These functions can be seen in the linear model of the CheA protein domains and linkers in Figure 3. 1695 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH “Kinase-ON” and “Kinase-OFF” CheA States E. coli chemoreceptors have two output states: “kinase-ON” and “kinase-OFF.” The kinaseON state occurs when CheA is catalytically active in the absence of attractant molecules. Upon sensing an attractant, chemoreceptors switch to the kinase-OFF state and deactivate CheA, thereby promoting forward swimming of the cell (Refer to Figure 4). When CheA is in the “kinase-ON” state, its P4 domain must undergo a conformational change that enables it to interact productively with P1, to accept the phosphate group taken from ATP. 1696 RANGE Once the phosphate group attaches to the P1 domain of CheA, it can be donated to CheY, which then diffuses to the flagellar motors to trigger a clockwise rotational response (8,12). In the “kinase-OFF” state, the P4 domain fails to interact productively with P1. This stops the flux of phosphoryl groups to CheY, inhibiting tumbles and promoting forward swimming. Figure 5 provides a ribbon model of the CheA homodimer in the “kinase-ON” and “kinaseOFF” states based on a working model of CheA control from molecular dynamics simulations. 1697 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH CheA Linker 3 CheA has an alpha-helical linker, L3, that connects its P3 and P4 domains. L3 is sixresidues long and is believed to influence motions of the catalytic P4 domain (5). Whether the L3 linker plays a critical role in the autophosphorylation of CheA is currently under investigation. SUMMARY E. coli chemoreceptors on the cell surface transmit stimulus information to a histidine kinase known as CheA (5). CheA has separate functions associated with each of its five 1698 RANGE domains. Movements of the CheA P4 domain probably control the “kinase-ON” and “kinaseOFF” output states through interactions with the CheA P1 domain (13). L3, a 6-amino acid linker connecting the P3 and P4 domains of CheA, may play a pivotal role in switching P4 between the “kinase- ON” and “kinase-OFF” conformations. Although other studies have looked at the molecular mechanisms that allow for the various conformations of the P4 domain of CheA, there has not been a study looking specifically at the functional roles of individual L3 residues. My research has the potential to elucidate key structural features of the L3 linker that allow for signaling interactions between the P1 and P4 domains of CheA. METHODS Bacterial Strains I used the E. coli strains UU3269 and UU2784 in my experiments. UU3269 lacks cheA and cheW, but all chemoreceptors are present (Tsr, Tar, Tap, Trg, Aer), cheR/cheB, cheY/cheZ. 1699 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH UU2784 lacks cheA/cheW, cheR/cheB, cheY/ cheZ, and Tar, Tap, Trg, and Aer chemoreceptors. Tsr receptors are present in this strain. Below are the complete strain identifications: UU3269 (cheAW)∆2167 thr(Am)-1 leuB6 his-4 metF(Am)159 rpsL136 [thi-1 ara-14 lacY1 mtl- 1 xyl-5 tonA31 UU2784 (cheA-cheZ)∆1214 (aer)∆5506 ygjG::Gm (trg)∆4543 thr(Am)-1 leuB6 his-4 metF(Am)159 rpsL136 [fliI-I346L(TS) thi-1 ara14 lacY1 mtl-1 xyl-5 tonA31 tsx-78] {nGEP88 x UU2783/pKD46 >> Rha-r; Kan-s; confirmed by PCR; cured of pKD46; May, 2012} /gp/ Plasmids The plasmids used in this experiment were pPM25 and pVS88. pPM25 carries the cheA and cheW genes and confers chloramphenicol resistance. pVS88 carries the cheY and cheZ genes and confers ampicillin resistance. Below are their plasmid maps. 1700 RANGE pPM25 1701 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH pVS88 Site-Directed Mutagenesis I designed forward and reverse primers for each of the five amino acid substitutions I wanted to make at each of the six positions of the L3 linker. I utilized QuikChange PCR reactions to create mutated cheA genes in plasmid pPM25. The mutant plasmid derivatives were transformed into strain UU3269 (∆AW). Ten colonies from each transformation were tested on tryptone soft agar plates (0.3% agar,12.5μg/ 1702 RANGE ml chloramphenicol, 100 μg/ml sodium salicylate) incubated at 37°C to identify the desired mutant candidates. Protein Expression Assays Each confirmed mutant plasmid was then subjected to western blotting protocols to determine the cellular expression levels of its mutant CheA protein. Mutant CheA proteins were extracted from the cells and prepared for electrophoresis separation in 10% SDS-PAGE gels. Each gel was transferred to PVDF membrane paper and exposed to the CheA antibody, followed by treatment with a second antibody that was labeled with the fluorescent dye, Cy5 and able to bind to the CheA antibody molecules in the gel. This allowed for detection of CheA protein by Cy5 fluorescence ImageJ software analysis. Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) Two plasmids, pPM25 (WT or mutant) and pVS88, were transformed into the FRET strain 1703 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH UU2784 (∆AW, ∆YZ). The resulting transformants were then plated on L agar plates (+CAM, +AMP) and incubated at 37°C. Subsequently, overnight cultures were prepared in T- broth (50 μg/ml ampicillin, 25μg/ml chloramphenicol) and left in a shaking incubator at 30°C overnight. Overnight cultures were then subcultured into 10 mL cultures by adding 100 µL overnight culture and 9.9 mL of T-broth media (50 μg/ml ampicillin, 12.5 μg/ml chloramphenicol, 100 μg/ml sodium salicylate, 50 μM IPTG) to a flask. Cells were then washed, centrifuged, and attached to a polylysine coverslip. The coverslip was then attached to a flow cell, kept at 30°C, to allow for various dilutions of serine to flow past the cells. KCN was used as a control to kill all kinase activity. Using Kaliedograph software, Tsr receptor activity was tracked in response to various serine concentrations. RESULTS To explore functional properties of CheA linker 3, I created amino acid replacement mutants for each of the six residues in the L3 linker. 1704 RANGE The amino acid replacements that I chose were glycine, lysine, valine, tyrosine, and aspartic acid. These amino acids were chosen for their various chemical characteristics including size, polarity, charge, and hydrophobicity. I transformed the mutant plasmids into strain UU3269 (∆AW) and assessed their ability to support chemotaxis using soft agar T-swim plates. These plates show the chemotaxis proficiency of each mutant compared to wildtype. Of 28 different L3 mutants, 22 produced defective swimming behavior compared to wildtype (see Figure 6). 1705 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH I next measured the cellular amount of protein produced by each L3 mutant. (see Figure 7). I found that there were no significant differences in the levels of protein expression in the L3 mutants compared to wildtype. 1706 RANGE This result indicates that the L3 amino acid replacements did not alter the expression or stability of their mutant products. The final step of my initial analysis of the linker mutants was using an in vivo FRET kinase assay to assess Tsr 1707 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH receptor control of the mutant CheA L3 proteins. I transferred my pPM25 mutant plasmids and the FRET reporter plasmid pVS88 into the bacterial strain UU2784. I challenged the cells with various concentrations of serine to determine whether Tsr could activate autophosphorylation of the CheA L3 mutant proteins and, if so, whether that activity could be inhibited by serine stimuli. I found that the M322D mutant could not produce kinase activity. However, the M322Y mutant had kinase activity and responded to serine with a K1/2 value of 30 µM [serine] The K1/2 value specifies the concentration of serine that inhibits ½ of the kinase activity. The K1/2 value of a wildtype strain is approximately 19 µM [serine]. Although the M322Y mutant has nearly wild-type serine sensitivity in the FRET assay, it could not support chemotaxis in the soft agar test. (see Figure 9). 1708 RANGE 1709 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH DISCUSSION To better understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the conformational changes of CheA during its signaling transactions, I created and characterized mutants of CheA-L3, the short, flexible linker connecting the P3 and P4 domain of the CheA protein. I wanted to determine if the L3 linker played an important role in the autophosphorylation interaction between the P4 domain and the P1 domain. This approach enabled me to assess how critical the chemical properties (e.g. acidic, basic, polar, nonpolar, aromatic, charged, small, large, etc.) of the mutant amino acids at each position in the linker were to CheA function (7). Out of 28 different CheA L3 mutants, 22 had severely impaired swimming behavior. This indicates that L3 function is important for proper chemotaxis and highly sensitive to single amino acid replacements. Protein expression assays revealed that the protein expression and stability of the mutant proteins were similar to wildtype. Thus, I conclude that CheA L3 mutant phenotypes are 1710 RANGE not caused by a failure to make the mutant CheA protein. From the data collected in my FRET experiments, I found that mutant M322Y, with impaired swimming behavior on soft agar Tswim plates, had a K1/2 value of 30 µM [serine] (see Figure 8). This value is only slightly higher than the wildtype K1/2 of 19 µM [serine], which indicates that the M322Y mutant is a bit less sensitive to serine. As seen in Figure 9, mutant M322D, which did not perform chemotaxis on soft agar T-swim plates, did not respond to saturating concentrations of serine and exhibited only a small response to KCN, suggesting it had a kinase-OFF output. This result suggests that CheA L3 plays a significant role in enabling the CheA protein to transition between the “ON” and “OFF” conformational states. To continue characterization of these CheA mutations and their effect on intracellular signalling, collecting and confirming data from FRET experimentation would be necessary. Expanding my FRET data analysis would help 1711 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH me determine if the nonfunctional CheA mutants lock CheA in the “ON” or “OFF” state. This work could also contribute to the field’s current understanding of amino acid side chain character and structural consequences when protein sequence is altered. Knowing that L3 is alpha-helical, I am interested in exploring the structural consequences of lengthening the linker by inserting alanine, a residue that holds alphahelical structures well. This could elucidate the importance of length for proper interaction between the P4 and P1 domains of the CheA protein. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A special thank you to Dr. Sandy Parkinson and Peter Ames for their help and guidance throughout this research process. Thank you to the ACCESS Program for Women in Science and Mathematics and a grant from the National Institute of Health to the Parkinson Lab for funding my work. REFERENCES 1. S. Bi, V. Sourjik, Stimulus sensing and signal 1712 RANGE processing in bacterial chemotaxis. Curr.Opin. Microbiol. 45, 22-29 (2018). 2. G. L. Hazelbauer, Bacterial chemotaxis: the early years of molecular studies. Annu Rev Microbiol 66, 285-303 (2012). 3. C. K. Cassidy et al., Structure and dynamics of the E. coli chemotaxis core signaling complex by cryo-electron tomography and molecular simulations. Commun Biol 3, 24 (2020). 4. C. H. Hansen, R. G. Endres, N. S. Wingreen, Chemotaxis in Escherichia coli: a molecular model for robust precise adaptation. PLoS Comput Biol 4, e1 (2008). 5. A. R. Muok, A. Briegel, B. R. Crane, Regulation of the chemotaxis histidine kinase CheA: A structural perspective. Biochim Biophys Acta Biomembr 1862, 183030 (2020). 6. R. B. Sekar, A. Periasamy, Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy imaging of live cell protein localizations. J Cell Biol 160, 629-633 (2003). 7. J.S. Parkinson, Bacterial Chemotaxis, in Brenner’s Encyclopedia of Genetics (Second 1713 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Edition), Academic Press, pp. 258–261(2013) 8. . A. M. Bilwes, C. M. Quezada, L. R. Croal, B. R. Crane, M. I. Simon, Nucleotide binding by the histidine kinase CheA. Nat. Struct. Biol. 8, 353-360. (2001). 9. H. Huo, R. He, R. Zhang, J. Yuan, Swimming Escherichia coli cells explore the environment by Levy walk. Appl Environ Microbiol 87 (2021). 10. Z. D. Blount, The unexhausted potential of E. coli. Elife 4 (2015). 11. M. Torres, H.J. Forman, “Signal Transduction” in Encyclopedia of Respiratory Medicine pp. 10-18 (2006). 12. K. Jahreis, T. B. Morrison, A. Garzon, J. S. Parkinson, Chemotactic signaling by an Escherichia coli CheA mutant that lacks the binding domain for phosphoacceptor partners. J. Bacteriol. 186, 2664-2672 (2004). 13. A. Garzón, J. S. Parkinson, Chemotactic signaling by the P1 phosphorylation domain liberated from the CheA histidine kinase of Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 178, 6752- 6758 1714 RANGE (1996). 14. J. S. Parkinson, G. L. Hazelbauer, J. J. Falke, Signaling and sensory adaptation in Escherichia coli chemoreceptors: 2015 update. Trends Microbiol 23, 257-266 (2015). 15. C. E. Flack, J. S. Parkinson, Structural signatures of Escherichia coli chemoreceptor signaling states revealed by cellular crosslinking. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 119, e2204161119 (2022). 16. X. Chen, S. Bi, X. Ma, V. Sourjik, L. Lai, Discovery of a new chemoeffector for Escherichia coli chemoreceptor Tsr and identification of a molecular mechanism of repellent sensing. ACS Bio Med Chem Au 2, 386-394 (2022). 1715 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 106 Factors Impacting Students' Level of Belonging Uncertainty Within General Chemistry JOCELYN TUCKER AND REGINA FREY Faculty Mentor: Regina Frey (Chemistry, University of Utah) As students pursue higher education in STEM degrees, fostering a social belonging within the field is crucial. General Chemistry I is a foundational course required 1716 RANGE for many pre-health and STEM-related majors. However, an issue has emerged: some students who successfully pass the course and are eligible to advance to General Chemistry II choose not to continue. To explore factors influencing students’ social belonging in the course, we conducted a survey at both the beginning and end of the semester. The survey utilized a Likert scale, and my research focuses on responses to the statement: “I feel uncertain about my belonging in CHEM 1210.” After collecting and analyzing the survey data, several themes emerged. We further examined these themes by identifying the most common response categories and determining whether any subcategories existed within them. Additionally, we have begun analyzing demographic factors and their correlation to the identified themes. The insights gained from this research will help us develop strategies to enhance students’ social belonging in General Chemistry, ultimately supporting their persistence in STEM education. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cho, J. Y.; Lee, E.-H. Reducing confusion about grounded theory and qualitative content analysis: 1717 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Similarities and differences. Qualitative report 2014, 19 (32), 1-21. Edwards, J. D., Torres, H. L., & Frey, R. F. (2023). The effect of social belonging on persistence to General Chemistry 2. Journal of Chemical Education, 100(11), 4190-4199. Edwards, J. D., Laguerre, L., Barthelemy, R. S., De Grandi, C. and Frey R. F. * (2022), Phys. Rev. Special Topics – Phys. Edu. Res, 18(2), 020150:1-17 “Relating students’ social-belonging and course performance across multiple assessment types in a calculus-based introductory physics 1 course” DOI: 10.1103/ PhysRevPhysEducRes.18.020150 Edwards, J. D., Barthelemy, R. S. and Frey, R. F.* (2022). J. Chem. Edu., 99(1), 71-82 “The Relationship between Course-level Social Belonging, comprising Sense of Belonging and Belonging Uncertainty factors, and Academic Performance in General Chemistry 1” (“Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Respect in Chemistry Education Research and Practice” special issue). Fink,A. Young, J. D., Vuppala, N. K. and Frey, R. F. * (2023). Chem. Edu. Res. and Prac, 24, 327 – 352. “MixedMethods Exploration of Students’ Written Belonging 1718 RANGE Explanations from General Chemistry at a Selective Institution” Hsieh, H.-F.; Shannon, S. E. Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative health research 2005, 15 (9), 1277-1288. Merriam, S. B. Qualitative research: A guide to design and Implementation. Jossey-Bass 2009. Walker, D. K., Bustamante, V. P., Blomgren, H. E., Edwards, J. D., & Frey, R. F. (2024). “A Mixed Methods Study Exploring Students’ Open-Ended Responses about Course Inclusivity in General Chemistry 1.”Journal of Chemical Education, 101(4), 1403-1415. 1719 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 107 Mathematical Models of SARS-CoV-2 Testing: Explaining Differences in Test Results Among Patients MUSKAN WALIA AND FREDERICK R. ADLER Faculty Mentor: Frederick R. Adler (School of Biological Sciences and Mathematics, University of Utah) 1720 RANGE 1. INTRODUCTION At the onset of the pandemic, testing was used primarily for surveillance purposes to assess the prevalence of COVID-19 in communities. We understood that, in relation to public health- oriented goals, no test is perfect; every test makes mistakes. Some tests return a negative result if someone is infected. These are called false negatives, and a test which produces them is said to have imperfect sensitivity. On the other hand, some people who are not infected test positive. These results are called false positives, and such a test is said to have imperfect specificity [14]. Moreover, heterogeneity within populations makes tests difficult to interpret. Being five years into the pandemic, rather than administering tests at a testing center for surveillance purposes, tests are predominantly used in hospitals, clinics, and at home as decision tools. In hospitals, tests inform choice of care and isolation protocols, while tests at home influence only our personal response about masking and isolation protocols. Current CDC guidelines recommend people quarantine for at least five days after a positive test. Protocols, like isolation, as a result of a positive COVID test have been modeled at the population level considerably throughout the course of the pandemic [5, 2]. However, we are interested 1721 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH in studying the testing mechanisms at the level of an individual. These CDC isolation recommendations utilize both symptoms and physical COVID-19 tests to predict infectiousness. Using these tests, whether symptoms or physical tests, to help ascertain and track infectiousness can then help facilitate effective measures to limit the transmission of infection. Unfortunately, many have reported lingering positive test results when they are no longer symptomatic or infectious, causing hesitation and unnecessary isolation and disruption to personal lives. Specifically, multiple studies have demonstrated that PCR tests may continue to yield positive results even after an individual is no longer infectious, due to lingering RNA fragments [9, 3, 8]. Antigen tests, while generally less sensitive, may better reflect a person’s infectivity because they correlate more closely with viral culture positivity [13, 11]. However, for both test types, it is known that the timing of a test relative to the course of infection affects the results [4]. In other words, the probability of a true positive depends on the stage of the infection. However, this infection timeline varies amongst individuals in a population and there are questions about the sources of this variation. The components of variation are initial virus dose, body size, rate of the spread of infection in 1722 RANGE the body, and clearance. To help address this question about variation, we developed a dynamical model using the aforementioned components of variation to describe the course of infection and when an individual tests positive in that infection timeline. We also utilize this model to conduct a sensitivity analysis, that is, an assessment of which model parameters influence the course of infection the most. We then compare this testing model results to a statistical model of symptoms, where we use symptoms as a test. 2. METHODS 2.1 Virus dynamics and testing model Throughout epidemiologists the course have relied of the heavily pandemic, upon the Susceptible-Infected-Recovered (SIR) Model, which uses differential equations to model contagion spread in a population. Because we are studying COVID-19 tests, we must model what happens inside of people rather than the spread of infection throughout a population. Conveniently, SIR models can be used to study what happens at the cellular level in the upper respiratory tract when people become infected. Our extension of the SIR model describes the dynamics of how cells transition between the states, produce viruses, and generate the 1723 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH dead viruses and cells (detritus) that tests detect even after the infection has been cleared (figure 1). We initialize the model with 0 infected cells and 100 viruses because when we contract an infection, we inhale viral particles, not cells. Once the infection is contracted, the viral replication process is initiated. The Deterministic SIVRD Model Figure 1. The structure of the SIVRD Model. Susceptible Cells (S) become infected cells (I) and can recover (R). Infected cells can generate viruses (V), which can infect susceptible cells. Tests detect detritus (D) produced by infected cells or viruses. The biological model of the infection we created can be described by the system of equations. 1724 RANGE These equations describe the dynamics of how susceptible cells get infected by viruses, produce viruses, and then die or recover. As cells and viruses die, they produce the detritus that is detectable by tests. We then include W(t) to model the process of sampling for an antigen test, where W(t) represents the total expected number of detectable viruses we would collect in a testing sample, defined by: where nI, nV , and nD represent the number of detectable RNA sequences obtained from infected cells, virus, and detritus and I, V , and D represent the fraction of viruses and detritus that survives the collection and processing. After meeting with testing experts at two local companies, ARUP and BioFire, to understand the make-up of a testing sample and testing 1725 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH process, we received estimates for the values of and n and extrapolated that the volume fraction that is collected for a testing sample is = 0.01. W(t) could be detected as SARS-CoV-2 by the test and, therefore, output a positive result. The Stochastic SIVRD Model Randomness is inherent in the course of an infection. So, we can create a stochastic version of the SIVRD model to include this variation. We ran stochastic simulations for these equations using Binomial and Poisson approximations in an Euler’s scheme. The Binomial describes the probabilities of different transitions of cells, and the Poisson describes the count of different events. Euler’s scheme introduces a time step, T. The system of equations is given by: 1726 RANGE The deterministic model represents the expectation of the stochastic process. However, the individual runs of the stochastic process deviate from the mean because of randomness. The goal is to have the stochastic and deterministic models align to ensure that the deterministic model provides a useful approximation of a truly stochastic process. For both the deterministic and stochastic models, we simulated the entire course of infection (from day 0 to day 30) with a small timestep of .01 for each. We do not include cell 1727 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH regrowth. We ran the simulation 1000 times, stored them in distinct data frames, and then averaged those 1000 simulations. 2.2 Symptom Model After finalizing these biological and testing models, we built a symptom model, a statistical model that inputs symptom duration and symptom onset data from a cohort of patients, calculated the mean, median, and standard deviation, and then used those values to create a lognormal distribution modeling the probability of symptoms, and therefore ‘testing’ positive, at various times of the infection [10]. We fit a lognormal distribution with a matching mean and variance. To determine the parameters of the lognormal distribution from the observed mean and variance, we use the following equations: 1728 RANGE We then overlaid this symptom model with the results from the deterministic and stochastic models above. Variability can arise from measurable factors or stochastic processes. However, our simulation lacks true stochasticity, meaning our results are entirely determined by parameter values. To explain the observed variance, we use the aforementioned data frames to perform a transformed linear regression, identifying which parameters on each day account for the most variation between patients. By analyzing trends 1729 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH across days, we demonstrate that the parameters with explanatory value change over time. Parameter Estimation Table 1. Model parameters along with justifications and references. Parameter Description (unit) R0 R0,cv Value Justification and References 7.4 Ke et al.[7] 12.32 Marc et al.[12] 0.25 Estimated Basic reproduction number (unitless) Coefficientof variation of R0 (unitless) 1730 RANGE There are approximately 3 · 1013 totals cells in the body. 1/30 of Initial those total cells are viable to get S0,mean susceptible 1010 infected. Realistically, S0,mean = cells (cells) 1012. For numerical reasons, we use S0,mean = 1010. 1731 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Coefficient of S0,cv variation of S0,mean 0.25 Estimated (unitless) Clearance 0.5/ rate of day infected cells Infected cells assumed to last ~2 days. [15] Coefficientof variationof 0.25 ⯑⯑,⯑⯑⯑⯑ Estimated (unitless) Clearance rate of viruses Some studies suggest that inhaling 100–800 virions may initiate 22.31/ infection. Other day research indicates that the infectious dose could be as low as 100 viral particles [6]. 1732 RANGE Coefficientof variationof ⯑⯑,⯑⯑⯑⯑ 0.25 Estimated (unitless) 1733 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH V0,mean Initialviral load (virions) Some studies suggest that inhaling between 200 and 800 infectious virions may be sufficient to initiate an 100 infection. Other research indicates that the infectious dose could be as low as 100 viral particles [6]. Coefficient of V0,cv variation of 0.25 Estimated V0,mean (unitless) C Burst size Middle of estimated range (10– 10,000) from 102 Grebennikov et al.[1] 1734 RANGE Clearance rate of detritus Estimate of 0.14/day 0.5/ produced unrealistic day results [17]. Coefficientof variationof ⯑⯑,⯑⯑⯑⯑ (unitless) 1735 0.25 Estimated OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Virusequivalents produced by dying cell (unitless) Fraction of infected fluidcollected (unitless) 0.1 Estimated 0.0001 Estimate from an interview with ARUP and BioFire staff. 10 4 Estimate from an interview with ARUP and BioFire staff. Fractionof collected infected cells that survive after the test sample is processed (unitless) 1736 RANGE Fractionof collected viruses that survive after the test sample is processed 10 4 Estimate from an interview with ARUP and BioFire staff. 10 4 Estimate from an interview with ARUP and BioFire staff. (unitless) Fractionof collected detritus that survives after the test sample is processed (unitless) 1737 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH nI nV nD Numberof detectable RNA sequences per cell Numberof detectable RNA sequences per virus Numberof detectable RNA sequences per unit 30 Estimate from an interview with BioFire staff. 1 Estimate from an interview with BioFire staff. 0.5 Estimate from an interview with BioFire staff. detritus Infection rate per virus per cell 1738 Estimated from R0 RANGE totalT Coecientof variation of ↵mean 0.25 Estimated Length of infection (days) 30 Estimated 0.1 Estimated Simulation timestep (days) RESULTS Figure 2 illustrates the dynamics of the variables for 20 individuals in the deterministic and stochastic models. We do not include a graph of R because it does not feed back to the results. In the graph for W, the total expected number of detectable viruses in a testing sample, we include a horizontal line at log10(60). This threshold represents the detection limit of the test — when the viral content in a sample exceeds this value, the test is assumed to return a positive result. 1739 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2. Dynamics of the deterministic and stochastic SIVRD model for 20 patients. Each thin gray line represents an individual patient, and the thick black line is the average of all patients. All results are presented as log base 10. The final model, seen in figure 3, reveals that people can test negative even when they are still infected. This could be explained for different reasons depending on if they are earlier or later in their course of infection. Moreover, there exists substantial variation in the timing of 1740 RANGE positive tests due to differences between people. The overlaid model also illustrates that symptoms persist longer than positive antigen tests. We are able to show that neither antigen tests nor symptom models provide a perfect prediction of infectiousness, particularly when people’s course of infection varies. Days Since Infection Figure 3. Results from the SIVRD model. We compare the probability of a positive test in a population of patients with the deterministic model (green curve), stochastic model (black dots), and the symptom model (red curve). 1741 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH In the literature, we find that I, representing the rate of infected cell clearance, is an uncertain parameter, with values ranging from 0.1 to 1.2 [7, 16]. Similarly, R0 has estimated values of 7.4 and 12.32 in different studies [7, 12]. Furthermore, the results of our models are sensitive to the values of I and R0. To assess the impact of this uncertainty and sensitivity, we simulate model outputs across three representative values of I (0.1, 0.5, and 1.2) and R0 (set at 7.4 and 12.32) and assess the effects on the predicted probability of a positive test over time. Figure 4 displays the output of our deterministic model (green), stochastic model (black), and a symptom-based model (red) across these parameter regimes. The symptom model remains unchanged across parameter variations because it does not depend on I or R0. For the deterministic and stochastic models, we find that both I and R0 strongly influence the shape and timing of the predicted test positivity curves. At low I values, the probability of testing positive increases slowly over time. In contrast, 1742 RANGE higher values of I result in sharper peaks and shorter durations of test positivity. This suggests that faster clearance rates (higher I) lead to a smaller window of detectability. Moreover, increasing R0 leads to an earlier and more pronounced peak in positivity, reflecting a faster-growing infection. Figure 4. Effects of R0 and I parameter values on the probability of a positive test. Notation as in figure 3. DISCUSSION Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, many have 1743 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH observed puzzling variability in test results: some individuals seem to test positive for extended periods, others never test positive despite symptoms or exposure, and some test negative throughout their infection. We hypothesize that these differences may be attributable to individual biological variability. Specifically, we predict that differences in viral kinetics influence early test outcomes, while differences in immune response impact the duration of positivity in the later stages of infection. To test this, we created a dynamical model using components of variation in individuals such as initial virus dose, body size, rate of spread of infection in the body, and clearance to describe the course of infection. We utilize this model to conduct a sensitivity analysis, that is, an assessment of which model parameters influence the course of infection the most. We then compare this testing model results to a statistical model of symptoms, where we use symptoms as a test. We are able to show that neither antigen tests nor symptom models provide a perfect prediction of infectiousness, particularly when people’s course of infection varies. Our models help explain the causes of imperfect specificity of SARS-CoV-2 tests. This is useful for practitioners and, as a future application, can be verified by them because our research process involved 1744 RANGE practitioners, like ARUP, and our modeling framework is generalizable because our models were built on actual mechanisms and idealized population parameters. A limitation of our model is its specificity to a particular diagnostic test—the one administered by ARUP. Evidently, many different COVID-19 tests exist, each with varying thresholds for what constitutes a positive result. These thresholds depend on the test type, the components present in the sample, and the sample’s dynamics. As an extension of our work, the model could be adapted to reflect the characteristics and sensitivity of other tests to broaden its applicability. Another limitation of our approach is that we do not explicitly model the immune response, and therefore assume parameters such as clearance rates remain constant over the course of an infection within an individual. If biomarkers indicative of a strong immune response (i.e., a high I) could be identified and measured, they would offer a compelling foundation for extending our model. Incorporating such data could improve predictions of prolonged test positivity and help public health officials tailor isolation guidelines and testing strategies—particularly for individuals whose immune systems clear infection more slowly. 1745 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH REFERENCES [1] Dmitry Grebennikov, Elena Kholodareva, Igor Sazonov, Anastasia Karsonova, Andreas Meyerhans, and Gennady Bocharov. Intracellular life cycle kinetics of sars-cov-2 predicted using mathematical modelling. Viruses, 13(9):1735, Aug 31 2021. [2] KE Hanson, AM Caliendo, CA Arias, MK Hayden, JA Englund, MJ Lee, et al. The infectious diseases society of america guidelines on the diagnosis of covid-19. Molecular diagnostic testing 2020 [cited 2020 september 12]. [3] Chung-Guei Huang, Kuo-Ming Lee, Mei-Jen Hsiao, Shu-Li Yang, Peng-Nien Huang, Yu-Nong Gong, Tzu-Hsuan Hsieh, Po-Wei Huang, Ya-Jhu Lin, Yi-Chun Liu, et al. Culture-based virus isolation to evaluate potential infectivity of clinical specimens tested for COVID-19. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 58, 2020. [4] Romney M Humphries, Marwan M Azar, Angela M Caliendo, Andrew Chou, Robert C Colgrove, Valeria Fabre, Christine C Ginocchio, Kimberly E Hanson, Mary K Hayden, Dylan R Pillai, et al. To test, perchance to diagnose: Practical strategies for severe acute 1746 RANGE respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 testing. 8:ofab095, 2021. [5] Katherine F Jarvis and Joshua B Kelley. Temporal dynamics of viral load and false negative rate influence the levels of testing necessary to combat covid-19 spread. Scientific reports, 11(1):1–12, 2021. [6] Shirin Karimzadeh, Raj Bhopal, and H. Nguyen Tien. Review of infective dose, routes of transmission and outcome of covid-19 caused by the sars-cov-2: comparison with other respiratory viruses. Epidemiology and Infection, 149:e96, 2021. [7] Ruian Ke, Carolin Zitzmann, David D Ho, Ruy M Ribeiro, and Alan S Perelson. In vivo kinetics of SARSCoV-2 infection and its relationship with a person’s infectiousness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118:e2111477118, 2021. [8] Min-Chul Kim, Chunguang Cui, Kyeong-Ryeol Shin, Joon-Yong Bae, Oh-Joo Kweon, Mi-Kyung Lee, Seong-Ho Choi, Sun-Young Jung, Man-Seong Park, and Jin-Won Chung. Duration of culturable SARSCoV-2 in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. New England Journal of Medicine, 384:671–673, 2021. [9] Lauren M Kucirka, Stephen A Lauer, Oliver 1747 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Laeyendecker, Denali Boon, and Justin Lessler. Variation in false-negative rate of reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction–based sars-cov-2 tests by time since exposure. Annals of internal medicine, 173(4):262–267, 2020. [10] Alexandra Lane, Krystal Hunter, Elizabeth Leilani Lee, Daniel Hyman, Peter Bross, Andrew Alabd, Melanie Betchen, Vittorio Terrigno, Shikha Talwar, Daniel Ricketti, Bennett Shenker, Thomas Clyde, and Brian W Roberts. Clinical characteristics and symptom duration among outpatients with covid-19. American Journal of Infection Control, 50(4):383–389, 2022. [11] Brian Le↵erts. Antigen Test Positivity After COVID-19 Isolation—Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta Region, Alaska, January–February 2022. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 71, 2022. [12] Aur´elien Marc, Marion Kerioui, Fran¸cois Blanquart, Julie Bertrand, Oriol Mitja`, Marc CorbachoMonn´e, Michael Marks, and J´er´emie Guedj. Quantifying the relationship between SARS-CoV-2 viral load and infectiousness. medRxiv, 2021. [13] Andrew Pekosz, Charles Cooper, Valentin Parvu, Maggie Li, Je↵rey Andrews, Yukari CC Manabe, Salma 1748 RANGE Kodsi, Je↵ry Leitch, Devin Gary, and Celine RogerDalbert. Antigen-based testing but not real-time PCR correlates with SARS-CoV-2 virus culture. medRxiv, 2020. [14] Alan S Perelson and Ruian Ke. Mechanistic modeling of sars-cov-2 and other infectious diseases and the e↵ects of therapeutics. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 109(4):829–840, 2021. [15] Alan S. Perelson, Avidan U. Neumann, Martin Markowitz, James M. Leonard, and David D. Ho. Hiv-1 dynamics in vivo: virion clearance rate, infected cell life-span, and viral generation time. Science, 271(5255):1582–1586, 1996. [16] Steven Sanche, Tyler Cassidy, Pinghan Chu, Alan S Perelson, Ruy M Ribeiro, and Ruian Ke. A simple model of COVID-19 explains disease severity and the e↵ect of treatments. Scientific Reports, 12:1–14, 2022. [17] Mark J Siedner, Julie Boucau, Rebecca F Gilbert, Rockib Uddin, Jonathan Luu, Sebastien Haneuse, Tammy Vyas, Zahra Reynolds, Surabhi Iyer, Grace C Chamberlin, et al. Duration of viral shedding and culture positivity with postvaccination sars-cov-2 delta variant infections. JCI Insight, 7(2):e155483, 2022 1749 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 108 Research Reflection by Muskan Walia MUSKAN WALIA Faculty Mentor: Frederick R. Adler (School of Biological Sciences and Mathematics, University of Utah) I joined Dr. Adler’s lab in the fall of my freshman year. There, I honed my skills in creating mathematical models and mastering techniques involving differential 1750 RANGE equations, statistical distributions, and calculus. Because I started research so early in my undergraduate career, my faculty mentor, Dr. Adler, taught me fundamental mathematics before I had taken formal coursework and also guided me through computational techniques, like R programming. This required immense patience from Dr. Adler to build up my skills, but I found myself ahead in my education and able to tackle more complex questions as the years have gone on. The process of identifying a lapse in information and developing answers was gratifying. My year in the ACCESS research program shaped my career ambitions in math by showing me that mathematics, when communicated correctly, could be collaborative, practical, and the impelling force behind informed policy. In fact, my future goals have completely shifted because of my undergraduate experience. Now, I will pursue a Ph.D. in Applied Mathematics. I will develop mathematical models that investigate dynamics of socioecological interactions and complex systems to inform policy and bridge the academic-practitioner divide. 1751 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 109 Ant Empire: Mathematical Modeling of Supercolonial Invasions SAYA ZELEZNIK; FREDERICK R. ADLER; AND PATRICK TALLEY Faculty Mentor: Frederick R. Adler (School of Biological Sciences and Mathematics, University of Utah) BACKGROUND INFORMATION Ant colonies are typically monodomous, composed of a single egg-laying queen and a labor force of sterile 1752 RANGE workers. Some species, however, are able to form supercolonies— interconnecting nests that maintain multiple queens— enabling them to spread across vast areas (“Supercolonies,” n.d.-d). This phenomenon is disproportionately represented among invasive ants, making them a major ecological threat by displacing native species (Holway et al. 2002, Ross et al. 1996). Understanding the mechanisms behind supercoloniality is therefore crucial for predicting and mitigating the spread of invasive species. Supercoloniality is a common, but not universal strategy among invasive ants. For instance, Antwiki identifies only half of “highly invasive” species— those that are essentially or actually world-wide in distribution— as supercolonial. (“Invasive Ants,” n.d.-a; “Supercolonies,” n.d.-d; Table 1). This raises the question: what specific aspects of supercoloniality contribute to the success of invasive populations? 1753 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Supercoloniality hinges on polydomy— a colony structure in which two or more spatially separated nests function cooperatively, sharing resources and workers (“Polydomy,” n.d.-c; “Supercolonies,” n.d.-d). By examining the functional roles and evolutionary pressures that give rise to polydomy, we aim to better understand the basis of supercolonial organization. In this study, we examine how factors such as mass allocation, nest distribution, and the number and size of subnests influence the competitive advantage of polydomous ant colonies. Addressing this question is scientifically, ecologically, and economically significant. Invasive ants rank among the most ecologically damaging species worldwide, with the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) alone costing the U.S. an estimated $1 billion in crop damage annually (Tsutsui & Suarez, 2003). Although controlling these species is both challenging and expensive, by understanding why invasive ants are able to succeed, we can aid ecologists in predicting, managing, and preventing their spread. Beyond conservation efforts, uncovering the organization of supercolonies also deepens our understanding of complex social organization and cooperation in biological systems. These 1754 RANGE insights even benefit cross-disciplinary research in areas such as computer science, where inspiration for algorithms is often drawn from ant behavior (Mullen et al., 2013). Previous research proposes hypotheses that supercolonial behavior may arise in invasive ants due to increase in habitat saturation, genetic predisposition, or a decrease in intraspecies aggression at territory boundaries (Holway et al., 2002; Ross et al., 1996; Julian et al., 2002); our study investigates this third hypothesis, using mathematical modeling to simulate polydomous behavior. We hypothesize that polydomous ant colonies tend to outcompete monodomous ants because of reduced allocation to colony defense, which may contribute to the success of invasive populations. Our study will test this by adapting Adler et al.’s (2018) mechanistic models of conflict to simulate territory disputes between a polydomous ant colony and monodomous competitors. By identifying when and why polydomy is beneficial, we hope to provide 1755 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH insight into the mechanisms that enable invasive ants to succeed in new environments. RESEARCH METHODS Our model is built on the “Scrum” model proposed in Adler et al. (2018); which measures the success of an ant colony via the shifts in territory boundaries at aras of conflict denoted the “scrum.” This model focuses on the ant allocation and the colony’s recruitment response to battles and territory gain, developed originally for the species Tetramorium (Adler et al., 2018). The model identifies seven different types of ants that occupy a given role in colony conflict dynamics. In our adaptation, we expanded this framework to allow ant types to travel bidirectionally from the nest, enabling a more realistic depiction of spatial dynamics (Figure 1). A system of differential equations is used to describe the movements and interactions of each ant type within a colony, as well as the movement of territory boundaries (Box 1). The third section of Box 1 describes the fraction of ants involved in the battle from an opposing colony, which is then used in the fourth section to calculate the likelihood that an ant returns to the nest either Motivated or Unmotivated. In our calculations, Colony A is placed at a reference point, x, while the other 1756 RANGE colonies are located at some distance on the landscape. The functions TA(x) and TB(x) are then used to calculate the distances colonies A and B must travel to reach the scrum, respectively (Box 1). Figure 1. Ant types within a colony oles within the colony are organized into different ant types. Nest ants spontaneously leave the nest and become Traveling ants that move towards the territory boundary, after which they become Searching ants that enter the scrum as Battling ants. The Battling ants then return to the nest in either a Motivated or Unmotivated state depending on the ratio of Battling ants from different colonies in the scrum (Box 1). The territory boundary then moves towards the nest with a smaller number of Battling ants (Adler et al., 2018). 1757 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 1758 RANGE We expanded the “Scrum” model further to encompass three ant colonies (A, B, and C) that inhabit a 1-D torus; this allowed for investigation of multi-directional conflicts (Figure 2). Our model, however, does not account for birth & death rates, food availability, or foraging behavior. 1759 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2. Colony placement on 1-D torus Colony A (blue) fights with Colony B (pink) at territory boundary x, Colony B fights with Colony C (yellow) at territory boundary y, and Colony C fights with Colony A territory boundary z. Territory boundaries are denoted as vertical dashed lines. In our experiment, the torus has a total length of 15 meters, with each of the three colonies assigned 5 meters of initial territory to control (Figure 2). Territory size for each colony is defined as the sum of the distances to the territory boundaries on either side. To establish a control, we ran simulations in which all colonies exhibit monodomous behavior; each colony inhabited a single nest and was assigned the same biomass, measured 1760 RANGE in number of ants per colony. All colonies were placed in the center of their respective territories, with territory boundaries x, y, and z symmetrically located between them (Figure 2). As expected, the territory boundaries between the colonies remain static over time, indicating equilibrium under monodomous competition. Next, we introduced polydomous behavior by dividing Colony A into N subnests such that total biomass was preserved: A1+A2+…+AN=B=C. In this model, the A subnests do not share nestmates or exchange information about the landscape. They do, however, recognize each other as members of the same colony and do not compete for territory among themselves. This colony structure represents a decrease in intraspecies aggression— a characteristic observed in many supercolonial species— and allows us to investigate how spatial organization affects territory size and control. To investigate possible division strategies utilized by polydomous ants, we developed functions to split the biomass of A into 1761 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH randomly or evenly sized subnests, and functions to place these nests randomly or evenly within the A territory. We simulated each combination of splitting and placement strategies, and measured the effects on the territory size of Colonies A, B, and C as a function of the number of A subnests present (Figure 3A-D). For consistency, the A subnests were placed within 1 meter of the center of their territory for all strategies (Figure 3E-H). For the even splitting and even placement of A nests (Figure 3A), the territory size of B and C are symmetric. This is a result of ordered placement on the 1-D torus— the changes in the territory size of A will have equal effects on the territory boundaries y and z, and therefore equal effects on colonies B and C, resulting in what appears to be only two lines in Figure 3A. For functions that involved randomness, we took the average over 20 trials to reduce noise (Figure 3B, C, and D). For the random splitting and even placement of A subnests in Figure 3B, biomass was distributed relatively uniformly across the landscape. In Figure 3D, however, 1762 RANGE random splitting and random placement led to uneven biomass distribution and increased variance in territory outcomes. Additionally, the variance in N=1 and N=2 in Figure 3D is attributed to random fluctuations and the inherent symmetry of the 1-D torus. 1763 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 3. Strategies for splitting and placement of polydomous A subnests Polydomous Colony A tends to gain territory when 2 ≤ N ≤ 3 (highlighted in yellow). Panels A-D show territory size for different strategies as a function of increasing A subnests. A. Even splitting and even placement B. Random splitting and even placement C. Even splitting and random placement D. Random splitting and random placement. The variance when N=1 and N=2 is due to random chance and symmetry of the 1-D torus. Panels E-H show example placements of A subnests for each strategy when N=3. E. Even splitting and even placement F. Random splitting and even placement G. Even splitting and random placement H. Random splitting and random placement RESULTS We found that in most strategies, polydomous Colony A outcompetes monodomous colonies B and C when 2 ≤ N ≤ 3 (Figure 3A-C, highlighted in yellow). In contrast, Figure 3D shows that complete randomness does not result in territory gain for polydomous Colony A. This tells us that strategic organization, rather than multiple nests at random, contributes to the success of polydomy. With this in mind, we also see that when N > 4, polydomous Colony A does not show a competitive advantage against colonies B and C in any strategy (Figure 3A-D), indicating that sparsely spreading 1764 RANGE colony biomass over a large area does not incur an advantage to polydomous Colony A. To further explore mechanisms that contribute to the success of A, we investigated the allocation of the different ant types when polydomous A is outcompeting monodomous colonies B and C. Specifically, we focused on the case of even splitting and even placement of A subnests when N=3 (Figure 4). Figure 4 presents a matrix visualization of the allocation of each ant type within the three A subnests, and colonies B and C. Notably, when colonies B and C are losing territory to polydomous Colony A, they allocate substantially more biomass to Traveling ants at the shared y boundary (Figure 4, stars). This trend suggests that as A gains territory, it exerts territorial pressure on colonies B and C, forcing them to redirect their resources towards competing with each other. 1765 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 4. Ant type & allocation for N=3 When polydomous Colony A is gaining territory, monodomous colonies B and C are directing most of their biomass to the shared boundary, y, between them (yellow stars). Interestingly, the number of Battling ants was lower than we had hypothesized. After revisiting the 1766 RANGE differential equations (Box 1), we identified two likely causes. First, from the values proposed in Adler et al. (2018) the rate of joining the scrum (ɑ) is notably less than the rate of leaving the scrum (δb), resulting in the net decrease in Battling ants over time (Table 2). Second, given the assigned velocity of ants, the distance to the battle results in a substantial delay in ant participation (Table 2). Together, these parameters likely account for the unexpectedly low number of ants in the Battling class Following this, we explored the optimal ratio of dividing A subnests when polydomous Colony A outperforms monodomous colonies B and C. We first evaluated a strategy in which two A subnests were placed symmetrically within the A territory (Figure 5). In Figure 5, we see territory size of colonies A, B, and C, as a function of increasing splitting proportions (P). When P=0 all of A’s biomass is biased towards the x boundary, and when P=1, all of A’s biomass is biased towards the z boundary (right box). Our findings showed that when a small amount of biomass is allocated away from the main subnest (P≅0.15 or 0.95), A does not gain territory against colonies B or C. With two evenly 1767 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH divided A subnests, however, polydomous Colony A effectively outcompeted its monodomous competition. Figure 5. Territory size for different increasing proportions of A when N=2 When P=0.5 (A1 = A2), polydomous Colony A outcompetes monodomous colonies B and C. We then examined the optimal placement of the two evenly divided A subnests within the territory and found that closer proximity to the x and z territory boundaries resulted in territorial gain against colonies B and C (results not shown). Subsequently, we evaluated the optimal splitting of A subnests when N=3 (Figure 6). We observed that 1768 RANGE polydomous Colony A gained the most territory when the three subnests were nearly evenly split, or when the middle subnest received no biomass, concentrating resources towards the x and z territory boundaries. Figure 6. Territory of A when N=3 When polydomous Colony A is split into three evenly sized subnests, or two equally sized subnests placed close to competing colonies, they gained the most territory. P1 denotes the A subnest closest to the z boundary, while P3 denotes the A subnest closest to the x boundary. Territory size of polydomous Colony A is denoted as z. These results suggest that polydomous Colony A does 1769 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH not benefit from allocating a small portion of biomass away from the main colony. In field studies of ant reproduction, this strategy aligns with dependent colony founding; specifically, reproduction by budding in L. humile, listed as one of the world’s top 100 most invasive species (“Linepithema humile”, n.d.-b). Furthermore, the advantageous placement of A subnests near the territory boundaries reflects behavior seen in invasive wood ants. In these species, certain nests are dedicated to foraging and are established close to resources, while other nests are located centrally and focused on reproduction (“Polydomy,” n.d.-c). Our model reflects these spatial and functional patterns of polydomy observed in real-world invasive ant species. Polydomy is a key component of the strategy employed by supercolonial ant species. These ants maintain many interconnecting nests, each potentially housing multiple queens, which allows them to grow and spread quickly in new environments (“Supercolonies,” n.d.-d). By understanding the advantages of polydomy, we hope to shed light on why supercolonial ants are so effective as invasive ant species, and someday combat the effects they have on native environments. 1770 RANGE ISSUES ENCOUNTERED Initially, the model was implemented in R, which was sufficient for modeling monodomous conflict. When we tried to expand the model to include multiple subnets, however, we overwhelmed the computational capacity of the program. Although I was previously familiar with R in the context of coursework and research, transitioning to more advanced programming in a new language proved difficult. I noticed some similarities between R and Python, but the learning curve was steep given my limited programming background. To continue the project, I also enrolled in additional math classes, including linear algebra, differential equations, and math biology. I applied the knowledge gained from these classes to the model in Python and although it slowed the project down initially, I now feel more prepared for real world analysis. While coding the model, the largest recurring issue was keeping matrix and vector shapes consistent between functions. This became especially challenging when calculating large sets of differential equations with various subfunctions. 1771 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH In the future, I will be more disciplined about noting the dimensions of each matrix & vector used in calculations in order to expedite troubleshooting in this area. MAIN FINDINGS We found that polydomous colonies tend to do better than their monodomous counterparts when they evenly split into two or three groups within their territory, and establish their nests close to the territory boundaries. This pattern supports the idea that polydomy may contribute to the success of invasive supercolonial ant species. FURTHER RESEARCH Simple additions to the current model would include adding noise or random perturbations in the initial placement of monodomous colonies B and C to more accurately simulate colony location. In the future, however, we would like to expand the model to two dimensions, add in foraging ants and food resources, add birth and death rates of the colony, and see how this 1772 RANGE affects ant allocation, boundary movement. territory size, and ENDNOTES 1. Invasiveness categories are defined as follows: • “Highly invasive” – species that are essentially or actually world-wide in distribution. • “Invasive” – species that are very wide spread across multiple regions, but are not worldwide. • “Limited Invasive” – species that occur at a limited number of sites outside their native range and often at low densities or with restricted distributions. • “Secretly invasive” – species that occur outside their native range but in small numbers at low densities and often in non-disturbed habitats. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adler, F. R., Quinonez, S., Plowes, N., & Adams, E. S. (2018). Mechanistic models of conflict between ant colonies and their consequences for territory scaling. The American Naturalist, https://doi.org/10.1086/698121 1773 192(2), 204–216. OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Holway, D. A., Lach, L., Suarez, A. V., Tsutsui, N. D., & Case, T. J. (2002). The causes and consequences of ant invasions. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 33(1), 181–233. https://doi.org/10.1146/ annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150444 Invasive ants – antwiki. AntWiki. (n.d.-a). https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Invasive_Ants Julian, G. E., Fewell, J. H., Gadau, J., Johnson, R. A., & Larrabee, D. (2002). Genetic determination of the Queen caste in an ant hybrid zone. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(12),8157–8160. doi:10.1073/ pnas.112222099 Linepithema humile – AntWiki. AntWiki. (n.d.b). https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/ Linepithema_humile Mullen, R. J., Monekosso, D. N., & Remagnino, P. (2013). Ant algorithms for Image Feature Extraction. Expert Systems with Applications, 40(11), 4315–4332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.01.020 Polydomy – AntWiki. AntWiki. https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Polydomy 1774 (n.d.-c). RANGE Ross, K. G., Vargo, E. L., & Keller, L. (1996). Social Evolution in a new environment: The case of introduced fire ants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(7), 3021–3025.doi:10.1073/ pnas.93.7.3021 Supercolonies. AntWiki. (n.d.-d). https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Supercolonies Tsutsui, N. D., & Suarez, A. V. (2003). The colony structure and population biology of invasive ants. Conservation Biology, 17(1), j.1523-1739.2003.02018.x 1775 48–58. doi:10.1046/ OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 1776 RANGE 110 Illness and Healthcare Experiences Among Uninsured Free Clinic Patients DANAYA AMORNNIMIT AND AKIKO KAMIMURA Faculty Mentor: Akiko Kamimura (Sociology, University of Utah) Free clinics serve as a critical safety net for medically underserved populations, 1777 including uninsured OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH individuals, racial and ethnic minorities, and undocumented immigrants (Darnell, 2010). While previous studies have explored patient satisfaction in these settings (Ellet et al., 2010; Kamimura et al., 2015), less is known about how patients interpret and narrate their illness experiences. This study examines how free clinic patients make sense of their health and healthcare encounters through a narrative medicine framework. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 21 adult patients at a free clinic in the Rocky Mountain region, including both English- and Spanish-speaking participants. The McGill Illness Narrative Interview (MINI) (Groleau et al., 2006) guided the interviews, and thematic analysis was used to identify shared experiences, beliefs, and emotional responses related to illness and patient-provider interaction. Participants described a range of chronic health conditions, including diabetes, cancer, and orthopedic issues. Their narratives reflected emotional distress, stigma, low self-esteem, and family disruption resulting from illness. Many patients expressed feelings of isolation and described the mental toll of navigating chronic disease while lacking adequate resources. While most reported high satisfaction with care, some noted 1778 RANGE language barriers, short consultation times, and limited follow-up as ongoing challenges. These findings highlight the complex psychosocial dimensions of illness that often remain invisible in traditional biomedical care. Incorporating narrativebased approaches into free clinic settings may help providers better understand patients lived experiences, foster trust, and enhance the delivery of patient-centered care. Future research should continue to explore illness narratives among underserved populations, particularly in resource-limited settings, to inform more equitable and responsive models of care. BIBLIOGRAPHY Braveman, P., & Gottlieb, L. (2014). The social determinants of health: It’s time to consider the causes of the causes. Public Health Reports, 129(1_suppl2), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/00333549141291S206 Charon, R. (2012). At the membranes of care: Stories in narrative medicine. Academic Medicine, 87(3), 342–347. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182446fbb Darnell, J. S. (2010). Free clinics in the United States: A nationwide survey. Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(11), 946. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2010.107 1779 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Ellett, J. D., Campbell, J. A., & Gonsalves, W. C. (2010). Patient satisfaction in a student-run free medical clinic. Family Medicine, 42(1), 16–18. Groleau, D., Young, A., & Kirmayer, L. J. (2006). The McGill Illness Narrative Interview (MINI): An Interview Schedule to Elicit Meanings and Modes of Reasoning Related to Illness Experience. Transcultural Psychiatry, 43(4), 671–691. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1363461506070796 Kamimura, A., Ashby, J., Myers, K., Nourian, M. M., & Christensen, N. (2015). Satisfaction with Healthcare Services Among Free Clinic Patients. Journal of Community Health, 40(1), 62–72. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10900-014-9897-8 Kleinman, A. (1988). The illness narratives: Suffering, healing, and the human condition. Basic Books. 1780 RANGE 111 Research Reflection by Danaya Amornnimit DANAYA AMORNNIMIT Faculty Mentor: Akiko Kamimura (Sociology, University of Utah) My undergraduate research at the Maliheh Free Clinic has profoundly influenced my education and career aspirations. I explored Narrative Medicine and its storytelling’s role in enhancing patient care and 1781 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH strengthening provider-patient relationships. This research deepened my understanding of healthcare disparities, particularly the challenges faced by underserved communities in accessing quality medical care. This research equipped me with valuable skills in qualitative analysis, patient-centered methodologies, and cross-cultural communication. It reinforced my passion for integrating social determinants of health into medical practice and strengthened my commitment to advocacy and compassionate care. This experience has provided me with a strong foundation in healthcare equity and narrative-based medicine, preparing me to serve as a dedicated physician assistant, ensuring equitable and compassionate care for underserved communities. 1782 RANGE 112 Research Reflection: Conducting Eyewitness Identification Research KARINA CEDENO HERNANDEZ Faculty Mentor: Kara Moore (Psychology, University of Utah) Conducting research on eyewitness identification has been a challenging and intellectually rewarding experience. Being part of the Cognition, Attention, Law, and Memory Lab, allowed me along with my 1783 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Mentor, Dr. Moore, to develop a research project that focused on the relationship between eyewitness identification accuracy and response time, using data from a previous study conducted by my mentor, where virtual reality (VR) was used to simulate an ecologically valid eyewitness experience. The original study aimed to investigate the relationship between eyewitness identification accuracy and their confidence statements under pristine conditions using virtual reality, and whether participant age influenced this relationship. I was lucky to be part of this original study as a Research assistant. I was able to engage in various stages of the research project pipeline, including collecting data with children at Discovery Gateway Children’s Museum and The Leonardo, collaborating with Dr. Moore and the lab’s graduate student, Dara Zwemer, to develop materials, recruit participants, assist in project management, and contribute to the data analysis phase. While working at various data collection sites off the University of Utah campus, including the Discovery Gateway Children’s Museum and The Leonardo Museum, I managed and monitored the exhibits, recruited participants, and collected data. Recruiting young participants required a lot of training and patience. The use of virtual reality not only added 1784 RANGE ecological validity to the study, but it also became one of the main factors attracting participants. Having this experience significantly expanded my skills in both technological use and experimental research designs. One important thing that I learned from collecting data is the importance of ethical and confidential practices when conducting research. Being a research assistant involves being responsible and upholding not only your research training but also considering all of these practices to create valid and useful real-world research. In general, working on this project deepened my understanding of the cognitive processes that underlie memory and are key to understanding and improving eyewitness identification processes. This project also strengthened my practical research skills. From learning how to use Virtual Reality to handling realworld data and conducting my own secondary research investigation, each step pushed me beyond what I could have learned in the classroom, making me think outside the box and more like a researcher. This experience changed my undergraduate studies. BIBLIOGRAPHY Brewer, N., & Day, K. (2005). The confidence-accuracy and decision latency-accuracy relationships in children’s 1785 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH eyewitness identification. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 12(1), 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1375/ pplt.2005.12.1.119 Dunlevy, J. R., & Cherryman, J. (2012). Target-Absent Eyewitness Identification Line-Ups: Why Do Children Like to Choose. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 20(2), 284–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13218719.2012.671584 Dunning, D., & Perretta, S. (2002). Automaticity and eyewitness accuracy: A 10- to 12-second rule for distinguishing accurate from inaccurate positive identifications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(5), 951–962. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.5.951 Moore, K.N., Zwemer, D.U., Lampinen, J. M., Pennecamp, P., Nyman, T.J., Santilla, P., Korkman, J., & Antfolk, J. [Submitted for publication] Child eyewitnesses’ expressions of certainty are not necessarily accurate. Nyman, T. J., Lampinen, J. M., Antfolk, J., Korkman, J., & Santtila, P. (2019). The distance threshold of reliable eyewitness identification. Law and Human Behavior, 43(6), 527-541. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000342 1786 RANGE Pozzulo, J.D., & Lindsay, R.C. L. (1998). Identification accuracy of children versus adults: a meta-analysis. Law and Human Behavior, 22(5), 549–570. https://doi.org/ 10.1023/A:1025739514042 Quigley-McBride, A., & Wells, G. L. (2023). Eyewitness confidence and decision time reflect identification accuracy in actual police lineups. Law and Human Behavior, 47(2), 333-347. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/lhb0000518 Weber, N., Brewer, N., Wells, G. L., Semmler, C., & Keast, A. (2004). Eyewitness identification accuracy and response latency: The unruly 10-12-second rule. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 10(3), 139-147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.10.3.139 Wixted, J. T., & Wells, G. L. (2017). The relationship between eyewitness confidence and identification accuracy: A new synthesis. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(1), 10-65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1529100616686966 1787 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 113 Exploring County-Level Disparities in Child Food Insecurity and Meal Participation in Utah HOLDEN CHENEY Faculty Mentor: Richard Fowles (Economics, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Using five regression models based on 2022 countylevel data I analyzed the relationship between child food 1788 RANGE insecurity and factors such as cost per meal, unemployment, race, housing, education, and school enrollment demographics. I then used a panel dataset from 2018 to 2022 to test the impact of school lunch participation over time, controlling for both county and year fixed effects. Together these models provide a comprehensive understanding of how school based food programs interact with local economic and demographic factors. The central research question guiding my work is: To what extent do school lunch participation rates and local demographic and economic characteristics explain disparities in child food insecurity across Utah counties, and what evidence is there that universal free lunch policies help reduce such disparities? INTRODUCTION Access to adequate nutritious food is one of the most basic needs in order for children to thrive physically, emotionally, and academically. Yet despite widespread efforts to address poverty and hunger in the United States child food insecurity remains a persistent issue, disproportionately affecting low income communities and exacerbating educational health inequalities. According to the Utah Food Bank over 1 in 6 children 1789 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH in the state are food insecure, with significant variation across counties (Parkinson, 2024). These disparities are not just troubling from a moral standpoint, but they pose long term challenges to economic mobility and public health. National school meal programs like the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and School Breakfast Program (SBP) were established to address these gaps by offering low- or no-cost meals to students from low-income households. Participation in these programs is associated with improved food access and a reduction in health and educational disparities among children (Gundersen et al., 2012; Bartfeld et al., 2009). Yet despite the proven benefits of these programs, barriers persist. Not all eligible children participate, and eligibility requirements may exclude families experiencing food insecurity who fall above the income cutoff. During the COVID-19 pandemic, federal waivers briefly allowed universal access to school meals for all students, eliminating these restrictions. However, this policy expired in 2022, returning school meal access to a tiered, means-tested model. This policy change prompted concerns from school administrators and public health advocates in Utah, who worry that the return to selective eligibility may worsen food insecurity among vulnerable children. 1790 RANGE The following research is situated within a growing body of literature that investigates the relationship between school meal participation and child food insecurity. While numerous national studies have shown that participation in NSLP and other meal programs is associated with improved food security there is limited research that examines this relationship at the county level within Utah. Additionally, there is a lack of empirical evidence assessing how the temporary shift to universal free lunch during the pandemic affected child food insecurity in Utah counties. This research contributes to the literature by combining cross-sectional and panel data analysis to investigate the extent to which variation in school lunch participation, socioeconomic characteristics indicators, explain and differences demographic in child food insecurity across utah counties. It also evaluates whether the universal school lunch policy in 2021 is associated with a measurable reduction in child food insecurity. LITERATURE REVIEW Food insecurity among children in the United States remains a persistent public health and policy concern, with nearly 7.2 million children living in food-insecure households (USDA, 2025). This means nearly 1 in 5 1791 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH children are experiencing food insecurity across the United States. Despite federal nutrition programs aimed at reducing hunger, disparities persist across regions and demographic groups particularly among low-income families and rural communities. There is extensive literature that shows the detrimental impacts that low food security has on children’s physical health, nutritional, psychological, behavioral, and educational outcomes (Chilton et al., 2009; Gundersen & Kreider, 2009; Huang, Matta Oshima, & Kim, 2010). These studies reveal that food-insecure children are more likely to experience poor physical development, higher rates of chronic illness, emotional distress, and difficulties in academic performance compared to their food- secure peers. The National School Lunch Program is a key component of the U.S. food assistance system, aimed at supporting the nutritional needs of low-income school-aged children and addressing the consequences of childhood undernutrition. Operated by the USDA but implemented at the state level, the NSLP program offers free lunches to students from households earning up to 130% of the federal poverty line, and reduced-price lunches to those with incomes between 130% and 185% of the poverty threshold (Bartfeld, 2013). 1792 RANGE There is a limited amount of promising evidence that the NSLP plays a role in reducing the risk of food insecurity for poor households (Gundersen, Kreider, & Pepper, 2012; Kabbani & Kmeid, 2005). Under their strongest assumptions, Gundersen et al. (2012) estimated that participation in the NSLP reduces food insecurity among eligible children by approximately 1 to 9 percentage points, suggesting a modest but meaningful impact. Although the National School Lunch Program is a major federal initiative to address child hunger, relatively few studies have directly evaluated its effects on household food security. Existing research suggests that participation in the NSLP is linked to a reduced likelihood of food insecurity in households with schoolaged children. For households that experienced hunger during the year, participation in the NSLP was associated with a 33% lower likelihood of being food insecure during the last month of the year. This effect was strongest among households eligible for free meals, suggesting the NSLP provides meaningful short-term protection against severe food hardship (Kabbani & Kmeid, 2005). Additional findings have connected the program to broader improvements in children’s health outcomes, 1793 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH including better general health and healthier weight status as well as a measurable decline of around 6 percent in low food security among eligible participants (Gunderson et al. 2012). A more recent study indicates that children who receive school meals through the NSLP experience higher food security compared to those who either pay full price or do not participate. Using an instrumental variables approach, the authors estimate that NSLP participation is associated with a -0.70 marginal reduction in the probability of food insecurity (Arteaga & Heflin, 2014). In this study food security scores are derived from a standardized 18 item USDA questionnaire, based on reported household experiences like skipped meals or limited food access, where higher scores reflect a higher probability of food insecurity. In addition to the National School Lunch Program, other school-based meal initiatives have been shown to reduce food insecurity. Bartfeld et al., using an instrumental variable approach, found that the presence of the school breakfast program in schools was associated with a reduced likelihood of marginal food insecurity (2009). Similarly, Bartfeld and Dunifon analyzing data from the Current Population Survey observed that states with higher participation in summer meal programs had 1794 RANGE lower household food insecurity rates among families with children (2006). Considering this information, my initial hypothesis posits that expanding participation in school meal programs – especially through universal free lunch – can reduce child food insecurity across counties in Utah. While reviewing relevant scholarship I found a significant portion of existing literature is nationally focused and often examines federal programs like the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) or the School Breakfast Program (SBP) in a broader context. However, relatively few studies investigate how these programs affect child food insecurity at the state or county level, particularly in under researched states like Utah. There also appears to be a lack of recent countylevel empirical research that incorporates socioeconomic and demographic variation. Much of the literature highlights associations between food assistance programs and food security outcomes but does not fully capture the local nuances or include updated data in the post-pandemic period. This research seeks to address these gaps by using county-level data from Utah between 2018 and 2022 to evaluate how child food insecurity rates are shaped by school meal program participation as well as 1795 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH demographic, educational, and economic indicators. Through a series of cross-sectional and panel data models, this study examines the extent to which schoolbased food programs, including participation in the NSLP, are associated with reduced food insecurity. By situating these findings in the context of local variation and post-pandemic recovery, this paper contributes updated and policy- relevant evidence to support statelevel efforts such as the expansion of universal free lunch programs. When it comes to demographic factors research has repeatedly shown a strong independent relationship between owning a home and lower vulnerability to food insecurity. A study by St- Germain & Tarasuk found that food insecurity prevalence was highest among market renters at 28.5% followed by homeowners with a mortgage at 11.6% and mortgage free homeowners at 4.3%. Their research concluded that “homeowners had substantially lower adjusted odds of food insecurity than market renters” (St-Germain & Tarasuk). Recent national research by the USDA highlights how key household characteristics such as parental education and employment status significantly shape the risk of child food insecurity. In particular children living in 1796 RANGE households headed by an unemployed adult were found to be three and a half times more likely to experience food insecurity than those in households with a fulltime employed adult (Coleman-Jensen, McFall, & Nord, 2019). This finding underscores the critical role stable employment plays in buffering families from economic vulnerability and food insecurity. Similarly educational attainment has emerged as one of the strongest predictors of household food insecurity. According to the same USDA report educational attainment of adults in a household is closely linked to the food security status of children. Households in which no adult has completed high school experience significantly higher rates of child food insecurity compared to those where at least one adult has a college degree. For example, national survey data from 2010-2011 found that the prevalence of food insecurity among children was more than six times higher in households without a high school graduate than in those where an adult held a four-year college degree (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2019). These findings suggest that lower levels of education may contribute to economic vulnerability thereby increasing the risk of insufficient access to nutritious food for children. This research supports the inclusion of variables such as 1797 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH unemployment and high school education attainment in my models. Research by Chaparro et al. provides strong evidence linking structural racism and food in security outcomes, showing that state-level socioeconomic racial inequities are significantly associated with differences in food insecurity risk across racial groups (2022). Using pooled data from the Current Population Survey and the American Community Survey (2015-2019), the authors examined racial disparities in income, education, unemployment, earnings, and home ownership as indicators of structural racism. Their findings show that for Black households higher state level inequities in income, unemployment, and home ownership are associated with significantly greater odds of food insecurity. Conversely, among White households those same inequities were associated with reduced odds of food insecurity, suggesting that White populations may benefit from systems that structurally disadvantage others. These findings reinforce the notion that food insecurity is not just a matter of iindividual or household-level disadvantage but is also shaped by broader systems of inequality. While Chaparro et al. focuses on adult households nationally, the disparities they document may similarly influence child specific 1798 RANGE outcomes at more localized levels, particularly where structural disadvantage intersects with race. In the context of my thesis these findings support the inclusion of racial and ethnic demographic variables in modeling county-level variation in child food insecurity in Utah. National-level research has consistently shown that American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) populations experience disproportionately high rates of food insecurity. Jernigan et al. (2017) analyzed data from the Current Population Survey–Food Security Supplement and found that AI/AN individuals were significantly more likely to experience food insecurity compared to White individuals, even after controlling for key socioeconomic variables. Over a ten-year span from 2000 to 2010, about 25% of AI/ANs were food insecure–nearly double the rate of their White counterparts. The study also highlighted important geographic nuances revealing that AI/ANs living in urban areas were more likely to experience food insecurity than those in rural or reservation communities, possibly due to social isolation and reduced access to culturally appropriate support services in urban environments. These findings emphasize the need to consider racial and spatial disparities when addressing food insecurity, 1799 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH particularly in states like Utah where rural tribal communities face unique economic and geographic challenges (Jernigan et al., 2017). Families raising children with disabilities face a heightened risk of food insecurity due to the compounded financial and caregiving demands that disability often entails. Sonik et al. , using data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), found that households with children with disabilities were significantly more likely to experience household food security, very low household food security, and child food insecurity, even after adjusting for income and other demographic factors (2016). The study attributes this increased vulnerability to both direct costs– such as out-of-pocket healthcare spending– and indirect costs, including reduced employment opportunities for caregivers. Their findings show that having a child with a disability increased the odds of experiencing food insecurity by 40%, reinforcing the idea that disability can magnify economic strain within families and disrupt access to nutritious food. Despite higher rates of participation in SNAP among these households, the safety net remains insufficient to eliminate disparities in food access. These results suggest that disability status is a crucial predictor of food 1800 RANGE insecurity and should be considered in any comprehensive policy approach aimed to alleviate hunger among children. DATA SOURCES This research draws on multiple publicly available datasets to construct a comprehensive, county-level profile of child food insecurity and its potential predictors across Utah’s 29 counties. The primary source is Feeding America’s Map the Meal Gap (MMG), which provides annual estimates of food insecurity rates and local meal costs. MMG data is widely used in hungerrelated research and policymaking. To supplement MMG data, I incorporated socioeconomic indicators from the U.S. Census Bureau and the Bureau of Labor Statistics. These include median household income, occupied housing attainment—factors unemployment shares, consistently rate, and linked renter- educational to food insecurity in the literature. Additionally, county-level education data from the Utah State Board of Education (USBE) provided annual enrollment counts across key student demographics, including race/ethnicity, economically disadvantaged status, disability status, homelessness, and English learner 1801 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH designation. These raw counts were transformed into population shares relative to each county’s total K–12 enrollment to enable standardized cross-county comparisons. Finally, to assess changes over time, I constructed a panel dataset spanning 2018–2022 by combining MMG’s annual child food insecurity estimates with USBEreported participation rates in free and reduced-price lunch programs. METHODOLOGY AND REGRESSION STRATEGY This study utilizes a combination of cross-sectional and panel data models to analyze the determinants of child food insecurity across Utah’s 29 counties. The primary estimation approach is Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression using 2022 county-level data, followed by fixed effects panel models covering the years 2018 to 2022. The modeling strategy proceeds in stages to isolate the effects of specific predictors: • Model 1 assesses the relationship between child food insecurity and core poverty indicators, including the share of foodinsecure individuals below the SNAP threshold, the share of food- insecure children 1802 RANGE in households below 185% of the federal poverty line, and the average cost per meal in each county. ◦ Model 1b replaces the SNAP ≤ threshold variable with the share of food-insecure individuals above the SNAP threshold, enabling an examination of food insecurity among households excluded from federal nutrition assistance. • Model 2 introduces additional structural variables—median household income, unemployment rate, and renter-occupied housing share—to evaluate how broader economic conditions shape food insecurity. ◦ Model 2b excludes median income to reduce multicollinearity and isolate the explanatory power of other structural factors such as unemployment and housing tenure. • Model 3 incorporates educational attainment and English learner share to test whether low education and linguistic vulnerability contribute to food insecurity at the county level. 1803 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH • Model 4 focuses on the demographic composition of K-12 student populations. It includes the county-level share of students who are Hispanic, Black, American Indian, economically disadvantaged, disabled, or experiencing homelessness. ◦ Model 4b focuses on the demographic composition of K-12 student populations, excluding economic disadvantage. ◦ A set of bivariate regressions complements Model 4, analyzing the individual association between each demographic group share and child food insecurity in isolation. • Model 5 combines the most relevant predictors from prior models into a comprehensive specification that includes indicators of economic hardship, educational attainment, and demographic vulnerability. To capture temporal dynamics, I constructed a fiveyear panel dataset using annual child food insecurity estimates and school meal participation rates. I employ fixed effects regression to control for time-invariant 1804 RANGE differences across counties, along with year fixed effects to account for statewide shifts–particularly in the implementation and expiration of universal school meals during the pandemic. This regression framework allows for both crosssectional and longitudinal analyses of how structural, demographic, and policy-based factors interact to shape child food insecurity across the state. RESULTS Model 1 In my initial model I sought to uncover the relationship between key poverty indicators and the rate of child food insecurity at the county level in Utah. To do so I developed a linear regression model using child food insecurity rate as the dependent variable. The independent variables in this model include the percentage of food insecure individuals living at or below the SNAP income eligibility threshold, the percentage of food-insecure children living in households below 185% of the federal poverty level, and the average cost per meal in each county. 1805 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The coefficient estimate for the percentage of food insecure individuals below the SNAP threshold is 0.236 (p < 0.001), indicating a statistically significant and positive relationship. Specifically, a 1 percentage point increase in the share of food insecure individuals who are income eligible for snap with a 0.236 point increase in the child food insecurity rate. This supports the hypothesis that counties with a higher concentration of deeply poor, food insecure households face more acute childhood hunger. The coefficient for the percentage of food insecure children in households under 185% FPL is 0.0166, but this effect was not statistically significant (p = 0.75). Similarly, the cost per meal variable had a negative coefficient of –0.0187, suggesting that higher food prices might correspond with lower food insecurity—an unexpected and likely spurious relationship that was not statistically significant (p = 0.15). One explanation for this could be that counties with higher food costs are often wealthier or urban areas with greater access to safety nets, skewing the direction of the correlation. 1806 RANGE The R-squared value of the model is 0.77, indicating that approximately 77% of the variance in child food insecurity across Utah counties is explained by the model’s three predictors. This relatively high R-squared demonstrates that the core economic indicators selected for Model 1 capture a large portion of the county-level differences in food insecurity. Furthermore, the F-statistic was statistically significant, confirming the overall explanatory power of the model. Model 1b Model 1b was developed to assess whether food insecurity among children is significantly associated with the share of food insecure households that fall above the income threshold for SNAP eligibility. This regression model excludes those at or below the snap cutoff to explore how child food insecurity behaves when need exists among households not traditionally targeted by federal assistance. The model regresses county-level child food insecurity rates against two independent variables: the percentage of food insecure individuals whose 1807 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH household income is above the snap threshold and cost per meal. The results indicate that the percentage of foodinsecure individuals above the SNAP threshold is significantly and negatively associated with county level child food insecurity (β = –0.2517, p < 0.001). This suggests that counties where a greater share of food insecure individuals are ineligible for snap tend to have lower child food insecurity rates overall. This may reflect differences in access to alternative resources, greater stability among the near-poor, or the ability to bridge food gaps with private means–even in the absence of federal assistance. The fact that higher shares of food insecure households that don’t qualify for SNAP corresponds with lower child food insecurity may also suggest that child hunger is more concentrated in counties where food insecurity is dominated by those with the lowest incomes who are more deeply disadvantaged despite qualifying for federal programs. The cost per meal variable was again negative but not statistically significant echoing previous models 1808 RANGE in suggesting that food prices alone do not predict child food insecurity when controlling for income related variables. Model 1b demonstrated a strong overall fit with an R-squared of 0.765 indicating that over 76% of the variance in child food insecurity is explained by these predictors. While past studies have emphasized the protective role of food assistance programs for low-income families this model points to a gap in coverage for those just outside the eligibility threshold. It reinforces the need for more expansive policies that do not rely on income-based cutoffs to identify needs. Especially given that many food insecure children live in households that exceed those thresholds but still struggle to access sufficient nutrition. Model 2 The results from Model 2 show that median household income is a statistically significant predictor of child food insecurity (β = –1.20e-06, p < 0.01), even when controlling for other factors. The negative sign confirms that 1809 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH counties with higher median incomes tend to have lower rates of child food insecurity which is consistent with existing literature linking family income with access to basic needs. This finding strengthens the argument that structural economic inequality at the county level is a key determinant of food access for children. However other variables in the model such as unemployment rate and renter share were not statistically significant in this specification. Notably the coefficient for % FI < SNAP threshold was positive( β = 0.068) but not significant (p = 0.33), and the cost per meal remained insignificant as in previous models. Despite this the overall model fit was strong with an R-squared of 0.87 and a statistically significant F-test (p < 0.001), indicating that the full set of predictors accounts for a large share of the variation in food insecurity across counties. Model 2b To isolate the effects of other structural and program-relevant variables I estimated a second version of the model that excludes median 1810 RANGE household income. This adjustment allowed us to see whether unemployment, renter share, and poverty related food insecurity indicators would emerge as significant predictors on their own. The results reveal that the unemployment rate becomes marginally significant (β = 0.47, p = 0.05), indicating that counties in Utah with higher unemployment tend to experience higher rates of child food insecurity. This aligns with federal research from the USDA which found that children in households with unemployed adults were three and a half times more likely to face food insecurity (2022). Additionally, the % FI < SNAP threshold variable becomes more pronounced and approaches significance (β = 0.138, p = 0.086), suggesting a potential link between concentrated economic hardship and child hunger when income effects are not directly included. Although no other individual variables reached conventional levels of statistical significance the overall model retained strong explanatory power (R-squared = 0.81). These findings contribute to literature by 1811 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH confirming that income remains one of the most powerful predictors of food security even when other economic stressors like unemployment and rental housing share are considered. Removing income from the model revealed latent relationships between unemployment and food insecurity that are often masked in full economic models. This suggests that in lower income counties joblessness plays a critical role in shaping food outcomes for children. From a policy perspective the shift in significance between model 2 and 2b reinforces the need to design multifaceted interventions which include both income supports (tax credits, job programs, ect) and direct food access policies like universal school meals. These results validate concerns that the school meals eligibility threshold at 185% of poverty of the poverty line excludes many children at genuine risk of food insecurity. Model 3 The results of model 3 reveal that the percentage of food-insecure individuals below the SNAP 1812 RANGE threshold remains a key predictor (β = 0.173, p = 0.0569) with marginal significance at the 10% level. This finding is consistent with models 1 and 2b and reinforces the idea that extreme economic hardship is closely tied to food insecurity among children. Additionally, the unemployment rate again approached significance (β = 0.503, p = 0.0788), continuing to suggest that local labor market conditions play an important role in shaping food insecurity risk. These findings echo national research that links parental joblessness with food hardship and economic precarity, especially among children (USDA, 2022). However other variables–particularly those introduced in this model–were not statistically significant. The share of adults with less than a high school diploma (β = -0.197, p = 0.3181) and the English learner share (β = -0.0082, p = 0.9367) did not exhibit meaningful associations with county food insecurity in this specification. While these factors may still be important at the household level, their county-level effects were likely absorbed by stronger predictors like 1813 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH unemployment insecurity. and SNAP eligible food The model’s performance remained strong with an R-squared of 0.82, indicating that the included predictors collectively explain over 80% of the variation in county level child food insecurity. This suggests that despite some individual coefficients lacking statistical significance the broader combination of economic hardship indicators and food program thresholds provide a powerful explanation of the spatial disparities in food insecurity across utah counties. These results add nuance to existing literature by testing the relevance of educational attainment and language access barriers at a localized level. While prior studies have shown households headed by adults without high school degrees are far more likely to experience food insecurity this county level analysis found no such relationship when controlling for other factors. Similarly, while language barriers are often cited as barriers to benefit participation (Bartfeld, 2013), the inclusion of the English 1814 RANGE learner share variable did not improve model fit or predictive strength in this setting. The findings suggest that county level variation in food insecurity is better explained by direct measures of income and employment. Interventions aimed at boosting participation in food assistance programs like school meals should continue to focus on removing structural barriers like income thresholds and documentation requirements especially in communities with elevated unemployment or poverty rates. Model 4 Model 4 centers on the relationship between child food insecurity and the demographic composition of student populations across Utah counties. Drawing on research that links racial and ethnic disparities to differences in food access, as well as evidence highlighting the vulnerability of children with disabilities, experiencing homelessness, or classified as economically disadvantaged, this model evaluates how these factors vary in predictive strength when measured at the county level. 1815 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The full multivariate specification of model 4 includes shares of Hispanic, Black, and American Indian students, along with shares of students experiencing homelessness, students with disabilities, and those classified as economically disadvantaged. Among these the economically disadvantaged student share was statistically significant and positively associated with food insecurity (β = 0.277, p < 0.001). This suggests that counties with a higher proportion of economically disadvantaged students also experience substantially higher rates of child food insecurity, reinforcing well-documented links between low household income and reduced access to stable food sources. None of the racial or ethnic demographic shares reached statistical significance in the full model. Several other variables such as homelessness (β = –0.164, p = 0.778) and disability (β = – 0.109, p = 0.683), exhibited unexpected negative or null associations. These results may reflect multicollinearity or the small number of counties used in the regression which can suppress individual significance when multiple vulnerable groups are included simultaneously. 1816 RANGE To further examine the individual contribution of each variable a trimmed model excluding the economically disadvantaged share (Model 4b) was estimated. In this alternate model the disability share emerged as a significant predictor (β = 0.566, p = 0.047), which indicates that when not overshadowed by economic disadvantage the presence of students with disabilities correlates with higher levels of child food insecurity. This finding aligns with national research documenting higher food insecurity among households with children who have disabilities due to higher costs, reduced employment options for caregivers, and eligibility gaps in public benefits (Brucker et al., 2021). A series of bivariate regressions provided additional insight. The American Indian student share, while not significant in the multivariate model, had a significant positive association with child food insecurity when tested alone (β = 0.178, p = 0.022). This result underscores the disproportionate food insecurity burden in Utah’s tribal communities–particularly important given the geographic concentration 1817 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of tribal lands in more remote southeastern counties. This finding contributes to the broader literature of food insecurity disparities among indigenous populations (Jernigan et al. 2017). Other racial and ethnic bivariate regressions, including Hispanic, Black, and White shares were not statistically significant. Notably the Pacific Islander student share showed a marginally significant negative association (β = -2.07, p = 0.083) suggesting potential differences in food security outcomes or community level factors not fully captured in this dataset. Similarly the Asian share had a negative association that approached significance (β = -2.23, p = 0.070). While these results should be interpreted with caution due to small population sizes they may reflect localized support systems or cultural factors that merit further investigation. The bivariate model for the homeless student share revealed a significant and positive relationship with food insecurity (β = 0.466, p = 0.028), suggesting that when measured in isolation homelessness is indeed a relevant risk 1818 RANGE factor, though its predictive power was diminished when controlling for overlapping vulnerabilities in the multivariate model. The English Learner (ELL) share model did not show a significant association with food insecurity (p = 0.222), suggesting that language status alone may not be a strong determinant of food insecurity at the county level in Utah. Taken together the results of model 4 and its bivariate extensions highlight the complex and overlapping nature of demographic vulnerability. While not all individual population groups reached significance in the full model, several including students with disabilities, and American Indian students, and students experiencing homelessness displayed clear positive associations with food insecurity when examined independently. These findings contribute to the literature by demonstrating that county level child food insecurity in Utah is shaped not only by economic conditions but also by the composition of student populations who face intersecting barriers to access, inclusion, and opportunity. 1819 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH These results underscore the value of expanding universal school meal access as a strategy for reducing hunger across multiple vulnerable groups- not just those who qualify through conventional income thresholds. Additionally targeted outreach or supplemental support for districts with high concentrations of students with disabilities, tribal youth, and those experiencing homelessness could improve outcomes for populations at highest risk. Model 5 Model 5 brings together the most inclusive set of explanatory variables synthesizing economic need, educational attainment, and demographic vulnerability into a single regression model. This comprehensive model was designed to capture the broader social determinants of child food insecurity by combining key economic indicators with county-level population characteristics. Specifically, the model includes the percentage of food-insecure individuals below the SNAP threshold, unemployment rate, cost per meal, renter share, educational 1820 RANGE attainment, and shares of American Indian, homeless, and disabled student populations. The results of model 5 reveal that only one predictor–% food insecure below the SNAP threshold– is statistically significant at the 0.001 level (β= 0.2459, p < 0.001). This variable consistently emerges as the most robust predictor across all models reaffirming that counties with a larger proportion of extremely poor food-insecure residents experience substantially higher food insecurity rates. This finding underscores the central role that deep poverty plays in driving hunger among children, and aligns with prior research that emphasizes the heightened vulnerability of households near or below federal assistance thresholds. Although the other variables in the model– such as unemployment rate, cost per meal, renter share, and educational attainment–are theoretically important and supported by the literature, they do not reach statistical significance in this specification. It is possible that some of their explanatory power is absorbed 1821 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH by the strength of the SNAP related poverty variable or that collinearity between predictors slightly suppresses their individual effects. For example, both educational attainment and unemployment are generally correlated with income levels and poverty status in most literature. Interestingly, while the coefficient for unemployment remains positive suggesting that higher unemployment may increase food insecurity it is not statistically distinguishable from zero (p = 0.29). Similarly, the coefficient for cost per meal remains negative but not significant indicating that food prices may not directly drive food insecurity. The inclusion of demographic vulnerability indicators– American Indian share, homelessness share, and disability share– adds depth to the model particularly given the importance of these groups in food insecurity literature. While these variables are not individually significant their inclusion helps assess whether disparities persist after controlling for structural economic conditions. Notably the 1822 RANGE direction of the coefficients aligns with expectations: higher disability share and American Indian share are positively associated with child food insecurity, though not significantly so in this model. The homelessness share shows a negative coefficient in this specification which is inconsistent with prior findings and may reflect collinearity in this fully saturated model. The model fit is strong with an R-squared of 0.83 and adjusted R-squared of 0.76, indicating that over 76% of the variation in child food insecurity across counties is explained by the included variables. The RESET test returned a p value of 0.64, suggesting no specification errors and validating the mode’s functional form. Likewise, the Breush-Pagan test for heteroskedasticity yielded a p-value of 0.1495 providing no evidence of heteroskedasticity and supporting the reliability of OLS estimates. Taken together the findings from Model 5 highlight the dominant role of poverty intensity particularly among those below the SNAP threshold in shaping child food insecurity rates 1823 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH in Utah counties. While other socioeconomic and demographic factors are important for contextualizing disparities, the model reinforces the literature’s emphasis on income based eligibility thresholds and adds further support for policies that extend food assistance beyond narrowly targeted income brackets. This finding bolsters arguments for universal school meal programs which can help mitigate gaps for those outside of eligibility cutoffs. Panel Data Models To complement the cross sectional models and examine changes over time I constructed a series of panel data models using county level observations from 2018 to 2022. These models leverage the balanced panel structure of 29 Utah counties over five years to assess whether increased participation in free and reduced price lunch programs is associated with changes in child food insecurity rates, while accounting for unobserved, time-invariant characteristics of each county. The first model estimated was a fixed effects 1824 RANGE model focusing on county level variation over time. Surprisingly Free and Reduced Lunch Participation was not statistically significant in this model ( β= –0.038, p = 0.42). This result suggests that after controlling for all time invariant characteristics of each county changes in free and reduced lunch participation within counties were not strongly associated with short run changes in food insecurity during this period. I then did a cross-sectional OLS model using data from the 2022 year alone. In this specification free and reduced lunch participation exhibited a highly significant positive association with child food insecurity(coefficient = 0.186, p < 0.001), explaining approximately 60 percent of variation across counties. While initially counterintuitive this result likely reflects the endogeneity of school lunch program participation, where higher levels of food insecurity motivate districts to intensify enrollment efforts. This finding also highlights the difficulty in separating causal effects from 1825 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH targeted program delivery in static crosssectional data. A pooled OLS model that combined all countyyear observations without fixed effects similarly produced a statistically significant and positive coefficient for free and reduced lunch participation (0.189, p < 0.001). With an Rsquared of 0.47 this model captured meaningful variation but failed to distinguish persistent differences between counties from withincounty temporal changes. The most informative specification included both county and year fixed effects. In this model the free and reduced lunch participation coefficient was statistically insignificant (0.055, p = 0.182) but the inclusion of year indicators revealed critical shifts across the five-year period. Notably the coefficient for 2021 was large, negative, and highly significant, indicating a substantial drop in food insecurity coinciding with the peak implementation of federal universal school meal waivers during the pandemic. In contrast, the 2022 coefficient was large and positive suggesting a significant 1826 RANGE rebound in food insecurity following the expiration of those waivers and the reversion to means-tested meal eligibility in many districts. These year specific trends suggest that universal access to school meals had a substantial shortterm protective effect of child food insecurity, while its removal contributed to renewed hardship. Together, the panel data models reveal important temporal dynamics that are not 1827 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH visible in cross-sectional analysis alone. While the fixed effects specification did not detect a robust within- county causal effect of participation on food insecurity, the sharp contrasts observed during and after the universal free meals period reinforce the broader literature emphasizing the value of universal programs. These results support recent national findings that temporary policy changes during the pandemic—including expanded access to school meals—produced tangible reductions in child hunger. Moreover, they suggest that narrowly targeted, means-tested models may leave substantial gaps in coverage, especially for children in households just above eligibility thresholds. This longitudinal analysis contributes to the existing scholarship by grounding national trends in localized Utah data, offering rare insight into how state and county policy environments mediate program effectiveness. In doing so, the findings provide strong empirical support for policy frameworks that expand access universally, rather than relying solely on 1828 RANGE income-based eligibility criteria to address child food insecurity. CONCLUSIONS This thesis has examined the socioeconomic and demographic predictors of child food insecurity across Utah’s 29 counties, with particular attention to the role of school meal programs as both a stabilizing intervention and a potential long-term policy solution. Through a combination of cross-sectional OLS models and longitudinal fixed effects panel regressions, the analysis has generated several key findings that advance our understanding of local-level food insecurity and its relationship to school-based nutrition access. Across multiple models, the most consistent and robust predictor of child food insecurity was the percentage of food-insecure individuals living in households below the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) income threshold. This finding underscores the severity of need among Utah’s poorest families and reaffirms that economic hardship remains the most immediate driver of food insecurity among 1829 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH children. However, the results also reveal a more nuanced picture. Model 1b showed that counties with a larger share of food-insecure households above the SNAP threshold tended to experience lower child food insecurity, suggesting that families just outside eligibility for federal programs may still benefit from other buffers—such as higher employment rates, stronger local supports, or expanded school meal access. Models incorporating broader economic indicators revealed that median household income remained a significant predictor of food insecurity, while variables like unemployment rate, housing tenure, and cost per meal were less consistently predictive once income was accounted for. Demographic-based models further highlighted the vulnerabilities of specific populations. While most racial and ethnic student share variables were not individually significant in multivariate models, the proportion of economically disadvantaged students was a strong and consistent predictor of higher food 1830 RANGE insecurity. Notably, American Indian student share was positively and significantlyassociated with child food insecurity in bivariate analysis, echoing national studies documenting elevated hunger rates among Indigenous communities. Shares of homeless and disabled students also showed positive and statistically significant associations with food insecurity, suggesting that school district-level data on student subpopulations can provide early indicators of food access challenges. Panel models allowed for a dynamic analysis of school meal participation over time. Although fixed effects models did not detect a statistically significant relationship between increased free and reduced-price lunch participation and reductions in child food insecurity within counties, cross- sectional models showed a strong positive association—likely driven by targeted program expansion in high-need areas. Most importantly, year fixed effects revealed a dramatic drop in food insecurity during the peak of universal school meal waivers in 2021, followed by a notable rebound in 2022 once those federal waivers expired. This temporal 1831 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH pattern provides compelling evidence for the effectiveness of universal meal access, particularly during times of economic distress. Taken together, these findings contribute to the existing literature by localizing national debates within the context of Utah’s unique demographic and policy landscape. They confirm many established associations—such as the links between poverty, unemployment, demographic background, and food insecurity—while also introducing new evidence on the limitations of narrowly targeted nutrition programs. The observed rebound in food insecurity after universal meals were removed raises critical questions about the sustainability and equity of current access models. The policy implications of this research are clear. Programs like the National School Lunch Program are most effective when access is universal rather than contingent on narrow eligibility screens that may miss children in need. This thesis offers empirical support for recent legislative efforts in Utah to restore 1832 RANGE universal free school meals and highlights the importance of maintaining these supports beyond emergency contexts. Future research should build upon these findings by incorporating household-level survey data to better assess the causal impact of school meal participation on child outcomes. I utilized county level estimations and census figures which likely weakened associations and suppressed significance. Using data that are direct survey responses from households would allow for more precise measurement of food insecurity and a richer analysis of its correlates. Additionally, exploring the intersection of food insecurity with transportation access, school district funding, and local food environments could further deepen our understanding of the structural determinants of hunger. As food insecurity continues to affect thousands of children across the state, data-driven, equitycentered policy solutions remain essential to ensuring that no child goes hungry. BIBLIOGRAPHY Arteaga, I., & Heflin, C. (2014). Participation in 1833 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the National School Lunch Program and food security: An analysis of transitions into kindergarten. Children and Youth Services Review, 47(Part 3), 224–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.childyouth.2014.09.014 Judi Bartfeld & Rachel Dunifon, 2006. “Statelevel predictors of food insecurity among households with children,” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 25(4), pages 921-942. Chaparro, M. P., Cruthirds, S., Bell, C. N., & Wallace, M. E. (2022). State-level socioeconomic racial inequity and food insecurity in the U.S. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 63(6), 971–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2022.06.019 Coleman-Jensen, A., McFall, W., & Nord, M. (2013). Food insecurity in households with children: Prevalence, severity, and household characteristics, 2010–11 (EIB-113). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Gundersen, C., & Kreider, B. (2009). Bounding 1834 RANGE the effects of food insecurity on children’s health outcomes. Journal of Health Economics, 28, 971–983. Gundersen, C., Kreider, B., & Pepper, J. (2012). The impact of the National School Lunch Program on child health: A nonparametric bounds analysis. Journal of Econometrics, 166, 79–91. Huang, J., Kim, Y., & Barnidge, E. (2016). Seasonal difference in National School Lunch Program participation and its impacts on household food security. Health & Social Work, 41(4), 235–243. https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/ hlw043 Huang, J., Matta Oshima, K., & Kim, Y. (2010). Does food insecurity affect parental characteristics and child behavior? Testing mediation effects. Social Service Review, 84(3), 381–401. Jernigan, V. B. B., Huyser, K. R., Valdes, J., & Simonds, V. W. (2017). Food insecurity among American Indians and Alaska Natives: A 1835 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH national profile using the Current Population Survey–Food Security Supplement. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, 12(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 19320248.2016.1227750 Kabbani, N. S., & Kmeid, M. Y. (2005). The role of food assistance in helping food insecure households escape hunger. Review of Agricultural Economics, 27(3), 439–445. Parkinson, R. (2024, November 8). The Cold Truth of Hunger in Utah . Utah Food Bank. https://www.utahfoodbank.org/2024/11/08/ the-cold-truth-of-hunger-in-utah/ Sonik, R., Parish, S. L., Ghosh, S., & Igdalsky, L. (2016). Food insecurity in U.S. households that include children with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 83(1), 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0014402916651847 Fafard St-Germain, A. A., & Tarasuk, V. (2020). Homeownership status and risk of food insecurity: examining the role of housing debt, housing expenditure and housing asset using a 1836 RANGE cross-sectional population-based survey of Canadian households. International journal for equity in health, 19(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12939-019-1114-z USDA. (2025, January 8). Food security in the U.S. – key statistics & graphics. Food Security in the U.S. – Key Statistics & Graphics | Economic Research Service. https://www.ers.usda.gov/ topics/food- nutrition-assistance/food-securityin-the-us/key-statisticsgraphics#:~:text=7.2%20million%20children%2 0lived%20in,experienced%20very%20low%20f ood% 20security. APPENDIX Model 1: Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(% FI ≤ SNAP Threshold) + β₂(% FI Children <185% FPL) + β₃(Cost Per Meal) + ε Model 1b: Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(% FI > SNAP Threshold) + β₂(Cost Per Meal) + ε 1837 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Model 2: Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(% FI ≤ SNAP Threshold) + β₂(FI Children <185% FPL) + β₃(Cost Per Meal) + β₄(Median Household Income) + β₅(Unemployment Rate) + β₆(Renter Rate) + ε Model 2b: Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(% FI ≤ SNAP Threshold) + β₂(FI Children <185% FPL) + β₃(Cost Per Meal) + β₄(Unemployment Rate) + β₅(Renter Rate) + ε Model 3: Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(% FI ≤ SNAP Threshold) + β₂(FI Children <185% FPL) + β₃(Cost Per Meal) + β₄(Unemployment Rate) + β₅(Renter Rate) + β₆(% Less Than HS Diploma) + β₇(English Learner Count) + ε Model 4: Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(Hispanic Share) + β₂(Black Share) + β₃(American Indian Share) + β₄(Homeless Share) + β₅(Disability Share) + β₆(Economically Disadvantaged Share) +ε 1838 RANGE Model 4b: Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(Hispanic Share) + β₂(Black Share) + β₃(American Indian Share) + β₄(Homeless Share) + β₅(Disability Share) + ε Model 4 Bivariate: Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(Group Share) + ε Model 5: Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(FI ≤ SNAP Threshold) + β₂(Unemployment Rate) + β₃(Cost Per Meal) + β₄(Renter) + β₅(Less than HS Education) + β₆(Am Indian Share) + β₇(Homeless Share) + β₈(Disability Share) + ε Panel Data Models: Panel Model 1 – County Fixed Effects Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(Free and Reduced Lunch Participation) + County Fixed Effects + ε Panel Model 2 – Cross-Sectional OLS (2022 Only) 1839 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(Free and Reduced Lunch Participation) + ε Panel Model 3 – Pooled OLS (No Fixed Effects) Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(Free and Reduced Lunch Participation) + ε Panel Model 4 – County and Year Fixed Effects Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(Free and Reduced Lunch Participation) + County Fixed Effects + Year Fixed Effects + ε Panel Model 5 – Year Fixed Effects Only (OLS) Child.Food.Insecurity.Rate = β₀ + β₁(Free and Reduced Lunch Participation) + Year Fixed Effects + ε 1840 RANGE 114 Paleoecological Coprophilous Spore Analysis Reveals Disturbance of Pastoralists in the Fynbos Biome, Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. BENNETT DAVENPORT; STELLA MOSHER; AND MITCHELL POWER Faculty Mentor: Stella Mosher University of Utah) 1841 (Anthropology, OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH BACKGROUND The Cape Floristic Region (CFR) of South Africa, home of the Fynbos Biome, provides one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet, which has for millennia been impacted by human habitation. Critically, pastoralists migrated into the region and introduced massive populations of herbivorous livestock around 2000 years ago (Skead, 2011). The most significant archeological evidence from this arrival comes from sheep bones in Tortoise Cave, near Eland’s Bay, which have been dated to 1530±122 cal years BP (Klein, R., & Cruz-Uribe, K., 1987). The magnitude of these herds and more evidence of the time of arrival are left obscured – a paleoecological proxy that could assist in answering these questions is that of coprophilous spores. The reliance on the digestive tracts of herbivorous animals means the spores of coprophilous fungi can be indicators of herbivore populations (Lee et al., 2022). Additionally, the spores do not travel far, usually landing a couple of meters away from the fruiting body of the fungus (van Asperen et al., 2021). As well, they are most effective at tracking large herbivores (such as livestock) due to the fact that large herbivores will produce a greater quantity of dung (Lee et al., 2022). For these reasons, coprophilous spores can be 1842 RANGE excellent indicators for local populations of large herbivores. In the past, coprophilous spores have been used as a proxy for megafaunal herbivore populations in North America during the late Quaternary (van Asperen et al., 2021). Coprophilous spores have also been used in European paleoecology research (Goethals et al., 2019), with only a few select studies using the proxy for any region of the African Continent (Goethals et al., 2019; Burney et al., 2003; Ekblom et al., 2010). The knowledge of these African spore assemblages remains very limited (Ekblom et al., 2010). One of the most common spores quantified in the palaeoecological literature is Sporormiella because of its identifiable appearance and application as an indicator of herbivore presence (Lee et al., 2022). Although reliable, other spore taxa, such as Coniochaeta, Sordaria, etc, are heavily recommended to be measured along with Sporomiella, especially in studies exploring ecosystems where very little spore research has been done (Ekblom et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2022). Thus, an analysis of coprophilous spores as a proxy in the CFR should also include an analysis of viable spore taxa of the region that can be used. My research set out to analyze the pastoralist impact on the Fynbos Biome using coprophilous spore analysis, coming from dated sediment samples from the 1843 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Fynbos Biome: Eilanvlei and Verloenvlei, located on the southern Cape coast and west coast, respectively. The final result would yield important paleoecological data about the introduction of pastoralists and their livestock into the Fynbos region, and the magnitude of such migration through the lens of the coprophilous spore record, both important variables in understanding human impact on this biodiverse region. MATERIALS & PROCEDURE Coprophilous spore samples came from the sediment cores taken from Verlorenvlei and Eilandvlei of the CFR. Sediment samples used for the counting of the CFR’s coprophilous spore assemblage came from the historic Eilvandvlei Core, while the samples used for the analysis of herbivore populations came from the older, “long” core from Verlorenvlei. The samples from this core extended further back in time, approximately 1900-1500 CAL BP. The samples were prepared in the Paleobiology Lab at the Natural History Museum of Utah. Sediment samples are collected and added to test tubes, along with a tablet of Lycopodium spores that are referenced during counting. The samples are then reacted with hydrochloric acid, centrifuged, and decanted multiple times before being soaked in a hot water bath. They are then sieved using a 125-micron 1844 RANGE sieve and transferred to another set of test tubes. Then the samples are subjected to several more cycles of chemical reaction, stirring, centrifugation, and decantation before finally being stained and stored in a desiccator. Under the microscope, the Lycopodium spores are counted alongside the sample’s coprophilous spores. This is used to analyze the relative abundance of coprophilous spores to the Lycopodium spores, which is the easiest way to analyze and compare spore abundances in these samples. Three slides from the Eilandvlei core were produced and analyzed, with spores photographed and later identified. Of these, seven coprophilous spore taxa were identified in these Eilandvlei samples, which were used in the historic Verlorenvlei samples, depicted below. Later, 10 slides were prepared from the Verlorenvlei core. The spores identified above were counted alongside Lycopodium spores, with the relative abundance of each spore, and combined coprophilous spores tallied. Table 1: Diagnostic coprophilous spores identified in the study 1845 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Name Description Image Example Dark in color, made of 4 cells, usually split apart Sporormiella under acetolysis. Every cell can contain a sigmoid aperture. Sordaria Small oblong spore, may look deformed or wrinkled due to aceytolysis. Dark in coloration. Podospora Pumkin seedshaped spore, thick brown membrane. About 20-30 microns in size. 1846 RANGE Small round cell around 10 microns in diameter, Coniochaeta visible and sometimes frayed or deformed outer layering. 1847 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Photographs by Bennett Davenport Round cell about 25 microns in diameter, Gelasinospora ridged cell membrane, pores throughout the surface. Round, pink spore, with a small protrusion on one side like an Chaetomium orange. Can be described as “lemon shaped”. ~10 microns in length. *example seems considerably oversized Delitschia Ascospores ellipsoid, 2-celled, roughly 30 × 15 microns in size, thickwalled, and pinched around the middle. NOT PICTURED 1848 RANGE RESULTS The ten samples from the Verlornvlei long core are presented below. Relative abundance was calculated as the number of spores over the number of Lycopodium. Figure 1: Archaeological arrival taken from (Klein, R., & Cruz-Uribe, K., 1987) 1849 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 2: Archaeological arrival taken from (Klein, R., & Cruz-Uribe, K., 1987) Spore relative abundance plateau from years 1902 to 1602 cal year BP before increasing and peaking at 1516 cal year BP, increasing to an abundance 100% larger than the original stagnant period abundances (Table 2). After 1516 cal year BP, abundances show a dropoff, although they still remain higher than before the year 1602. Welch’s two-sample T-test was performed on the data, where the samples were separated into “before” and “after” categories depending on their position in a specified year. A T-test using the year 1530 cal year BP gave a P-value of 0.0658, therefore not statistically significant. However, using the years 1570 up to 1600 1850 RANGE cal year BP, all yield p-values below 0.05, thus disproving the null hypothesis. What is still notable is that the two highest numbers of relative abundance occur ~5 and~15 years after 1530 cal year BP. It should also be noted that Welch’s twosample T-test has similar results between relative spore abundances using all spore taxa as well as the relative abundance of just Sporormiella. Sporormiella relative abundance peaks ~5 years after 1530 cal year BP. CONCLUSION The data from coprophilous spore relative abundance analysis appears to support a significant ecological change within the populations of large herbivores, which aligns with archeological evidence of pastoralists entering Cape Province. Specifically, the abundances match a pastoralist introduction between 1600 and 1500 cal year BP. The findings do not detect the introduction of pastoralists during 1530 cal year BP; the mean age of the livestock remains from previous literature. Instead, data instead detects the emergence of livestock herds 1851 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH that precede 1530 cal year BP by at least 30 years. Chronologic errors with coprophilous spore data have been noted before and may be due to diagenetic processes experienced by the sediment samples. The relative abundance “peaking” around 1530 must also be questioned, as spore counting is inaccurate as a direct proxy for herbivore population size (van Asperen et al., 2021). Yet it is still noteworthy that the archeological evidence correlates not with the initial increase in abundance, but with the largest relative abundance the samples yielded. Overall, the data seems to reveal a pastoralist introduction several decades before the assumed archeological date. The correlation between the combined spore assemblage abundances and the Sporomiella-only abundances is a vital scientific takeaway. As Sporormiella remains one of the most established and trusted coprophilous spores for spore counting, the fact that data collected from the other spore taxon of the Fynbos match the patterns of Sporormiella supports an argument that these other spore taxons are of equal importance. Hopefully, the data collected in this paper will help deepen the understanding of the coprophilous spore taxa of South Africa, as well as prove the potential of analyzing the coprophilous spore taxa outside of 1852 RANGE Sporormiella. Overall, the data collected should reveal the importance of the field of spore counting when applied to paleoecological contexts in which it is absent. It is advised that these analyses be replicated, at a more intense gradient, in order to produce a more accurate and solidified interpretation of the paleoecological timeline. BIBLIOGRAPHY Burney, D. A., Robinson, G. S., & Burney, L. P. (2003). Sporormiella and the late Holocene extinctions in Madagascar. PNAS, 100(19), 10800-10805. Ekblom, A., & Gillson, L. (2010). Dung fungi as indicators of past herbivore abundance, Kruger and Limpopo National Palaeoclimatology, Park. Palaeoecology, Palaeogeography, 296(1-2), 14-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.06.009 Goethals, L., & Verschuren, D. (2019). Tracing ancient animal husbandry in tropical Africa using the fossil spore assemblages of coprophilous fungi: a validation study in western Uganda. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 29(5), 509-526. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00334-019-00760-3 Klein, R., & Cruz-Uribe, K. (1987) Large mammal and 1853 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH tortoise bones from elands bay cave (South Africa) Bar International Series, 322, 350-372 Lee, C. M., van Geel, B., & Gosling, W. D. (2022). On the Use of Spores of Coprophilous Fungi Preserved in Sediments to Indicate Past Herbivore Presence. Quaternary, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/quat5030030 Skead, C. J. (2011). Man’s influence on the incidence of the larger mammals. In Historical incidence of the larger land mammals in the broader Western and Northern Cape. Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela University. van Asperen, E. N., Perrotti, A., & Baker, A. (2021). Coprophilous fungal spores: non-pollen palynomorphs for the study of past megaherbivores. Geological Society 1854 RANGE 115 Assessing the Impact of the Genomic Summer Research for Magnificents (GSRM) Internship Program ISABELLA DINARDO; AKIKO KAMIMURA; REBECCA ADAMS; H. JOSEPH YOST; MAIJA HOLSTI; AND GLORIA SLATTUM Faculty Mentor: Akiko University of Utah) 1855 Kamimura (Sociology, OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Future advancements in STEM fields require diversity in ideas, approaches, and technical skills. Since 2019, the Genomic Summer Research for Minorities Magnificents (GSRM) Internship Program has provided opportunities for underrepresented (UR) college students, as defined by the National Institute of Health, to participate in genomics-related research and STEM fields. The GSRM program aims to support and promote retention of UR students in STEM by examining the barriers encountered by these students and the benefits gained during or after their internship experience. This study assessed the efficacy of three interventions utilized by the GSRM Program, in which students were paired with a research mentor and a co-mentor who provided an opportunity for hands-on laboratory research experience and fostered a sense of belonging in STEM. Specifically, participants’ understanding of genomics, the proficiency of their technical laboratory/ computational skills, and their overall sense of belonging to the scientific community were measured before and after the completion of the GSRM program using pre/ post-survey data from 2022-2024. Upon analysis, there were statistically significant increases in each of these three metrics. Introducing a wide range of students to 1856 RANGE genomics may ultimately catalyze the advancement of the field and diversify the STEM workforce. Together, the improvements reflect the GSRM program’s effectiveness in preparing scholars for STEM careers, which is important to inspire advancements in science and medicine that may aid a broader representation of the population. Graphs 1857 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY Bianconi, I., Aschbacher, R., & Pagani, E. (2023). Current Uses and Future Perspectives of Genomic Technologies in Clinical Microbiology. Antibiotics, 1858 RANGE 12(11), 1580–1580. https://doi.org/10.3390/ antibiotics12111580 Davis, R. D., Wilson-Kennedy, Z. S., & Spivak, D. (2021). International Research Experiences in the Development of Minority Scientists. Frontiers Education, 6(674673). in https://doi.org/10.3389/ feduc.2021.674673 Diversity and STEM: Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities 2023 | NSF – National Science Foundation. (2023). Retrieved from ncses.nsf.gov website: https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf23315/report/thestem-workforce Diversity Matters | Diversity in Extramural Programs. (n.d.). Extramural-Diversity.nih.gov; National Institutes of Health. https://extramural-diversity.nih.gov/ diversity-matters Eagan, M. K., Hurtado, S., Chang, M. J., Garcia, G. A., Herrera, F. A., & Garibay, J. C. (2013). Making a Difference in Science Education. American Educational Research Journal, 50(4), 683–713. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831213482038 Gross, B. (2017, April 14). Diversity in STEM Part 2: 1859 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Barriers to Success for Underrepresented Minority Students. Retrieved March 5, 2024, from Milwaukee Area Science Advocates website: https://milwaukeescience.org/diversity-in-stempart-2-barriers-to-success-for- underrepresented- minority-students/ Hansen, M. J., Palakal, M., & White, L. (2023). The Importance of STEM Sense of Belonging and Academic Hope in Enhancing Persistence for Low-Income, Underrepresented STEM Students. Journal for STEM Education Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s41979-023-00096-8 Hunter, A.-B., Laursen, S. L., & Seymour, E. (2007). Becoming a scientist: The role of undergraduate research in students’ cognitive, personal, and professional development. Science Education, 91(1), 36–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20173 Kricorian, K., Seu, M., Lopez, D., Ureta, E., & Equils, O. (2020). Factors influencing participation of underrepresented students in STEM fields: matched mentors and mindsets. International Journal of STEM Education, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/ s40594-020-00219-2 1860 RANGE Neerjah Skantharajah, Shakuntala Baichoo, Boughtwood, T., Casas-Silva, E., Subhashini Chandrasekharan, Dave, S., Khalid Fakhro, André Barbosa Vargas, Gayle, S. S., Vivek Kumar Gupta, Hendricks-Sturrup, R., Hobb, A. E., Li, S., Llamas, B., Lopez-Correa, C., Machirori, M., Melendez-Zajgla, J., Mareike Annemarie Millner, Page, A., & Paglione, L. D. (2023). Equity, diversity, and inclusion at the Global Alliance for Genomics and Health. Cell Genomics, 3(10), 100386–100386. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.xgen.2023.100386 Nominal Group NIATx. Technique. (n.d.). Chess.wisc.edu; https://chess.wisc.edu/niatx/content/ contentpage.aspx?NID=147 What is precision Medlineplus.gov; medicine? (2022, MedlinePlus May 17). Genetics. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/ precisionmedicine/ definition/#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20Precisi on%20Medicine 1861 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 116 Research Reflection by Isabella DiNardo ISABELLA DINARDO Faculty Mentor: Akiko Kamimura (Sociology, University of Utah) I have greatly enjoyed participating in UROP as my project has provided me with insight into the barriers that underrepresented (UR) individuals may experience when pursuing a career in STEM and how programs 1862 RANGE like the Genomic Summer Research for Magnificents (GSRM) can help mitigate these barriers. Academically, I have wanted to examine the factors leading to the involvement or deterrence of UR individuals participating in STEM career fields from a sociological perspective, and this project has allowed me to identify strategies to help increase their retention. Additionally, my research has supported my future career goals. After completing my bachelor’s degree in biology, my career goal is to attend medical school to pursue a career as a physician. This acquired knowledge will allow me to become a more culturally sensitive physician who can elevate the diverse perspectives of my peers to support an inclusive environment in healthcare. 1863 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 117 A Test to Determine Whether Surface Sediments Contaminate Ancient, Cultural Starch Residues Recovered From Ground Stone Tools in Buried Contexts CASTON DRAPER AND STEFANIA WILKS Faculty Mentor: Stefania University of Utah) 1864 Wilks (Anthropology, RANGE Ground stone tools used to process small seeds, nuts, and roots are among the most common artifacts in the archaeological record. The physical act of grinding compacts starch granule residues deep within the interstitial matrix of the stone’s surface. Identifying morphological characteristics of the starch granules are used to provide direct evidence for plant taxa that were processed and consumed. Archaeologists use starch granule evidence to reconstruct the foraging patterns of people in the past and how those choices affect where they lived. The post-use contamination of buried archaeological artifacts can occur during deposition, excavation, storage, and pretreatment of the samples in the laboratory. Protocols to minimize contamination of starch residues in both enclosed lab spaces and open-air field collections have been documented in experimental studies. This project examined the potential of soil sediments to contaminate archaeological starch residues lodged deeply in the cracks and crevices of buried ground stone tools. Starch residues were sampled from 34 uncurated ground stone artifacts excavated at Connley Caves in southern Oregon. Ground stones from the archaeological site are important because they offer insight into the settlement and subsistence patterns of past humans who lived during the rapid climate and environmental transitions in the region at the end of 1865 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the last glacial ice age. The results of this analysis found very few starch granules in the control (n=3) or surface residues (n=12) when compared to 82% of the archaeological residue samples (LS 1-28). However, 89% of the total starch granules observed in the surface samples (n=128) were attributed to the last six ground stone (LS 29-34). These tools were sampled in a different location and on a different day from the others. Many of the starches observed were identified as modern maize and wheat starches, all of which suggest the tools may have been exposed to contamination after they were extracted, possibly during sampling. Thus, when using starch grain analysis, it is important to collect and analyze sediments that are adjacent to artifacts so that comparisons can be made between number and type of starch granules found within the surface to those that occur on the surface of the tools themselves. This research expands our understanding of how plant starches enter and persist in archaeological sediments. BIBLIOGRAPHY Dozier, C.A. (2016) Airbourne Starch Dispersal from Stone Grinding: Experimental Results and Implications. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 8:112-115. 1866 RANGE Haslam, M. (2004) The Decomposition of Starch Grains in Soil: Implications for Archaeological Residue Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 31: 1715-1734. Louderback, L.A., Wilks, S., Herzog, N.M., Brown, G.H., Joyce, K., & Pavlik, B.M. (2022) Morphometric Identification of Starch Granules from Archaeological Contexts: Diagnostic Characteristics of Seven Major North American Plant Families. Frontiers in Earth Science, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.897183 Louderback, L.A., Field, J., & Janetski, J.C. (2015) Curation Practices and Extraction Methods in Relation to Starch Grain Yields from Ground Stone Artifacts. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 4, 535-540. https://files.acrobat.com/a/preview/ 39a53e24-7db5-4652-9292-e5579da09db2 Ma, Z., Zhang, C., Li, Q., Perry, L., & Yang, X. (2017) Understanding the Possible Contamination of Ancient Starch Residue by Adjacent Sediments and Modern Plants in Northern China. Sustainability 9:752-762. Wilks, S.L., Paredes, S.A., & Louderback, L.A. (2024) Starch Granule Yields from 1867 Open-Air Metates OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Unaffected by Environmental Contamination. American Antiquity, 1-9. https://doi:10.1017/aaq.2023.106 1868 RANGE 118 Research Reflection by Caston Draper CASTON DRAPER Faculty Mentor: Stefania Wilks (Anthropology, University of Utah) When I started at the NHMU archaeobotany lab I had little idea what actual research would look like. but throughout my time I learned what goes into the making of a research project, how to work with a team, 1869 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and most importantly how to communicate my research to others. I focused mainly on examining the extent of starch contamination from modern starches on ancient ground stone tools from Connley Caves in Oregon, some of which dating to nearly 13,000 years ago. This time in the Late Pleistocene era was characterized by changing climates, not dissimilar to what we face today. The goal of this research was to further establish confidence in starch granule analysis. Following this project I was able to create a research poster, Assessing Starch Contamination from Adherent Soil on Buried Ground Stone Artifacts, and present my research at The Office of Undergraduate Research’s Undergraduate Symposium and the College of Social and Behavioral Science Research Day. It was during these presentations that I learned the importance of scientific communication. While not everyone knew about starch granule analysis, they still brought interesting insights that I had never previously considered. Research in this lab taught me how important the interdisciplinary aspects of science are in order to understand our world as a whole. I learned that it’s important for cross communication between fields so that a scientist can gain a full understanding of the bigger picture. As a biologist I knew ancient starches were simply chains of amylose and amylopectin, but as an archaeologist I could 1870 RANGE better apply this knowledge to humanity. Ultimately in this lab, I gained a better understanding of the importance of research involving plants. Humans have relied on plants since the dawn of our species and our relationship has been tempered through changing climates, landscapes, and social structures. No time is this research more important than now as we ourselves face the same challenges of our ancestors, even if we try to separate ourselves from them. 1871 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 119 Understanding Aincent Granary Distributions in the Grand Staircase Escalante National Monument MATTHEW EISENBERG Faculty Mentor: Brian Codding (Anthropology, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Granaries are architectural features designed to store food. They are a recurring feature in the archaeological 1872 RANGE record of past farming communities in Utah, but their placement across the landscape range from central residential areas to remote, hard-to-reach locations. This variation raises questions about changing food storage strategies over time. This research investigates granary distribution within the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument (GSENM), focusing on how spatial and temporal patterns reflect shifts in defensive behavior. Drawing on new archaeological data from Fifty Mile Mountain and prior site records, this study analyzes 78 granaries using radiocarbon dating and spatial modeling. Granaries were classified as residential or remote based on a distance threshold of 120.50 meters from the nearest long-term occupation site. Using a generalized linear model with natural splines, the probability of a granary being remote over time was estimated. Results show a clear shift beginning around 1,400 calibrated years BP, when remote granaries become increasingly common. This trend suggests a movement from active defense of centralized storage near long-term occupation sites, to passive defense strategies that relied on dispersing and scattering storage in remote settings. The increased use of remote granaries likely reflects rising population pressures, increased competition for resources, and the need to mitigate resource theft. These findings provide new 1873 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH insight into the socioecological adaptations of prehistoric communities navigating agricultural risk and intergroup dynamics in the GSENM. Key words: Fremont, Ancestral Puebloan, Residential Granary, Remote Granary, Passive Defense, Active Defense, Radiocarbon Dating INTRODUCTION The Grand Staircase Escalante National Monument (GSENM) is a desert landscape composed of sandstone canyons and rolling hills dotted with juniper and pinyon trees. Observing this arid landscape today it may be hard to believe that Indigenous families thrived in this area for the past 12,000 years (Spangler & Zweifel 2021). In truth, there has rarely been a time since humans first arrived to what today is southwestern Utah that the region was not occupied (Spangler & Zweifel 2021). The people living in this GSENM employed various subsistence strategies for survival. However, it is the arrival of agriculture about 2,000 years ago that would profoundly change how people lived and interacted with the landscape (Codding et al. 2022; Spangler & Zweifel 2021). This shift, while bringing increased food security, did not come without cost. The need to protect food for the coming year proved to be a demanding 1874 RANGE aspect of a subsistence farming lifestyle. People of the region needed a way to mitigate seasonal and interannual food variability, leading to the development of complex food storage structures to manage food surpluses (Winterhalder et al. 2015; Spangler & Zweifel 2021). A complex food storage strategy would manifest in the form of granaries (Figure 1), an architectural feature common in agricultural groups (Yaworsky 2021) and some foraging populations (Morgan 2012). However, it has been noted for some time in numerous archaeological surveys that granaries exhibit great variability. Gunnerson et al. (1969) comments on how some granaries are found within residential contexts while others are found several miles from long-term habitation sites, either placed on cliff edges or hidden out of sight. This variation in placement raises questions about the underlying factors differences. 1875 influencing these OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1. A granary found within the GSENM. This granary was utilized within the study Photo credit: Jerry D. Spangler (Spangler et al. 2024) Variation in granary placement reveals interesting dynamics influencing prehistoric farmers defensive over time. behaviors of Taking into consideration what is economically viable when storing food for future use, building granaries in far, hard-to-reach places seems unreasonable due to the high costs that come with building and transporting food. Not only is accessing these structures difficult, but construction, use, and maintenance would be incredibly costly. A simple, more effective strategy would be to store agricultural surpluses centrally, either close to residential locations or near the point of 1876 RANGE production (Barlow & Phillips 2010; Yaworsky 2021). Differences in defensive behavior are one explanation brought forward to explain the variation in storage strategy. With active defense of centralized storage near residential sites and passive defense through the scattering and hiding of further granaries (McCool & Yaworsky, 2017). However, it is unlikely that these defensive strategies emerged simultaneously. It is more likely that centralized storage strategies emerged first. Then, passive defense of storage began appearing due to shifts in the suitability of farming and increases in population (Yaworsky 2021; Codding et al. 2022). Based upon this logic, early sites should prioritize central storage, and later sites should shift to passive defense as competition and environmental pressures increase over time. To evaluate this predicted shift in storage strategy, the following research investigates how granary placement varies over time, with particular attention to proximity to residential sites. 1877 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH METHODS Figure 2. Map showcasing the GSENM and Fifty Mile Mountain Data Collection The methods used to address the prediction involved data collection, spatial analysis in ArcGIS Pro (ESRI, 2025) then building statistical models in the R environment (R Core Team 2025). Primary data collection involved conducting archaeological site visits during spring 2024, led by the Colorado Plateau Archaeological Alliance (CPAA) within the GSENM (Spangler et al. 2024). During the fieldwork, known 1878 RANGE granaries within the 50 Mile Mountain region (Figure 2) were re-visited, and then organic samples were collected from the granaries. These samples were then taken to the UUAC, where they were prepared to be radiocarbon dated. Lab work was undertaken by the author under the supervision of Ishmael Medina. The samples included wood timber, hardened mud adobe used as masonry for granary construction (see Yaworsky 2021) and maize (Zea mays) cobs left when the granaries were abandoned. We sorted all samples and subset organic material (e.g., charcoal, wood, plant fiber, and maize [Zea mays]) of the correct weight fir radiocarbon dating. Samples were then sent to International Chemical Analysis (ICA) in North Bethesda, MD for radiocarbon dating. The next phase of data collection was measuring a granaries distance from the closest residential site. To do this, the archaeological sites visited in spring 2024 were placed into ArcGIS Pro based on their geographic coordinates (ESRI, 2025). The site’s input in ArcGIS Pro consisted of storage sites with granaries, long-term residential sites, and temporary camp locations. The site type was determined from looking through the site records from the CPAA work (n = 56)s. More granary sites were also added to the study from a report 1879 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH completed in 2016 by Douglas McFadden and the Bureau of Land Management; these sites also included calibrated years before present dates and locations, bringing the study size to 78 samples. The granaries, sample type, location, calibrated BP date, and distance from the nearest residential site were input into a granary database to be used for later analysis in R (R Core Team 2025). Model Building To test the prediction that distance from residential sites should increase over time, the probability that a granary would be remote given its occurrence temporally was modeled. The data collected represented a binomial distribution, with a granary either being remote or residential. While granaries have many contexts that can determine their type, distance was the focus of the study. So, a maximum distance threshold was determined to classify sites as being remote or residential. The maximum distance threshold was set to be 120.50 meters from a residential location, and was the greatest extent a granary could be classified as residential; granaries over this threshold would be classified as remote. The maximum distance threshold was determined by using evidence presented in site recording forms. The furthest granary that occurred with concrete evidence it was 1880 RANGE utilized in a centralized storage setting occurred at 120.30 meters. Statistical models were built in R (R Core Team 2025) to find the probability that a granary is remote or residential based on distance and temporal context. To model this probability, a generalized linear model (GLM) was used. A GLM is a family of models that estimate unknown parameters to best fit a set of observations (Codding & Brewer, 2024). In this case, the unknown parameter of the model was the probability that a granary will be remote in a given time. The relationship of the model was not expected to be linear, so natural splines were incorporated into the model to allow for non-linear behavior. Natural splines function generates a basis matrix used to represent natural cubic splines. These splines are defined by a series of interior knots and are constrained by natural boundary conditions, which ensure that the spline transitions to a linear function beyond the outermost knots (R Core Team 2025). In this case, the boundary condition was a sequence of calibrated years BP binned into sets of 100. So, natural spines are calculating the probability of remote granaries occurring within each binned sequence of calibrated years BP. RESULTS 1881 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 3 (above): Point plot of granary distribution in space and time. The distance threshold of 120.50 meters is also shown here. This threshold was the defining measurement determining whether a granary was remote or residential Initial Distributions Initial plots show how granaries are spatially and temporally related (Figure 3). A hashed line is also included and represents the maximum distance threshold of 120.50 meters. A majority of points are found above the threshold, indicating that a majority of the granaries sampled are remote. This is according to the 1882 RANGE maximum distance threshold; however, evidence from site recording forms also corresponds with this representation. This plot also showcases the distribution of granaries temporally, with points indicating increased use of storage after 1,400 calibrated years BP. This is the same case for distance with granaries over the maximum distance threshold, increasing in prevalence after 1,400 calibrated years BP. Probability of Granary Remoteness The final analysis of the project saw the calculation of a granary being remote based on its placement in time and space (Figure 4). This calculation saw that the probability that a granary is remote given its spatial location and temporal context saw an increased likelihood over time. The earliest sites saw relatively low to no probability of being remote. Then, around 1,550 BP, there is an increase in the probability of remote granaries occurring. The probability peaks at about 80% at 1,200 BP, then again at 800 BP. This trend indicates increased use of remote storage at later sites and decreased use at earlier sites. Further, this trend shows that 1883 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH defensive patterns shifted over time; earlier sites utilized the active defense of residential storage, and later sites employed passive defense through remote storage. Another note to make is that there was never a time of 100% probability of remote storage, indicating that both defense strategies might have been utilized simultaneously. However, the increase in likelihood indicates that the passive defense strategy did see adoption later, unlike active defense, which seems to be employed throughout the occupation of the region. Figure 4. Modeled probability a granary is remote given its placement in time and space. 1884 RANGE DISCUSSION Interpreting Results Initial interpretations of the results indicate that the probability of remote storage strategies being utilized increases over time. However, understanding what drove this strategy to emerge is important. Agricultural subsistence first became prevalent in the GSENM around 2,000 years ago, prompting the utilization of complex food storage (Codding et al. 2022; Yaworsky 2021). This strategy ensured that prehistoric farming populations would have food surpluses for coming winters and to offset shortfalls from interannual harvest variation (Winterhalder et al. 2015). Interestingly, the conditions that made farming suitable in the GSENM and the populations of prehistoric farmers in the region both saw a considerable increase at roughly the same time as the probability of remote granaries occurring began increasing (Codding et al. 2022; Vernon et al. 2023; Yaworsky et al. 2023). Considering that regional population growth would likely lead to increases in resource theft and the territorial behaviors of prehistoric people of the area, it is probable that the passive defense via remote storage was a response to this (McCool & Yaworsky, 2017). Resource theft is a highly effective strategy, others do the work while the thief gains the 1885 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH rewards. Seen elsewhere in the region, prehistoric people of Utah typically employ a defensive strategy that favors a nonconfrontational solution. Passive defense through the placement of remote granaries is an incredibly costly strategy for prehistoric farmers. However, if paying this cost meant protecting food surplus in a nonconfrontational way, farmers in the area would likely use this strategy, leading to increases in remote storage as population grows. Additionally, the probability of a granary being remote decreases around 800 BP. While this is likely due to a lack of data in the model, this could also hint toward the eventual abandonment of agriculture in the region, which occurred around this time. This period saw declines in both the suitability of agriculture and population size (Codding et al. 2022). This indicates that the probability that remote granaries are occurring or being built appears to follow the decline in population and agricultural suitability in the area around 800 BP. Defining Granary Type Throughout the research presented here, distance was the key defining factor for determining granary type. However, defining granary type is typically much more complex than this. Factors such as accessibility, cost distance to location, viewshed, elevation, and overall 1886 RANGE visibility should be considered to truly define granary type. Distance to residential sites was used as the key factor in this preliminary study due to the weight of distance in determining granary context. Information on the distance to residency was also readily available and offered unique insight into the early observations of granaries in the area. Future models of granary variation could be completed without using distance to residency as the determining factor of granary type. Using distance as the determining factor raises issues with granaries that occur at exceptionally long distances from residential sites. This is due to a lack of residential sites found in relative proximity to these granaries. Granaries that occurred over distances of 3,500 meters likely had a residential site that was not observed during the archaeological fieldwork. This appears to be the biggest issue using distance as the only key factor. Granaries occurring at long distances are classified as remote in this study, potentially influencing the probability of remote granaries occurring over time. Using the previously mentioned methods to determine granary type could address these issues in future iterations of the study, especially when evidence of residential sites in reasonable proximity are not found. 1887 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH CONCLUSION Since the earliest archaeological fieldwork in the southwestern regions of Utah, observations about granary distributions have been presented. Often, researchers would remark on the variation in granary placement, curious about why some are found within long- term occupational settings while others are found in remote locations miles from the nearest residential sites. Shifts in defensive behavior offer an interesting answer to this variation. Two defensive strategies are associated with the two types of granaries presented within this project. Active defense of residential granaries and passive defense of remote granaries. However, it was unlikely that these defensive strategies emerged simultaneously. More reasonably, one of these strategies occurred first, and as agricultural suitability and population in the region increased, another strategy emerged in response to these changes. Resource theft is commonplace in agricultural societies, and given the defensive and territorial strategies of the regional populations in Utah, it is likely that the people within the GSENM sought to protect agricultural produce in a nonconfrontational way. A nonconfrontational territorial strategy aligns well with the passive defense strategy associated with remote storage. Using the 1888 RANGE probability that a granary is remote given its placement in time and space allows us to see how this passive defense strategy emerged. Using new applications of radiocarbon dating methods to find times of construction and use of granaries and then calculating the distance of granaries from residential sites, we can understand the temporal and spatial context of granaries presented in the study. Modeling this relationship shows that remote granary use increases around 1,400 BP and remains in use until about 800 BP. This indicates that there was a shift to passive defense around the 1,400 BP period. Providing an interesting insight into regional granary distributions, variations in granary placement are the results of shifts in defensive strategies, due to growths in the regional population as an outcome of the abundance of food brought on by increased agricultural suitability. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks to Dr. Brian Codding for his wonderful assistance in mentoring this project. A special thanks also goes to Jerry Spangler and members of CPAA for completing the archaeological fieldwork that procured the samples for this project. Thanks to Ishmael Medina for guidance in the lab and Adrian Bell for guidance in statistical modeling. I also thank the Office of 1889 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Undergraduate Research for funding this research. Finally, thank you to Callum Dingley and my other undergraduate friends who helped with peer reviewing and provided input on the research. BIBLIOGRAPHY Barlow, R., & Phillips, K. L. (2010). Simple financial economic models of Fremont maize storage and an assessment of external threat. MPRA Paper. https://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/23502.html Codding, B. F., & Brewer, S. C. (2024). Regression with Archaeological Count Data. Advances in Archaeological Practice, 12(2), 163–172. https://doi.org/10.1017/ aap.2024.7 Codding, B. F., Coltrain, J. B., Louderback, L., Vernon, K. B., Magargal, K. E., Yaworsky, P. M., Robinson, E., Brewer, S. C., & Spangler, J. D. (2022). Socioecological dynamics Structuring the spread of farming in the North American Basin-Plateau region. Environmental Archaeology, 27(4), 434–446. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14614103.2021.1927480 ESRI. ArcGIS Pro Release [3.4.1] Redlands, CA: Environmental Systems Research Institute. (2025) 1890 RANGE Gunnerson, J. H., Expedition, C., Claflin, W. H., & Emerson, R. (1969). The Fremont Culture: A Study in Culture Dynamics on the Northern Anasazi Frontier, including the Report of the Claflin-Emerson Expedition of the Peabody Museum. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/ BB17378481 McCool, W. C., & Yaworsky, P. M. (2017). Fight or flight: An assessment of Fremont territoriality in Nine Mile Canyon, Utah. Quaternary International, 518, 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.11.032 McFadden, D. A. (2016). Formative chronology and site distribution on the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument: A Research Reference. Morgan, C. (2012). Modeling modes of hunter-gatherer food storage. American Antiquity, 77(4), 714-736. R Core Team. (2025). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing [Software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna Austria. https://www.R-project.org/. Spangler, J. D., & Zweifel, M. K. (2021). Deep roots: 1891 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH A 10,000-year Indigenous History of the Grand StaircaseEscalante National Monument. Spangler, J.D., M.K. Zweifel, I.D. Medina, W.C. McCool, M. Eisenberg, R.B. D’Andrea, & B.F. Codding (2024) Report on New Radiocarbon Dates from Granaries on Fiftymile Mountain, Kaiparowits Plateau, Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument. Report submitted to Bureau of Land Management. State Project No. U24C10209, DOI Permit No. 22UT82469, GSENM Assistance Agreement L22AS00071. Vernon, K. B., Yaworsky, P. M., McCool, W., Spangler, J. D., Brewer, S., & Codding, B. F. (2024). The Fremont frontier: living at the margins of maize farming. American Antiquity, 89(3), 440–458. https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2024.22 Winterhalder, B., Puleston, C., & Ross, C. (2015). Production risk, inter-annual food storage by households and population-level consequences in seasonal prehistoric agrarian societies. Environmental Archaeology, 20(4), 337–348. https://doi.org/10.1179/ 1749631415y.0000000025 Yaworsky, P. M. (2021). Prehistoric Land Use in the 1892 RANGE Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument and West Tavaputs Plateau, Utah [PhD Dissertation, University of Utah]. Yaworsky, P. M., Vernon, K. B., McCool, W. C., Hart, I. A., Spangler, J., & Codding, B. F. (2023). The Goldilocks Zone for maize agriculture and the settlement and abandonment of the West Tavaputs Plateau. Quaternary International, 689–690, 30– 42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2023.12.003 1893 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 120 Research Reflection by Matthew Eisenberg MATTHEW EISENBERG Faculty Mentor: Brian Codding (Anthropology, was truly University of Utah) Undergraduate research a amazing opportunity. Taking on a research project allowed me to develop research skills that I acquired by working on a project outside of a typical course assignment or 1894 RANGE project, and apply skills learned throughout my journey at the University. Not only that, but I was also given the opportunity to collaborate and work with many different researchers and professors throughout the process. The opportunity was not easy by any means, and it allowed me to test my research skills and grow as a student. Undergraduate research also proved to me that academic research is something I am interested in and can achieve. In my earlier academic career, a project such as this would have been inconceivable to me. I used to believe that I did not have what it takes or was not smart enough to complete academic research. However, this opportunity has shattered that fear, and I truly believe that I can complete compelling research and have what it takes to pursue a post-graduate degree in the future. 1895 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 121 Strength of Children and Adult's Memory in Realistic Conditions BROCK EPPERSON Faculty Mentor: Kara Moore (Psychology, University of Utah) Eyewitness misidentification has been the leading cause of convictions where the individual was later exonerated using DNA (252 out of 367) (Innocence Project, 2020). This is despite each one of the eyewitnesses interviewed 1896 RANGE expressing high levels of confidence when making those identifications (Garrett, 2011). Given the nature of lineup processes, there is a delay in time between when an eyewitness observes the actual event, and when they are asked to identify the potential perpetrator (Schuster, 2007). This process suggests a reliance on one’s strength of memory. Even if one were to perceive an event entirely accurately, if memory is not reliable, nor will be the recollection of the event and the potential perpetrators involved. Our research investigated individuals’ strength of memory, showing individuals a mock crime video, followed by a lineup after a duration of time. SUMMARY Our study involved participants putting on a virtual reality headset to view a mock-crime video. The mockcrime that occurred involved two characters stealing shopping bags from the main character. We chose to have participants view the video using virtual reality headsets in an attempt to create as realistic conditions as possible, without an actual crime occurring. Upon completion of the video, participants were aided in removing the headsets so they could complete the follow-up survey. The survey began with examples to ensure proper understanding of the processes to come. 1897 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Following the examples, participants were shown two separate six-person lineups with the perpetrators picture potentially in the lineup. They were asked to select the perpetrator’s picture, if they believed they were in the lineup, or a red X if they believed the perpetrator’s face was not in the lineup. Immediately following each of these lineups, participants indicated confidence regarding their selection in the lineup, on a confidence scale ranging from 1-4. We ran adult participants through our lab space at the University of Utah, and both adult and child participants at a children’s museum and art museum. We found individuals’ strength of memory to be poor, indicating a lack of reliability in correctly remembering perpetrators’ faces. As we utilized a mock crime video and lineup for this investigation, our findings bear extreme relevance for the reliance on eyewitness identification in criminal investigations. Our results encourage a need for further investigation on this topic, specifically on individuals’ ability to remember faces while factors such as eyewitness stress during the event, changes in perpetrators clothing and hair style, gaps in time between the witnessing and a lineup, and more, are at play. 1898 RANGE BIBLIOGRAPHY Garrett, B. L. (2011). Convicting the innocent: Where criminal prosecutions go wrong. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/ harvard.9780674060982 How eyewitness misidentification can send innocent people to prison. Innocence Project. (2023, April 23). https://innocenceproject.org/how-eyewitnessmisidentification-can- send-innocent-people-to- prison/ Schuster, B. (2007). Police lineups: Making eyewitness identification more reliable. National Institute of Justice Journal, 258, 2-9 1899 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 122 Examining Program Quality as a Predictor of Developmental Growth Among Youth Participating in a School-Based Camp Program SARAH HERRING Faculty Mentor: Robert Lubeznik-Warner (Psychology, University of Utah) 1900 RANGE ABSTRACT Youth programs are an opportunity to foster positive developmental outcomes such as social skills, goal setting, and optimism for the future. Program quality—staff behaviors and practices at the point of interaction with youth—supports these developmental outcomes. At the Tim Hortons Foundation Camps, program quality is measured by the presence of safety, support, interaction, and engagement. Understanding how program quality relates to outcomes for youth from low-income families may inform areas for improvement. The purpose of this study was to examine how elements of program quality impact youth outcomes, specifically intrapersonal and interpersonal outcomes. We hypothesized that (1) measures of program quality will predict change in self-report measures of self-efficacy and prosocial behavior from the beginning of the program to the end, and (2) measures of program quality will predict retrospective selfperceived interpersonal and intrapersonal growth measured after participation in the program. This study used pre-post survey data collected from over 700 students, ages 9–12, from low-income backgrounds who participated in a Tim Hortons Foundation Camps in-community program during the fall of 2024. The 1901 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH study used program quality measures (safe, supportive, interaction, and engagement) to predict change in youth development outcomes (self-efficacy, prosocial behavior, interpersonal and intrapersonal growth). Data were analyzed using an ordinary least squares multiple regression. The study findings highlight the significant role that program quality, specifically safe and supportive programming, plays in social-emotional development among youth. The greater presence of youth perceptions of physical and emotional safety and support, the greater developmental impacts these experiences were found to have, thereby reducing the gaps in developmental opportunities for youth from differing socio-economic backgrounds. This research and understanding can inform future research on youth development, advise policy implementation, and lead to evidence-based practices for youth programs, especially in contexts promoting positive development. INTRODUCTION The adolescent years represent an important phase of development, displaying rapid growth, transformation, and brain development. This period lays the groundwork for future behaviors that can be either beneficial or detrimental throughout life (Dahl et al., 2018; Vijayakumar et al., 2018). Youth programs are an 1902 RANGE opportunity to foster positive developmental outcomes for youth such as the way they interact with others, set goals for themselves, and develop optimistic future expectations. Social-emotional learning programs are designed to enable youth to manage their thoughts, establish and achieve goals, empathize with others, build and maintain healthy relationships, and make responsible choices (Weissberg et al., 2015). SEL is linked to enhanced self-perception, greater social and emotional competencies, and improved prosocial behavior and academic success. Additionally, it is associated with reduced emotional distress, risks, and problematic behaviors (Bonell et al., 2016; MendelezTorres et al., 2016; Weissberg et al., 2015). Summer camp is one common type of youth programming which supports SEL. Research suggests that summer camp is connected to the development of social skills, emotional competencies, and positive self-perception (Wilson et al., 2019). Studies indicate the achievement of similar developmental outcomes for youth from low-income backgrounds in comparison to youth from more affluent backgrounds (Warner et al., 2021). In efforts to make summer camp more accessible to youth from various backgrounds, identities, and socio- economic status, it is critical to understand if 1903 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH bringing camp programming to schools may have the same positive outcomes—and what aspects of the programming might support these outcomes. It is not enough to suggest that youth programs foster positive development for adolescents without also considering the quality of these programs. Program quality—staff behaviors and practices at the point of interaction with youth—support these developmental outcomes (Bennett, 2012). High-quality programs are characterized by supportive relationships, engaging activities, interactive atmosphere, and a safe environment. When these elements are present, young people are more likely to develop important social and emotional skills, build self-confidence, and foster positive peer relationships (Sparr et al., 2020). Conversely, low- quality programs may fail to engage participants and lead to less favorable developmental outcomes or none at all. Therefore, investing in the quality of youth programs can significantly enhance the overall development and well-being of young people. The relational developmental systems theory (Lerner & Overton, 2008) explains the relationship between program quality and growth outcomes, suggesting that the interactions of youth and their environments are determinants of positive development. In this study, we 1904 RANGE sought to examine what elements of program quality impact youth outcomes. Social-Emotional Developmental Outcomes It is critical to understand youth development as behaviors and habits formed during adolescence can be highly indicative of success in later life (Shi & Moody, 2016). Many youth programs utilize methods of socialemotional learning which go beyond educational teaching and target the development of skills necessary to manage emotions, set goals, and build relationships. In addition to fostering knowledge and academic skills, schools should support the enhancement of students’ social-emotional competencies (Greenberg, 2010; Farrington et al., 2012). Previous studies about SEL at summer camp suggest that interpersonal and intrapersonal development can occur at camp (Wilson et al., 2019). Interpersonal development involves interacting with others in a manner that creates support, belonging, and positive relationships. Intrapersonal development includes the cultivation of self-efficacy, or the positive belief in one’s ability to successfully achieve what one sets out to accomplish. 1905 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Prosocial Behavior Prosocial behavior is defined as voluntary, desirable actions intended to benefit others (Luengo et al., 2021). Based on Eisenberg’s model of prosocial development, there is a reciprocal relationship between moral development and prosocial behavior (Brestovansky et al., 2022). For example, as adolescents develop empathic tendencies, they become more prosocial, which in turn makes them more empathic, and so on. This theory suggests that participating in prosocial activities enhances empathy and social understanding. Additionally, prosocial behavior—being correlated with school engagement (Caprara et al., 2000)—is connected to higher academic achievement. Learning to act prosocially from a young age has been shown to promote high measures of well-being and academic achievement (Kiuru et al., 2020). Fostering prosocial behaviors through programs that promote social responsibility and community involvement aids in the cultivation of holistic youth development, as emphasized by the positive youth development framework (Scales et al., 2006, Eccles & Gootman, 2002, Mahoney et al., 2004). Youth programs, such as summer camps, create opportunities for developing prosocial tendencies, 1906 RANGE ultimately contributing to healthier social relationships and a stronger sense of community among participants (Geldhof et al., 2014). Summer camp programming provides an environment for youth to interact with peers from diverse backgrounds which is a catalyst in the development of empathy, communication skills, and collaboration on common goals. This is shown to be a space where kids can comfortably express emotion and learn to regulate intense feelings (Eccles & Gootman, 2002). Camp-like environments also provide a safe space for youth to take social risks and try new things (Kirchhoff et al., 2024, Povilaitis & Tamminen, 2018). It is necessary to understand the implications of the program environment to better understand how we can improve the facilitation of prosocial behavior within these youth programs. It is understood that the camp setting promotes prosocial tendencies at camp and years down the road (Povilaitis et al., 2023). In the efforts to improve access to camp-like programming for all, camp-facilitated school programs reach youth from diverse backgrounds, identities, and socio-economic statuses. More research is needed to understand the specific elements of school-based camp programming that contribute to prosocial behavior. 1907 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish tasks (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy can influence motivation, learning, and behavior. For youth, selfefficacy has been linked to academic success, increased motivation, and self-regulation. Studies show that those with greater self-efficacy are often more persistent in the face of challenges and experience better educational outcomes (Pajares & Schunk, 2001; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2005). Furthermore, self-efficacy shapes children’s aspirations and career trajectories (Bandura et al., 2001), indicating that it plays a crucial role in personal and professional development. Fostering selfefficacy in youth can contribute to their success, resilience, and well-being as self-efficacy in early life is correlated with stress moderation and associated with life satisfaction (Moksnes et al., 2019). Youth programs like camp cultivate an environment for kids to build confidence and self- efficacy. The camp setting—full of opportunities to try new things, learn new skills, work with teams—is optimal for the cultivation of this self-efficacy, as mastery experiences are critical for the development of belief in oneself (Hattie et al., 1998, Larson, 2000). Through adventurous 1908 RANGE activities and social challenges, camp staff inspire youth to step outside of their comfort zones, which aids in the development of resilience, and in turn, self-efficacy (Zimmerman, 2000, Geldhof et al., 2014). Lastly, camp environments offer a unique opportunity for social support and a sense of belonging through team building and mentorship. These relationships reinforce social support and affirm a youth’s abilities. The presence of self-confidence is a strong predictor of personal efficacy beliefs (Pajares & Schunk, 2001). Youth who participate in camp programs report increased self-confidence and a greater belief in their ability to succeed (Richards et al., 2014). As with prosocial behavior, more research is needed to understand what features of program quality contribute to increases in self-efficacy. Although current literature links specific mechanisms in camp programs to selfefficacy, little is known about how these mechanisms may function in school-based camp programs. This information is critical to inform new program designs. It is important to address these gaps to better understand how camp-based programs foster self-efficacy in young people, which in turn could lead to more effective program development and improved results for youth. Program Quality 1909 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Theories of human development emphasize that personal growth is shaped by the interactions individuals have with their environments. The relational developmental systems theory suggests that individuals and their environments influence each other and that the interaction between individuals and their environments shapes development (Lerner & Overton, 2008), suggesting that to fully understand the outcomes of youth developmental programming, we must thoroughly evaluate program quality (Arnold & Gagnon, 2020, Borden et al., 2014). Relational developmental systems theory emphasizes the importance of complex relationships between individuals and their contexts, whether those be biological, psychological, social, historical, or in this case, environmental. Relational developmental systems theory would suggest that there is a relationship between program quality and youth developmental outcomes. For this study, we operationalized program quality as safe, supportive, interactive, and engaging environments, and operationalized 1910 RANGE developmental outcomes as prosocial behavior, self-efficacy, and overall perceptions of growth. Program quality refers to the effectiveness of youth programs in delivering intended outcomes (Eccles & Gootman, 2002). This encompasses various aspects, including the curriculum, staff, and the environment in which the program operates. According to the National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2002), quality programs are essential for fostering positive youth development and ensuring that young people gain the skills they need to thrive. Program quality is connected to social-emotional learning, because of the focus on developing essential skills such as selfawareness, empathy, and interpersonal skills. Using the pyramid of instructional quality (Smith et al., 2012), research breaks down the levels of environmental quality emphasizing the importance of the program being safe, supportive, interactive, and engaging. As outlined, facilitation of these environments can involve many different techniques such as providing a welcoming atmosphere, supporting 1911 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH physical, emotional, and psychological safety, creating small groups, partnering with adults, and promoting leadership opportunities. When these elements are present in programs, they are considered to be high-quality and have the likelihood of supporting learning and development. A safe environment is essential for positive development, as it allows young people to participate and take social risks without fear of physical or emotional distress. Research emphasizes that when youth feel physically and psychologically safe, they are better equipped to build positive social skills rather than defensive behaviors (Eccles & Gootman, 2002). The cultivation of respect and inclusion in youth environments can encourage active participation (NASEM, 2019) along with a foundation for emotional resilience, sense of belonging, and identity formation due to an experience of freedom to fully express themselves without fear of judgement (Durlak et al., 2010). In sum, safety appears to be a prerequisite for developing social and emotional 1912 RANGE skills that contribute development. to favorable youth When youth programs nurture relationships with caring adults and peers they are more likely to foster emotional and psychological safety. Supportive environments offer individuals encouragement and emotional support, which are critical for building self-confidence and resilience (Rhodes, 2002). Studies suggest that when youth feel supported by adults and peers, they are more likely to develop social-emotional skills such as self-discipline, compassion for others, and problem-solving abilities (Durlak et al., 2011). Additionally, supportive relationships with adults and peers provide youth with a sense of stability and trust, which can help them navigate challenging situations with confidence. These environments reinforce positive identity development and help youth develop the competencies and life skills necessary in the long-term (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003). Interactive environments are characterized by opportunities for youth to actively participate with peers and adults through collaboration, 1913 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH open discussion, and hands-on activities. Literature on youth programs highlights that interactive settings promote the development of social skills, as they allow youth to practice communication and teamwork (Hurst et al., 2013). When young people have opportunities to share ideas, work as a team towards collective goals, and resolve conflicting views, they gain a sense of agency and confidence in navigating social relationships (Larson, 2000), further fostering autonomy and self-efficacy through the practice of leadership and active decisionmaking. This not only builds critical social competencies but also fosters a sense of community and belonging, both of which are key to positive youth development (Eccles & Gootman, 2002). Engaging environments are those that capture youth interest and foster curiosity. Research shows that when youth find program activities stimulating, they will participate more consistently and show greater motivation to learn (Durlak et al., 2010). Engaging environments often include opportunities for decision-making and creativity, encouraging 1914 RANGE students to think and reflect on concepts as they learn. This action may reinforce feelings of autonomy and ownership over their development and education (Li & Julian, 2012). Ultimately, engagement in youth programs is associated with better social-emotional learning outcomes, as it leads to greater investment in lessons and activities within programs and classes (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003). High-quality programs create environments where young people can practice and reinforce social-emotional skills in real-world contexts. For instance, programs that emphasize safety, support, interaction, and engagement provide youth with the tools to build self-discipline and navigate social situations effectively. By focusing on quality programming, we can create environments that foster the growth of essential skills, such as self-efficacy and prosocial behavior. PRESENT STUDY While it is clear that camp programs can contribute to enhanced self-efficacy, most research involves samples of campers and 1915 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH students from high socio-economic status backgrounds. There is a lack of research pertaining to kids from low-income backgrounds. Given the evidence suggesting links between program quality and developmental outcomes, as well as the importance of youth programming that fosters opportunities for SEL among youth from lowincome backgrounds, we sought to identify the mechanisms by which high-quality schoolbased camp programs support interpersonal and intrapersonal outcomes. To provide a more holistic and robust examination of these relationships, we considered change through pre-post measures and retrospective selfperception of growth in outcomes. Specifically, we hypothesized: Hypothesis 1: Youth perceptions of program quality will predict the change in self-report measures of interpersonal and intrapersonal development from the beginning of the program to the end. Hypothesis 2: Youth perceptions of program quality will predict retrospective 1916 RANGE self-perceived interpersonal intrapersonal growth measured participation in the program. and after METHOD This study employed a pre-post design to assess changes in self-efficacy, prosocial behaviors, and overall growth among students participating in the Tim Hortons Foundation Camps InCommunity program. The students completed surveys at two time points: (1) before starting the 7-week program, and (2) following the program’s completion. Participants Tim Hortons Foundation Camps InCommunity program serves schools with a high proportion of students from low-income backgrounds. Schools were selected from priority regions identified by the presence of Tim Hortons restaurants, paucity of socialemotional skill development programs, and a lack of proximity (not within driving distance) to a Tim Hortons Camps property. The Tims Camps Strategic Advisor, a former Director of 1917 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Education at one of Canada’s largest school boards, reached out directly to principals at these schools to determine interest in the program for grade 5 and 6 students. If inclusion criteria were met and there was interest from the principal, a meeting was set up to discuss the program and determine the next steps for launching the program at that school. Demographic information, including age and gender, was collected for students. Students who completed the pre-program survey had ages ranging from 9–12 years, with a mean age of 10.34 (SD = .64). This sample of students was comprised of 399 boys (50%), 369 girls (46%), and 12 students who identified as non-binary (2%). Students with matched post-program survey responses (430 students completed both pre- and post-surveys) were an average age of 10.32 (SD = .96) and consisted of 207 boys (49%), 201 girls (48%), and 5 non-binary students (1%). It is important to note that these programs serve schools with a high percentage of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. 1918 RANGE Table 1. Demographics P ost (nn = 664) Pre Variable (nn = 828) M (SD SD) n (%) M (SD SD) Age 10.34 (.64) – Boy – 399 (50%) – 207 (50%) Girl – 369 (47%) – 201 (48%) Nonbinary – 12 (2%) 10.32 (.64) – n (%) – 5 (1%) Note. Demographics were not asked on the post survey, limiting all demographic information for the post survey to only matched responses. Given the Canadian context of this study, and their regulations around asking about racial identity, this information was not collected. Procedure Students were invited to participate in the 7-week program and asked to complete a brief survey before the first session and after the program ended. Teachers and program staff administered the survey, and students had an 1919 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH opportunity to opt out. Parents/Guardians provided permission for their child to participate in the program. Students who did not have permission were provided with another activity during the program. Given that these data were initially collected anonymously for organizational evaluation purposes and not for research purposes, this secondary analysis of the anonymous data did not require IRB approval. Materials For data collection purposes, a survey instrument comprising two short-form/adapted scales measuring self-efficacy and prosocial behavior, self-perceived growth outcomes measuring reflective interpersonal and intrapersonal growth, and student-reported scale of program quality measures was used. Self-Efficacy To obtain an average score for self-efficacy, we utilized the 10-item General Self- Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995), which assesses participants’ confidence in handling challenges and achieving tasks. The scale was adapted to 1920 RANGE be more engaging and relatable for younger participants, enhancing their ability to understand and respond accurately. Items were rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Never/ Almost never true) to 5 (Always/Almost always true). Example items include statements like, “I can manage problems if I try hard” and “I can stay calm when things are hard because I know what to do.” In this study, the reliability of this scale had a Cronbach’s alpha of α = .88 on the pre-program survey and of α = .89 on the postprogram survey, indicating satisfactory internal consistency. Prosocial Behavior The survey also included a modification of the Prosociality Scale (Luengo-Kanacri et al., 2021), originally a 16-item scale used to assess a person’s propensity to behave prosocially and engage in positive social interactions with others. The revised scale used for evaluation of Tim Horton Camp’s Foundation in-community programs included 4 items rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Never/Almost never true) to 5 (Always/Almost always true). Example 1921 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH items include statements like, “I try to include others in conversations and activities” and “I try to help those who are in need.” In this study, the reliability of this scale had a Cronbach’s alpha of α = .78 on the pre-program survey and of α = .77 on the post-program survey, indicating satisfactory internal consistency. Self-Perceived Growth Self-perceived growth was measured for interpersonal and intrapersonal domains. To measure the construct of interpersonal development, we used five self-report measures based on the amount that a student experienced growth in the areas of (1) working as part of a team, (2) listening to new ideas, (3) communicating with classmates, (4) sharing my opinion, and (5) respecting others. To measure the construct of intrapersonal development, we used five self- report measures based on the amount that a student experience growth in areas of (1) setting goals, (2) working toward my goals, (3) knowing what I’m good at, (4) understanding my ability to impact my school 1922 RANGE with my actions, and (5) taking responsibility for my actions. Program Quality Program quality was measured using four student-reported scores related to categories of program quality. These categories included: physical and emotional safety (safe), supportive environments (supportive), peer and mentor interaction (interactive), and engagement in lessons and activities (engaging). Students were asked to report how often they feel the Tim’s Camps leader did things to: “help you feel safe to be who you are,” (safe); “help your class become closer,” (supportive); “help you feel interested in what you are doing,”(interactive); “help you feel excited about what you are doing” (engaging). Items were measured on a 4-point scale of frequency (never, rarely, sometimes, always). Data Analysis Plan Following data collection, the dataset was cleaned, and participant IDs were matched. All analyses were performed using RStudio. An alpha level of 0.05 was set for determining 1923 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH statistical significance. Descriptive statistics were calculated to summarize participant demographics and pre-post scores for selfefficacy, prosocial behavior, perceived program quality, and interpersonal and intrapersonal growth outcomes. To answer the research questions, we conducted two sets of analyses. For the pre-post data, we calculated a mean score for dependent variables self-efficacy and prosocial behavior at both time points using measures from the modified Generalized Self-efficacy Scale and revised Prosociality scale. We then computed a raw change score for each construct by subtracting the pre-program means from the post-program means. We then regressed the raw changes scores onto the program quality measures using an ordinary least squares multiple regression. For the perceived growth measures, we calculated a mean score for both interpersonal and intrapersonal growth. We then regressed each of the growth outcomes (interpersonal and intrapersonal) onto the program quality measures. 1924 RANGE RESULTS The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between program quality and social-emotional outcomes. Overall, our results suggested that program quality predicted outcomes. Descriptives From the pre-program survey (n = 828), we calculated a mean score of 3.80 for prosocial behavior (SD = .87) and 3.53 for self-efficacy (SD = .78). From the post-program survey (n = 664), we calculated a mean score of 3.74 for prosocial behavior (SD = .88) and 3.58 for selfefficacy (SD = .81) with change means (n = 400) of -.09 (SD = .76) for prosocial behavior and .07 (SD = .64) for self-efficacy. From self-perceived growth measures (n = 664), we calculated a mean score (range of 1–5) of 3.87 (SD = .87) for interpersonal change and a mean score of 3.66 (SD = .87) for intrapersonal change. Measures of program quality were reported on the postprogram survey with mean scores for safe (M = 3.39, SD = .78), supportive (M = 3.23, SD = .85), 1925 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH interactive (M = 3.39, SD = .74), and engaging (M = 3.41, SD = .78). Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Key Study Variables Variable Pre Post Change (nn = 828) (nn = 664) (nn = 400) M (SD SD) M (SD SD) M (SD SD) Prosocial Behavior 3.80 (.87) 3.74 (.88) -.09 (.76) Self-efficacy 3.53 (.78) 3.58 (.81) .07 (.64) Interpersonal Change – – 3.88 (.86) Intrapersonal Change – – 3.68 (.85) Safe – 3.39 (.78) – Supportive – 3.23 (.85) – Interactive – 3.39 (.74) – Engaging – 3.41 (.78) – Note. Ranges: Prosocial behavior = 1–5; General Self1926 RANGE Efficacy = 1–5; Prosocial Behavior Change = -3–2.85; General Self-Efficacy Change = -3.2–2; Interpersonal = 1–5; Intrapersonal = 1–5; Safe = 1–4; Supportive = 1–4; Interactive = 1–4; Engaging = 1–4 Pre-Post Measures To test H1 (program quality will predict change in interpersonal and intrapersonal outcomes from the beginning of the program to the end), we assessed student-reported measures of preand post-program measures of self-efficacy and prosocial behavior. We found program quality elements were significant predictors of change in outcomes. We found that program quality was a significant predictor of prosocial behaviors (adj. R2 = .23, F (7, 344) = 16.13, p < .001). Specifically, we found the perceived safety of a program to be a predictor of prosocial behavior change scores (ß = .15, p < .001). The perceived support (ß = .08, p = .22), interactive (ß = .10, p = .11, and engaging (ß = .08, p = .18) of a program were not significant predictors of prosocial behavior change scores. These results control for pre1927 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH program prosocial behavior (ß = -.50, p < .001), identity as a boy (ß = .04, p = .46), and age (ß = .00, p = .88). We found that program quality was a significant predictor of self-efficacy (adj. R2 = .25, F (7, 359) = 18.11, p < .001). Specifically, we found that the perceived safety of a program to be a predictor self-efficacy change scores (ß = .20, p < .001) along with perceived supportive environment (ß = .12, p = .04) and engaging (ß = .12, p = .05). There was not a significant relationship between self-efficacy and the extent to which the program was rated by students to be interactive (ß = .03 p = .63). All effects control for pre-program self-efficacy scores (ß = -.51, p < .001), identity as a boy (ß = .01, p = .82), and age (ß = .14, p < .01). Self-Perceived Growth Measures To test H2 (program quality will predict retrospective perceived growth in interpersonal and intrapersonal development from the beginning of the program to the end), we used student- reported measures of developmental 1928 RANGE change. We found that program quality elements were significant predictors of selfperceived growth. Using the self-perceived growth scores for interpersonal development, we found that program quality were significant predictors of interpersonal growth (adj. R2 = .25, F (6, 345) = 20.75, p < .001). When students report a program to be safe (ß =.23, p = .04), supportive (ß = .17, p < .001), and interactive (ß = .15, p = .02), there were significantly higher levels of self-perceived interpersonal growth. Whether the student found the program to be engaging was not a significant predictor (ß = .10, p = .13). These relationships controlled for the effects of identity as a boy (ß = .00, p = .83) and age (ß = .04, p = .36). Using the self-perceived development scores for intrapersonal development, we found that measures of program quality were predictive of self-perceived intrapersonal growth (adj. R2 = .25, F (6, 328) = 19.49, p < .001). When students reported a program to be safe (ß = .22, p < .001), 1929 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and supportive (ß = .21, p < .001), and engaging (ß = .13, p < .04) there were significantly higher levels of self-perceived intrapersonal growth. The relationship between an interactive environment and perceived intrapersonal growth is notable, but not significant (ß = .08, p = .21). These effects controlled for the relationship between identity as a boy (ß = .02, p = .74) and age (ß = .06, p = .24). The correlation analysis between raw change scores and self-perceived growth scores shown in Table 3 reveals significant relationships. General self-efficacy shows a strong positive correlation with prosocial behavior (r = .36, p < .001), indicating that individuals who perceive an increase in their general self-efficacy are also likely to exhibit greater prosocial behavior. Additionally, interpersonal growth is positively associated with both general self-efficacy (r = .22, p < .001) and prosocial behavior (r = .19, p < .001), suggesting that improvements in these areas coincide with enhanced interpersonal skills. Intrapersonal growth demonstrates 1930 RANGE significant positive correlations with all measured variables, including general selfefficacy (r = .26, p < .001), prosocial behavior (r = .22, p < .001), and interpersonal growth (r = .80, p < .001), highlighting the interconnected nature of these personal development dimensions. These findings underscore the strong associations between self-efficacy and prosocial tendencies, and interpersonal and intrapersonal growth. Table 3. Correlations between Raw Change Scores and Self-Perceived Growth Scores 1931 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of program quality on developmental outcomes for youth from low-income backgrounds. The findings of this study largely supported the hypotheses that measures of program quality predict both longitudinal and self-reflective changes in interpersonal and intrapersonal development. The purpose of this discussion is to examine study results for each measure of program quality, call attention to potential study limitations, and to discuss the practical implications of these findings for future research, policy, and practice. The results emphasize the importance of physical and psychological safety in youth SEL programming. Feeling safe in an environment may contribute to risk-taking both in personal ambitions and in social settings, which would lead to greater self-efficacy and prosocial behaviors. This idea aligns with past research which suggests that secure and supportive environments are fundamental in building selfconfidence, resilience, self-regulation, and 1932 RANGE empathy, (Rhodes, 2002, Durlak et al., 2011). The consistently significant impact of safety and support over other measures suggests that feeling secure and supported may be prerequisites for meaningful participation and social-emotional development. In particular, the results suggest that perceived safety within the program is a significant predictor of prosocial behavior (interpersonal development) and selfefficacy (intrapersonal development). The study results reinforce the idea that conditions of emotional and psychological support appear to influence developmental change. Students’ perceptions of the program being safe and supportive significantly predicted longitudinal change in self-efficacy, along with self- perceived interpersonal and intrapersonal growth. These findings align with previous studies which highlight the importance of safe and supportive environments in the cultivation of social- emotional development among youth (Eccles & Gootman, 2002; Larson, 2000). The consistent positive relationship between the perceived support of the program and selfperceived measures of interpersonal and 1933 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH intrapersonal growth suggests that feelings of support within youth programs is a critical element for youth to recognize their own growth. While this study aligns with research suggesting that program quality fosters the development of social-emotional skills, it does not support the notion that all elements of program quality contribute equally. Contrary to hypotheses, the program quality elements of interactive and engaging environments within the program were not consistent predictors across all outcome measures. These results deviate from existing literature that emphasizes interactive and engaging environments as key components of youth development (Durlak et al., 2010). Although interactive and engaging environments are believed to be essential, these aspects of program quality may not be as easily recognized by students compared to feelings of safety and support, therefore making them less useful predictors in this study. LIMITATIONS Several limitations should be considered when 1934 RANGE interpreting the study results. First, all study data consisted of self-reported measures which assume a participant has the ability to accurately assess and recall their previous experiences and states of belief. As a result, it is possible that students may have reported levels of growth that are biased in favorable directions due to social desirability bias, which may limit the validity of the study findings. Due to the nature of pre-post surveying, students may perceive themselves to have grown in self-efficacy or prosocial behavior but not accurately recall their initial self-assessments before the program. Without being reminded of their pre-program responses, students might provide lower or equal ratings based on their current perspective rather than in retrospective comparison (Sibthorp et al., 2007). As a result, differences in pre-post scores may include more error, making interpretation of these results more tentative. Relatedly, variability in youth responses could have resulted from how students interpreted survey questions rather than from perceived differences in program quality. 1935 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Second, were collected from Tim Horton Foundation Camps programming, which also influences the generalizability of findings as these may not extend to all social-emotional learning programs. Further, the program’s structure—being affiliated with Tim Hortons Foundation Camps—may have introduced selection biases, as participating schools and students were those with administrators already interested in social-emotional skill development. In addition, the student’s race/ethnicity was not recorded. Collecting these demographic characteristics contributes to the relevance and application of findings across diverse populations. Third, program attendance was not recorded or factored into participant criteria. This means that it is possible that any student who attended the first and last program days would record data for growth measures, even if they were not present at any other sessions. In future studies, attendance, or “dosage,” should be a necessary factor in participation criteria to increase validity and mitigate the effects of confounding variables. 1936 RANGE Implications for Research, Policy, and Practice Future research should investigate the mechanisms through which program safety influences development. For example, which aspect of program facilitation creates a perception of safety among students and why do these contribute to growth outcomes? Given the disconnect between interactive and engaging environments and outcomes for this sample, future research could explore whether interaction and engagement play a stronger role in other settings or age groups. Additionally, longitudinal studies with more diverse populations and experimental designs would help clarify the causal pathways between program quality measures and developmental outcomes. As this study reported only initial growth directly after the program, a longitudinal study could examine the durability of the results and implications of outcome persistence. Future studies should explore how opportunity differences like prior experiences and other outside-of-class programs and activities (e.g., sports practices, clubs, summer camps) may influence the impact of these types 1937 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of school-based programs on social-emotional growth. The findings of this study can inform better policy interventions aimed at supporting youth from underserved communities. High-quality community-based youth programs can mitigate some of the challenges faced by children from low-income backgrounds. These results reinforce the importance of fostering a safe and supportive environment in youth programs, particularly for underserved populations. With the objective to enhance self-efficacy and prosocial behavior, policy makers should focus on program implementation and training strategies that ensure physical and emotional security as a prerequisite for quality programming. Given the positive relationships observed between perceived safety and developmental outcomes, educators, practitioners, and program designers should emphasize discussions on how to cultivate environments of perceived safety to expand students’ comfort zones. This allows students to take more social risks and develop 1938 RANGE confidence that they have a place within their communities. This also allows for the maturation of personal goals and ambitions to evolve into attainable objectives for developing youth. The implementation of such schoolbased programs may create informal professional development opportunities for classroom educators through observing and discussing the importance of program quality with the staff facilitating these types of experiential programs. CONCLUSION We conducted this study to better understand the elements of program quality that contribute to positive growth outcomes for students participating in a camp-informed, classroombased social-emotional learning program—specifically how students’ perceptions of program quality may promote interpersonal and intrapersonal development. The study findings highlight the significant role that program quality, specifically safe and supportive programming, plays in social-emotional development among youth. Cultivating a safe 1939 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and supportive environment is one of the most important tasks when working with youth as they develop confidence, responsibility, and positive social behaviors. The study results highlight the potential value of quality youth programming as a way to provide socialemotional learning opportunities for youth from low-income backgrounds. The more youth perceive these programs to be of high quality, the greater impact these experiences can have, thereby reducing the gaps in developmental opportunities for youth from differing socio-economic backgrounds. BIBLIOGRAPHY Arnold, M. E., & Gagnon, R. J. (2019). Illuminating the process of youth development: The mediating effect of thriving on youth development program outcomes. Journal of Human Sciences and Extension, 7(3), 24. Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (2001). Self-efficacy beliefs as shapers of children’s aspirations and career 1940 RANGE trajectories. Child Development, 72(1), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00273 Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191 Bennett, T. (2012). Staff practices of high quality youth programs. Briefing paper prepared for the American Camp Association. Bonell, C., Hinds, K., Dickson, K., Thomas, J., Fletcher, A., Murphy, S., Melendez-Torres, G. J., Bonell, C., & Campbell, R. (2016). What is positive youth development and how might it reduce substance use and violence? A systematic review and synthesis of theoretical literature. BMC Public Health, 16(136), 135. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-2817-3 Borden, L. M., Perkins, D. F., & Hawkey, K. (2014). 4-H youth development: The past, the present, and the future. Journal of Extension, 52(4). https://doi.org/10.34068/joe.52.04.35 Brestovansky, M., Sadovska, A., Kusy, P., 1941 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Martincova, R., & Podmanicky, I. (2022). Development of prosocial moral reasoning in young adolescents and its relation to prosocial behavior and meaningfulness of life: Longitudinal study. Studia Psychologica, 64(3), 295–312. https://doi.org/10.31577/ sp.2022.03.855 Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Pastorelli, C., Bandura, A., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2000). Prosocial foundations of children’s academic achievement. Psychological Science, 11(4), 302–306. https://doi.org/10.1111/ 1467-9280.00260 Dahl, R. E., Allen, N. B., Wilbrecht, L., & Suleiman, A. B. (2018). Importance of investing in adolescence from a developmental science perspective. Nature (London), 554(7693), 441–450. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25770 Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., & Pachan, M. (2010). A meta-analysis of after-school programs that seek to promote personal and social skills in children and adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45(3–4), 1942 RANGE 294–309. s10464-010-9300-6 https://doi.org/10.1007/ Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of schoolbased universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x Farrington et al., 2012. Teaching adolescents to become learners: The role of noncognitive factors in shaping school performance: A critical literature review. (2012). In Teaching adolescents to become learners: The role of noncognitive factors in shaping school performance: A critical literature review. https://doi.org/info:doi/ Geldhof, G. J., Bowers, E. P., Mueller, M. K., Napolitano, C. M., Callina, K. S., & Lerner, R. M. (2014). Longitudinal analysis of a very short measure of positive youth development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(6), 933–949. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0093-z 1943 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Gootman, J. A., & Eccles, J. (2002). Community programs to promote youth development (1st ed.). National Academies Press. https://doi.org/ 10.17226/10022 Greenberg, M. T. (2010). School-based prevention: current status and future challenges. Effective Education, 2(1), 27–52. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/19415531003616862 Hattie, J., & Jaeger, R. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning: A deductive approach. Assessment in Education : Principles, Policy & Practice, 5(1), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0969595980050107 Hurst, B., Wallace, R., & Nixon, S. B. (2013). The impact of social interaction on student learning. Reading Horizons, 52(4), 375. Kirchhoff, E., Keller, R., & Blanc, B. (2024). Empowering young people-the impact of camp experiences on personal resources, well-being, and community building. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1348050–1348050. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2024.1348050 1944 RANGE Kiuru, N., Wang, M.-T., Salmela-Aro, K., Kannas, L., Ahonen, T., & Hirvonen, R. (2020). Associations between adolescents’ interpersonal relationships, school well-being, and academic achievement during educational transitions. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(5), 1057–1072. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10964-019-01184-y Larson, R. W. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. The American Psychologist, 55(1), 170–183. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.170 Lerner, R. M., & Overton, W. F. (2008). Exemplifying the integrations of the relational developmental system: Synthesizing theory, research, and application to promote positive development and social justice. Journal of Adolescent Research, 23(3), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558408314385 Li, J., & Julian, M. M. (2012). Developmental relationships as the active ingredient: A unifying working hypothesis of “what works” across intervention settings. American Journal of 1945 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Orthopsychiatry, 82(2), 157–166. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01151.x Luengo Kanacri, B. P., Eisenberg, N., Tramontano, C., Zuffiano, A., Caprara, M. G., Regner, E., Zhu, L., Pastorelli, C., & Caprara, G. V. (2021). Measuring prosocial behaviors: Psychometric properties and cross-national validation of the prosociality scale in five countries. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 693174–693174. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2021.693174 Mahoney, Joseph L. ; Larson, Reed W. ; Eccles, Jacquelynne S. (2005). Everybody’s gotta give: Development of initiative and teamwork within a youth program. In Organized Activities As Contexts of Development (pp. 171–196). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/ 9781410612748-14 Melendez-Torres, G. J., Dickson, K., Fletcher, A., Thomas, J., Hinds, K., Campbell, R., Murphy, S., & Bonell, C. (2016). Positive youth development programmes to reduce substance use in young people: Systematic review. The 1946 RANGE International Journal of Drug Policy, 36, 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.01.007 Moksnes, U. K., Eilertsen, M. B., Ringdal, R., Bjørnsen, H. N., & Rannestad, T. (2019). Life satisfaction in association with self‐efficacy and stressor experience in adolescents – self‐ efficacy as a potential moderator. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 33(1), 222–230. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/scs.12624 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2019). Applying lessons of optimal adolescent health to improve behavioral outcomes for youth: Public information-gathering session: proceedings of a workshop-in-brief. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Parker, P. D., & O’Neill, A. M. (2012). The influence of current mood on autobiographical memory retrieval. Memory, 20(7), 757–763. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2012.688291 Paulhus, D. L. (1991). CHAPTER 2 – Measurement and control of response bias. In 1947 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes: Volume 1 of Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes (pp. 17–59). Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/ B978-0-12-590241-0.50006-X Povilaitis, V., & Tamminen, K. A. (2018). Delivering positive youth development at a residential summer sport camp. Journal of Adolescent Research, 33(4), 470–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558417702478 Rhodes, J. E., Grossman, J. B., & Roffman, J. (2002). The rhetoric and reality of youth mentoring. New Directions for Youth Development, 2002(93), 9–20. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/yd.23320029304 Roth, J. L., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003). What exactly is a youth development program? Answers from research and practice. Applied Developmental Science, 7(2), 94–111. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532480XADS0702_6 Richards, K. A., & Levesque-Bristol, C. (2014). Developing teaching assistant self-efficacy 1948 RANGE through a pre semester teaching assistant orientation. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 85(S1), A153. Scales, P. C., Roehlkepartain, E. C., & Shramko, M. (2017). Aligning youth development theory, measurement, and practice across cultures and contexts: Lessons from use of the developmental assets profile. Child Indicators Research, 10(4), 1145–1178. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12187-016-9395-x Shi, Y., & Moody, J. (2017). Most likely to succeed: Long-run returns to adolescent popularity. Social Currents, 4(1), 13–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329496516651642 Sibthorp, J., Paisley, K., Gookin, J., & Ward, P. (2007). Addressing response-shift bias: retrospective pretests in recreation research and evaluation. Journal of Leisure Research, 39(2), 295–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00222216.2007.11950109 Simpkins, S. D. (2015). When and how does participating in an organized after-school 1949 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH activity matter? Applied Developmental Science, 19(3), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10888691.2015.1056344 Smith, C., Akiva, T., Sugar, S. A., Lo, Y. J., Frank, K. A., Peck, S. C., Cortina, K. S. & Devaney, T. (2012). Continuous quality improvement in afterschool settings: Impact findings from the Youth Program Quality Intervention study. Washington, DC: Forum for Youth Investment. Sparr, M., Frazier, S., Morrison, C., Miller, K., & Bartko, W.T. (2020). Afterschool programs to improve social-emotional, behavioral, and physical health in middle childhood: A targeted review of the literature Vijayakumar, N., Op de Macks, Z., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Pfeifer, J. H. (2018). Puberty and the human brain: Insights into adolescent development. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 92, 417–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.neubiorev.2018.06.004 Warner, R. P., Sibthorp, J., Wilson, C., Browne, L. P., Barnett, S., Gillard, A., & Sorenson, J. 1950 RANGE (2021). Similarities and differences in summer camps: A mixed methods study of lasting outcomes and program elements. Children and Youth Services Review, 120, 105779. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.childyouth.2020.105779 Weissberg, R. P., Durlak, J. A., Domitrovich, C. E., & Gullotta, T. P. (Eds.). (2015). Social and emotional learning: Past, present, and future. In J. A. Durlak, C. E. Domitrovich, R. P. Weissberg, & T. P. Gullotta (Eds.), Handbook of social and emotional learning: Research and practice (pp. 3–19). The Guilford Press. Wilson, C., Akiva, T., Sibthorp, J., & Browne, L. P. (2019). Fostering distinct and transferable learning via summer camp. Children and Youth Services Review, 98, 269–277. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.01.017 Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (2005). Homework practices and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-efficacy and perceived responsibility beliefs. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30(4), 1951 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 397–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.cedpsych.2005.05.003 Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: an essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1016 Name of Candidate:Sarah Herring Date of Submission: April 23, 2025 1952 RANGE 123 Research Reflection by Sarah Herring SARAH HERRING Faculty Mentor: Robert Lubeznik-Warner (Psychology, University of Utah) I initially got involved with undergraduate research as a requirement of the honors psychology major. However, what I thought would be one semester of research experience, quickly evolved into nearly 3 years working 1953 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH with youth development and youth programming literature, data collection, and analysis. I started working with the Tim Hortons Foundation Camps for research purposes, but I continued working with them, because I fell in love with the mission of the organization. The THFC, a nonprofit committed to helping youth from underserved communities achieve their full potential and develop social emotional competencies, helped me to develop a better understanding of the systemic issues behind the polarization of our world today and to learn that the establishment of equitable opportunities are essential for the success of future generations. I was able to work with the foundation to conduct evaluative research for the implementation of a new type of programming. I developed a new understanding that research can be created serve purposes beyond what we can imagine at the start. We were able to conduct program evaluation whilst also studying the specific aspects of program quality that lead to positive developmental outcomes for youth. It is through this research that I also had opportunities to code narrative data from campers and alumni. These data reinforce just how influential youth programming can be for youth developmental opportunities at the time and further down the road. Through these narratives I feel that the 1954 RANGE research became more than just a camper id but an interaction with a person behind the screen. Down the road, I hope to go to law school in order to pursue a career in policy or legal advocacy. Inspired by the research I have done in my undergraduate years, my goal is to work at the intersection of law and human rights, ensuring that all people have access to the resources and representation they need to thrive. I want to help people directly, but more than that I want to shift the structures that hold them back. After having experiences in each area of the research process, I am able to better understand the importance of evidence informed policy and practice. 1955 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 124 Improving Law Enforcement's Response Towards Victims of Sexual Violence: The Impact of Traumatic Memory NAOMI HILL Faculty Mentor: Heather University of Utah) 1956 Melton (Criminology, RANGE ABSTRACT Memory plays a pivotal role in the criminal justice system, serving as a crucial component of evidence in numerous criminal proceedings, particularly those reliant on witness accounts, like sexually violent acts. Unfortunately, victims of sexual assault and rape often face disbelief when their memories come into question. Upon delving deeper into the existing research on traumatic memory, it becomes evident that law enforcement has misinterpreted signs of trauma, wrongly perceiving them as indicators of dishonesty among victims and dismissing their cases. However, the recent introduction of trauma- informed policing in Utah Police Departments may help police understanding and response to traumatic memory. The present study is an exploration of the perspectives and experiences of law enforcement within the Salt Lake Valley. Investigating the narrative accounts of law enforcement might enhance a deeper understanding of whether this new approach has resulted in tangible changes in policing methods and law enforcement perceptions. This inquiry aims to uncover the valuable insights and experiences that contribute to the ongoing dialogue about the effectiveness and impact of traumainformed policing. The study interviewed three current 1957 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH or former detectives who have received traumainformed training. The findings reveal that officers who have undergone this training report perceiving lower rates of false reports among victims and demonstrate a clear understanding of how trauma and traumatic memory affect victims. The detectives involved in the study noted improved victim engagement and an increased sense of empathy and understanding toward victims. Ultimately, this research supports the case for broader adoption of trauma-informed training across the United States. IMPROVING LAW ENFORCEMENT’S RESPONSE TOWARDS VICTIMS OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE: THE IMPACT OF TRAUMATIC MEMORY Memory plays a pivotal role in the criminal justice system, serving as a crucial component of evidence in numerous criminal proceedings, particularly those reliant on a witness’s account, like sexually violent acts. Unfortunately, victims of sexual assault and rape often face disbelief when their memories come into question. With only approximately 12 to 40% of victims coming forward, sexual assault is the most underreported violent crime (Rich, 2016). Furthermore, an even smaller 1958 RANGE percentage of reported cases, roughly 12.5%, reach prosecution (Westera et al., 2016). This disproportionate number might be attributed to police not referring the case to prosecution. The first interaction between law enforcement and sexual assault victims is critical because officers have the unique ability to decide if a case should be referred to prosecution. In a study done by Dr. Rebecca Campbell, 86% of sexual assault cases reported to the police did not go further than this interaction (National Institute of Justice, 2019). Other studies suggest that 50 to 75% of cases never reach prosecution (Rich, 2019). This may partially be explained by the fact that victim testimony is frequently not believed. Existing research on traumatic memory suggests law enforcement has misinterpreted signs of trauma, wrongly perceiving the signs as indicators of dishonesty among victims and dismissing their cases. With the recent introduction of trauma-informed policing in select cities and states across the United States, including Utah Police Departments, there is a valuable opportunity to examine the tangible effects of this evolving approach on victims of crime. This exploration aims to find common themes through interviews with law enforcement officers from departments in the Salt Lake Valley, seeking insights 1959 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH into the impact this innovative policing strategy has had on law enforcement practices and perceptions. Through these interviews, the goal was to gain a deeper understanding of how trauma-informed policing has brought about genuine changes in the field. Specifically, the focus will be on exploring the law enforcement officers’ experiences when dealing with rape and sexual assault victims, the nature of their training programs, and their comprehension of traumatic memory. This inquiry seeks to uncover valuable perspectives and experiences that contribute to the ongoing conversation about the effectiveness and implications of traumainformed policing. LITERATURE REVIEW Traumatic Memory To better understand traumatic memories, it’s essential to first explore how memory systems function. Memory refers to the systems and processes responsible for storing and retrieving information. The hippocampus, amygdala, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex are key areas of the brain involved in memory recollection (Payne, 2023). The hippocampus and amygdala are responsible for memory consolidation, stabilizing memory in the brain to be recalled. For a memory 1960 RANGE to be accurately recalled, it must undergo encoding (organizing sensory information), storage (retaining information), and retrieval (accessing the memory) processes (Payne, 2023). The amygdala processes sensory and emotional memories (National Institute of Justice, 2019). Factors such as high emotional response can significantly impact memories. Trauma and Recovery by Judith Herman in 1992 was one of the first works to define traumatic memory. Her work explains that traumatic memories are encoded in a manner that deviates from the typical pattern of memory, often manifesting as fragmented, emotionally charged, and disorganized experiences (Herman, 1992). Unlike regularly encoded memories, traumatic memories may lack linearity and verbal coherence, characterized instead by “vivid sensations and images” (Herman, 1992, p.38). This variation in encoding between regularly encoded and traumatic memories contributes to the diverse ways individuals may recall a traumatic experience, if at all. Herman (1992) explains that victims may recollect with “intense emotion without clear memory of the event, or [they] may remember everything in detail but without emotion” ( p. 35). Because traumatic memories are uniquely encoded, it is not unreasonable to conclude that the 1961 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH crucial details of a case, such as the appearance of a perpetrator or specific elements of the crime, may easily be lost. Many psychologists and sociologists like Dr. Rebecca Campbell has built upon Herman’s work. Dr. Campbell’s work has provided further insight into victim behavior by explaining the neurological functions of traumatic memories. She provides insights into the neurobiology of traumatic memories. Traumatic memories occur because the hippocampus and amygdala are impacted by fluctuations in hormones (such as catecholamines, cortisol, opioids, and oxytocin) that are released during the trauma (National Institute of Justice, 2019). When a victim is sexually assaulted, their memory recall can be impacted because of an increase in catecholamines, which “impair the circuits in our brain that control rational thought” (National Institute of Justice, 2019). This impairment, coupled with the multifaceted effects on memory consolidation, results in a highly unpredictable recollection of a victim’s traumatic experience. When memory systems are flooded with hormones, memories become fragmented and disorganized (National Institute of Justice, 2019). Memories recalled by victims during testimony about a traumatic experience can vary greatly and often occur 1962 RANGE slowly due to the way the brain is affected by trauma. Recalling these memories can be both emotionally painful and physically difficult, requiring significant time and energy from the victim to ensure accuracy (National Institute of Justice, 2019). Although traumatic memories differ from typically encoded memories in terms of their characteristics, they remain credible. As Dr. Campbell explains, while the process of storing traumatic memories may be disorganized, the retention and recall of these memories are still accurate: “The act of laying down that memory is accurate, the recall is accurate… the storage of it is disorganized” (National Institute of Justice, 2019). Traumatic Memory and Law Enforcement The belief that rape is often falsely reported about has been sustained and woven into the history of law enforcement. Some of the first written accounts of this assumption can be quoted from the 17th century, “Rape is a most detestable crime. … but it must be remembered that it is an accusation easily to be made, and hard to be proved, and harder to be defended by the party accused, though never so innocent”(Quinlan, 2016). Until the late 20th century, this statement was read in courtrooms by judges to the jury (Miller & Armstrong, 2015). A study as cited by Quinlan revealed that, “police were 1963 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH significantly less likely to believe a woman’s rape report and lay charges on the accused if she had been drinking or hitchhiking, was younger than 19 or older than 30 years of age, had no injuries from the assault, or was separated or divorced” (Quinlan, 2016). Law enforcement currently exhibits varying comprehension of the frequency of false reports. In The Rape Investigation Handbook, there is a heavy emphasis on the notion that rape is often lied about. The author suspects that false reports of rape could be as high as 41 to 60% (Turvey & Savino, 2014). This number reflects some police perceptions as well; in a study, Ontario police had varying understandings of the prevalence of false reports. This number ranged from 5% to an excessive 50% (Quinlan, 2016). Other sources have reported police to believe 16 to 25% uncredible (Edwards et al., 2011). It’s crucial to note that the overwhelming majority of rape and sexual assault reports are truthful, with an estimated 2 to 8% identified as false (Leithead, 2022). This percentage comes from extensive research that concludes a sexual assault report is unfounded on the basis that evidence proved that no crime occurred or was attempted. This determination was only reached through a comprehensive investigation; it is not feasible to classify a case as 1964 RANGE unfounded solely based on a preliminary inquiry or initial interview with the victim (Leithead, 2022). Misinterpreting the extent of false reports is perilous. It may prompt investigators to approach interactions with victims assuming they are probably dishonest, creating a self-fulfilled prophecy. If police officers enter interactions with victims with this assumption, there is a higher likelihood they will find the case to be unfounded or push a victim to recant their statement, potentially categorizing the case as false (Rich, 2017). But why might law enforcement view victim behavior as dishonesty? Dr. Rebecca Campbell’s theory sheds light on a crucial aspect: law enforcement personnel can misinterpret signs of trauma, such as victims’ memories, as deliberate deception. In her explanation, she emphasizes that in the context of rape and sexual assault, behaviors perceived as “evasive” or “sketchy” are not indicative of deception but rather characteristics of trauma. She notes that the training received by law enforcement personnel may lead them to associate sketchiness with dishonesty (National Institute of Justice, 2013). As cited in Dr. Campbell’s lecture, police officers have been quoted as saying, “[victims] say stuff that makes no sense” and “I see them hedge, making it up as they go along” 1965 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (National Institute of Justice, 2019). The way the police in the study talk about victim behavior reveals that they do not understand the manifestations of trauma in memory. Numerous studies investigating police responses to traumatic memories affirm that law enforcement has frequently misread these indicators. Quinlan (2016) interviewed 17 police officers in Ontario, Canada. Many police looked for signs of story inconsistency to prove that a victim was lying. The study revealed that there were varying responses from police officers when it came to handling sexually violent crimes, with multiple officers not believing victims because they expected the recall of their memories to be in vivid detail, concise, and quick (Quinlan, 2016). Many officers worry that if a victim does not recall the information in this manner, then they are making it up. Officers in the study had varying techniques when talking to potential victims of rape. Some indicated they would determine inconsistencies in truthfulness by the (Quinlan, account looking for 2016). Manipulation tactics were also present in some police officers’ methods. Some made victims state the events of the assault in reverse chronological order and attempted to poke holes in their narrative. One officer explains 1966 RANGE that she asks questions one might not expect, like if the perpetrator was circumcised to determine truthfulness, “I’ve got a few people on that. ‘Cause they don’t know. But they already said they saw his penis, so then you throw that question and they might go white ‘cause they are going to be like ‘Holy crap I don’t know.’” (Quinlan, 2016). With the knowledge of how trauma impacts memory functions, police looking for a victim to be able to, “tell her narrative consistently forward and backward, while recounting the details of the assault and her perpetrator’s body” would not only be an inaccurate way to prove truthfulness but could retraumatize a victim (Quinlan, 2016). The police interrogation processes in this study reveal a variation and a lack of understanding that trauma affects memory functions, which can result in victims being unable to recall memories in chronological order and experiencing gaps in their recollections. This further suggests that victims may have had their cases dismissed when they were exhibiting signs of traumatic memory. The misinterpretation of traumatic memories becomes evident in the case of 18-year-old Marie Adler (Miller & Armstrong, 2015). Following an incident where she was raped at knife-point by a masked stranger in her apartment, she faced secondary victimization at the 1967 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH hands of the Lynnwood Police Department (Miller & Armstrong, 2015). Investigators, Sergeant Jeffrey Mason and Jerry Rittgarn, subjected the victim to multiple retellings of her ordeal, both in interrogations and written statements (Miller & Armstrong, 2015). Uncovering slight inconsistencies in her account, particularly regarding how she untied herself to seek help, investigators perceived these variations as discrepancies, ignoring all other evidence. Rittgarn stated, “Based on her answers and body language it was apparent that [Marie] was lying about the rape” (Miller & Armstrong, 2015). The relentless interrogation coerced Adler to start doubting her own memory and write a false confession, admitting to fabricating the reported rape. As a result, she faced charges of filing a false report, a daunting $500 fee, and ridicule/bullying from the public (Miller & Armstrong, 2015) Adler was proven to have told the truth the whole time when a photo of her license was found in a serial rapist’s home (Miller & Armstrong, 2015). Detective Stacy Galbraith and Sergeant Edna Hendershot, two female detectives from other departments, were able to find the serial rapists by approaching other victims of his with empathy and listening to their accounts openly (Miller & Armstrong, 2015). The Lynnwood police department 1968 RANGE used integration tactics towards Alder similar to those used against people who have committed a crime, not that of a victim. They saw her signs of traumatic memory and not only disregarded her case but also charged her criminally for it. It’s also noteworthy to take into account that at the time of Marie Adler’s rape, law enforcement agencies did have protocols in place to avert the missteps witnessed in this case (Miller & Armstrong, 2015). However, these protocols failed in implementation, which poses the question: What can be done to avoid further victimization and make sure victims are handled appropriately when they come to the police? Improvements in Police Practice The implementation of a more trauma-informed approach to investigation might improve the interactions between victims of sexually violent acts and law enforcement. Trauma-informed policing is about creating an understanding and recognition of trauma’s impact on individuals (Lovell & LanghinrichsenRohling, 2023). The goal of trauma-informed training is to instruct officers on the neurobiological impacts of trauma (such as traumatic memory), promote approaches to interviewing and engaging with survivors that achieve the following: prioritize the victim’s well1969 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH being, foster increased engagement with the justice system, and ultimately aid practitioners in conducting comprehensive investigations to ensure accountability for offenders (Lovell & Langhinrichsen- Rohling, 2023). Trauma-informed policing can particularly aid in the investigations of victims exhibiting traumatic memory because it informs law enforcement to take their time with the victim and not expect memories to come in an organized and chronological fashion. The International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) created a guideline of interview questions to use toward victims of sexual assault and rape seen in Figure 1 below. Instead of asking a victim to give a chronological account of the events, law enforcement is told to ask open questions like “Where would you like to start?”(IACP, 2020). This question gives the victim the agency to explain what happened to them when their memory begins, without the pressure of trying to remember how it occurred within a timeframe. The guidelines for reframing questions not only frame questions in a manner that minimizes victim blame from a police officer, but also help aid in the victim’s memory consolidation, “Detectives who convey empathy elicit more actionable narratives from victims and are more likely to refer cases to the District Attorney for prosecution”(Rich, 2017). 1970 RANGE Figure 1. (IACP, 2020) In 2023, only one state and three cities had administered in-person training on traumainformed policing (Lovell & LanghinrichsenRohling, 2023). One particular department that has proactively instituted this form of policing is the Salt Lake City Police Department. They have put into place a four-hour training for their officers that: covered research regarding sexual assault offenders, survivor vulnerabilities exploited by offenders, the neurobiology of trauma, rape 1971 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH myth acceptance, research on the small percentage of false allegations, as well as survivor interview techniques and new department policies for responding to sexual assault (Lovell & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 2023). This training was found to be effective because it increased victims’ ongoing involvement with police (Lovell & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 2023). The trauma-informed policing implemented by the SLCPD and other departments has appeared to have positive results such as, “ improvements in police perceptions of survivors, knowledge of traumainformed practice, and improvements in survivor engagement” (Lovell & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 2023). The Sexual Assault Kit Processing Act, effective as of 2023, has mandated trauma-informed training for law enforcement within the state of Utah. This training includes improved interviewing techniques that recognize signs of trauma (Utah Code Section 53-10-908, 2023). The law required Utah’s law enforcement focused on departments to identifying develop trauma programs symptoms, understanding their impact, and responding with 1972 RANGE compassion and sensitivity. It also stressed the importance of providing services in a nonjudgmental manner while being aware of cultural perceptions and debunking common myths related to sexual assault. With this knowledge of trauma-informed training being implemented in select areas within the US, it is evident that those who are victims of sexual violence may be treated vastly differently depending on the jurisdiction that handles the crime or which investigator or officer handles the case. When someone reports a sexually violent act, the variation in responses has been referred to as “playing the police lottery”(Rich, 2017). The methods employed by an investigator can vary considerably based on their investigative background and their grasp of sexual assault, trauma, and the experiences of survivors (Quinlan, 2016). The absence of standardized investigative practices leads to notable discrepancies in how law enforcement responds to reports of sexual assault, which poses the question: Why has traumainformed policing not been widely instituted among police departments across the country? Numerous obstacles have been identified that could hinder the continued implementation of this practice. Karen Rich explains that certain factors, such as those 1973 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH affecting an officer’s capacity to embrace the new practice and institutional barriers, play a role in impeding the adoption of the practice. The author explains that police are hired with certain personality types that might make it hard for them to accept this new practice. Trauma-informed policing asks for police to go against their conventional understandings of interrogation: “Police work, traditionally conceived, requires the ability to distance oneself from feelings, take control in an ambiguous situation, focus on facts rather than perceptions, and act quickly”(Rich, 2017). Other factors include, “institutional inertia, conformity to habit, resistance to outside influence, the expense to implement agency-wide training, inability to understand the relationship of trauma to professional tasks, and fears of emotional vulnerability/contagion should trauma among staff and clients be acknowledged”(Rich, 2017). With variability in response generally dependent on the officer or jurisdiction that receives the case, it becomes clear that the impact of trauma-informed training can also vary. It is crucial to assess officers who have undergone such training to determine its effectiveness at an individual level. 1974 RANGE Present Study The present study is an exploration of the perspectives and experiences of law enforcement within the Salt Lake Valley to see how traumainformed training has impacted them individually. Exploring the narrative accounts of law enforcement might help gain a deeper understanding of whether this new approach has resulted in tangible changes in policing methods and law enforcement perceptions. This inquiry aims to uncover valuable insights and experiences that contribute to the ongoing dialogue about the effectiveness and impact of trauma-informed policing. METHODS Participants The study involved three participants: two male detectives and one female detective, all of whom were current or former investigators with experience handling sexual assault and rape cases. All participants were from the same law enforcement agency. A snowball sampling method was used for recruitment. The first 1975 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH participants were identified through personal connections, with their contact information provided by mutual acquaintances. The principal investigator (PI) then reached out to these individuals via email or text to invite them to participate. Additional participants were recruited through referrals from the initial participants. At the end of each interview, participants were asked, “Do you know any officers with experience handling sexual assault cases who might be interested in participating in this study?”. The intent behind using personal connections was to enhance law enforcement engagement, though it may not have been the most effective strategy, as one department and five officers did not maintain communication after the initial inquiry. Procedures Semi-structured interviews took place via Zoom or in a private space at the University of Utah, Participants were given the option to choose an interview online or in person. Two interviews were conducted over Zoom, and one was conducted in person. The audio was recorded 1976 RANGE via Zoom or an audio recording app; recordings were destroyed after data collection. The interview questions were open-ended and narrative-based. This interview script was inspired by the interview strategies employed in the 2016 study by Quinlan; the questions were intentionally worded to encourage less institutional language and promote more detailed accounts from the participants (Quinlan, 2016). The interviews averaged about 34 minutes and were transcribed in full. They were then evaluated based on common themes. Participants received the informed consent form via text before the interview to ensure they understood the purpose and procedure of the study, along with the projected risks and their rights as participants. After reviewing the form, participants confirmed their consent to participate. The PI emphasized to the participant that they were able to withdraw from the study at any time, both during the consent process and before the interview began, to ensure their continued voluntary participation. They were also given the opportunity to ask questions during the interview. We also provided the contact information of the PI, IRB, and faculty sponsor to direct further questions after the study. 1977 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH FINDINGS Trauma-Informed Training The participants reported undergoing several types of training, including FIT (Forensic Interview Training), TIVI (Trauma-Informed Victim Interviews), and/or a four-hour intimate partner and sexual violence training. All participants expressed highly positive perceptions of the training they received. One officer shared that they apply the FIT training not only when interviewing individuals who have experienced trauma, but also in all of their interviews, as they view it as an extremely effective model of interviewing. Since completing the different trauma-informed trainings, the participants noted a decrease in complaints against fellow officers and observed greater understanding and cooperation from victims. All participants mentioned that being trauma-informed has shifted their mindset to be more understanding of a victim’s trauma. One officer noted that the trainings they received helped them lose the “jaded” mindset they had developed while working patrol, which they expressed made them question the reliability of many people’s testimonies. 1978 RANGE Investigation Throughout the interviews, participants discussed how the investigation process has evolved when working with victims of sexual assault and rape. One officer expressed that they viewed the training as something that benefited victims by improving law enforcement’s understanding and response to victims, but also as something that has enhanced the investigation process by making it more thorough and informative. Another officer explained that the way they approach questioning victims has shifted to be less “accusatory” of the victim. Previously, the questions that were asked focused on the who, what, where, and why of the crime, but now, they are more open-ended. The officer elaborated, saying, “Believe it or not, [asking who, what, where, type of questions] are kind of accusatory to a victim.” This officer noted that rephrasing questions to invite storytelling of the account of the crime facilitates a more thorough investigation because it invites the victim to provide more information. Two participants emphasized the importance of the initial inquiry with a victim, expressing that it can make or break their case. One officer explained that they now have veteran officers handle the initial 1979 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH inquiry with rape and sexual assault victims to make sure that victims receive treatment that is empathetic and understanding. The treatment, as explained by the participant, was not only to avoid victim retraumatization by the system, but also to encourage further engagement with law enforcement. They explain, “If you send an officer that has lack of experience, lack of empathy, lack of believing their victim, the likelihood that [victim] will participate with victims advocates, counseling, detectives, prosecution, drops dramatically because of this event”. Prosecution The participants were asked, “In your experience, why might a sexual assault case not be referred for prosecution?” The responses varied. One officer explained, “We almost always refer cases unless there is clear, concrete evidence showing that there’s no basis for the accusation.” Officers noted that achieving a successful prosecution can be more difficult when there has been a delay in reporting, when evidence is lacking, or when the perpetrator claims the encounter was consensual, as this can make DNA evidence harder to interpret. The participants also discussed the changes they have 1980 RANGE implemented. One officer shared, “We are a mandatory screen, which means that I take a case if it has probable cause, regardless of how unlikely the prosecution, we always push it up.” All three officers expressed that they do something called “staffing the case”, “MDT staffings”, or “SART teams”, where they collaborate with a multidisciplinary team to determine the best course of action for a case. This team typically includes prosecutors, victim advocates, healthcare professionals, attorneys, and others. Some officers also highlighted the involvement of victim advocates in their cases. One officer expressed that there has been a shift in the responsibilities officers have with prosecution; they now claim that there is a 100% referral to prosecution, and they believe that the shift was needed: Law enforcement did a disservice to the public years ago where they were not only the fact finders, but they were the judge and the jury before it even got sent to the attorney’s office. And so I think fixing that mindset has actually been more beneficial to our communities that we serve and more beneficial to the public because then we’re not taking that all-encompassing role that was really never ours to take to begin with. 1981 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Understanding Traumatic Memory All participants discussed how rape and sexual assault victims may experience memory lapses and a nonsequential order of events due to trauma. One officer shared an explanation similar to the explanation in Dr. Rebecca Campbell’s seminar; they described traumatic memories as being like disorganized sticky notes—fragmented and scattered, making them difficult to recall in a coherent order. One officer explained that there is variability in traumatic memory. They expressed that they look for gaps in memory, nonsequential order of events, and “hesitancy to talk about details, or the overabundance of talking about details”. Another officer explained that traumatic memories are a result of the brain trying to protect the victim. The participants expressed some changes that they have incorporated to better respond to victims. Two officers mentioned that they now recommend victims get two to three full sleep cycles before providing their account, explaining that rest can improve the accuracy and clarity of their recollection of events. Additionally, all the officers used language that showed they expected and were normalizing traumatic memory recall, “for new officers, the most important part of training is the fact 1982 RANGE that these events are going to be chopped up and that’s okay… that’s not a sign of them misleading you”. One officer explained that they expect a certain level of disorganized recall and may even view a person who does not display that as suspicious. The officer stated, “it is more of a red flag to me is if somebody was raped and they come in and give me a perfect chronological story. That’s almost more of a red flag, not always.” Additionally, one participant noted that the concept of traumatic memory may be difficult for newer officers to understand because it deviates from what investigators typically expect: If I’m interviewing a victim for, let’s say, a carjacking, they are able to give me a linear account: ‘I went to a coffee shop, I was stopped at this light, they came up to my passenger side door, they displayed a gun, I got out, and they left’ So what [law enforcement] looks for is a linear explanation when it comes to a crime. In law enforcement, if your story deviates or changes, you’re often seen as not being quite honest. Understanding Trauma Several participants expressed in their interviews an understanding of how trauma can present itself in a victim of sexual violence. One officer explained that 1983 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH trauma can present itself differently depending on the person’s experiences in life: “It depends on their social structure at home, their education, their religious preferences, and how they cope with trauma”. They went further to explain that victims’ emotions can be variable “a victim’s mindset can be anything from crying to laughing to joking to nothing across the board… their initial responses shouldn’t dictate how the case should go.” Another officer shared a case involving two family members who had both endured prolonged trauma at the hands of their parent. Despite experiencing the same traumatic events, their emotional reactions and ability to recall their experiences were starkly different. The officer explained that the experience of interviewing those victims helped articulate to them that “you never know how trauma’s going to affect somebody”. One officer acknowledged that the police investigation process itself can be traumatizing for victims, particularly due to the repeated retelling of events and the pelvic exam. They emphasized their efforts to approach the situation with empathy, offering support to victims undergoing the exam and helping them regain a sense of personal agency throughout the process. 1984 RANGE False Reports Overall, participants reported that false reports were rare and unlikely. One participant estimated that false reports accounted for less than 10% of cases. Another participant repeatedly mentioned that their training indicated false reports were under 2%, though they were unsure of how that figure was derived. The participant expressed that, from their experience, they have seen that the police report of an assault can be weaponized. Some reasons they provided are that a rape case may be used against religious institutions, or custody or relationship disputes. Despite their hesitancy towards the statistics, they did express that provably false cases were incredibly rare. In contrast, one participant expressed that they do not have any estimate of false reports because they view that that was not their job; they explained that as “neutral fact-finders,” it is their place to believe people at their word and collect information. They expressed that they were a “different kind of investigator” because they had had conversations with some officers who claimed a victim’s report was tied to ulterior motives, like religious leaders making them feel bad. They expressed, “if someone feels as though that their rights were violated, I might not be able to give them 1985 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH justice. I might not be able to do anything about it, but I have a job to collect what I can collect”.This officer also shared the impact of believing victims’ testimony, noting that they have heard from victims who were surprised by the respectful and supportive treatment they received. Changes When asked about additional changes they would like to see happen, two officers expressed that there is a larger need for the training, especially for new officers. One of the officers expressed that trauma-informed training should incorporate victim perspectives, as they believe that hearing the first-person accounts of a victim can help better guide how officers approach new reports and decrease re-victimization. The participant shared details about a training they attended, which included the perspective of a victim who had been disbelieved by the Provo Police Department. They explained that they viewed the training as very powerful because the victim expressed the lasting impacts of being disbelieved. Another participant expressed that they would like to see more role play in the training to better develop skills for handling victims with more understanding and empathy. One officer expressed that they were happy 1986 RANGE with where they are currently, as they think that the response has dramatically improved. DISCUSSION The findings of this study suggest that individuals who have received trauma-informed training hold a positive view of the experience, believing it to be valuable not only for supporting victims but also for enhancing the quality of their investigations. Although perceptions of false reports varied, all officers believed that false reports were either rare or insignificant, which contrasts with prior research ( Edwards et al., 2011; Quinlan, 2016). This suggests that these trainings may have helped reduce this perception. All participants demonstrated an understanding that gaps and non-chronological accounts of rape and sexual assault are signs of trauma and not of dishonesty. They additionally expressed changes that they have incorporated to help facilitate a better investigation informed by trauma’s impact on memory. Some participants indicated a shift from law enforcement being the sole decision-makers in advancing a case to now forwarding nearly all or the majority of their cases to prosecution. However, the 1987 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH research does not support this claim overall, as the rate of case attrition for victims of sexual violence remains notably low (National Institute of Justice, 2019; Rich, 2019; Westera et al., 2016). Additionally, all participants expressed that they now attend meetings with people involvement from in across victim different cases. This aspects of shows an advancement in law enforcement response. Further investigation is needed to assess the extent to which these practices are being implemented across departments to examine where case attrition is currently. This research also highlights several areas needing improvement within the law enforcement landscape. The officers suggested changes to training programs, such as incorporating personal accounts from victims and including more role-playing scenarios. Additionally, the officers mentioned improvements their agency has adopted that could be more widespread, like ensuring veteran officers handle the first inquiry with victims, incorporating multidisciplinary perspectives when forwarding a case to prosecution, and encouraging sleep cycles before asking a detailed account of events to promote better recall. 1988 RANGE Upon reviewing their interviews, a more thorough explanation is needed regarding the rarity of false rape reports, as one officer expressed some skepticism about the statistics provided. This could increase law enforcement’s confidence in the credibility of the data. Additionally, there may need to be training on situations that appear like there may be ulterior motives for the report, as each participant expressed that there are law enforcement officers who take those factors into account. Furthermore, while the study indicates that law enforcement is aware of traumatic memories in victims’ testimonies, further training is needed to deepen this understanding, as one officer expressed questioning testimony if the victim was not presenting signs of trauma. Research shows that trauma is variable, which could also mean presenting no signs of emotion and being cold (Quinlan, 2016). Strengthening this knowledge would help ensure better handling of trauma-related cases by law enforcement officers. LIMITATIONS One of the main limitations of this study is the small sample size. The limited number of participants could have affected the results, potentially making the findings less generalizable or leading to skewed 1989 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH conclusions. Additionally, law enforcement personnel were informed about the purpose of the study beforehand. This prior knowledge could have led to a selection bias, as individuals less familiar with or unaware of traumatic memory might have opted not to participate. To improve recruitment in future studies, alternative methods could be explored to enhance participation, like contacting the departments themselves to recruit volunteers. Moreover, the study’s design might have benefited from partial disclosure, as this approach might have provided a more authentic representation of participants’ varied perceptions. Another limitation of this study is that interviews were not experimental in nature, which makes results less reliable. Future research should aim to compare law enforcement personnel who have undergone traumainformed training with those who have not, possibly by doing a within-subjects design, to better create a comparison of the training. CONCLUSION Historically, the criminal justice system has been characterized by the widespread failure to provide justice for rape and sexual assault victims. Central to this problem is a broad misunderstanding of how traumatic memories affect a victim’s statement. 1990 RANGE Trauma profoundly influences the encoding and consolidation of memories, resulting in disorganized and fragmented recall. This misinterpretation has long persisted in police practice, leading to the disbelief of victims. However, there is promise in embracing a trauma-informed approach to interviewing victims. Although there are limitations to the current study, this study does provide insight into the individual experiences of law enforcement who have received trauma-informed training. All participants had a positive outlook on the training that they had received and reported seeing positive responses from victims. Participants expressed feeling like trauma-informed training had changed not only how they approached the interview process, but also their viewpoints as interviewers. Law enforcement additionally all had an accurate understanding of trauma and traumatic memory and believed false reports were low. The study indicates some areas that could benefit from improvement, such as better explanations of statistics, having initial victim interviews done by veteran officers, and incorporating victims into the trainings. Mandating and effectively integrating trauma- informed training on a wide scale may help enhance law enforcement’s interaction with victims, decrease 1991 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH chances of re-victimization by the system, and ultimately ensure victims receive the justice they rightfully deserve. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A big thank you to my faculty sponsor, Dr. Heather Melton, who has helped guide me in every step of my research, and a special thanks to the Office of Undergraduate Research for supporting this research. And lastly, my family for helping me throughout my education journey. BIBLIOGRAPHY Edwards, K.M, Turchik, J. A., Dardis, C. M., Reynolds, N., & Gidycz, C. A. (2011). Rape Myths: History, Individual and Institutional-Level Presence, and Implications for Change. Sex Roles, 65(11-12), 761–773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9943-2 Herman, J.L. (1992). Trauma and Recovery. Basic Books. International Association of Chiefs of Police. (2020). Final design successful trauma informed victim interviewing. https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/ files/2020-06/ 1992 RANGE Final%20Design%20Successful%20Trauma%20Infor med%20Victim%20Interviewing.pdf Leithead, K. (2022, November 10). False reports – percentage. EVAWI. https://evawintl.org/ best_practice_faqs/false-reports-percentage/ Lovell, R.E. & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2023). Sexual Assault Kits and Reforming the Response to Rape (1st ed., Vol. 1). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/ 9781003186816 National Institute Of Justice. (2013). Interview with Dr. Rebecca Campbell on the Neurobiology of Sexual Assault (1 of 3) [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved October 29, 2023, from https://youtu.be/ khUfN58RUo8?si=U2L_fzr7FMLGnkPQ. National Institute Of Justice. (2019). The Neurobiology of Sexual Assault: Implications for First Responders [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved November 4, 2023, from https://youtu.be/ QuirVpIhl0g?si=7qZRWGjOev-zp7tz. Meadow, R. (2023, July 26). What is police reform?. Police Brutality Center.https://policebrutalitycenter.org/what-is1993 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH policereform/#:~:text=Police%20reform%20comprises%20 measures%20that,to%20operate%20safely%2 0and%20efficiently. Miller, T. C., & Armstrong, K. (2015, December 16). An unbelievable story of rape. ProPublica. https://www.propublica.org/article/false-rapeaccusations-an-unbelievable-story Payne, B. (2023). Lecture Slides for Memory. Lecture. Quinlan. (2016). Suspect Survivors: Police Investigation Practices in Sexual Assault Cases in Ontario, Canada. Women & Criminal Justice, 26(4), 301–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 08974454.2015.1124823 Rich, K. (2019). Trauma-Informed Police Responses to Rape Victims. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 28(4), 463–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10926771.2018.1540448 The Sexual Assault Kit Processing Act, Utah Code Section 53-10-908 (2023). Utah Code Section 53-10-908 1994 RANGE Turvey, B.E. & Savino, J. O. (2014). Rape Investigation Handbook. Academic Press. Appendix A Interview Script The interviewer will begin the recording and proceed with the following script for the interview: Hello, thank you so much for taking the time to meet with me today. I appreciate your willingness to participate in our study. Before we get started, I just want to make sure you’ve received and reviewed the informed consent form. Do you have any questions about it? As a reminder, participation in the study is voluntary and you can stop at any time in the interview. Please feel free to take your time and share as much or as little as you would like. If there’s anything you don’t want to answer or if you need clarification on a question, just let me know. Ready to begin? 1. What is your position? How long have you been in it? 2. What is your experience with sexual assault cases? 3. What has your training for handling rape and 1995 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH sexual assault cases looked like? – If they don’t talk about trauma-informed training, ask: Have you received any trauma-informed training? – (If they have) Do you believe that the training has impacted how you handle cases? Do you believe the training has impacted how your department has handled cases? Have you noticed any differences in behaviours of those who have reported a sexual assault or rape? 4. Can you describe any of your cases? 5. In your experience, why might a sexual assault case not be referred to prosecution? 6. Can you estimate the prevalence of false reports of sexual assault? 7. What signifies to you that a case is truthful? What signifies that it is not? 8. Have you heard of traumatic memory? – If so, can you describe your understanding of it to me? 9. What changes, if any, would you make to police practice toward those who experienced sexual victimization? 10. Is there anything that I did not ask that you 1996 RANGE would like me to know? That concludes our interview. It was wonderful speaking with you today. If you have further questions, please feel free to contact me, the faculty sponsor, or the IRB. Thank you so much for your time today and your willingness to participate in our study. The interviewer will stop the recording here. The interviewer will then ask at the end of the interview: Do you know any officers that you know have dealt with sexual assault cases that you believe would be interested in also participating in the study? 1997 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 125 Research Reflection by Naomi Hill NAOMI HILL Faculty Mentor: Heather Melton (Sociology, University of Utah) My dream is to become a victim advocate, and this twoyear research project has been instrumental in shaping that goal. Through an in-depth study of traumatic memory and trauma-informed care, I’ve gained a deeper understanding of how to support victims with compassion and empathy. Leading every stage of the 1998 RANGE research process-from data collection to transcription and analysis-has strengthened my ability to work independently and think critically. This experience has also helped me develop essential skills for conducting meaningful, impactful work in the field of criminal justice. Throughout my research, I’ve found it inspiring to learn about the progress being made within the justice system to improve outcomes for victims. This work has reinforced my belief that I can be part of that progress and truly make a difference. 1999 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 126 Rewriting Reality: Cognitive and Affective Relationships of Counterfactual Thought PETR HORGOS Faculty Mentor: Jared Branch (Psychology, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Counterfactual thinking (CFT) is the mental process of imagining alternative outcomes to past events by 2000 RANGE considering how things might have turned out differently. These imagined alternatives can vary in direction: upward CFT (uCFT) involves thinking about better outcomes, while downward CFT (dCFT) involves imagining worse ones. uCFT often evoke regret or motivation to improve, whereas dCFT tend to elicit relief or serve to justify past actions. CFT may become distorted or dysregulated during periods of heightened negative affect. Increased CFT has been linked to greater symptom severity in mood-related mental health conditions. Since CFT relies on reflecting on past experiences, most research has focused on its connection to negative events. However, individuals may differ in their general tendency to engage in CFT, regardless of context. This study examined how dispositional CFT directionality relates to psychological distress, rumination, and affect. A sample of 314 participants completed self-report measures assessing CFT frequency and directionality, depression, anxiety, stress, rumination subtypes, and positive and negative affect. Correlational analyses showed that both uCFT and dCFT were significantly associated with psychological distress and negative affect, with uCFT showing stronger correlations. Rumination, especially brooding and depressive thinking, had the most robust associations with both CFT directions. Regression 2001 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH analyses identified brooding as the strongest predictor of uCFT, while dCFT was best predicted by uCFT and anxiety. When rumination was statistically controlled, distress measures no longer significantly predicted CFT. These findings highlight cognitive style, particularly rumination, as a key factor in counterfactual thinking. Rewriting Reality: Exploring the Cognitive and Affective Relationships of Counterfactual Thought What if… If only… Throughout life we inevitably encounter unpleasant events which we wish could have turned out differently, be it an unexpected parking ticket or the loss of a loved one. In times of distress, we often resort to pondering the actions that could have altered the course of events. This mental simulation, which generates an alternative outcome to a past event, is known as counterfactual thinking (CFT). The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking posits that CFT, at its core, is a problem-solving mechanism which is activated when reality deviates from an ideal reference state (see for discussion, Roese & Epstude, 2008). This comparative cognitive mechanism is widespread and may be critical to human social-cognitive functioning and intelligence (Hofstadter, 1979; Miller et al., 1990). It influences how 2002 RANGE people make causal attributions (Gavanski & Wells, 1989) and approach problem-solving (Roese et al., 1999). Additionally, it affects motivation, mood states, and behavior (Markman & McMullen, 2003; Markman et al., 2008; Roese, 1994). The simulation of a better imagined outcome is termed upward counterfactual thinking (uCFT) and is generated to identify mistakes when a goal isn’t achieved, helping to shape future intentions and improve the chances of success (Markman et al., 1993; Roese et al., 1999). A classic example would be, “If only I had studied, then I would have passed my exam”, which serves to identify a causal relation between an actionable alteration in a past scenario towards a more beneficial outcome (Roese, 1993). As a distinctly problem-focused cognition, uCFT is the most common form of CFT – both in everyday life and following negative outcomes (Nasco & Marsh, 1999; Roese & Hur, 1997; Roese & Olson, 1997). While upward counterfactuals can promote learning and improvement, they may also elicit negative mood states (Roese & Olson, 1997). By imagining how things could have gone better, individuals draw a sharp contrast between the actual outcome and a more desirable alternative. This contrast can intensify feelings of regret, 2003 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH disappointment, or frustration, especially when the better outcome seems attainable (Markman & McMullen, 2003). As a result, upward counterfactuals may temporarily lower mood or self-esteem, even as they encourage future goal-directed behavior. The mental simulation of a counterfactual does not necessarily evoke a favorable outcome, however. Downward counterfactual thinking (dCFT) simulates worse imagined outcomes (e.g., “At least I only sprained my ankle—if I had fallen a little harder, I could’ve broken it.”). dCFT may serve an important affect regulation function by helping individuals manage their emotional responses to negative events. Research has shown that generating dCFT is associated with improved mood following distressing experiences (Sanna et al., 2001; Wegner et al., 2001, as cited in Byrne, 2016). By highlighting more adverse alternatives, dCFT can reduce the perceived severity of an event, offering psychological relief and promoting emotional resilience. dCFT may serve an affect regulation function, with the generation of dCFT linked to improved mood following a distressing event (Sanna et al., 2001; Wegner et al., 2001, as cited in Byrne, 2016). Although CFT is both common in everyday life (Sanna et al., 2003) and present across nations and cultures 2004 RANGE (Gilovich et al., 2003; Liu, 1985; Roese, 2008), no standardized measure exists to ascertain dispositional tendency to engage in CFT. A variety of counterfactual measurement developed, techniques which have attempt to been previously explicitly elicit counterfactual generation in reference to a simulated or hypothetical event (see Miller et al., 1990, for a review). A past technique, asking participants to consider how hypothetical outcomes could have been different (i.e., housing an injured bird in your room only to have it die because you had left your air conditioner on high), is one such example (e.g., Gavanski & Wells, 1989; Niedenthal et al., 1994; Roese, 1994). In another method, participants were asked to decide which of the protagonists in a vignette would more intensely experience a counterfactual emotion, such as regret (e.g., Gleicher et al., 1990; Kahneman & Tversky, 1982; Landman, 1987, as cited in Rye et al., 2008). A third approach required participants to “think out loud” while performing various tasks such as a blackjack task. CFT would then be identified by researchers (Markman et al., 1993). In the same vein, another approach involved asking participants to read vignettes while indicating their emotional responses using semantic differential scales (Boninger et al., 1994; Macrae, 1992; 2005 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Macrae & Milne, 1992; Miller & Gunasegaram, 1990; Miller & McFarland, 1986; Turley, Sanna, & Reiter, 1995, as cited in Rye et al., 2008). A recent attempt at the development of a counterfactual thinking scale, the Counterfactual Thinking for Negative Events Scale (Rye et al., 2008), was designed to assess counterfactual production following an intense negative event (i.e., death of a family member). This focus on major life events overlooks the fact that counterfactual thoughts may be generated in response to more mundane, everyday occurrences—such as getting a parking ticket, arriving late to a meeting, or missing a turn while driving (Branch, 2023; Sanna & Turley, 1996). These events may not be emotionally overwhelming but still trigger upward or downward counterfactual that influence future behavior and mood regulation. Consequently, limiting measurement to highly distressing or infrequent events may fail to capture the routine and often automatic nature of counterfactual thinking in daily life. A scale that measures dispositional tendencies to engage in uCFT and dCFT, regardless of event severity, would provide a more comprehensive understanding of how people habitually generate and rely on these mental simulations across contexts. 2006 RANGE Though useful, past methods have distinct limitations to the application in future research. A central limitation is the use of labor-intensive methods requiring the training of and facilitation by a rater (for an example, see Roese & Olson, 1995a). Further, past methods are reliant upon open-ended measurement formats in which the participant identifies and reports a discrete counterfactual thought to a rater (see for an example, Roese & Olson, 1993). In cases where the participant struggles with counterfactual identification, this may enable reporting error of counterfactuals and subsequent diminished report of counterfactuals (for a discussion, see Rye et al., 2008). The present study to assessed whether dispositional uCFT and dCFT show differential associations with cognitive and emotional factors previously linked to event- related counterfactual thinking. Specifically, we examined how the frequency and directionality of counterfactual thoughts, Autobiographical as measured Counterfactual by Thinking the Scale (ACTS; Branch et al., manuscript in preparation), relate to levels of positive and negative affect (measured by the I-PANAS-SF; Thompson, 2007), psychological distress (e.g., depression, anxiety, and stress; measured by the DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995), and rumination 2007 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (measured by the RRS; Treynor, 2003). If tendencies toward uCFT or dCFT are found to correlate with distinct emotional or cognitive patterns in response to life events, these findings could inform the development of targeted cognitive interventions. Such interventions might help individuals reframe maladaptive counterfactual thinking styles and promote more adaptive coping strategies in everyday life. CORRELATES OF COUNTERFACTUAL THINKING Positive and Negative Affect Counterfactual generation serves two general functions: mood regulation (Markman & McMullen, 2003; Zeelenberg & Pieters, 2007) and preparatory adaptation for future events (Markman et al., 1993, 2008; Roese et al., 1999). Counterfactuals, as a functional cognitive mechanism, are typically preceded by a failure state – that is, they are activated via the onset of negative affect which acts as an error identification system (Lieberman et al., 2002; Roese & Olson, 1997; Schwarz, 1990). Once an error is identified, a counterfactual thought is produced with the resulting affective change dependent on the direction of the counterfactual. Future behavior regulation is associated with uCFT (Markman et al., 2008 RANGE 2008), serving an adaptive function in the face of negative outcomes, however, uCFT also leads people to experience negative emotions (Epstude & Roese, 2008; Roese et al., 1999). Further, inductions of negative mood states have been found to heighten CFT, particularly uCFT (Sanna, 1998). dCFT typically has the opposite effect on emotional state; these thoughts may promote positive affect following generation (Feeney et al., 2005), though in instances of extreme negative affect, dCFT relates to vividness, frequency, and subsequent experience of distress (Blix et al., 2018). The relationship between affect and CFT is reportedly reciprocal (Markman et al., 1993; Roese & Olson, 1997). Just as affect may elicit CFT, CFT may also produce affective change. This may be achieved by two cognitive processes: affective contrast or assimilation. Via affective contrast effect, a judgment may become more extreme through the juxtaposition of a better imagined outcome and the factual outcome, making the factual outcome appear more negative (McMullen, 1997; Roese, 1994). Olympic bronze medalists, for example, feel happier with their outcome than silver medalists despite being in an objectively inferior position (Medvic et al., 1995). Conversely, affective assimilation contrast arises when an individual mentally 2009 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH simulates a worse alternative outcome and momentarily adopts the emotional perspective associated with that imagined scenario (McMullen, 1997). Depression Despite their evaluative and regulatory benefits, counterfactual thoughts may be subject to distortion or inaccuracy (Roese & Olson, 1993a; Sherman & McConnel, 1995). In severely depressed individuals, counterfactual thoughts are divorced of accuracy and produce unreasonable insight; though lacking in functional character, these thoughts were still emotionally unpleasant (Markman & Miller, 2006). The proclivity of depressed individuals to engage in concerted contemplation of negative life events leads to increased comparative thoughts (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000). Feng et al. (2015) found that depression severity positively correlated with the activation frequency of a brain biomarker sensitive to comparison between subjective expectation and reality in counterfactual thought eliciting trials. Regardless of directional elicitation, this suggests increased generation of counterfactuals in depressed individuals. Further studies have demonstrated positive associations of increased CFT and depressive symptoms, with increased uCFT exhibiting particularly strong positive correlation to 2010 RANGE depressive symptoms (Broomhall et al., 2017; Tagini et al., 2021). Anxiety Prokopčáková and Ruiselová (2008) identified that most individuals utilize upward CFT as a problem-solving tool and believe it to be a useful cognitive mechanism. Nevertheless, the attitudes towards CFT in highly anxious individuals are an exception, as highly anxious individuals rated CFT as less useful than their nonanxious counterparts. In the same study, increased anxiety correlated with heightened CFT and negative traits like rumination (Prokopčáková & Ruiselová, 2008). Individuals with higher levels of anxiety show an increased inclination towards the production of counterfactuals (Branch, 2023; Ruiselová et al., 2007; Tagini et al., 2021). This may stem from the excessive error monitoring characteristic of anxiety (Moser et al., 2013), leading to increased generation of problemfocused cognitions (Parikh et al., 2022). In participants with high social anxiety, Rachman and colleagues (2000) found increased consideration of potential past failures (retroactive error monitoring) and inadequate behavior in social interactions resulting in increased generation of uCFT. Tendency towards and the 2011 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH duration of uCFT, likewise, correlate positively to presence of high anxiety (Callander, 2007). Stress Distressing recollections of traumatic incidents play a crucial role in both the emergence and persistence of posttraumatic stress responses (Rubin et al., 2008). Prior studies indicate that individuals experiencing elevated levels of post-traumatic stress tend to have more intense memories of the traumatic experience, characterized by stronger sensory details and heightened emotional reexperiencing compared to individuals with lower posttraumatic stress levels (Berntsen & Rubin, 2006; Rubin et al., 2008). Conditions characterized by an extreme stress response, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and post-traumatic stress reaction (PTSR), have also been associated with CFT (Blix et al., 2018; Gilbar et al., 2010). For instance, after stress-producing events, such as terror attacks, counterfactual production is prevalent and predictive of severity of emotional response. Duration and vividness of CFT appear to play an important role in the development of stress symptoms (Blix et al., 2018). Additionally, counterfactual thoughts were found to be positively correlated with general level of stress (Branch, 2023; Davis et al., 1995). 2012 RANGE Rumination Martin and Tesser (1996) defined rumination as unintended, intrusive thoughts which are not relevant to a salient task. Though many researchers consider CFT to be a subset of rumination, the two are distinguishable by their orientation, or lack thereof, to a goal (see for discussion Roese & Olson, 1997). Simply, CFT simulates alternatives of events whereas rumination is a simple repetition of the real event (Davis et al., 1995). Rumination involves self-focused assessment as a means of coping which may be affected by mood valence (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000; Treynor, 2003). Previous research has found higher rates of CFT positively correlate to level of rumination (Branch, 2023; Prokopčáková & Ruiselová, 2008). Reflection, a subfactor of rumination, may be characterized as neutrally valanced contemplation that seeks to adapt to difficulties. On the other hand, brooding, a negatively valanced rumination subfactor, is often rife with localized self-critical thoughts (Treynor, 2003). Similarly, depression-related rumination is a negatively valanced ruminative style focused globally on negative life-outcomes. Increased counterfactual generation is positively correlated with each subtype, although the 2013 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH strength of correlation is greatest in the brooding subtype (Branch, 2023). SUMMARY OF HYPOTHESES H0. Past research counterfactual has thinking established is more that upward common than downward (Nasco & Marsh, 1999; Roese & Hur, 1997; Roese & Olson, 1997), and counterfactual production is chiefly activated by negative mood states (Roese & Olson, 1997), indicating that negative emotions may trigger a greater focus on how situations could have been improved rather than worsened. In light of this evidence, we predict that negative affect will positively correlate with general counterfactual production but show a stronger correlation with upward counterfactual thought than downward counterfactual thought. H0a. Negative affect will be positively associated with upward counterfactual experiencing distress thinking, tend to as focus individuals on missed opportunities and how situations could have improved (Roese & Olson, 1997). These upward comparisons are more likely to elicit regret and signal behavioral change (Markman et al., 1993). H0b. Negative affect will also be positively associated 2014 RANGE with downward counterfactual thinking, but to a lesser extent, as these thoughts may serve a mood-buffering role that is less frequently accessed when negative emotions dominate (see for discussion, Roese & Epstude, 2008). H1. Positive affect will be negatively correlated with overall counterfactual thinking. Specifically, we hypothesize that positive affect will show a stronger negative correlation with upward counterfactual thinking than with downward counterfactual thinking. This may be due to the mood-congruent processing tendency, where individuals in positive moods are more likely to focus on favorable outcomes and maintain their affective state by avoiding regret-inducing upward comparisons (Markman & McMullen, 2003). As a result, upward counterfactual thinking—which often highlights missed opportunities— may be particularly incongruent with the emotional goals of those experiencing positive affect and therefore show stronger negative associations. H1a. Positive affect will be negatively correlated with upward counterfactual thinking, as these comparisons emphasize better alternatives and contradict the goal of maintaining a positive mood (Markman & McMullen, 2003). 2015 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH H1b. Positive affect will also be negatively correlated with downward counterfactual thinking, though the relationship may be weaker, as downward comparisons may be compatible with mood maintenance and selfenhancement. H2. Depression, characterized by chronic negative affect, difficulties disengaging from negative material, and deficits in cognitive control when processing negative information (Gotlib & Joormann, 2010), will be positively correlated with both upward and downward counterfactual thinking. However, this correlation will be stronger for upward counterfactual thoughts, as depressive individuals may be more prone to focus on how they could have done better or avoided negative outcomes (Feng et al., 2015). H2a. Depression will be positively associated with upward counterfactual thinking, reflecting depressive individuals’ tendencies to focus on failure, missed opportunities, and personal shortcomings (Feng et al., 2015). H2b. Depression will also be positively associated with downward counterfactual thinking, though to a lesser degree, as these thoughts may not align with the self- 2016 RANGE critical and pessimistic mindset typical of depression (Gotlib & Joormann, 2010). H3. General stress levels will positively correlate with the frequency of counterfactual thoughts, as stress often prompts individuals to mentally simulate alternative outcomes (Branch, 2023; Gilbar et al., 2010). This association is expected to be stronger for upward counterfactuals, as stressful experiences often lead to thoughts about how one might have improved a situation. H3a. Stress will be positively associated with upward counterfactual thinking, as individuals attempt to mentally rehearse improvements to past events in hopes of reducing future stressors (Roese et al., 2009). H3b. Stress will also be positively associated with downward counterfactual thinking, though to a smaller extent, potentially serving as a self-soothing mechanism in response to stress (see for discussion, Blix et al., 2018). H4. Anxiety will be positively associated with both upward and downward counterfactual thinking, but more so with upward counterfactuals. This is because anxious individuals are more likely to engage in futureoriented, precautionary thought patterns that align with 2017 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH upward simulations of how a situation could have been better (Branch, 2023; Callander, 2007; Ruiselová & Prokopčáková, 2008). H4a. Anxiety will be positively associated with upward counterfactual thinking, as these thoughts align with anxious individuals’ focus on prevention, risk, and how negative outcomes could have been avoided (Callander, 2007). H4b. Anxiety will also be positively associated with downward counterfactual thinking, but this relationship may be weaker, as anxious individuals tend to focus on threat avoidance rather than consolation or relief-based thinking (see for discussion, Roese & Epstude, 2008). H5. Rumination will show a positive correlation with both upward and downward counterfactual thinking, reflecting a general tendency toward repetitive, selffocused thought. However, this correlation will vary by rumination subtype: brooding and depression-related rumination will be more strongly associated with upward counterfactuals, while reflective rumination may show a more balanced or weaker pattern of association (Branch, 2023). H5a. Rumination—especially 2018 brooding—will be RANGE positively associated with upward counterfactual thinking, as this form of thinking involves repetitive focus on how events could have turned out better, consistent with self-critical rumination (Nolen- Hoeksema et al., 2008). H5b. Rumination will also be positively associated with downward counterfactual thinking, particularly for reflective rumination (Branch, 2023), though the relationship is likely weaker than with upward counterfactuals. METHODS The goal of the present study was to examine the relationship between the Autobiographical Counterfactual Thinking Scale (ACTS) and measures of affective valence and thinking style. The included variables were selected based on the strength of evidence for their valid, reliable, and predictive relationship to counterfactual production and directional tendency (see Branch, 2023). This study was pre-registered on AsPredicted.org prior to data collection. The preregistration included the study’s hypotheses, variables, sample size, and planned analyses transparency and reproducibility: https://aspredicted.org/k9z9-4vmy.pdf. 2019 to promote Available at All OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH methodological decisions were determined a priori in accordance with the pre-registration. Determination of sample size was made via G*Power (Faul et al., 2009), indicating a sample size of 350 is sufficiently powered (80%) to detect medium (0.15) effect sizes (α = .05). It should be noted, however, that the analysis and subsequent results of the current paper were finalized prior to the collection of the intended sample size. Any deviations from the original plan are transparently reported in the relevant sections. Participants A total sample of 340 participants was recruited via the SONA undergraduate Psychology participant pool. To mitigate the effects of inattention, boredom, and fatigue, participants whose study duration fell above the 95th percentile or below the 5th percentile were excluded (n = 36; Jeong et al., 2022). A final sample of 314 participants (230 female, 84 male; mean age = 20.3, SD = 4.6, range = 18 – 59) enrolled at the University of Utah completed the study in exchange for course credit. The sample consisted of majority White participants (75%). Other ethnic groups included Latino(a) (10%), Asian, Asian American (9%), African American (1%), Pacific Islander (1%), and other/preferred not to say (4%). 2020 RANGE Procedure Informed consent was obtained online prior to the start of the study, wherein participants were informed of study objective: to construct and assess the validity of the Autobiographical Counterfactual Thinking Scale. Participants completed the study online at a location and time of their choosing. Assurance of adherence to ethical standards, potential risk (namely data breach), and researcher contact information were provided. As well, prospective participants were informed of compensation protocol. The average duration of study completion was determined by a pilot study to be 30 minutes. Per SONA guidelines, participants received 1 credit upon completion of the study. In the event of early withdrawal, participant credit was pro-rated by the ½ hour and awarded to the participant depending on individual time investment prior to withdrawal. Participants first reported demographics, including gender, ethnicity/racial group, and age. Participants were presented with each questionnaire in a randomized sequence. Each questionnaire was formatted on a single page. On average, participants required 16 minutes to complete the study. 2021 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Measures Counterfactual Thinking The Autobiographical Counterfactual Thinking (ACTS; Branch et al., manuscript in preparation) is a 10-item measure that differentiates upward counterfactual thinking (e.g., “I think about personal events and how they could have been better”) from downward counterfactual thinking (e.g., “I find myself thinking about my past and how it could have been worse”) to obtain a general measure of counterfactual directional tendency and general prevalence of bidirectional counterfactual thought. Participants indicated the frequency of a given counterfactual thought (upward/downward) using a 7point scale ranging from never (0) to always (6). The ACTS contains two 5-item subscales, each coded to assess a single direction of counterfactual thought (upward/downward). Subscale results are summed individually to examine directional tendency (upward/downward). Subsequently, the total score of ACTS items is assessed as an indication of overall counterfactual frequency. Questions are structured without reference to an eliciting event so as to examine general tendency of counterfactual thinking in everyday life. Psychometric 2022 RANGE analysis and the resulting nomological network of the ACTS indicate that the measure was predictably associated with other measures (Branch et al., Positive and manuscript in preparation). Affective State We administered the International Negative Affect Schedule Short Form (I-PANAS-SF; Thompson, 2007) to assess transient affective state. Participants were presented with a 10-item Likert-style measure with a 6-point response scale ranging from 0 (never) to 5 (always). Participants indicate frequency of positive and negative affective states within the last week. The I-PANAS-SF has 5-items coded to assess prevalence of negative affective states (e.g., “How often over the past week have you felt hostile?”), and 5-items coded to measure prevalence of positive affective states (e.g., “How often over the past week have you felt inspired?). Positive and negative affect subscales are calculated separately to produce a score for each measure (score range: 0- 25). Depression, Anxiety, and Stress The Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21; Henry & Crawford, 2005) is a non-clinical 2023 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Likert-style measure used to assess the presence, severity, and likelihood of developing three psychopathological conditions: depression (“I couldn’t seem to experience any positive feeling at all”), anxiety (“I was worried about situations in which I might panic and make a fool of myself”), and stress (“I found it hard to wind down”). The DASS-21 differentiates key features of depression (e.g., hopelessness, dysphoria, devaluation of life, selfdeprecation, lack of interest / involvement, anhedonia and inertia), anxiety (e.g., situational anxiety, autonomic arousal, skeletal muscle effects, and subjective experience of anxious affect), and stress (e.g., difficulty relaxing, nervous arousal, and being easily upset / agitated, irritable / over-reactive and impatient), isolating the intended measures by excluding comorbid features present in other commonly used scales (e.g., weight loss, insomnia). The DASS-21 consists of 3 subscales, with each subscale containing 7-items. Respondents rate each item on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (“did not apply to me at all”) to 3 (“applied to me very much or most of the time”), based on their experiences over the past week. The total score for each subscale is calculated by summing the responses. Assessments indicated sufficient internal reliability (α =.93 for the Total scale, .88 for 2024 RANGE Depression scale, .82 for the Anxiety scale, .90 for the Stress scale; Henry & Crawford, 2005). Rumination The 22-item Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS; Treynor, 2003) evaluates participants’ tendency towards ruminative thought. This scale consists of 3-subscales that measure brooding (e.g., “Think about a recent situation and how it could have gone better”), reflection (e.g., “Go away by yourself and think about how you feel”), and depression-related (e.g., “Think about how alone you feel”) ruminative subfactors. Subscales vary in assessment of affective valence associated with a particular ruminative thought (brooding = unstable/ anxious, reflective = neutral, depression-related = negative). The number of items differs between the depressionrelated (12-items), brooding (5-items), and reflection (5-items) subscales. Item response possibilities range from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always). Participants were not instructed to constrain responses to a given time scale (e.g., today, this week), merely to indicate a general tendency to engage in ruminative thinking. Scores for each subscale are derived by summing the relevant items, with higher subscale scores indicating a stronger tendency to engage in that specific type of rumination. An overall total score for the RRS is 2025 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH calculated by summing all 22 item responses, with higher total scores reflecting a greater general tendency to ruminate. RESULTS Descriptives of CFT, Depression, Anxiety, Stress, Rumination, and Affect An initial descriptive analysis was conducted to assess normality and the presence of outliers. Outliers were identified using the Interquartile Range (IQR) method, which revealed no outliers. Multiple Shapiro-Wilk Tests revealed sufficiently normal distributions for most variables. Significant positive skews were observed in DASS Depression (skewness= .94), DASS Anxiety (skewness = .76), and PANAS Negative Affect (skewness = .99). To meet the assumption of normality needed to conduct further analysis, these variables were transformed to approximate a normal distribution. DASS Depression and Anxiety underwent a square root transformation. In order to correct for the heavily skewed PANAS Negative Affect distribution, a logarithmic transformation was used. Transformation of these variables was successful in achieving approximate normality (skewness values ranging from -.36 to .3). Confirmation of linearity and homoscedasticity, and 2026 RANGE presence of confounding outliers were also assessed and were found to be unproblematic. Zero-order Correlational Results Zero-order Pearson’s r correlations were computed to assess the relations of counterfactual thinking directionality and frequency with all included predictors (Table 1). A Bonferroni correction was applied to control for familywise error, adjusting the significance threshold for each correlation test to α = 0.0017 based on 33 comparisons. The results aligned with hypothesized predictions, demonstrating consistent relationships between counterfactual thinking and psychological distress, rumination, and negative affect. All variables showed significant positive correlations with both upward and downward counterfactual thinking, except Positive Affect which was not significantly correlated with any measure of counterfactual thinking (Table 1). Measures of rumination (e.g., brooding, reflection, depression-related thoughts), showed the strongest associations with both upward counterfactual thinking (r = 0.35 to 0.54, p < .001) and downward counterfactual thinking (r = 0.25 to 0.38, p < .001), with brooding displaying the highest correlation among all variables. Distress measures (e.g., square root of depression, square 2027 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH root of anxiety, and stress) were also found to associate with upward counterfactual thinking (r = 0.45 to 0.48, p < .001) and downward counterfactual thinking (r = 0.25 to 0.34, p > .001). Likewise, negative affect was correlated with upward (r = 0.47) and downward counterfactual thinking (r = 0.3). Positive affect was found not to be significantly correlated with either upward or downward counterfactual thinking and so was not included in further analysis. To account for the smaller than anticipated sample size, a post hoc power analysis using G*Power (Faul et al., 2009). Results showed the collected sample size (N = 314) provided sufficient power (93%) to detect medium-sized correlations (r ≥ .25, α = .0017). Correlations smaller than this threshold may not have been reliably detected. 2028 RANGE Note: N = 314; ACTS: Autobiographical Counterfactual Thinking Scale; DASS: Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale; DASS DEP: Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale: Depression Subscale; DASS ANX: Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale: Anxiety Subscale; DASS STR: Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale: Stress Subscale; RRS: Ruminative Response Scale; RRS BROOD: Ruminative Response Scale: Brooding Subscale; RRS DEP-R: Ruminative Response Scale: Depression-related Thoughts Subscale; RRS REF: Ruminative Response Scale: Reflection Subscale **p <.001 2029 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Exploratory Regression Analyses of Counterfactual Thinking Predictors Considering observed zero-order correlations adhered to original hypotheses, further exploratory analyses were conducted to examine potential predictive power of independent factors on counterfactual thought. To this end, three linear regressions were conducted, including all variables barring positive affect. A preliminary multivariate multiple regression was first conducted to examine how the set of predictors simultaneously accounted for variance in both upward and downward counterfactual thoughts. The multivariate tests for the intercept revealed no significant effects, with all tests indicating that the model without predictors did not explain significant variance in the dependent variables (Pillai’s Trace = 0.000, Wilks’ Lambda = 1.000, Hotelling’s Trace = 0.000, Roy’s Largest Root = 0.000; all p-values = 1.000). Examination of overall effect of predictors on total counterfactual thinking frequency scores ( R2 = .33, p < ,001) revealed Brooding (β = 2030 RANGE .28, p = 0.001; η2 = 0.044), Depression-related Thoughts (β = .22, p = 0.018; η2 = 0.026), and Anxiety (β = .16, p = 0.035; η2 =0.022) to be the most significant predictors included in the model. However, Brooding emerged as the only predictor with a moderate effect size. No significant effects were found for the other predictors, as indicated by non-significant test statistics. Assessment of individual contribution of each predictor to upwards counterfactual thought revealed the overall model to be significant, (R2 = .36, p < .001). Among the predictors, Brooding had the strongest effect (β = .28, p < .001). Counter to expectations, anxiety and negative affect did not significantly predict upward counterfactual thinking (β = .05, p = 0.339 and β = .08, p = 0.129, respectively). Post hoc power analysis of the uCFT regression model showed the sample was sufficiently powered (91%) to detect the reported effect size (f ² = 0.575, α = .025). The model produced to examine predictor contribution for downwards counterfactual 2031 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH thought was also significant (R2 = .24, p < .001). However, only Brooding (β = .23 p = 0.014) and Anxiety (β = .21, p = 0.01) showed a significant effect. A post hoc power analysis was conducted using G*Power (Faul et al., 2009) to determine whether the regression model predicting dCFT was sufficiently powered. The observed effect size was f² = .22, corresponding to a partial η² = .18 (as obtained from the omnibus F-test). With α set at .025, the analysis revealed that the model had an observed power of .90, indicating excellent sensitivity to detect the effect. These findings reveal rumination, particularly brooding and depression-related thoughts, as the primary predictor of general counterfactual thinking. Despite initial expectations informed by correlational results, psychological distress and negative affect were not significant predictors when rumination was included in the models. Stepwise Regression Analysis for Upward Counterfactual Thought Stepwise regression analysis was used to identify 2032 RANGE the most robust predictors of upward counterfactual thinking by systematically evaluating all variables in the model, including those that may not contribute uniquely to the outcome. This approach allowed us to exclude variables that were statistically deemed noncontributory while still accounting for their potential shared variance with other predictors. Negative affect as well as each individual submeasure of the DASS (depression, anxiety, and stress) and the RRS (brooding, reflection, depression-related thoughts) were included in this regression. Downward counterfactual thinking was included as an predictor to control for shared variance with upward counterfactual thought. Once again, positive affect was not included as a potential predictor. In Model 1, brooding was the only predictor included and produced a significant model (Table 2). Model 2 introduced one additional predictor – downward counterfactual thinking. The resulting model was found to improve the model fit significantly (Table 2). After inclusion of downward counterfactual thinking, brooding 2033 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH remained a significant predictor, though its coefficient decreased (Table 2). Model 3 added depression-related thoughts, further improving the model fit. Depression-related thoughts were also a significant predictor of upward counterfactual thinking. Brooding and downward counterfactual thinking remained significant predictors, with slightly reduced coefficients. In the final model (Model 4), log-transformed negative affect was included. This led to a small but significant improvement in model fit. Negative affect was a significant predictor of upward counterfactual thinking, although its contribution was smaller compared to brooding and downward counterfactual thinking. Brooding and downward counterfactual thinking continued to show significant relationships with upward counterfactual thinking. The final model iteration produced accounted for 43% of the observed variance of upward counterfactual thinking scores (R2 = .43, p < .01). The relative contributions of the predictor 2034 RANGE variables were evaluated using standardized beta coefficients. Brooding, downwards counterfactual thoughts, depression-related thoughts and negative affect emerged as the strongest and only statistically significant predictors. Contrary to the findings of previous literature, measures of distress (depression, anxiety, stress) were not found to be significant predictors of upwards counterfactual thought. Multicollinearity diagnostics indicated no significant concerns, with Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values remaining below 4 for all predictors (RRS: Brooding = 2.45, Downwards counterfactual thought = 1.19, RRS: depressionrelated thoughts = 2.44, negative affect = 1.77). Reflection and all DASS sub- measures were excluded from the model on the basis of their low beta-coefficients and non-significance. The post hoc power analysis using G*Power (Faul et al., 2009) was conducted for the final stepwise regression model (Model 4) predicting upward counterfactual thinking. The model included four predictors and yielded an R² of .43, corresponding to a large effect size (f² = .75). 2035 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH With an alpha level of .05 and a sample size of N = 314, the analysis indicated excellent power to detect the observed effect (1 – β = 0.94). Stepwise Regression Analysis for Downward Counterfactual Thinking A stepwise regression analysis was conducted to examine the predictors of downward counterfactual thinking. All variables were included for statistical selection via stepwise regression. Model 1 revealed a significant predictive relationship between upward counterfactual thinking and downward counterfactual thinking, accounting for 25% of the variance in downward counterfactual thinking, R² = .250 (Table 3). Model 2 (final model) added anxiety as an additional predictor, increasing the explained variance in downward counterfactual thinking to 26.8%. Both upwards counterfactual thinking (β = .433, p < .001) and anxiety (β = .151, p = .006) were significant predictors of downward counterfactual thinking. The findings suggest that while upward counterfactual thinking is a major predictor of downward counterfactual thinking, 2036 RANGE anxiety also plays a significant role, although its impact is smaller. Excluded variables in both models, including depression, rumination, and negative affect, did not contribute significantly to the model, as indicated by their lack of statistical significance. The tolerance and variance inflation factors (VIF) for included predictors indicated no issues with multicollinearity, ensuring that the results are robust. A post hoc power analysis using G*Power (Faul et al., 2009) for the final stepwise regression model predicting dCFT (R² = .27, f² = .28) showed high power (1 – β = 0.89) with N = 314 and α = .025. The stepwise regression analysis revealed that uCFT and anxiety were significant predictors of downward counterfactual thinking, together accounting for 26.8% of the variance. These findings suggest that while uCFT is a major contributor, anxiety also plays a smaller but 2037 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH significant role in accounting for the variance of dCFT scores, with other variables like depression and rumination being nonsignificant. DISCUSSION The primary aim of the present study was to investigate the relations of counterfactual thought directionality and frequency with depression, anxiety, stress, rumination, and, positive and negative mood. Participants were presented with a battery of self-report surveys in order to obtain measures of CFT, depression, anxiety, stress, rumination, and affect. We tested several hypotheses regarding the anticipated relations of the predictors and counterfactual thought tendency and directionality. 2038 RANGE The observed correlational results served to support initial hypotheses that among individuals with increased tendency to engage in counterfactual generation, propensity to experience psychological distress (e.g., depression, anxiety, stress), rumination (e.g., brooding, reflection, depression-related thoughts), and negative affective states were higher. Expectations of upward counterfactual thoughts associations were met, showing significant positive relations to all measures of recursive negative cognitions and feelings of distress. These findings support pre-existing beliefs about the relations between upward counterfactual thinking and negative cognitive and emotional states (Davis et al., 1995; Feng et al., 2015; Gilbar et al., 2010; Markman & McMullen, 2003; Prokopčáková & Ruiselová, 2008; Roese & Olson, 1997). Also maintaining adherence to expectations, significant positive associations between downward counterfactual thinking and negative valence cognitive and emotional states were likewise observed, though these relations were weaker than the associations with upward counterfactual thought. 2039 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Relations between the included variables and counterfactual thought have been established by prior research; consequently, the observed results were not entirely surprising. Though, one must consider that prior research on counterfactual thought and psychological distress, rumination, and affect directly elicited counterfactual thoughts in reference to a specific event, not accounting for the possibility of differential associations when examined with general tendency to produce counterfactual thought in mind (Bogani et al., 2024; Feeney et al., 2005; Markman et al., 1993; McMullen, 1997; Medvic et al., 1995). However, correlational results do not indicate such differences in relations between general counterfactual thinking tendency and predictors of CFT. Rather, these results support prior conceptions of these relationships. Given the observed relationships among included variables, exploratory regression analyses were conducted to further investigate predictors of counterfactual thinking. These analyses were not pre-registered but were undertaken to provide additional insights into 2040 RANGE the relative contributions of psychological factors beyond the original hypotheses. The following sections will synthesize insights gained from both exploratory and correlational analyses. Plausible explanations of results will be discussed based on prior literature of counterfactual functional interactions with our variables. Counterfactual Thought and Rumination: The Primary Predictor Hypotheses were, unfortunately, constructed without explicit reference to expected correlational strengths, beyond simply being positive or negative. As well, no rank-ordered correlational predictions were made to account for what variable would exhibit the highest correlation to uCFT/dCFT. Nevertheless, our findings indicate that among all variables, the rumination subtypes of brooding (medium effect size) and depression-related thoughts (small effect size) displayed the strongest relations to counterfactual thinking (both uCFT and dCFT). Multivariate multiple regression results revealed that brooding and depression2041 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH related thoughts were the strongest, and only consistent predictors for both uCFT and dCFT, even when accounting for psychological distress and negative affect. Psychological distress, on the other hand, did not emerge as a significant predictor when controlled for negative ruminative subtypes. Stepwise regression analysis of uCFT also indicated brooding as the primary predictor. Brooding did not show the same predictive power in the dCFT stepwise regression analysis and was deemed an insignificant factor. These results may be due to complications in statistical procedure stemming from instability, irreproducibility and overfitting which have been found to produce unreliable and irreproducible results (Booth et al., 2021), or differences in functional interaction between psychological distress and dCFT (Parikh et al., 2022), as anxiety and uCFT emerged as the only key predictors of dCFT. Because of its focus on specific past events, brooding, from the perspective of the Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking 2042 RANGE (Epstude & Roese, 2008), may closely relate to the problem- focused functionality of uCFT, wherein an individual repetitively evaluates a failure state in hopes of identification of a causal inference towards the formulation of future intent (Gilovich, 1983; Roese & Hur, 2001; Sanna & Turley, 1996). Results of prior research on repetitive negative thought processes involving persistent focus on negative emotions and their causes, correspond to the generation of counterfactual thought patterns, particularly uCFT (Davis et al., 1995; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2000; Roese & Epstude, 2017). Ruminative thoughts, typically suppressed via conscious distraction (Martin, Tesser, & McIntosh, 1993), when allowed to persist induce recursive focus on negative emotion. This recursive fixation has been found to sustain negative affect and selfcritical thinking, contributing to emotional distress (Allaert et al., 2021; Broomhall & Phillips, 2018; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008; Roese et al., 2008). These results suggest that the relationship between uCFT and distress is likely mediated by negative rumination. 2043 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Conclusions about dCFT and measures of rumination are less obvious. Mentioned prior, negative rumination style was found to be a significant predictor in the multivariate multiple regression analysis, when both uCFT and dCFT were included as outcome variables. The same results were not found in the stepwise regression conducted using dCFT as the only outcome variable, however. Given the aforementioned shortcomings of stepwise regression, we are inclined to lend credence to multivariate results. Propositions on functional interactions of uCFT and negative rumination styles will be discussed in the upcoming paragraphs with multivariate regression results in mind. Downward counterfactual thinking, as an affective regulatory mechanism (Roese, 1997), may be generated to suppress or mitigate negative affect that arises from recursive negative cognitions. If effective, this regulation may help explain why rumination robustly predicts the frequency of dCFT. In other words, individuals who engage in dCFT might be attempting to restore emotional equilibrium by imagining how situations could have been 2044 RANGE worse, thereby dampening distress and reducing the cognitive momentum typically associated with rumination. This perspective aligns with Martin and Tesser’s (1996) argument that affect does not directly evoke rumination; rather, rumination is more likely to emerge when an unresolved goal or discrepancy remains salient. Accordingly, when dCFT successfully regulates negative affect or helps reconcile perceived goal discrepancies, the cognitive conditions that usually foster rumination may be attenuated. This suggests a potentially protective or interruptive function of dCFT in the broader context of affective and cognitive regulation. Reciprocal Production of Upward and Downward Counterfactual Thought In both the uCFT and dCFT stepwise regression analyses, the covariate counterfactual variable emerged as a significant predictor. For instance, uCFT was a key predictor of dCFT, and dCFT was a key predictor of uCFT. This predictive relationship between upward and downward counterfactual thinking is consistent with prior evidence that once counterfactual 2045 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH thought is produced, regardless of direction, the chance of producing another counterfactual thought in the opposite direction increases (Markman et al., 2003). According to previous literature, individuals who frequently engage in upward counterfactual thinking may be more prone to experiencing negative affect (Markman et al., 1993), which could, in turn, trigger downward counterfactual thoughts as a defensive mechanism to reduce emotional discomfort (for review see Roese & Epstude, 2017). This aligns with findings from previous research that downward counterfactual thinking can serve a protective function, allowing individuals to mitigate distress by focusing on “worse” outcomes than the actual past (Roese, 1997). The strong relationship between upward and downward counterfactual thought supports the notion that these thought processes are interconnected rather than independent constructs (Byrne, 2016). Whether this relationship is fundamentally tied to the varied functionality of uCFT/dCFT, or an underlying factor is outside the scope of this study. 2046 RANGE Counterfactual Thinking and Psychological Distress Unexpectedly, psychological distress—comprising depression, anxiety, and stress—was not a significant unique predictor of upward counterfactual thinking. While these factors demonstrated moderate correlations with counterfactual thought, they did not uniquely contribute to its variance in regression models. This suggests that while distress may be associated with uCFT, it may not be a primary driver when rumination is accounted for. These results diverge from prior studies that have emphasized a strong link between psychological distress and uCFT, though none of these studies controlled for measures of rumination (Broomhall et al., 2017; Feng et al., 2015; Markman & Miller, 2006). While psychological distress, including depression, anxiety, and stress, was not found to significantly predict uCFT, anxiety emerged as a noteworthy predictor of downward counterfactual thinking (dCFT), albeit to a smaller degree compared to other predictors, such as uCFT itself. Anxiety often involves 2047 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH heightened worry about potential negative outcomes and a tendency to focus on feared possibilities (Borkovec et al., 2004). The tendency to focus on the negative or on “what could have been worse” is consistent with the cognitive patterns often seen in anxiety, where individuals may ruminate on worst-case scenarios (Mathews & MacLeod, 2005). These cognitive tendencies may fuel the generation of dCFT, as a potential coping mechanism that produces a feeling of relief stemming from avoiding those worst-case scenarios (McMullen, 1997; Roese & Epstude, 2017). For individuals with higher trait anxiety, dCFT’s ability to regulate emotion and reduce negative affect is especially effective (Parikh et al., 2022). Counterfactual Thought and Affect Consistent with previous findings that negative affect correlates with an increase of general counterfactual thought production (Hur, 2001; Roese & Olson, 2008), both uCFT and dCFT were found to be significantly associated with negative affect. Specifically, uCFT exhibited moderate correlations with negative affect, 2048 RANGE whereas downward counterfactual thinking dCFT showed a weaker, though still significant, association with negative affect. Despite a multitude of past literature suggesting that negative affect is the chief byproduct of uCFT, which serves to motivate behavioral change (Markman & Miller, 2006; Miller & Markman, 2007; Roese & Epstude, 2007, 2008; Roese & Olson, 1997, 2008; Sanna, 1998; Sanna, Meier, et al., 2001; Sanna et al., 1998; Sanna et al., 2006; Sanna, Turley-Ames, & Meier, 1999), and its designation as a key determinant in general counterfactual activation, our results show negative affect to be a less prominent predictor than anticipated. In both the multivariate multiple regression and the stepwise regression for dCFT, negative affect was found to be insignificant. Only in the stepwise regression for uCFT was its predictive power shown to be marginally significant. A plausible explanation for this discrepancy may be that the general tendency to produce counterfactual thoughts is not merely determined by the presence of transient affective 2049 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH states; rather, negative cognitions that promote and sustain negative affect create a feedback loop reinforcing the propensity to generate counterfactuals throughout daily life. This proposition deviates from the production of discrete counterfactuals, which assess a specific situation and are typically triggered by momentary affective states. The absence of any significant relationships between positive affect and uCFT/dCFT led to the exclusion of this variable from further analysis. Nevertheless, this result contradicts previous findings of the onset of positive affect as a byproduct of CFT via a contrast effect wherein the perceived (un)desirability of an outcome is enhanced when compared with another plausible state (Gamlin et al., 2020; Markman et al., 2008; Roese, 1994; Sanna, 2000; Sanna, Meier, et al., 2001). LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS The present study employed a sample primarily consisting of young females, a demographic in which measures distress, rumination, and negative affect may be elevated relative to the 2050 RANGE general population (Broderick & Korteland, 2004; Fujita et al., 1991; McLean et al., 2011; Ricarte Trives et al., 2016). Additionally, Özbek et al. (2020) assessed age-differences in counterfactual thinking, identifying significant age differences in one of the two studies conducted. In the absence of an analysis of gender and age effects, the generalizability of the observed results is unknown. The analysis of depression and anxiety assessments relied entirely on sub-clinical self-report questionnaires. Resource and sampling constraints necessitating this approach aside, clinical assessment of these conditions would bolster the relational conclusions proposed in the present study. While the present study offers valuable insights into the complex relationships between counterfactual thinking (CFT), rumination, and affective states, several avenues for future research remain. First, future studies should aim to address the limitations related to sample diversity. The current study employed a predominantly young female sample, which may limit the generalizability of our findings 2051 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH to other demographics, such as older adults or male participants. Research expanding to a more diverse population—taking into account variables such as age, gender, and clinical status— would help determine whether the observed relationships hold across different groups. In particular, age-related differences in counterfactual production, where younger samples were found to engage in CFT more than older samples (Özbek et al., 2020), could provide a more nuanced understanding of how the developmental trajectory of counterfactual thought relates with psychological distress. Furthermore, given the limitations of self-report measures in accurately capturing the complexities of psychological states, future studies would benefit from using more robust clinical assessments of depression, anxiety, and stress. Incorporating objective measures of these conditions— such as diagnostic interviews or physiological indicators—could enhance the reliability and precision of findings regarding the relationship between psychological distress and CFT. Longitudinal designs might also offer valuable insights into the causal directionality 2052 RANGE of these relationships, especially with regard to the impact of CFT on subsequent psychological distress and vice versa. This would address the temporal dynamics that were not fully explored in the current study. Additionally, the role of positive affect in counterfactual thinking warrants further investigation. While positive affect was excluded from analysis in this study due to a lack of significant relations, the literature suggests that positive affect could play a role in certain counterfactual contexts (Markman et al., 2008; Sanna, 2000). Future research could explore how positive counterfactual thoughts might influence emotional regulation, particularly in relation to more adaptive coping mechanisms. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was funded by the University of Utah Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program. I would like to thank Dr. Jared Branch for his support and encouragement, as well as Dr. Lisa Aspinwall and Dr. Kristina Rand for their guidance. Thanks also to my mother and 2053 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH my brother for their unending love and support in my academic endeavors. BIBLIOGRAPHY Allaert, J., De Raedt, R., van der Veen, F. M., Baeken, C., & Vanderhasselt, M. A. (2021). Prefrontal tDCS attenuates counterfactual thinking in female individuals prone to selfcritical rumination. Scientific reports, 11(1), 11601. https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41598-021-90677-7 Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2006). The centrality of event scale: A measure of integrating a trauma into one’s identity and its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(2), 219–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.brat.2005.01.009 Booth, D. E., Gopalakrishna-Remani, V., Cooper, M. L., Green, F. R., & Rayman, M. P. (2021). Boosting and lassoing new prostate cancer SNP risk factors and their connection to selenium. 2054 RANGE Scientific reports, 11(1), 17877. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/s41598-021-97412-2 Broderick, P. C., & Korteland, C. (2004). A Prospective Study of Rumination and Depression in Early Adolescence. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 9(3), 383– 394. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104504043920 Branch, J. G. (2023). Individual differences in the frequency of voluntary & involuntary episodic memories, future thoughts, and counterfactual thoughts. Psychological Research, 87, 2171– 2182. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00426-023-01802-2 Branch, J.G., Horgos, P., & Westring, C. (Manuscript in preparation). The Development and Validation of The Autobiographical Counterfactual Thinking Scale (ACTS). Broomhall, A. G., Phillips, W. J., & Esposito, C. (2017). Upward counterfactual thinking and depression: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 55, 56–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.cpr.2017.04.010 2055 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Broomhall, A. G., & Phillips, W. J. (2018). “Selfreferent upward counterfactuals and depression: Examining regret as a mediator”: Erratum. Cogent Psychology, 5(1), Article 1440996. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 23311908.2018.1440996 Bogani, A., Tentori, K., Ferrante, D., & Pighin, S. (2024). Counterfactual thoughts in complex causal domain: Content, benefits, and implications for their function. Thinking & Reasoning, 30(4), 612–647. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/13546783.2024.2343455 Boninger, D. S., Gleicher, F., & Strathman, A. (1994). Counterfactual thinking: From what might have been to what may be. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.297 Borkovec, T. D., Alcaine, O. M., & Behar, E. (2004). Avoidance Theory of Worry and Generalized Anxiety Disorder. In R. G. Heimberg, C. L. Turk, & D. S. Mennin (Eds.), Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice (pp. 77–108). The Guilford Press. 2056 RANGE Byrne R. M. (2016). Counterfactual Thought. Annual review of psychology, 67, 135–157. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurevpsych-122414-033249 Callander, G., Brown, G. P., Tata, P., & Regan, L. (2007). Counterfactual thinking and psychological distress following recurrent miscarriage. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 25(1), 51–65. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/02646830601117241 Davis, C. G., Lehman, D. R., Wortman, C. B., Silver, R. C., & Thompson, S. C. (1995). The Undoing of Traumatic Life Events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(2), 109- 124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167295212002 Epstude, K., & Roese, N. J. (2007). Beyond rationality: Counterfactual thinking and behavior regulation. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 30(5-6), 457– 458. https://doi.org/ 10.1017/S0140525X07002634 Epstude, K., & Roese, N. J. (2008). The functional theory of counterfactual thinking. 2057 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12(2), 168–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1088868308316091 Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior research methods, 41(4), 1149– 1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149 Feng, X., Gu, R., Liang, F., Broster, L. S., Liu, Y., Zhang, D., & Luo, Y. (2015). Depressive states amplify both upward and downward counterfactual thinking. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 97(2), 93-98. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.04.016 Feeney, A., Gardiner, D. R., Johnston, K., Jones, E., & McEvoy, R. J. (2005). Is Regret for Inaction Relatively Self-enhancing? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19(6), 761–777. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1113 Fujita, F., Diener, E., & Sandvik, E. (1991). Gender differences in negative affect and wellbeing: the case for emotional intensity. Journal of 2058 RANGE personality and social psychology, 61(3), 427–434. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.61.3.427 Gamlin, J., Smallman, R., Epstude, K., & Roese, N. J. (2020). Dispositional optimism weakly predicts upward, rather than downward, counterfactual thinking: A prospective correlational study using episodic recall. PLoS ONE, 15(8), Article e0237644. https://doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pone.0237644 Gavanski, I., & Wells, G. L. (1989). Counterfactual processing of normal and exceptional events. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25(4), 314–325. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/0022-1031(89)90025-5 Gilbar, O., Plivazky, N., & Gil, S. (2010). Counterfactual thinking, coping strategies, and coping resources as predictors of PTSD diagnosed in physically injured victims of terror attacks. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 15(4), 304–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 15325020903382350 Gilovich, T., Wang, R. F., Regan, D., & 2059 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Nishina, S. (2003). Regrets Of Action and Inaction Across Cultures. Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, 34(1), 61-71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022102239155 Gleicher, F., Kost, K. A., Baker, S. M., Strathman, A. J., Richman, S. A., & Sherman, S. J. (1990). The role of counterfactual thinking in judgments of affect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16(2), 284–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290162009 Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005). The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. The British journal of clinical psychology, 44(Pt 2), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1348/ 014466505X29657 Jeong, D., Aggarwal, S., Robinson, J., Kumar, N., Spearot, A. C., & Park, D. S. (2022). Exhaustive or exhausting? Evidence on respondent fatigue in long surveys. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ ssrn.4013423 2060 RANGE Kahneman, D., & Miller, D. T. (1986). Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives. Psychological Review, 93(2), 136–153. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.136 Landman, J. (1987). Regret: A theoretical and conceptual analysis. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 17(2), 135–160. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1468-5914.1987.tb00092.x Lieberman, M. D., Gaunt, R., Gilbert, D. T., & Trope, Y. (2002). Reflexion and reflection: A social cognitive neuroscience approach to attributional inference. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 34, pp. 199–249). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0065-2601(02)80006-5 Liu, L. G. (1985). Reasoning counterfactually in Chinese: Are there any obstacles? Cognition, 21(3), 239–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 0010-0277(85)90026-5 Markman, K. D., Gavanski, I., Sherman, S. J., & McMullen, M. N. (1993). The mental 2061 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH simulation of better and worse possible worlds. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 29(1), 87–109. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1993.1005 Markman, K. D., & McMullen, M. N. (2003). A reflection and evaluation model of comparative thinking. Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 7(3), 244–267. https://doi.org/10.1207/ S15327957PSPR0703_04 Markman, K. D., & Miller, A. K. (2006). Depression, control, and counterfactual thinking: Functional for whom? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25(2), 210–227. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2006.25.2.210 Markman, K. D., McMullen, M. N., & Elizaga, R. A. (2008). Counterfactual thinking, persistence, and performance: A test of the reflection and evaluation model. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(2), 421–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2007.01.001 Martin, L. L., Tesser, A., & McIntosh, W. D. 2062 RANGE (1993). Wanting but not having: The effects of unattained goals on thoughts and feelings. In D. M. Wegner & J. W. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 552–572). Prentice-Hall, Inc. Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (1996). Some ruminative thoughts. In R. S. Wyer, Jr. (Ed.), Ruminative thoughts (pp. 1–47). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (2005). Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders. Annual review of clinical psychology, 1, 167–195. https://doi.org/10.1146/ annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143916 McLean, C. P., Asnaani, A., Litz, B. T., & Hofmann, S. G. (2011). Gender differences in anxiety disorders: prevalence, course of illness, comorbidity and burden of illness. Journal of psychiatric research, 45(8), 1027–1035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.03.006 Medvec, V. H., Madey, S. F., & Gilovich, T. (1995). When less is more: counterfactual 2063 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH thinking and satisfaction among Olympic medalists. Journal of personality and social psychology, 9(4), 603–610. https://doi.org/ 10.1037//0022-3514.69.4.603 Miller, D. T., & Gunasegaram, S. (1990). Temporal order and the perceived mutability of events: Implications for blame assignment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(6), 1111–1118. https://doi.org/10.1037/ 0022-3514.59.6.1111 Miller, D. T., Turnbull, W., & McFarland, C. (1989). When a coincidence is suspicious: The role of mental simulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(4), 581–589. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.4.581 Miller, D. T., & McFarland, C. (1986). Counterfactual thinking and victim compensation: A test of norm theory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12(4), 513–519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167286124014 Nasco, S. A., & Marsh, K. L. (1999). Gaining control through counterfactual thinking. 2064 RANGE Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(5), 556–568. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0146167299025005002 Niedenthal, P. M., Tangney, J. P., & Gavanski, I. (1994). ” If only I weren’t” versus” If only I hadn’t”: Distinguishing shame and guilt in conterfactual thinking. Journal of personality and social psychology, 67(4), 585. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1993). Response styles and the duration of episodes of depressed mood. Journal of abnormal psychology, 102(1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.102.1.20 Nolen-Hoeksema S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of abnormal psychology, 109(3), 504–511. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking Rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400-424. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1745-6924.2008.00088 2065 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Özbek, M., Bohn, A., & Berntsen, D. (2020). Characteristics of personally important episodic memories, counterfactual thoughts, and future projections across age and culture. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 34, 1020-1033. Parikh, N., De Brigard, F., & LaBar, K. S. (2022). The Efficacy of Downward Counterfactual Thinking for Regulating Emotional Memories in Anxious Individuals. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 712066. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.712066 Prokopčáková, A., & Ruiselová, Z. (2008). Counterfactual thinking as related to anxiety and self- esteem. Studia Psychologica, 50(4), 429–435. Ricarte Trives, J. J., Bravo, B. N., Postigo, J. M. L., Ros Segura, L., & Watkins, E. (2016). Age and gender differences in emotion regulation strategies: Autobiographical memory, rumination, problem solving and distraction. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 19, Article E43. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2016.46 2066 RANGE Roese, N. J. (1997). Counterfactual thinking. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.133 Roese, N. J., & Olson, J. M. (1993). The structure of counterfactual thought. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19(3), 312–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167293193008 Roese, N. J., Hur, T., & Pennington, G. L. (1999). Counterfactual thinking and regulatory focus: Implications for action versus inaction and sufficiency versus necessity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1109–1120. https://doi.org/10.1037/ 0022-3514.77.6.1109 Roese, N. J., & Olson, J. M. (1997). Counterfactual thinking: The intersection of affect and function. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 29, pp. 1–59). Academic Press. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60015-5 Roese, N. J., & Hur, T. (1997). Affective determinants of counterfactual thinking. Social 2067 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Cognition, 15(4), 274–290. 10.1521/soco.1997.15.4.274 https://doi.org/ Roese, N. J., & Olson, J. M. (1995). Functions of counterfactual thinking. In N. J. Roese & J. M. Olson (Eds.), What might have been: The social psychology of counterfactual thinking (pp. 169–197). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Roese, N. J., & Epstude, K. (2017). The functional theory of counterfactual thinking: New evidence, new challenges, new insights. In J. M. Olson (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1–79). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2017.02.001 Roese, N. J., Epstude, K., Fessel, F., Morrison, M., Smallman, R., Summerville, A., & Segerstrom, S. (2009). Repetitive regret, depression, and anxiety: Findings from a nationally representative survey. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(6), 671–688. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.6.671 Roese, N. J. (1994). The functional basis of counterfactual thinking. Journal of Personality 2068 RANGE and Social Psychology, 66(5), 805–818. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.5.805 Rubin, D. C., Berntsen, D., & Bohni, M. K. (2008). A memory-based model of posttraumatic stress disorder: evaluating basic assumptions underlying the PTSD diagnosis. Psychological review, 115(4), 985–1011. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013397 Rye, M. S., Cahoon, M. B., Ali, R. S., & Daftary, T. (2008). Counterfactual Thinking for Negative Events Scale (CTNES) [Database record]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/10.1037/t01591-000 Sanna, L. J., Meier, S., & Wegner, E. A. (2001). Counterfactuals and motivation: Mood as input to affective enjoyment and preparation. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40(2), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466601164830 Sanna, Lawrence & Parks, Craig & Meier, Susanne & Chang, Edward & Kassin, Briana & Lechter, Joshua & Turley-Ames, Kandi & Miyake, Tina. (2003). A Game of Inches: Spontaneous Use of Counterfactuals by 2069 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Broadcasters During Major League Baseball Playoffs1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 33. 455 – 475. 10.1111/ j.1559-1816.2003.tb01906.x. Sanna, L. J., Chang, E. C., & Meier, S. (2001). Counterfactual thinking and self-motives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(8), 1023–1034. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0146167201278009 Sanna, L. J., & Turley, K. J. (1996). Antecedents to spontaneous counterfactual thinking: Effects of expectancy violation and outcome valence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(9), 906–919. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0146167296229005 Sanna, L. J. (1998). Defensive pessimism and optimism: The bitter-sweet influence of mood on performance and prefactual and counterfactual thinking. Cognition and Emotion, 12(5), 635– 665. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 026999398379484 Sanna, L. J., Turley, K. J., & Mark, M. M. (1996). Expected evaluation, goals, and 2070 RANGE performance: Mood as input. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(4), 323–335. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167296224001 Schwarz, N. (1990). Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior, Vol. 2, pp. 527–561). The Guilford Press. Sherman, S. J., & McConnell, A. R. (1995). Dysfunctional implications of counterfactual thinking: When alternatives to reality fail us. In N. J. Roese & J. M. Olson (Eds.), What might have been: The social psychology of counterfactual thinking (pp. 199–231). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & NolenHoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/ 10.1023/A:1023910315561 Turley, K. J., Sanna, L. J., & Reiter, R. L. (1995). 2071 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Counterfactual thinking and perceptions of rape. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15324834basp1703_1 Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2007). A theory of regret regulation 1.0. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15327663jcp1701_3 APPENDIX Autobiographical Counterfactual Thinking Scale (ACTS) We all think about how events in our life could have been different from reality. Sometimes these are important events and other times they are simple, everyday events. When we imagine how personal events could have played out differently, we sometimes imagine how they could have been worse, and other times how they could have been better. Using the following scale, rate how often you experience each item. 0 = Never; 1 = Almost never; 2 = Rarely; 3 = Sometimes; 4 = Often; 5 = Almost always; 6 = Always 2072 RANGE Downward Items 1. When I am feeling sad, I think back on past events in my life and imagine how they could have been worse. 2. When my mind wanders, I think about how my past could have been worse. 3. I find myself imagining how major events in my life could have been worse. 4. I find myself thinking about my past and how it could have been worse 5. I replay important events from my past and imagine how different my life would be if they had gone worse. Upward Items 1. I think about personal events and how they could have been better. 2. When I reflect on my life, I find myself thinking about how my life could have been better. 3. When my mind wanders, I think about how my past could have been better. 4. I find myself imagining how major events in 2073 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH my life could have been better. 5. I find myself thinking about my past and how it could have been better. Full Autobiographical Counterfactual Thinking Scale (ACTS) [[in order]] 1. I find myself thinking about my past and how it could have been better. 2. When I am feeling sad, I think back on past events in my life and imagine how they could have been worse. 3. When my mind wanders, I think about how my past could have been better. 4. I find myself imagining how major events in my life could have been better. 5. I find myself thinking about my past and how it could have been worse 6. I think about personal events and how they could have been better. 7. I replay important events from my past and imagine how different my life would be if they had gone worse. 8. When my mind wanders, I think about how 2074 RANGE my past could have been worse. 9. When I reflect on my life, I find myself thinking about how my life could have been better. 10. I find myself imagining how major events in my life could have been worse. 2075 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 127 Research Reflection by Petr Horgos PETR HORGOS Faculty Mentor: Jared Branch (Psychology, University of Utah) Prior to engagement with psychological research, I felt relatively uninterested by my coursework. I was never a fan of textbook learning, I wanted to understand how researchers came to their conclusion, to be involved in the critical thought processes required to reach those conclusions. Researcher provided just that. For the first time in my academic career, I was challenged to think creatively about research design, statistics, presentation 2076 RANGE – and I loved every minute of it. It allowed me the space to delve into research literature and explore my interests. Since, I have developed a distinct passion for psychological researched and a direction for my future efforts. 2077 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 128 Specialty Courts: Resources, Outcomes & Success of Family Recovery Court ANNIA HUNGERFORD Faculty Mentor: Rebecca Owen (Sociology, University of Utah) ABSTRACT The basis for this research is to understand how 2078 RANGE specialty courts operate differently from standardized courtroom procedures, by analyzing the resources, outcomes and success of Family Recovery Court based out of the 3rd District Juvenile Courthouse in Salt Lake City, Utah. Family Recovery Court is a rehabilitative program that offers an alternative holistic approach to parents recovering from addiction who want to reunify with their children. The outcomes and success of Family Recovery Court are based on principles that are not traditionally applied to standard juvenile court proceedings. The support offered to families in Family Recovery Court proceedings differs dramatically (Wittouck et al., 2013). The outcomes of Family Recovery Court aren’t solely based on the individual’s participation, but the astounding team behind each successful family reunification. The model that specialty courts abide by, is restorative justice, which seeks to repair harm by providing an opportunity for those who harmed another to take responsibility while addressing their own needs in the aftermath. This ensures that all parties receive justice, with additional 2079 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH rehabilitation and treatment to establish healthy boundaries ensuring that the wrongdoing doesn’t continue to occur (Snell, 2015). These principles provide insight into the success and outcomes of Family Recovery Court. Sociological and criminological theories support the assertion that Family Recovery Court offers an increased amount of assistance to parents in the community of Salt Lake City, who are struggling with addiction. Several criminal justice actors are appointed to this court specifically to give additional contributions (Lowenkamp et al., 2005). These criminal justice actors are not traditionally allotted to support parents in standard juvenile court hearings, which immediately sets Family Recovery Court apart. Emotional Support Animals, Peer Support Specialists, Recovery Liaisons, and Parent Advocates are a few of the many individuals appointed to lend their resources to families struggling with addiction. This research utilizes Family Ecological Systems Theory and Social Control Theory which both focus on the importance of environmental factors and social support. To complete this 2080 RANGE research, two methods of data collection were utilized including six- months of court observations and seven interviews were conducted. This research strives to understand how Salt Lake City’s 3rd District Family Recovery Court offers more resources and social support than the traditional court and child welfare system. Of particular interest is understanding further which specific forms of social support and/or treatment lead to the most successful outcomes for participants of Family Recovery Court. INTRODUCTION Walking into that tall white building with marble slab and granite stairs felt daunting even for me as an intern; so I could only imagine the angst someone might feel if they were there to fight for their family, and navigate the legal system, all while battling an addiction. At first, I felt weary of entering Family Recovery court, being that my experience in a courtroom had been limited. As an intern there was much to uncover about the law especially pertaining to families. Yet, as soon as I stepped into Family 2081 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Recovery Court, that unsettling feeling dwindled and instantly I knew this was going to be a different experience. I could feel the warmth in the room radiate across each individual who shared their experiences being employed by Family Recovery Court and how much they loved the work they do. Then, as we began our first hearing of the day, I felt the full effect of inspiration in this courtroom. Each participant spoke upon their struggles in battling addiction and the hardships they faced fighting to reunify with their families. Not only had this been a touching moment, but after each participant went before the judge, the room echoed with applause and cheerful words of encouragement. It was certainly unlike any courtroom I’ve experienced or even heard of, and it all seemed hard to believe with the amount of positivity and joy that beamed from their faces. Despite the positive aspects of Family Recovery Court, battling addiction is a serious hardship and has a profound impact on families facing these challenges. After thoroughly observing the complex components of Family Recovery 2082 RANGE Court, I decided to dive into the reality of what addiction recovery actually is for participants who find themselves in these legal precedents. Family Recovery Court (FRC) is a specialty court, designed to support parents struggling with substance use disorders while working toward family reunification. By providing comprehensive services, judicial oversight, and a collaborative approach, FRC helps families navigate recovery and the legal system in a more compassionate and structured environment. One participant, let’s call her Mabel, in particular had been an addict since the age of 14, and she had several children previously removed from her custody prior to engaging in Family Recovery Court. After several years, Mabel had a baby who was in jeopardy of being removed from her custody only a few weeks after giving birth. Mabel then decided to try Family Recovery Court, and after a few months in the program, she was on track to recovery, becoming a success story that absolutely transformed the lives of those around her. Through Utah Recovery Awareness Advocates 2083 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (USARA), and the resources provided by FRC, Mabel not only achieved sobriety but also addressed the underlying trauma that had fueled her addiction. She attended parenting classes, rebuilt trust with her caseworkers, and slowly began repairing her relationships with her child. The structured and compassionate nature of Family Recovery Court allowed her to feel seen and supported, rather than punished for her addiction. Several months later and with full dedication, Mabel became a success story. She regained custody of her child and, more importantly, became a source of inspiration for others in the program. Mabel’s determination and unwavering commitment to reunify with her child served as a beacon of hope for so many other participants, even those who worked in FRC. This inspired everyone to believe that change was possible, no matter what past struggles they may have faced, and it was a testament to the power of second chances. This research paper will explore the impact of Family Recovery Court on parents struggling 2084 RANGE with substance use disorders, examining how this specialty court differs from traditional court, and how the supportive approach creates longterm recovery outcomes as well as family reunification. By analyzing this court’s structure, including peer mentorship programs like USARA, and the personal journeys of participants, this paper will highlight how Family Recovery Court humanizes the legal process and offers a path toward lasting change. LITERATURE REVIEW The Child Welfare System In the past, the child welfare system was designed to permanently place children who were experiencing abuse or neglect of any kind into the foster care system based on their parent(s) or extended relatives being deemed unfit to care for them. These children were then removed from their home and placed in the custody of the state without reunification to their parent(s) (Berger & Slack, 2020). However, after several decades of the foster care system being the primary placement for children, the functionalities of this apparatus are no longer 2085 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH sustainable. Foster families are in high demand, causing a chain reaction to the entire system where children are staying in state-run facilities for extended periods of time. Studies have indicated that the best interest of a child is to have them reunited with their biological parents or a kinship placement if possible. Stability, emotional security, and economic support are necessary for the proper development of a child and the constant change of children shifting into different environments creates confusion. One issue has long been providing the entire family with support rather than solely the children, and aiding parents to get the help that they need as well (Freisthler et al., 2021). To address these issues of the past, enhancing permanency within families has become the central focus of child welfare. Today, in the State of Utah, Salt Lake County Youth Services has a juvenile receiving center, where children are placed in the care of professionals, until the Division of Child and Family Services (DCFS) finds a placement for them. Salt Lake County Youth Services provides, “safety, shelter, and support to at- risk and under-served youth and 2086 RANGE families residing in Salt Lake County.” (Youth Services, 2024). Placement of a child depends on the status of their child welfare case, and if additional services are needed before the child is placed elsewhere. They could either go to a treatment facility to treat trauma or other mental health disorders, go to a foster family, a group home, or reside with extended family which is referred to as a kinship placement. These children only return to the custody of their parents if a judge orders reunification services, which is contingent upon their Social Worker finding that the parent is following their child and family plan. The mission statement for the Utah Division of Child and Family Services today is “to keep children safe from abuse and neglect through the strengthening of families” (DCFS, n.d.). This concept of strengthening families, rather than tearing them apart, has been the mission of recent decades. Evolution Of Families The way that families are defined today in society is drastically different from the perspectives several decades ago. These ideas 2087 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH have continued to evolve, providing the support for how the Criminal Justice System handles child welfare cases today. Family functions and structures have changed over several decades. The philosophy of the nuclear family structure which was prominent in the 1950’s, emphasized the husband as the breadwinner, the wife as the homemaker, and the children living with both of their biological parents. Today, only 5% of Americans resemble the nuclear family (Vespa et al., 2013) and the vast majority are considered under the umbrella term, “post-modern families” that consist of single parent households, stepfamilies, two earner couples, stay at home fathers, and LGTBQ+ couples. Modern family dynamics take many forms, although the Census Bureau only labels households as “family”, if they align with that traditional nuclear family structure of a husband and wife living with their biological children. As indicated in this figure only 6% of households are defined as ‘family’ households, even though there are other households which include married couples with children, married couples without children, and female or male 2088 RANGE headed single-parent households. These American households are not considered families by the Census Bureau, but are defined as one or more persons who occupy a dwelling unit or domicile. This can include biological relatives or non-biological members living together in a single household. However, family households are indicated only as persons related by blood, marriage, or adoption. This figure displays the nonfamily households in shades of blue and the family households in shades of green, with the color differences emphasizing the Census Bureau’s classification system. Nonfamily households, shown in blue, represent living arrangements that do not meet the criteria of a traditional family, whereas family households, shown in green, highlight the structures officially recognized as families under the Census Bureau’s definition. (Lamanna et al., 2021). Figure 1. Household and Family Structure in the United States, 2018. 2089 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Nevertheless, there continues to be more social acknowledgement that there is no one definition of family, and that family is an adaptable institution, which could include extended relatives or non-biological family members related through marital unions. Our societal perceptions of family are becoming more flexible, due to getting rid of the rigid 1950s conceptualization that focused on a nuclear family model with a breadwinning father, homemaking mother, and biological children, which is no longer suitable in modern day reality. This shows a deeper cultural transition toward inclusivity and recognizing diverse family forms, by acknowledging that emotional bonds, support systems, and shared experiences can 2090 RANGE define a family just as strongly as biology or traditional roles. Families & The System The United States Supreme Court has also expanded their definition of family over time, by granting custody of children to single mothers, single fathers, and stepparents, who would have previously been denied custody based on assumptions that they would not be able to provide sufficient care. In Troxel v. Granville, the Supreme Court ruled on issues of parental rights, highlighting the nature of family structures and the legal recognition of different family dynamics, including single parents. This case illustrates how courts have increasingly acknowledged the legitimacy of custody arrangements involving single mothers and fathers, countering previous assumptions about their ability to provide adequate care. (Troxel v. Granville, 2000). Furthermore, according to Utah Juvenile Code Section 80-3-102, an immediate family member is defined as “a spouse, child, parent, sibling or grandparent”, whereas an extended relative is defined as “an adult who is the child’s brother-in-law, sister-in-law, stepparent, stepsibling, first cousin, great grandparent, aunt, great aunt, uncle or great uncle.” (Utah Juvenile Code, 2022). 2091 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH However, this represents a shift in acknowledging the makeup of various types of families, because back in the 1980’s the definition of relative did not include stepparents. In order for a judge to approve an adoption for a stepparent, they would have to file a petition to the court to terminate the rights of the noncustodial biological parent. This essentially meant terminating the rights of the parent who did not receive custody of the child in a divorce, because our legal system did not generally recognize two legal mothers or two legal fathers (Bartlett, 2001). Therefore, in order for a stepparent to gain rights, the biological parent must lose them, but this case concluded the dispute of judges choosing between biological and nonbiological family when considering the best interest of a child. There are several factors that are weighed when examining the best interest of a child, and situationally, every child’s needs are unique to their circumstances. When examining how families are brought into the Criminal Justice or Child Welfare Systems, they interact separately but are reliant on each other for fundamental decision making on permanency between families. In child welfare, permanency is defined as a “permanent, stable living situation, ideally one in which family connections are preserved.” (Child Welfare, n.d.). 2092 RANGE There are four broad categories of scenarios in which families involved in these systems are reviewed for permanency and reunification. These include, but are not limited to (1) instances of parent arrest and child maltreatment that coincide; (2) consideration of parents’ criminal histories in the decision to remove children from the care of their parent(s); (3) consideration of relatives’ criminal histories in decisions to place children in foster care; and (4) instances in which Child Protective Services agencies become involved with children whose parents are incarcerated because of risks to children’s current safety or inadequate resources (Phillips et al., 2010). Within these four categories, there may also be variations depending on each family’s unique circumstances. Preventative measures are often set in place by Child Protective Services to ensure there are opportunities for families to correct any issues before they become matters of the court. Families are handled situationally and circumstantially based upon the best interest of the child(ren). Additionally, a parent, relative or guardian may have multiple criminal, domestic, or civil cases occurring simultaneously alongside their child welfare investigation. This causes an overlap of how families are handled in the courtroom with different factors being considered on both ends. Child welfare focuses on the best interest of the child by determining 2093 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH permanency of the child(ren) depending on the circumstances of the family situation. Whereas, criminal court procedures focus on the behavior of the parent first, then consider whether that affects the best interest of the child and if the parent is suitable to be with their child(ren). Laws can vary by state, but certain offenses may constitute a termination of parental rights all together if the crime is severe enough. Considering how families interact with the legal system, especially in the child welfare and criminal proceedings, it’s important to note that traditional court models often lack the necessary components to address these complex and intertwined issues. Families facing systemic challenges and limitations need to have these challenges viewed under a different lens, where more rehabilitative approaches are being used. One of the more established alternative court systems has been drug courts, and the emergence of these holistic programs has focused on the intersection of substance abuse, criminal behavior and personal stability. History Of Drug Courts The history of drug courts in the United States dates back to the late 1980s, emerging as a response to the growing concerns about drug-related crime and the 2094 RANGE limitations of traditional criminal justice approaches. Drug courts differ significantly from traditional criminal courts in their approach to addressing substance use and related offenses through restorative justice. By definition, this new concept of restorative justice encompasses a process that aims to repair harm by bringing together those affected by a crime to address their needs and create solutions. While traditional courts primarily focus on punishment, drug courts emphasize rehabilitation and treatment for nonviolent drug offenders (Huddleston & Marlowe, 2011). They operate with a specialized team that includes judges, prosecutors, defense attorneys, and treatment providers, promoting collaboration to ensure comprehensive support for participants (Marlowe & Hardin, 2005). The structure of drug courts includes regular judicial oversight, frequent drug testing, and the use of incentives and sanctions to motivate individuals to comply with their treatment programs (National Institute of Justice, 2016). These incentives may include a medallion of sobriety based on the length of time they have been consistent in their treatment plans, as well as special recognition from the judge in drug court. The sanctions on the other hand can extend as far as serving time in jail if a participant is not staying in 2095 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH their treatment program and needs to be under intensive supervision in order to detox. This is designed to facilitate a collaborative and supportive environment for participants, which differs drastically from the adversarial nature of traditional criminal courts. In drug courts, a single judge typically oversees cases, which offers a more personal connection to participants and provides active engagement in their recovery process (Huddleston & Marlowe, 2011). This model also allows for regular court hearings where progress is monitored, and immediate feedback is provided through incentives for completing certain milestones in their treatment programs, or sanctions for non-compliance (National Institute of Justice, 2016). This unique structure of drug courts not only prioritizes accountability but also enhances the likelihood of successful outcomes for participants by addressing their holistic needs (ONDCP, 2015). Additionally, mental health is also a driving factor in the invention of drug courts, due to a shift in public perception towards substance abuse as a mental health disorder and a complex health issue, rather than solely focusing on crime (Marlowe, 2003). Substance Use Disorder often referred to as SUD, is a treatable mental health disorder that affects a person’s 2096 RANGE brain and behavior, ultimately leading to their inability to control their use of substances such as illegal drugs, alcohol, or medications. Individuals with SUD may also have co-occurring mental health disorders such as anxiety, depression, attention-deficit disorder (ADHD), bipolar hyperactivity disorder, personality disorders, and schizophrenia, etc. (National Institute of Mental Health, n.d.). This conceptual change prompted a more rehabilitative approach, integrating treatment within the judicial process. The first drug court was established in Miami, Florida, in 1989, aiming to provide an alternative to incarceration for nonviolent drug offenders (Huddleston & Marlowe, 2011). This innovative model for drug courts sought to address the underlying substance use issues while still holding offenders accountable through judicial oversight. Research indicates that drug courts can significantly reduce recidivism and substance use, increase employment, improve education and provide stable housing for individuals who participate, compared to traditional criminal court methods. A meta- analysis by (Mitchell et al., 2012) found that participants in drug courts were less likely to reoffend and had better treatment outcomes than those who were in conventional court settings. This effectiveness has led to 2097 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH increased support and funding for drug court programs, often supported by federal initiatives such as the Drug Court Program Office, which was established in 1995 to enhance the development and implementation of drug courts nationwide (Lurigio, 2008). However, drug courts continue to face challenges including issues related to access and treatment quality across individuals within marginalized communities. Critics argue that these courts can perpetuate inequalities, such as disparities between socio- economic status, race and gender as participants may be subject to coercive conditions and may not receive adequate treatment (Belenko, 2001). Ongoing research aims to address these disparities and improve the overall effectiveness of drug courts. This includes implementing training for judges and court staff on cultural competency, ensuring equitable access to resources, and developing tailored treatment programs that address the unique needs of each participant. Ongoing evaluation of these initiatives can help track progress and accountability, ultimately leading to a more just and effective drug court system that serves all individuals fairly (Dannerbeck et al., 2006). A critical issue has been the lack of comprehensive support for families dealing with both legal and social 2098 RANGE challenges. Child welfare systems often focus solely on the children’s needs, while drug courts emphasize rehabilitation for offenders, sometimes overlooking the family dynamics involved. In the past, when parents faced substance abuse issues, child welfare systems often removed children from their homes without considering the potential for recovery and reunification. This led to long-term separations that were not in the best interest of the child. The child welfare and drug courts systems have worked independently, but the integration of these two systems has led to the invention of Family Recovery Court, which aims to bridge this gap by recognizing that addressing a parent’s substance use is crucial for family stability. These courts offer a supportive environment where parents can receive treatment while maintaining connections with their children (CCFF, 2021). Family Recovery Court The evolution of families in society, the legal definition of who is considered family being changed in the criminal justice system, and the child welfare system aiming to strengthen families rather than separate them all led to the development of Family Recovery Court. Family Recovery Court integrates child welfare and criminal proceedings through drug courts in a 2099 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH collaborative approach to not only address the root causes of substance abuse, but also facilitate family reunification through tailored recovery plans that include both parental support and child welfare considerations. By offering services such as counseling, parenting classes, and access to social services alongside substance abuse treatment, these courts help parents rebuild their lives and relationships. This comprehensive support system addresses the emotional, economic, and social needs of families, fostering a stable environment conducive to recovery and child well-being (NCSC, 2018). Family recovery courts are generally structured similarly to criminal courts. Walking into a Family Recovery courtroom hearing, the adversarial process remains the same, where a judge is presiding, and a Defense Attorney and Prosecutor are present. However, there are additional criminal justice actors such as Licensed Clinical Social Worker and a Guardian Ad Litem who speaks on behalf of the child(ren), which differs from a traditional criminal courtroom. All of these individuals provide support to the parents and their children who are involved in Family Recovery Court. They offer their knowledge of how each individual is progressing throughout recovery. The structure acknowledges that 2100 RANGE enhancing permanency in families relies on targeting the root of the issue, which in these cases is substance abuse disorders. These issues have to be dealt with first, thus creating an alternative strategy to bring families back together. The best interest of families is to strengthen the entire unit and focus on rehabilitation for each member (Moreno & Curti, 2012). Unlike traditional courts that focus solely on legal consequences, Family Recovery Courts take a more holistic approach by addressing systemic barriers that contribute to inconsistency in maintaining sobriety and making long lasting change. This includes providing resources for education, employment opportunities, learning how to manage finances, and access to mental health services. Additionally, the court works to address issues such as domestic violence and housing, by recognizing that long-term family reunification depends on stability beyond just sobriety. By integrating this support system into Family Recovery Court, it not only helps parents recover but also equips them with the tools necessary to rebuild their lives and create a healthier environment for their children. (J.Quezada, personal communication, May 13, 2024) Family Recovery Court combines principles from both the child welfare and drug court systems, which can lead 2101 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH to better outcomes for families. By addressing substance use issues and providing holistic support, these courts prioritize the well-being of children while empowering parents to overcome their challenges. This collaborative model for restorative justice not only facilitates reunification but also promotes long-term family stability and recovery. SALT LAKE CITY’S FAMILY RECOVERY COURT Families are usually referred to Salt Lake City’s Family Recovery Court by their DCFS caseworker, through current treatment programs they are attending, or by word of mouth. Upon inquiry, each potential participant is given a handbook which thoroughly discusses the processes and structure of Salt Lake City’s 3rd District Family Recovery Court. The mission of Salt Lake City’s 3rd District Family Recovery Court is to: Treat substance use addiction through an intense and concentrated program to preserve families and protect children. This is achieved through court-basedcollaboration and an integrated service delivery system for the parents of children who have come to the attention of the court on matters of abuse and neglect. A drug court team, including the judge, guardian ad litem, assistant attorney general, parent defense 2102 RANGE counsel, DCFS drug court specialist, clinical coordinator, program administrator, and drug court coordinators, collaborate to support the participants, monitor compliance at treatment, and court ordered requirements (Family Recovery Court, 2024). In Salt Lake City’s Family Recovery court there is a judge presiding, a defense attorney for each parent, a DCFS case manager that is assigned to all of the parents of that courtroom, a prosecuting attorney is always an assistant attorney general who works in collaboration with the DCFS case manager, and a Guardian Ad Litem who speaks on behalf of the child(ren). Furthermore, there are Utah Support Advocates for Recovery Awareness (USARA) who act as peer coaches for the parents and a Parent Advocate that aids the parents in navigating and understanding the legal system. Additionally, Treatment Coordinators from recovery programs such as House of Hope oversee each patient’s progress in treatment, ensuring that they comply with program requirements and receive the necessary resources for recovery. Licensed Clinical Social Workers (LCSW’s) and Clinical therapeutic support, by Coordinators conducting provide assessments, monitoring mental health needs, and coordinating care between treatment providers. As part of the program, 2103 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH parents are also required to find and work with a personal therapist to address their individual needs beyond the structured support of Family Recovery Court. Emotional support animals from Intermountain Therapy Dogs with their caretakers also provide support to the families in the courtroom. All of these individuals aim to provide moral support and input of their recovery journey aside from legal requirements. Having individuals in the courtroom who have gone through the recovery process, such as peer support coaches and treatment coordinators, who can speak on behalf of a participant’s progress, heavily impacts the decisions a judge makes in each court hearing. Having a variety of perspectives allows for a more nuanced approach to recovery, especially when everyone present understands that it takes a village to help a family battling addiction. Ultimately, the primary goal is to provide timely permanency for children in a safe and drug-free environment. Although this program is meant to aid families, there is a certain level of dedication and commitment that a participant must make before enrolling. Before enrolling in Family Recovery Court, participants are given a handbook in which they must acknowledge a series of potential consequences which state the specific requirements of being in the program 2104 RANGE (3rd District Juvenile Court, 2024). They must agree that they understand that a missed drug/alcohol test will be considered a positive test result. Furthermore, they must also agree that a positive result, a diluted sample, a missed test, or intentionally violating a court order can result in a contempt of court charge. If the court finds them in contempt, the court will order a sanction, which can include but is not limited to, a written assignment, community service hours, or possible jail time. Individuals who have been referred to FRC are encouraged to observe the program at least twice before deciding to enroll. Participants are given a list of potential incentives and sanctions as well for successful or unsuccessful drug court participation, see figures 2 and 3. Although a list is provided, it is not all encompassing and may vary depending on the judge presiding. This allows for judges to be flexible with how they decide to run their Family Recovery Court programs and positive behaviors can be highlighted in figure 2 (Utah State Courts, n.d.). Figure 2. Family Recovery Court List of Potential Incentives & Positive Behavior 2105 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Positive Behavior Examples Negative Drug Tests Achievements in Sobriety Incentive Examples Court team Recognition and Praise Successful Engagement in Treatment Successful Completion of Level of Care Drug Court Phase Advancement Completion of Specific Court Orders Demonstrating “Above & Beyond” Behavior Dealing With High-Risk Circumstances Without Relapse Sobriety Medallions Phase Advancement Certificate of Phase Advancement Fewer Court Appearances Medallions and Wrist Bands Gift Card (Amount May Be Increased based on behavior between $5-$15) Graduating Family Recovery Court Incentives Certificate of Graduation Gift Bag Medallion $50 Gift Card Court Team Recognition and Praise Some of the most common sanctions are listed in figure 3. However, judges can use other sanctions based on their discretion (Utah State Courts, n.d.). 2106 RANGE Figure 3. Family Recovery Court List of Potential Sanctions & Possible Violations 2107 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Possible Violations 2108 Possible Sanctions RANGE Ordered to a Detox Program Write an Impact Statement Complete Workbook Write Essays Specific to the Individual Drug Tests That Are: Positive Re-Assessment for Higher Level of Care Missed Tampered During Treatment: Increase Frequency of Judicial Review Failure to Attend Failure to Engage Leaving Treatment Discharged from Treatment Failure to Attend Drug Court Hearing Increase Time in Family Recovery Court Letter of Apology Association With Known Drug Users Admonishment Violation of Other Specific Orders Time Management Exercise Warrant Jail Sanctions May Increase for Serious Repeat Violations Unsuccessful Discharge 2109 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH from Family Recovery Court The most important aspect of Family Recovery Court which is duly noted in the participant handbook (Utah State Courts, n.d.), are the phases of the program. The FRC has four phases to assist in guiding a participant into recovery and throughout the entire experience. Each phase is designed to facilitate a natural progression from intake all the way through to graduation, with a total time commitment of no less than nine months, and generally twelve months in total from enrollment to graduation. The participant must complete an application or assignment in order to advance through to the next phase. The phases monitor the progression of treatment, set standards for advancement throughout the program, and assist in timeline management issues as they relate to permanency. The Family Recovery Court 2110 RANGE team uses the term “phasing up” when a participant is getting ready to move onto the next phase in the program. Phase one is about establishing the participants with treatment and support options, phase two focuses on having the participants increase stability for themselves, phase three encompasses embracing their new life, and lastly, phase four centers around the participants maintaining what they’ve accomplished in treatment and their journey to recovery. The participant’s engagement in treatment and progress throughout the program is viewed relative to the phase timelines and structure of their child welfare case. While there are minimum participation times in Family Recovery Court that are established as part of graduation requirements, there are no maximum time limits on participation in the program. However, Family Recovery Court such as any other treatment program is a finite resource. Therefore, if an individual is not progressing throughout the four phases in a timely manner, they may be considered for an unsuccessful discharge from the program. The average 2111 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH length of time in the Family Recovery Court program is twelve months, unless an extension is granted through 18 months. Phase one (Utah State Courts, n.d.) consists of participants getting into their treatment programs and completing required elements of sobriety such as connecting with their designated DCFS case manager. Each participant must also submit an application and assignment two days prior to court to be considered for advancement. The application to advance from phase one to phase two includes the following requirements: ▪ No positive, missed or dilute urine analysis tests for a minimum of 30 days. ▪ No unexcused absences at FRC for a minimum of 30 days. ▪ Enrolled and currently attending treatment with an approved provider. ▪ Working towards increasing the time that parents spend with their 2112 RANGE children and reporting on their visitation progress. ▪ List their personal sobriety date for documentation. ▪ Include a copy of their Child and Family Plan through DCFS. ▪ Discussed their housing situation with the FRC Team. ▪ State what they learned from a sanction they received during this phase in Family Recovery Court (if applicable). Participants are also required to complete an assignment to advance that is geared toward improvements to their recovery that could be made going forward. For this assignment, they are encouraged to answer how their connection and communication can be improved upon and built with FRC as well as DCFS. They are then asked to list their three most important treatment goals from their treatment plan and talk about what 2113 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH boundaries they have set for existing and new relationships. Participants must then reflect on what they have learned so far about how they communicate and what they hope to improve on. They are also asked to answer how they are working to build their relationships with their children, peers and family as well as what recovery means to them. This allows for the participants to give their personal input on why they believe they should advance in the program and how they are going to execute that. Phase two (Utah State Courts, n.d.) focuses on participants building their new life, because they are in a space where sobriety has been established and they are ready to begin recovering in other areas of their life. This phase primarily works towards establishing a social support network, getting connected with mental health resources, and resolving any remaining charges. The application to advance from phase two to three is similar, and includes the following requirements: ▪ No positive, missed or dilute urine analysis tests for a minimum of 60 days. ▪ No unexcused absences at 2114 RANGE FRC for a minimum of 60 days. ▪ Their personal therapist needs to report on the progress of the meeting client treatment requirements. ▪ All court ordered assessments (such as Domestic Violence or psychological) need to be completed or scheduled. ▪ All warrants need to be resolved, and any pending charges working towards resolution. ▪ They must be engaging in prosocial activities with either a mentor, sponsor, or peer support coach; and know who their main sober support person is, as well 2115 as with which OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH organization they are affiliated. ▪ Demonstrate progress with their three most important treatment goals they listed in phase one. ▪ Indicate what they learned from a sanction they received during this phase in FRC (if applicable). ▪ List their support such as a peer support coach, sponsor, mentor, family, friends, transportation or food assistance; and explain how these resources have supported them throughout the recovery process. The assignment for phase two focuses on how they are going to maintain the progress they’ve already made. For instance, the first question is “How will I effectively use my sponsor or peer support coach to help maintain 2116 RANGE my recovery?” The idea is for participants to reflect on how they’ve gotten to where they are currently, so they do not lose the skills they’ve learned along the way. Another question the participants are asked is “What would a close friend/family member notice about me if I were heading toward using substances? Am I willing to share with my friends and family what they would notice? Have I had this conversation with them?”. This encourages participants to look past themselves and acknowledge their substance abuse as a disorder that can be treated. Phase three (Utah State Courts, n.d.) is about having the participants truly embrace their new life and let go of their past through reconciliation and understanding that their prior decisions have unfortunately led them down a dark path. However, this lays the foundation for a newfound perspective within many participants for why it’s so important to maintain the progress they’ve made in recovery and continue making strides by making progress towards their new life. This phase often includes deeper self- reflection, by strengthening healthy coping mechanisms, and engaging more actively in their support networks. Participants may start mentoring others in earlier phases, but overall this phase focuses on reinforcing their own growth. The quote 2117 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH used on the application from the participant handbook is, “To embark on the journey towards your goals and dreams requires bravery. To remain on that path requires courage. The bridge that merges the two is commitment.” (Utah State Courts, n.d.). For this phase, the application to advance is similar to the previous two phases, and includes the following requirements: ▪ No positive, missed or dilute urine analysis tests for a minimum of 90 days. ▪ No unexcused absences at FRC for a minimum of 90 days. ▪ Their personal therapist needs to report on the progress of meeting the client treatment requirements. ▪ Be engaging in prosocial activities. ▪ Need to meet with a mentor, sponsor or peer 2118 RANGE support coach at least once a week. ▪ Need to have an employment or education plan. ▪ Include their progress with their three most important treatment goals. ▪ What they learned from a sanction they received during this phase in FRC (if applicable). ▪ Give an example of how they used a mentor, sponsor or peer support coach. ▪ Explain how they created and are holding boundaries with people unhealthy who for are their recovery. ▪ Describe how they are 2119 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH seeking out people who are healthy and supportive of their recovery. ▪ What they have learned in treatment that they are applying in their time spent with their children. ▪ Describe their current housing situation and what their long-term housing plan is. Participants must also complete an assignment that requires them to meet with the Family Recovery Court coordinator and identify the most significant areas of growth in their recovery journey. During this meeting, they will discuss key aspects of their progress and determine which areas they should focus on more intensely. From there, participants will choose five or more of the most important elements they have focused on while developing their recovery maintenance plan in treatment. Participants then present their progress in court, and demonstrate their commitment to making these changes in order to show they are ready to advance in the program. The areas they can choose from are, 2120 RANGE triggers and using behaviors, regulating emotions, relationships and friendships, communication, battling boredom, health, employment, housing, addressing legal issues, progress with DCFS case, financial and future goals. This assignment highlights key efforts in their recovery maintenance. Phase four (Utah State Courts, n.d.) highlights all of the continuous progress throughout the participants’ time spent in Family Recovery Court and what they’ve accomplished in treatment as well as their journey to recovery. Phase four is essentially the end of the program for participants and a graduation application is required in order to be successfully discharged from Family Recovery Court. The graduation application checklist is similar to that of the previous three phases checklist requirements, and includes: ▪ No positive, missed or dilute urine analysis tests for a minimum of 3 months. ▪ No unexcused absences at FRC for a minimum of 3 months. 2121 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ▪ Engaging in prosocial activities. ▪ Meeting with a mentor, sponsor or peer support coach at least once a week. ▪ Graduated from treatment, or in good standing with their treatment provider. ▪ Have no warrants, outstanding and compliance are in with all outstanding court orders. ▪ Achieved, as determined to be appropriate, a restoration of custody, or a trial home placement of their children. ▪ Have an employment and an education plan. ▪ Discussed their housing situation and plans with the FRC team. 2122 RANGE ▪ Include three things they would like to accomplish within five years after their child welfare case closes. ▪ Indicate what they learned from a sanction they received during this phase in Family Recovery Court (if applicable) ▪ Discuss their long-term recovery management plan for after they have left the program. ▪ Explain who their mentor, sponsor or peer support coach is and how they help support their recovery. ▪ Describe additional who their community supports are and how they have used them in a time of need. ▪ Reflect 2123 on what OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH reunification has meant to them personally. ▪ Describe how they are going to ask for help once they are no longer involved with FRC and DCFS. Although there isn’t an assignment for this phase, participants still need to apply for graduation. Included in the application are two optional questions. The first one asks them to tell the court about something that inspired them during their time in Family Recovery Court. Then, the second one asks what they would like to see improved, added or changed in Family Recovery Court. These questions are used in a rating survey for the Family Recovery Court team to assess the quality of the program and future development. Family Recovery Court Proceedings Family Recovery Court ensures that participants are held accountable while also being recognized for their efforts to become sober and develop the skills to become better parents. Family Recovery Court hearing is full of support and encouragement in order to create an atmosphere that’s welcoming, while also balancing 2124 RANGE accountability. Before each Family Recovery Court hearing, there is a ‘staffing’ where all criminal justice actors meet to discuss all of the participants appearing before the court that day. Within these discussions, there is a collaborative approach towards making a decision on whether an individual shall receive an incentive for their progress, or a sanction for an unaccepted behavior. If a participant has made significant achievements in their treatment programs and continues to display sufficient efforts to overcome their substance abuse, they are then advanced to the next phase and given praise from the courtroom while being honored with a sobriety medallion awarded by the Judge. However, if a participant is falling behind in their treatment, or has missed drug testing, the judge may order a sanction which may include holding them back from advancing onto the next phase. This is due to the complexity of the recovery process and the amount of issues that can cause a potential for relapse. Addressing individual issues of each participant is essential to the successful completion of each phase, and once the program is completed their case is closed with Family Recovery Court. This means that they no longer have access to the FRC team who helped them through recovery, which has the potential for participants to feel 2125 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH unstable. Therefore, the Family Recovery Court team strives to ensure that all participants are moving through the program as effectively as possible. This means that if a participant needs more time to complete a particular phase, it’s usually granted. Most of the time, these issues are deeply rooted in their personal belief systems as well, such as developing healthy boundaries. These problems can take much more time to master than 9 months, which is the entire length of the program, so it’s crucial for the FRC team to strategically decide if a participant is ready for advancement. A participant’s child welfare case remains open even after their FRC case is closed. This allows DCFS to continue their wellness check-ins with the children and the family unit’s functionality. Participants are also able to stay connected with USARA after graduation, so that they have an ongoing community of sober individuals they feel connected to even after completing Family Recovery Court. They do not entirely lose all of their support, but the routine they once had of attending treatment and attending Family Recovery Court frequently is no longer available. That change and transition can be difficult when calculating the long-term success of this program. Having their DCFS case open after graduating from FRC, because they continue to do check-ins with the family, has the 2126 RANGE potential to help parents maintain their sobriety longterm in comparison to the previous model, which closed both the FRC and DCFS cases simultaneously. The Family Recovery Court handbook is crucial to participants because it provides them with a consistent tangible guide that outlines the expectations, available resources, and tools they can use throughout each phase of the program. The handbook is essentially a roadmap for the participants to follow and helps them initially understand the standards they are being held to before voluntarily joining Family Recovery Court. This is so that participants are fully aware of the requirements, and it can be reinforced at any time to ensure effectiveness of the model and the outcomes. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Ecological Systems Theory, developed by psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) is a scientific theory that explains how human development is influenced by the many environmental systems people encounter throughout their lives. The pattern follows a circle of influence model, with an individual at the center and outer influences encircling them, including family. Factors that influence an individual may include social settings outside of the home such as work, school, 2127 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and community engagement. Within the visual model, see figure 4, there are four systems, which include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. The innermost layer, otherwise known as the microsystem, represents the immediate environment with which an individual interacts. These are the settings that directly influence an individual’s day- today life including their home environment, immediate family dynamics, neighborhood community relationships, and teachers or classmates in a school setting. The mesosystem is the next layer, and involves the connections or interactions between different microsystems. It references how various components of a person’s life such as their family, school, and peer group interact and influence one another. This is usually identified as the relationship between elements of the microsystem, such as when you bring a friend home from school, or when you bring a spouse to a work event, which is important since the mesosystem can either enhance or hinder development. The exosystem is the next layer which expands the ecological system and consists of broader settings where the person is not actively involved but decisions, policies, or events can still have a direct impact. For instance, a parent’s job may influence family time, economic resources, or stress levels which can then affect the child within the 2128 RANGE home. Lastly, the macrosystem refers to the overarching cultural, societal, and economic systems that shape the system as a whole. These include cultural beliefs, laws and policies, or economic and political systems which have much broader influences, but they are still significant to the ecological system. Figure 4. Depiction of Ecological Systems Theory When this research theory is applied to families, see Figure 5 with family now at the center, the focus is 2129 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH on the environmental status of families and how they are influenced through interactions within their surrounding environment (Lamanna et al., 2021). The microsystem is their home life, the mesosystem is the family’s role in society, then the exosystem is the family’s informal social networks, and the macrosystem is the larger contextual factors. The microsystem of the family includes the home life of a family, their natural environment, such as their home, and a human-built environment, such as their neighborhood community. In the microsystem these are the elements which directly influence the family’s interactions because they engage in these daily. These tend to have the biggest impact on family behavior, routines, and dynamics. Within the mesosystem, the family’s role involves balancing what the parents and children need in regards to other environments, such as school or work in relation to their life at home. Families often have to consider the schedules of other members within the family unit and make adjustments accordingly. For instance, a child’s school schedule may conflict with a parent’s work schedule, requiring additional care or supervision from an outside source. These arrangements create additional obstacles for a family that are otherwise 2130 RANGE not applicable to a single individual when considering multiple members of a family unit. The mesosystem emphasizes how these different microsystems like school, work, and home interact with each other to support a family function smoothly. All of these environments, including school, work, and community relationships often create a family’s informal social network which is made up of interactions including extended family, social groups, and recreational activities. The exosystem of the family includes more indirect influences such as extended family relationships, and mass media exposure that can affect the family’s daily functioning and values. These are not the most immediate elements that affect a family, but are still impactful areas of a family’s daily functions because families rely on this layer for outside information beyond their inner circle. A primary example of this would be a local government decision to close down a library or community center which could limit a family’s access to educational resources. Lastly, the macrosystem includes contextual factors such as limited resources that may impact how families maintain their lifestyle based on the culture of their surroundings such as political systems and social norms. 2131 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH This reflects how the macrosystem layer comprises cultural values, laws and even economic systems that impact which resources are available to families of low socio-economic status. For example, receiving news from their state about child tax policies and statewide school policies may directly affect them. All of this is to say that families are a byproduct of their surroundings. Figure 5. Depiction of Families at the Center of the Ecological Systems Model 2132 RANGE However, how do community resources impact our connections with those around us? Are good social connections important to the decisions we make in our everyday lives, and are they a driving factor for how we choose to live? Ivan Nye’s Social Control Theory suggests that people are influenced by society through their social bonds in three distinct ways (Nye, 1958). Internal control refers to the internalized norms, values, and consciousness of the collective society that guides an individual’s behavior. Indirect control is linked to an individual’s emotional bonds with others, such as family members, friends and close social groups. Direct control involves external measures that prevent deviant behavior, such as rules, laws and supervision. Nye hypothesized that individuals who are more attached to society by means of employment, family, and friends are most likely to act in positive ways in order to maintain their social relationships. However, the opposite is true for those who are not attached to society; they are more likely to act in antisocial behavior including engaging in criminal activity (Cullen & Wilcox, n.d.). For instance, if a person has no employment, has not contacted their family in several months, and their current circle of influence are only individuals with substance abuse disorders, they may be more likely to engage in that behavior as well. On the other hand, if a person has 2133 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH stable employment, they are consistently connected with their family, and they are surrounded by individuals who are sober while doing shared activities, they are more likely to engage positively in society. Both Ecology Systems Theory and Social Control Theory overlap in regards to the sociological factors of an individual’s environment in a social-cultural context. The majority of the participants in Family Recovery Court have been exposed to an environment of substances from an early age and this could lead to similar antisocial patterns within their own life. In order to break generational hardship, it takes removing the individual entirely from their environment and connecting them to alternative resources that foster positive outcomes and success. These theories both conclude that structures are fundamental in sustaining our lifestyle and the ways in which we choose to live it; but ultimately, changing the structure causes everything else to shift. Both theories emphasize the importance of social contexts, such as Ecological Systems Theory which focuses on the different layers of environmental influence from immediate family to broader societal systems. Whereas Social Control Theory stresses the importance of societal bonds and the consequences of having weak social 2134 RANGE connections. Together, they suggest that when individuals are surrounded by antisocial environments, their behavior can also become antisocial. However, providing individuals with positive social bonds or environments fosters healthier connections and relationships. Both theories suggest that individuals can be redirected toward healthier more socially acceptable behaviors, showing that change in external structures can lead to shifts in behavior and better outcomes. RESEARCH QUESTIONS Based on these theories, the assumption is that individuals who have been surrounded by antisocial environments for the majority of their lives have potentially engaged in similar behaviors that have led to their participation in Family Recovery Court. I hypothesize that if individuals in Family Recovery Court are offered positive influences of social support (mentorship and sober support groups), or they are directed towards external sources of controlled healthy environments (in-patient treatment), then they may begin to engage in prosocial behaviors that lead to more successful outcomes (sobriety, reunification, etc..) based on those influences. I am interested in understanding further which specific forms of social support and/or treatment lead to the most successful outcomes for 2135 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH participants of Family Recovery Court. Additionally, I hypothesize that an individual may be the most successful when they have a true desire to change. If an individual feels that they are forced into participating in Family Recovery Court, will they have the necessary commitment to success? I expect to see that a combination of the support given and a participant’s internal motivation are both necessary for success in Family Recovery Court. METHODS & DATA Throughout the research process, two methods of data collection were utilized including six-months of court observations and a total of seven interviews. As a previous intern for the 3rd District Juvenile Courts, I was able to gain behind the scenes access to court procedures during Family Recovery Court staffings and hearings. I diligently wrote down my personal observations and questions in a journal, which I dated each time I entered the courtroom. After my internship was complete I remained in close contact with several staff who worked in Family Recovery Court. I interviewed these public servants of Family Recovery Court at the courthouse, in a conference room next to the courtroom in which FRC hearings took place. There, I successfully gathered seven interviews with a 2136 RANGE judge, DCFS Case Manager, Treatment Coordinator, Licensed Clinical Social Worker, USARA Peer Coach, Parental Defense Attorney, Guardian Ad Litem, and an Assistant Attorney General; each ranging between 15-45 minutes. Each participant was asked the same set of questions about the effectiveness of Salt Lake City’s 3rd District Family Recovery Court. They were also asked to provide details on the specific resources, outcomes of cases and success of FRC. This provided a well-rounded approach to the general functionality and impact that this program affords its participants. Throughout the research process, the Grounded Theory Approach (Corbin & Strauss, 2014) was utilized as well, to consider the rapid changes that may occur within a person, group or setting such as Family Recovery Court. Grounded theory allows for the researcher to objectively build theories based on the data that enables an explanation, and is considered grounded in the actual experiences and perceptions of the participants. Describing, understanding and analyzing the data through a theory that has been formulated based on the data provides a more holistic approach to the research (Morse et al., 2021). Through this method, Family Ecological Systems Theory and Social Control Theory were identified as applicable frameworks to help explain 2137 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the mechanisms of support, accountability, and behavioral change observed in Family Recovery Court. FINDINGS Based on my interviews, several key themes emerged that are central to understanding the effectiveness of Family Recovery Court. These include the resources, outcomes and success of the program. I am utilizing these themes to explore which resources the program offers that lead to various outcomes, and successful longterm reunification of families. Resources Resources refers to the general supply of money, materials and staff available for participants in Family Recovery Court. Based on my observations and interviews, they all point to the critical role of the available resources offered to participants, whether that is in the form of social support, mentorship, peers, or even scheduled family visits with DCFS. These resources seem vital in leading to positive outcomes and success in a participants case with FRC. For instance, the following organizations, that were mentioned throughout the several interviews and within most of my observations, were particularly important 2138 RANGE to a participants’ success. An organization that partners with Family Recovery Court is the Utah Support Advocates for Recovery Awareness (USARA). They are a non-profit organization based out of Salt Lake City that focuses on the social support of recovery by establishing a community of individuals dedicated to a life of sobriety. USARA is crucial, because it helps create a sense of community for individuals in recovery. This Assistant Attorney General who works in Family Recovery Court said, I am a big fan of USARA. I think setting these people up for success. We don’t want to, like they used to say, ‘treat you and street you’, which is kind of what I think we used to do. The phrase used in this interview “treat you and street you” is the Attorney General referencing a past practice where participants in FRC who struggled with substance use disorders would be given treatment but then left to face the challenges of their recovery without continued support once their treatment had ended and their case was closed. This approach led to high relapse rates, because individuals were not being provided the necessary resources or guidance to maintain their sobriety and progress. 2139 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The Licensed Clinical Social Worker also mentioned the variations of mental health resources offered to the participants in regards to therapy. …I mean, most of our clients have co-occurring mental health…, like, pretty significant trauma. Like, I think having therapists specifically to address that. Peer support is a known factor in addiction recovery (Tracy & Wallace, 2016) so having the support of others who have navigated similar challenges is impactful for participants. Participants are more likely to stay committed to their recovery goals with this influence which translates into greater success and personal outcomes. One of the main comments I received throughout my interviews was the court’s direct affiliation with USARA, as the DCFS Case Manager pointed out in this comment; They can get peer support from AA or NA or, yeah, wherever they choose. But USARA is right there! Yeah, so a lot of them choose USARA, but top of the list is support. Intermountain Therapy Animals is an additional 2140 RANGE resource that various courtrooms throughout Utah utilize during court proceedings. This non-profit organization provides animal therapy to participants every other week during FRC hearings, to aid in mitigating the stress of coming to court. Animal therapy can be a powerful resource, because it provides emotional comfort and reduces anxiety (Morrison, 2007) especially with the presence of trained animals who are there during FRC hearings. Participants can receive a calming presence during potentially overwhelming court proceedings, which allows them to better focus on their case and it creates a space for them to build emotional resilience which can be impactful to their case. There are also Parent Advocates who work in conjunction with the parental defense team to provide additional legal support as these parents navigate the legal process. Parent Advocates are an invaluable resource because they can offer guidance to participants through the legal system, to mitigate overwhelming feelings. These advocates not only provide emotional and legal support, but they also ensure that parents understand their case and how they can make informed decisions throughout the process. Parent advocates provide support and understanding, making sure that 2141 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the participants in FRC feel heard and empowered. This directly impacts the success of their cases, since participants are more likely to succeed when they feel confident in understanding their case and they are backed by someone who acknowledges their circumstances. A Licensed Clinical Social Worker and DCFS case manager are also appointed for each participant to advocate for their mental health and provide general support. These professionals are critical to the advocacy of mental health and well-being of the participants in FRC, because they provide tailored support to each individual’s needs. They ensure that participants receive the therapeutic services they need to address trauma, substance use, and other mental health concerns. LCSWs and DCFS case managers assist with identifying mental health needs, facilitating treatment, and ensuring that participants are engaged in those recovery and therapy services. Essentially, they act as case managers who track the participants’ progress and make sure that they are getting the services they need which is extremely impactful for success in recovery. Lastly, a treatment coordinator from House of Hope, which is an in-patient treatment facility for women and children, where they can give direct support to those 2142 RANGE participants who are in their program and on the participants’ involvement with treatment. Even if a participant is not at House of Hope, the treatment coordinator can offer broad perspectives for those going through treatment, and give suggestions to the court to help them. Even if a participant is in a different treatment program, the treatment coordinator’s position is to bring forth solutions to participants experiencing issues in treatment. This could include helping the participants identify barriers to success, such as emotional or psychological, and collaborate with the treatment facility to address those obstacles. Addressing potential barriers to treatment, such as lack of transportation, mental health issues, or difficulty with treatment compliance, has an impact and is a direct correlation to a participant’s completion of FRC. Even a Parental Defense Attorney shared their perspective on all of the social support from each party in Family Recovery Court stating, I think FRC works really well for parents who need social support. I think that’s the primary benefit I’m seeing from it. All the other little things that go on, and I don’t know how helpful or not they are, but that it’s parents who want to make changes in their lives, but don’t have a good 2143 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH support, social support network. I think FRC is fantastic for them. Okay, people who have mental health issues, people who are struggling in addiction and are still trying to figure out if they want to make that change in their life – I don’t think FRC really helps them at all. But people who want to make those changes and and just, frankly, need a support network, because they just have themselves, yeah, and don’t have a lot of skills, and don’t have…anyone to fall back on, I think those people do fantastic …and I think they’re the ones that get the most out of it. FRC also aids participants in gaining quick access to a treatment facility and getting connected with all of the above resources in a fast-tracked manner that would otherwise take several months for them to achieve on their own accord. This is just one of the many additional benefits that Family Recovery Court has to offer its participants, to ensure a successful graduation and reunification with their children. The amount of resources offered through Family Recovery Court lays a strong foundation for success. However, when examining the outcomes, both short and long- term, the true impact of these resources 2144 RANGE becomes more prominent. If a participant is maintaining their sobriety, gaining family reunification, and experiencing personal growth, it’s apparent how much support these resources truly offer. Outcomes An outcome refers to the way a situation turns out and is the result or consequence of action or inaction. There are four potential outcomes for participants of FRC, including: graduating from the program with a successful reunification, graduating without a successful reunification, being discharged without graduating, or graduating with a successful reunification but then returning to the program after a relapse. Graduating from the program with a successful reunification is when a participant is able to complete up to 6 months or more of Family Recovery Court, while simultaneously closing out their child welfare case with DCFS. This typically involves a separate court process, where the judge reviews their progress in FRC and considers the efforts they are making to reunify with their children. However, not all participants who graduate from FRC are successfully reunified with their children. This could 2145 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH happen because timelines were not met based on the state’s standards. DCFS timelines and FRC timelines do not always match up, and if a participant is coming into the FRC program toward the end of their DCFS reunification timeline, it may not be enough time for a successful reunification. However, they will still be able to participate in FRC and graduate from the program. If a participant is discharged from FRC, this is due to the judge determining that the participant has not made sufficient progress. Some examples of why a participant could be discharged include, but are not limited to: if they continue to test positive or dilute on their scheduled urinalysis tests, if they are not following their scheduled visits on their child and family plan from DCFS, or they have missed several scheduled urinalysis tests. Family Recovery Court participation is voluntary, meaning participants can leave at any time. If they voluntarily leave, the decision for their potential return would be assessed on a case-by-case basis. In most cases, participants who leave will have limited time available to re-enter and successfully complete the program. However, being discharged from Family Recovery Court is a result of insufficient progress or failure to meet the program’s requirements, although judges 2146 RANGE typically show more support towards participants who are regularly attending and earnestly attempting to follow the program’s guidelines. While Family Recovery Court focuses on providing an encouraging environment for participants, there are challenges with certain outcomes that can limit the overall effectiveness of the program for certain individuals. For instance, the issue of finding balance between holding participants accountable for their recovery and offering them the time and support needed to genuinely transition. There is an ongoing debate about leniency versus strict enforcement of the rules, especially when it comes to handling setbacks like failed urinalysis tests or other relapses. When a judge adopts a zero-tolerance policy, it can create an environment where participants feel pressured, leading to discouragement rather than motivation. Some interviewees argued that the program should allow more time for participants to get sober and make necessary adjustments without facing immediate punitive actions such as sanctions. In a system that is supposed to be empathetic toward the personal circumstances of each participant, overly rigid practices can harm the program’s goals. There was a situation where one participant was discharged from the program by a single 2147 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH judge, despite having been in the program for several months. This was the only instance of a discharge I witnessed during my time as an intern for Family Recovery Court, and it raised concerns about how strict some judges interpret the rules. This particular participant, let’s call him Alex, had struggled to produce clean urinalysis results, continuously testing positive. While Alex’s struggles were clear, the outcome felt somewhat harsh when compared to how other judges handled similar situations with more empathy and understanding. It became clear that inconsistency in how different judges applied policies can have a profound impact on a participant’s chances for success, and ultimately limited Family Recovery Court’s ability to offer the rehabilitative environment necessary for long-term recovery outcomes and ultimately, family reunification. A DCFS Case Manager shares her knowledge in an interview on her experiences working with participants in Family Recovery Court stating, It’s just, they’re just not ready. Because, like I think addiction is so powerful that you know if somebody’s just going along on their case, but then you got another person in FRC. The FRC person doesn’t necessarily mean that they’re going to be 2148 RANGE successful, versus this person. It I feel like it’s a 50/50, with the support we give them, versus also, if they’re ready. A participant’s child-welfare and criminal cases are still on-going simultaneously throughout their Family Recovery Court case, and if they are discharged from FRC their other cases still continue as if nothing changed. The main drawback is that the judge handling their child welfare case may view their discharge from FRC negatively. Another possible outcome is if a participant relapses after already participating in the program and graduating, but then returns in order to gain reunification status once again. In Salt Lake City’s Third District Family Recovery Court, participants who are discharged typically cannot re-enter the program, as discharge generally indicates that they are no longer eligible due to not meeting the program’s requirements or other reasons. However, if a participant leaves the program voluntarily (rather than being discharged), it might be possible for them to return, but this would depend on the circumstances, the rules of the program, and the court’s decision. These are often the reasons that a prior participant might come back to FRC: the death of a loved one, 2149 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH unemployment, intimate partner violence, or the participant experiences mental health concerns, any of which could cause a relapse. If a participant returns to the program, they must go through the process as if it were their first time, and complete at least 6 months of FRC before graduating. In some cases, a participant may be able to request to rejoin the program after voluntarily leaving, but they would need to demonstrate that they have addressed the issues that led to their departure. Ultimately, this decision would be up to the judge or the court’s discretion, based on the individual’s progress and the specifics of the situation. A participant may be able to technically complete the program by checking off all the requirements for FRC, however, they must carry what they’ve learned from their participation after they’ve graduated; because there is no guarantee that an individual’s participation in FRC will result in a successful reunification. The child welfare system abides by a strict and rigorous timeline that has limitations which does not guarantee a parents rights to reunification if they do not meet those deadlines. There are no limits to the amount of times that an individual may participate in Family Recovery Court as long as their child welfare case has granted reunification rights. 2150 RANGE The main difference between outcomes and success is whether a participant continues to carry healthy habits long after graduating from the program. Their willingness to engage in all of the resources that Family Recovery Court has to offer, determines their particular outcome and the level of success that they will achieve even after graduating from the program. Success Success is typically measured by the accomplishment of a goal or purpose, and through the lens of participating in Family Recovery Court, the entire purpose is to aid individuals through their journey of recovery in hopes of reunifying families. Successful participants are those who fully embrace the program and utilize the resources they’ve been given to maintain sobriety for the rest of their life. How well participants engage in the resources, determines the success of their future and their family, but they must also fully embrace their sobriety and new lifestyle changes. There are several factors that influence this concept, including the willingness of a participant to overcome obstacles, continuing their journey to sobriety, all while maintaining the commitments required in Family Recovery Court. This is critical to the success of a participant’s case, as it may be a turning point for many individuals who are at a crossroad, and 2151 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH are either not ready for change or they feel completely confident in committing themselves to a life of sobriety. A Judge who presides over a Family Recovery Court gave their perspective on the success of participants: So, I think in my courtroom, the team involved with family recovery court, from [DCFS Case Worker] to [FRC Program Coordinator] and [FRC Program Coordinator Assistant] and all of the other individuals seem to really genuinely care about these people… They show a lot of support, encouragement, and, and I think we have a phenomenal team. And so I think that enriches the experience. It allows people to overcome difficulties, overcome relapses, challenges to get back on track. And so that, that team that we’ve got is phenomenal, and I think they’re a great, a big reason for the success that we have in there. The support offered through the Family Recovery Court team is critical to the success of participants and whether they are going to overcome difficult obstacles in recovery. Participants are offered the same resources for up to 6 months after their case with Family Recovery Court is closed, such as their mentorship with USARA, their case manager with DCFS, their therapist throughout treatment, and any mental health services needed 2152 RANGE through the licensed clinical social worker on staff. This is regardless of their outcome, whether they graduated from the program or were discharged from FRC. This allows participants to still feel connected to the commitments they made in maintaining their sobriety and continuing to uphold the principles they’ve learned. Every participant has the opportunity to continue their relationships with these established resources, so that they are set up for success moving forward. Participants maintaining their sobriety might feel inclined to continue their journey with FRC working in the capacity of helping future FRC participants through USARA, House of Hope or other support and resources. Participants can continue to show up for events hosted through USARA and remain connected to these sober support groups. The Guardian Ad Litem for Family Recovery Court mentioned the various functions and community engagements that are offered to participants through USARA, which aids in fostering positive interactions for the entire family as well: Our partnership with USARA is my favorite. They always have fun events that participants and their families can attend, like they had, like, a fun sober Halloween party, that’s just cute, yeah. So have these, like, monthly sober events that are fun things that people can come to be around, people who 2153 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH understand their struggles, have been through the same journey that they’ve been through, and just be around community, which I think is always the most helpful thing for anybody, yeah, to just feel understood. This demonstrates that long-term success is all about what an individual is willing to put forth into their experience with Family Recovery Court in order to maintain their sobriety. Having the option to even become a mentor for future participants in Family Recovery Court is a huge motivating factor and it becomes a part of who they are. Through analysis of observations and interviews of Family Recovery Court, the themes that emerged align closely with the stated hypotheses, particularly with regard to how resources influence both the process and the success of Family Recovery Court. The patterns in participants’ experiences highlight the significance of various forms of support and control that contribute to the program’s outcomes. Specifically, the program’s structured approach through both formal and informal mechanisms has a direct impact on the participant’s behaviors and long-term success. The role of resources is crucial to the effectiveness of the program, because a participant having access to a variety 2154 RANGE of community-based resources, such as sober support groups, counseling, and educational opportunities, is pivotal in the recovery process. The specific outcomes of whether a participant graduates from the program significantly determine the effectiveness as well. Moreover, the success of an individual maintaining their sobriety long after completing the program is also a determinant of the impact the program is actually making on the community at large. These themes are critical to the functionality of reuniting families and ensuring that the participants are remaining sober throughout their lifetime. DISCUSSION These findings suggest that Ivan Nye’s Social control theory is applicable to Family Recovery Court. Nye’s theory argues that individuals are influenced by their prosocial bonds to family, school, and community which can ultimately deter deviant behavior (Nye, 1958). In the interviews, respondents frequently cited strong connections with community groups as key factors in shaping the participants’ behaviors and decisions throughout Family Recovery Court. This aligns with Nye’s assertion that internal and external controls serve as critical functions of our daily behaviors and guiding individuals toward a path of sobriety. 2155 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Social Control Theory Outcomes can be expressed as Direct Control in Nye’s Social Control Theory, since the concept of direct control is displayed through Family Recovery Court’s formal rules and mandates. The court directly governs participants by mandating specific behaviors, such as attending treatment programs or regular drug testing. If a participant fails to comply, they may receive a sanction of community service hours or additional drug testing and in more extreme cases, being discharged from the program entirely. This direct control is a key factor in shaping a participant’s outcome, as it imposes an external influence that directly impacts their behavior and guides them toward recovery. In some instances, a participant may be more inclined to follow the judges recommendations out of fear that they might be penalized or oftentimes, that compliance in FRC will expedite the process of their child welfare case. In this context, the judge, treatment programs and the legal system itself, operate as the direct control with the ability to enforce compliance through authority of rules and regulations. Indirect control, according to Nye, involves the influence of social groups and networks that shape an individual’s behavior through 2156 social norms or RANGE expectations. In Family Recovery Court, indirect control is reflected in the resources available to participants, especially sober support networks such as USARA, mental health counseling, and even having a good relationship with the judge in FRC. These external social connections encourage positive behavior, by promoting connections with others who advocate for sobriety and recovery. Participants who take advantage of all the resources that Family Recovery Court has to offer, are significantly more likely to maintain their sobriety after graduation because they have established connections. That is why Indirect Control is so important, since it provides participants access to a broader support system that guides their recovery journey. One of the Peer Support Coaches from USARA was a prior participant and shared her experiences. So, I first heard about family recovery court when I was enrolled as a participant back in 2020 Okay. In my previous case, I was offered, it was then called Family Dependency Court. But at the time, I thought I knew better, and I was okay moving forward with life on my own life’s terms. The second time I had my son removed, this was offered…I asked about it because I remembered it from before, and it was during COVID. Some things looked a lot different than they do now, 2157 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and it did help streamline me getting into treatment for all of those things. And so I am a graduate Family Recovery Court…so I was a participant there, and I got hired on through USARA, because I was looking in the job industry, and I was very close there, and I had always said in my own recovery journey, one day I’m going to work there, one day I’m going to work there. And a job opportunity came, and I applied, and I got the job! About two months after training and everything, I became a part of the family recovery court staffings…and so I wouldn’t necessarily say I am, you know, staff, right? I don’t work for the courthouse, but I do get to utilize my lived experience with the organization and being a part of family recovery court that offers something different, right? And I get to be a voice at the table, because it’s nothing about us without us as a person in recovery, and so I like to offer that different perspective. Her story shows how Family Recovery Court not only supports recovery but also creates empowerment, to help participants become advocates within the very system that once supported their healing. On the other hand, respondents gave examples of weaker social bonds that they observed from participants, and this tended to correlate with higher instances of non-conforming behavior. For example, if a participant was not connecting with a mentor, or 2158 RANGE going to their DCFS scheduled family visits, they were usually not engaging in prosocial behaviors to benefit their case in FRC. Observations of staff meetings before Family Recovery Court hearings revealed that the topics discussed often involved influences that participants may experience during their time in treatment. One particular conversation involved a participant possessing a nicotine device that was prohibited, and this individual spoke out about their experience being pressured by their peers in recovery to partake in using prohibited substances. These findings ultimately connect back to Social Control Theory and how these social connections influence individual behavior. Lastly, Internal Control can be applied from Ivan Nye’s Theory in the form of success, where a participant’s internal motivations and personal commitment to change are what drive them. In the context of Family Recovery Court, success is largely driven by a participant’s internal control and the program’s effectiveness ultimately depends on a participant’s willingness to embrace change. They must take responsibility for their actions, and remain committed to their sobriety long after their participation in FRC. This manifests into an internal control where a participant’s attitudes and behaviors can influence their ability to 2159 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH maintain long-term sobriety and successfully reunify with their children. Without this internal drive, no external intervention whether direct or indirect can ensure lasting success. Ecological Systems Theory Similarly, Ecological Systems Theory is also relevant to these findings as it relates to the impact that certain structures have on an individual and a family. Individually, there are constant aspects of social, cultural, and political avenues that shape our identities and lives which were evident in the observations of Family Recovery Court proceedings. Many participants had aspects of their personal lives that they preferred to keep throughout sobriety, including religious beliefs, personal values, established employment, and even their current housing. These systems interactively influenced each participant’s outcome in FRC; and for most individuals it did not matter what their preferences were, but whether they were ready for change. For others, though, it was pulling them out of those established patterns and being in a new environment through a treatment program that was the driving factor that helped them maintain their sobriety. This goes back to the fundamental assertions of 2160 RANGE Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems theory, that each system influences one another, similar to a ripple effect which impacts the interactions between each sphere. That is why it is important to have positive influences at the center, which dictates the majority of the interactions in the mesosystem and exosystem, see figure 4. An individual who changes the influences within their microsystem (such as family, work, school and friends) then begins to experience a change in their general surroundings and the interactions between them. Two participants from Family Recovery Court, even took their dedication to sobriety a step further and each became mentors for future FRC participants. A Guardian Ad Litem working for Family Recovery Court shared her experiences of seeing these successful participants become an integral part of the FRC team stating: My favorite outcomes from family recovery court is seeing people who were successful in maintaining their sobriety and then becoming someone who works in our family recovery court. So you’ve met like [USARA Peer Support Coach] and like [Treatment Coordinator from House of Hope]. They are successful participants in family recovery court, and then they go on to work with programs that get to help other parents who 2161 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH struggle with addiction and be successful as well. So those are my favorite outcomes. Is just seeing the success, being able to see the children that I work with have just a much better life outcome because their parents are doing better. This powerful example highlights the full circle of success within Family Recovery Court, since not only can participants overcome their own personal struggles, but also give back by becoming mentors to future participants. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Based on all of this, Family Recovery Court has proven to be a vital resource in supporting families navigating addiction and the legal system, offering comprehensive services that promote recovery and stability. Given its significant impact, it is essential to explore opportunities for growth and improvement to ensure that even more families can benefit from its support. Based on all that Family Recovery Court already does to assist participants, the following are key areas where the program can expand and enhance its effectiveness. One critical step toward improving the reach of Family Recovery Court would be expanding the number of judges who offer this program in their courtrooms. More families could benefit from these resources, and 2162 RANGE navigate the legal process amidst battling addiction. Judicial training and support would also be useful in ensuring that judges across different courtrooms are equipped with the necessary skills to manage and facilitate FRC as effectively as possible. Based on the nature of this legal process, Family Recovery Court should follow a more cohesive pattern across courtrooms where discharge decisions are more collaborative with other team members, rather than resting solely with the judge. Additionally, extending the duration of support after graduation beyond 6-months could significantly improve participant’s long-term recovery outcomes. Providing services for up to a year after graduation, including continued access to counseling, family therapy, and sober support groups, would give participants and their families ongoing assistance during this transition period. Oftentimes, this transition from being monitored in Family Recovery Court and within their treatment programs, to no longer having that accountability aspect can drastically affect a participant after graduation. Based on Ecological Systems Theory, being placed in such a positive environment, then being solely responsible to continue maintaining those relationships without being in close proximity to those 2163 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH resources anymore, can cause participants to revert back to their previous lifestyle. Participants would thrive more in a stable environment that is ongoing with very little change over longer periods of time. So, it is imperative to provide the additional resources that aid participants in navigating the challenges of maintaining sobriety and family stability to avoid a relapse. Strengthening partnerships with community-based organizations, healthcare providers, and mental health professionals is an important aspect of maintaining the success of Family Recovery Court. FRC needs more licensed clinical social workers due to the high caseload, as well as more counseling and therapeutic services. Offering more mental health outreach resources would help clients become better connected to therapeutic services for their addiction and family needs. Enhancing the holistic nature of Family Recovery Court is a vital aspect to the success of the program. Many areas of Family Recovery Court lean on the support of different organizations to address not only substance use issues, but also mental health, housing, employment and other critical aspects of a recovering family. Lastly, continuing to collect and analyze data from Family Recovery Court in Utah is vital for measuring the efficacy of the program and identifying more areas 2164 RANGE of improvement. A way to refine this study on Family Recovery Court would be to collect a full list of all the services participants are connected with, determine which treatment programs have the highest success rates, and track the longest period of sustained success without a relapse. Following up with participants for up to five years would also provide valuable insight into the long-term impact of the program and how to enhance its effectiveness. This data can guide future program development as well, and ensure that Family Recovery Court remains adaptable to the needs of families in recovery. Then, by pursuing these future directions, the program could not only expand its reach, but improve its long-term impact, and continue to offer a transformative approach to family- centered reunification for recovery. LIMITATIONS One of the primary limitations of this research was the lack of access to internal data collected by Family Recovery Court. External researchers have not been authorized to analyze existing data that the courts have on participant outcomes. This data is accessible only to employees of Family Recovery Court, and due to the data containing information from a protected population, such as children, it was not available for 2165 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH distribution. This restriction limited this research in regards to the statistics of participants who have graduated, been discharged, and even the number of participants who voluntarily left the program. Additionally, there is currently no long-term follow-up on participants beyond their time in Family Recovery Court. A more detailed understanding of the FRC’s impact would require collecting data on participants for up to five years after graduation to evaluate long-term recovery outcomes, relapse rates, and family stability. Without this information, it is difficult to determine how Salt Lake City’s program measures up to other jurisdictions across Utah, or identify best practices that could enhance the effectiveness of this specialty court. To address these limitations, future research should involve collaborating with Family Recovery Court to obtain approval for access to this data. Partnering with program administrators would allow for a deeper analysis of the participant outcomes by providing the numbers behind what could be improved upon the most and how to go about expanding Family Recovery Court. CONCLUSION Family Recovery Court has proven to be an essential and 2166 RANGE transformative program for individuals struggling with addiction and striving to reunify with their families. Through a combination of support and structured guidance, participants are given the opportunity to turn their lives around and restore their relationships with their children. Family Recovery Court does provide a pathway to recovery and family healing so that they can be better together. What makes this specialty court effective is how it empowers participants to regain control of their lives and ultimately become success stories. It is crucial that we continue to invest in these special court programs because the positive impact it has on families cannot be overstated. What sets Family Recovery Court apart is the holistic and rehabilitative approach, while incorporating other elements of social support such as, mental health professionals, treatment coordinators, parent advocates, peer coaches, therapy animals and a dedicated judicial team that makes sure all participants have comprehensive care and support. The multiple layers of support make the recovery journey easier to navigate and personal, especially by providing resources that develop life skills and encourage them to break the cycle of addiction to build a stable home for their family. These layers of support also reflect the framework of 2167 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Ecological Systems Theory, which considers how multiple systems such as the family, community, and institutional environments interact and influence an individual’s development and success. Family Recovery Court puts each participant within this supportive ecosystem, making interventions more effective by addressing both internal challenges and external barriers. Similarly, Social Control Theory can be applied in understanding how Family Recovery Court works to strengthen the bonds between individuals, reducing the likelihood of relapse through accountability and commitment. This was evident in the six months of observations I conducted in court, along with seven interviews of professionals involved in the Family Recovery Court process. Through this research, it became clear that the resources provided like access to therapy, treatment programs, and personalized support, directly contribute to the positive outcomes seen in many cases. The effectiveness of this program not only lies in the outcomes of how participants are able to maintain sobriety, and successfully reunify with their families, but in the humanity of the process. It helps participants feel seen, heard and supported while also being given a safe space to heal, grow and learn how to be better parents, 2168 RANGE let alone better individuals. The success is real, it is actually visible in the stories and daily interactions that take place in the courtroom. That is why it is imperative to continue investing, strengthening and expanding Family Recovery Court Programs. The positive ripple effect this program has on parents, children, and families are immeasurable and it not only transforms individual lives but it strengthens communities and society as a whole by addressing generational cycles of addiction. Family Recovery Court doesn’t just offer second chances; it gives people a chance to make lasting change. BIBLIOGRAPHY 3rd District Juvenile Court, Salt Lake City, Utah. (2024). Family Recovery Court participant handbook agreement. Bartlett, K. (2001). Principles of the law of family dissolution: Analysis and recommendations. Duke Journal of Gender Law and Policy, 8, 1–85. Belenko, S. (2001). Research on drug courts: A critical review. National Drug Court Institute Review, 3(1), 1–31. Berger, L. M., & Slack, K. S. (2020). The Contemporary U.S. Child Welfare System(s): 2169 Overview and Key OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Challenges. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 692(1), 7–25. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press. Child Welfare Information Gateway. (n.d.). Permanency – Center for States – Child Welfare Capacity Building Collaborative. https://capacity.childwelfare.gov/states/ topics/achieving- permanency Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2014). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. https://collegepublishing.sagepub.com/products/basicsof- qualitative-research-4-235578 Cullen, F. T., & Wilcox, P. (n.d.). Nye, F. Ivan: Family controls and Criminological delinquency. Theory. In Encyclopedia of https://study.sagepub.com/ system/files/Nye,_F._Ivan__Family_Controls_and_Delinquency.pdf Dannerbeck, A., Harris, G., Sundet, P., & Lloyd, K. (2006). Understanding and responding to racial differences in drug court outcomes. Journal of Ethnicity 2170 RANGE in Substance Abuse, 5(2), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1300/ J233v05n02_01 Division of Child and Family Services, Utah Department of Human Services. (n.d.). Division of Child and Family Services (DCFS). https://dcfs.utah.gov Family Recovery Court, 3rd District Juvenile Court. (n.d.). Juvsites. Utah State Courts. https://www.utcourts.gov/en/about/courts/juv/juvsites/3rd/family-recovery-court.html Freisthler B, Maguire-Jack K, Yoon S, Dellor E, Wolf JP. (2021). Enhancing Permanency in Children and Families (EPIC): a child welfare intervention for parental substance abuse. BMC Public Health. Apr 23;21(1):780. doi: 10.1186/s12889-021-10668-1. PMID: 33892671; PMCID: PMC8063333. Huddleston, C. W., & Marlowe, D. B. (2011). Painting the current picture: A national report on drug courts and other problem-solving courts in the United States. National Drug Court Institute. Lamanna, M. A., Riedmann, A., & Stewart, S. D. (2021). Marriages, families, and relationships: Making choices in a diverse society (14th ed.). 2171 Cengage Learning. OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/ index.html?deploymentId=6011 5018753218227748245505&eISBN=9780357368763&i d=2175243346&snapshot Id=4126601 Lowenkamp, C. T., Holsinger, A. M., & Latessa, E. J. (2005). Are drug courts effective: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Community Corrections, 15(1), 5-11. Lurigio, A. J. (2008). The first 20 years of drug treatment courts. United States Courts. Loyola University Chicago. https://www.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/ 72_1_2_0.pdf Marlowe, D. B. (2003). The role of the judge in drug court: A critical aspect of the drug court model. Journal of Drug Issues, 33(1), 1–20. Marlowe, D. B., & Hardin, C. (2005). Research update on adult drug courts. National Drug Court Institute. Mitchell, O., Wilson, D. B., & MacKenzie, D. L. (2012). The effectiveness of drug courts: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 8(4), 423– 445. Moreno, C. M., & Curti, G. H. (2012). Recovery spaces and therapeutic jurisprudence: A case study of the family 2172 RANGE treatment drug courts. Social & Cultural Geography, 13(2), 161–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14649365.2012.655768 Morrison, M. L. (2007). Health benefits of animalassisted interventions. Complementary Health Practice Review, 12(1), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1533210107302397 Morse, J. M., Bowers, B. J., Charmaz, K., Clarke, A. E., Corbin, J., Porr, C. J., & Stern, P. N. (2021). Developing grounded theory: The second generation revisited (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315169170 http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/utah/ detail.action?docID=6427495 National Center for State Courts (NCSC). (2018). Family drug courts: A guide for judicial officers National Institute of Justice. (2016). Drug courts. https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/drug-courts National Institute of Mental Health. (n.d.). Substance use and co-occurring mental disorders. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/substanceuse-and-mental- health 2173 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Nye, F. I. (1958). Family relationships and delinquent behavior. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 001316445901900221 Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP). (2015). Drug courts: A primer for policymakers and practitioners. White House. Quezada, J. personal communication, (May 13, 2024) Family Recovery Court Supervisor Snell, C. (2015). Success In Drug Court: The Offenders’ Perspective. Journal of Family Strengths, 15(1), 4. The Center for Children and Family Futures (CCFF). (2021). Family recovery courts: A comprehensive framework for supporting families affected by substance use disorders. Tracy, K., & Wallace, S. P. (2016). Benefits of peer support groups in the treatment of addiction. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation, 7, 143–154. https://doi.org/ 10.2147/SAR.S81535 Troxel v. Granville, 530 U.S. 57 (2000). Utah State Courts. (n.d.). 3rd District Juvenile Courts. Family recovery court participant handbook agreement. “Utah Juvenile Code.” (2022, September 1). Utah Code 2174 RANGE Section 80-3-102. https://le.utah.gov/xcode/Title80/ Chapter3/80-3-S102.html?v=C80-3S102_2021050520210901 Vespa, J., Lewis, J. M., & Kreider, R. M. (2013). America’s families and living arrangements: 2012. U.S. Census Bureau. Wittouck, Ciska, Dekkers, Anne, DeRuyver, Brice, Vanderplasschen, Wouter, Vander Laenen, Freya. (2013). The Impact of Drug Treatment Courts on Recovery: A Systematic Review, The Scientific World Journal, 493679, 12 pages, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/ 49367 “Youth Services.” (2024, March 28). Salt Lake County. https://www.saltlakecounty.gov/youth/ 2175 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 129 Research Reflection by Annia Hungerford ANNIA HUNGERFORD Faculty Mentor: Rebecca Owen (Sociology, University of Utah) My undergraduate research experience has profoundly impacted my future career goals and aspirations to become an attorney who represents youth in the courtroom. The connections I have made throughout 2176 RANGE my research will last far into my career and educational goals. I’m grateful for my mentorship with Dr. Owen as well, with her intellectual abilities putting my research at the forefront of a nuanced concept for specialty courts. I hope to be an inspiration for future undergraduate students conducting research within the field of criminology who aim to improve the current system. 2177 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 130 Associations Between Parents' Emotion Regulation, Anxiety, and Stress and Their Real-Time Emotion Socialization Efforts: A Cross-Sectional Analysis SANG HO KIM AND MARISSA DIENER Faculty Mentor: Marissa Diener (Family & Consumer Studies, University of Utah) 2178 RANGE DESCRIPTION Parents’ emotional expressions toward their children have been extensively studied to understand their impact. Parenting often involves experiencing a broader range and greater intensity of both positive and negative emotions (Kerr et al., 2021). Research shows that children whose parents frequently express positive emotions tend to be happier, more socially skilled, and exhibit fewer behavioral problems, a pattern consistent across diverse racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups (Cole, 2011). Conversely, children exposed to negative emotions, such as anger, begin to recognize and react to these expressions as early as one year of age, often responding with distress (Cummings et al., 1981). Repeated exposure to such emotions has been linked to lower-quality play and exploration, a tendency to interpret neutral emotional expressions as negative (Jenkins et al., 1995), and an increased risk of conduct problems, particularly in boys (Cole et al., 2003). However, the extent to which parental negative emotion expressions pose a risk to children’s social development may be nuanced. For instance, while excessive negative emotional expression is generally associated to lower levels of sympathy, some degree of exposure to negative emotions at home may promote 2179 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH prosocial behaviors (Michalik et al., 2007), thus suggesting that the presence or absence of negative affect may not provide the full picture of how parents’ emotions influence children social development. One framework for understanding parents’ emotional expressions is their role in directly socializing children’s emotional reactions, a process known as emotionrelated socialization behaviors (ERSBs). Originally introduced by Eisenberg and colleagues, ERSBs encompass various parental practices, including responses to children’s emotions, parental emotional expressions, and emotion-focused discussions. These behaviors influence children’s social and emotional competencies, with their effectiveness depending on factors such as parental stress levels, regulation abilities, and overall emotionality (Eisenberg et al., 1998; Morris et al., 2007, 2017; Eisenberg, 2020). A key aspect of ERSBs is engaging in an open communication about emotions, which helps children and adolescents understand, experience, express, and manage their emotions, shaping their social behavior. This process also cultivates feelings of support and emotional security, allowing children to express emotions freely (Eisenberg et al., 1998). In general, supportive ERSBs, such as comforting reactions to children’s emotions, 2180 RANGE positive emotional expressions, and sensitivity during emotional discussions, are particularly effective in fostering healthy emotional development and adaptive social responses (Morris et al., 2007; Hurrell et al., 2015; Edler & Valentino, 2024). In contrast, unsupportive ERSBs, such as punitive reactions, negative emotional expressions, and dismissive attitudes during emotional discussions, can hinder emotional development and contribute to adverse outcomes, including higher levels of internalizing and externalizing problems in children. Moreover, such unsupportive ERSBs have been linked to long-term effects, such as increased trait anxiety in adulthood (Cabecinha- Alati et al., 2019; Edler & Valentino, 2024; Frogley et al., 2023; Hurrell et al., 2015). With a growing body of literature demonstrating the link between parental emotion socialization and children’s emotional competence, there is increasing interest in identifying the determinants of parental emotion socialization behaviors. Research suggests that parents’ own ER skills, anxiety, and stress significantly shape their ERSBs. One study found that maternal anxiety uniquely predicted distress reactions, punitive responses, and minimizing responses (Hofmann, 2007). The tendency to minimize a child’s emotional 2181 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH expression in response to anxiety can, in part, be explained by parents’ efforts to avoid distress associated with emotional experiences (Mennin et al., 2005). This finding aligns with research contextualizing parental anxiety within the association between children’s negative emotional affect and expression, parents’ a discouragement pattern indicative of of unsupportive ERSBs (Arellano et al., 2018). Similarly, another study found that maternal anxiety predicted distress reactions and punitive responses to child worry, reinforcing the notion that parental anxiety impacts supportiveness of ERSBs (Kiel et al., 2020). Parental stress and perceived stress also significantly influence parents’ capacity to support their children’s emotional development. Parents who reported higher levels of parenting stress were more likely to endorse parent-centered emotion socialization beliefs, namely, the expectation that children should regulate their negative emotions independently, and to engage in unsupportive ERSBs (Nelson et al., 2023). Similarly, mothers who expressed high dissatisfaction with their parent-child relationship and had less inhibited children reported the lowest levels of supportive responses to their children’s expressions of fear. Other studies, while not exclusively focused on emotion socialization, have 2182 RANGE also found that parenting stress impacts perceived parenting behaviors, such as perceived acceptance and psychological control. Specifically, mothers were more affected by stress attributed to their children, whereas fathers were more influenced by their own distress and relationship-related stress (Putnick et al., 2008). Notably, another study found that parents’ general perceived life stress, distinct from parenting-specific stress, was associated with increased negative affect and reduced involvement with their children. Interestingly, while perceived stress and parenting stress were significantly correlated, only perceived stress predicted reduced parental supportiveness, suggesting that these stress domains may have distinct influences on supportiveness in parenting (Barreto et al., 2024). When parents struggle to regulate their own emotional responses (particularly under conditions of high stress) their ability to parent effectively and support their children’s emotional development may be compromised (Havighurst & Kehoe, 2017). Research has shown that stronger parental emotion regulation (ER) skills and greater adaptiveness in ER strategy are associated with more supportive ERSBs. For instance, mothers of toddlers (aged 12–38 months) who demonstrated higher cognitive reappraisal abilities were more likely to 2183 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH engage in emotion- focused and problem-focused responses to their children’s emotions (Arikan & Kumru, 2023). Other similar studies, though not specific to emotion socialization, have reported comparable findings. Lee et al. (2023) found that maternal difficulties in trait ER were moderately associated with lower levels of supportive responses to preschoolers’ (aged 36–60 months) negative emotions. Likewise, among mothers of children in middle childhood (8–12 years), frequent use of cognitive reappraisal and higher ER skills were linked to increased use of supportive strategies, such as helping children employ emotion- and problemfocused coping, and decreased use of unsupportive responses, even when controlling for maternal personality traits (Cabecinha- Alati et al., 2020). Conversely, the use of expressive suppression, defined as the inhibition of emotional expression and linked to greater negative affect and diminished positive affect (Gross & John, 2003), has been associated with reduced supportive and increased unsupportive responses to children’s negative emotions (Hughes & Gullone, 2010; Meyer et al., 2014). CURRENT STUDY Current study aims to examine parents’ ER capacities, stress levels, and anxieties as predictors of their 2184 RANGE supportive or unsupportive ERSBs towards children in an ecologically valid setting: their home environment. This study is unique because most previous studies on ERSBs have have relied on questionnaires based on hypothetical scenarios (e.g., Coping with Children’s/ Toddler’s Negative Emotions Scales; CCNES) derived from recalled experiences. In contrast, this study utilizes Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA), which allows for the examination of real-time emotional experiences rather than retrospective accounts. EMA is considered a valuable tool for capturing nuanced variations in parents’ emotional experiences within caregiving contexts (Park et al., 2022). By assessing emotions as they naturally occur, EMA enhances the ecological validity of research findings and provides a more interactive and dynamic perspective on the mother-toddler relationship. We expect this approach to offer greater generalizability of the associations that may foster or hinder supportive and unsupportive emotion socialization behaviors, compared to traditional labbased studies. By focusing on non- external parental traits, we aim to provide a clearer understanding of the internal mechanisms that drive positive parenting efforts. 2185 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH HYPOTHESES • Greater supportiveness of ERSB will be associated with increased expression of positive emotions (i.e., joy). • Lower supportiveness of ERSB will be associated with increased expression of negative emotions (e.g., anger). • Lower levels of stress and anxiety will be associated with greater supportiveness of ERSBs. • Higher levels of stress and anxiety will be associated with lower supportiveness of ERSBs. • Poor ER capacities and greater use of expressive suppression will be associated with lower supportiveness of ERSBs. • Strong ER capacities and greater use of cognitive reappraisal will be associated with greater supportiveness of ERSBs. Participants The final sample consisted of 158 valid participants, all of whom completed the initial entry survey. While some 2186 RANGE daily EMA prompts were missed throughout the study period, all participants provided at least partial data for the EMA phase. The majority of respondents were biological mothers (n = 154) and biological fathers (n = 2), with two additional caregivers identifying as a stepmother (n = 1) and an aunt (n = 1). The average age of mothers was 31.16 years (SD = 5.75), and the average age of fathers was 32.49 years (SD = 6.37). Participants reported having an average of 2.04 children (SD = 1.12). The focal children in the study were between the ages of 1 and 6 years. Specifically, 56.3% were between 1–3 years, 42.4% were between 4–6 years, and 1.3% were outside the target range. Of the focal children, 57% were female and 43% were male. Parents’ ethnicity and household income are listed on the table below: Table 1.Demographic characteristics of participating parents Mothers’ Race/Ethnicity (%) White/non-Hispanic 75.30 2187 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Hispanic/Latino/Latinx 10.80 Asian 4.40 African American 3.20 Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander 1.90 American Indian or Alaskan Native 1.90 Other 2.50 Fathers’ Race/Ethnicity (%) White/non-Hispanic 71.50 Hispanic/Latino/Latinx 12.0 Asian 3.80 African American 5.10 Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander 1.90 American Indian or Alaskan Native 0.60 Other 1.3 Not reported or multiple 3.80 Household income (%) $0–24,999 9.50 $25,000–49,999 18.40 2188 RANGE $50,000–74,999 22.80 $75,000–99,999 16.50 $100,000–124,999 15.20 $125,000–149,999 6.30 $150,000 or more 11.4 Procedure Participants were recruited through multiple channels, including the University of Utah research study locator (a public-facing website where research opportunities are posted) and snowball sampling methods. Interested parents were directed to an online screening survey, which included multiple questions designed to identify and exclude fraudulent responses. Eligible participants were parents of children aged 1 to 6 years. Those who passed the screening were contacted by research staff and provided with detailed study information. Verbal consent was obtained over the phone, and participants also viewed an electronic consent form before beginning the study. By proceeding with participation, parents provided implied consent in accordance with procedures approved by the 2189 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH University of Utah Institutional Review Board (IRB #00165890). The study consisted of a 14-day ecological momentary assessment (EMA) protocol. Participants received a link to an online survey hosted on Qualtrics. Upon entry, they completed a brief baseline questionnaire and began the first 7-day EMA phase, during which they received twice- daily prompts on their smartphones to report on their emotional experiences and expressions in interactions with their child. At the end of the first 7-day period, participants completed a weekly survey (Weekly 1), after which they proceeded to the second 7-day EMA phase. This was followed by a second weekly survey (Weekly 2), completing the 14-day EMA sequence. In total, the current study analyzes 4,092 EMA survey responses from 158 parents, each of whom completed twice-daily EMAs over a 14-day period regarding their emotional experiences and expressions toward their young children. Measures Variables Emotion Expression 2190 RANGE From the EMA survey, the expression of joy and anger was measured as a dummy variable (0 = not expressed, 1 = expressed). Anxiety The GAD-2 consists of two items (“Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge” and “Not being able to stop or control worrying”) rated on a 4-point scale (0=“Not at all” to 3=“Nearly every day”). It is a very brief screener for anxiety (α ≈ 0.80, r = 0.81; Seens et al., 2022) Parenting Stress The Parenting Stress Index–Short Form (PSI-SF) was used, following a 5-factor model (Faldowski, 2009). In this model, two narrower subscales were examined: a 5-item Parenting Stress subscale, capturing parents’ negative perceptions of their child’s behavior (similar to the Difficult Child domain; α ≈ .55), and a 6-item Dyadic Interaction subscale, capturing stress within the parent–child relationship (similar to the PCDI domain; α ≈ .59). A subset of items from the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), designed to measure individuals’ perceived stress in various situations, was used (Cohen et al., 1983). Emotion Regulation 2191 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Emotion regulation strategies were measured using the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ; Gross & John, 2003), a 10-item self-report measure assessing individuals’ habitual use of two strategies: cognitive reappraisal (6 items; altering one’s thoughts to change the emotional impact of a situation) and expressive suppression (4 items; inhibiting the outward expression of emotions). From the EMA survey, participants reported the extent to which they tried to hide their emotions (i.e., suppressivity) using a slider scale (from 0 to 100). Supportiveness of Emotion-Related Socialization Behavior From the EMA survey, participants reported, for a specific emotion expressed to their child, the extent to which they (1) tried to teach or guide their child (teaching effort), (2) controlled their emotional expression (control of emotion expression), and (3) expressed their emotions automatically or unintentionally (automaticity of emotion expression), each assessed using a slider scale (from 0 to 100). Additionally, participants indicated the presence or absence of teaching intent for a specific emotion expressed to their child, measured as a binary variable (0 = not expressed, 1 = expressed). 2192 RANGE ANALYSIS PLAN Indices The creation of indices will involve two steps: an initial exploratory analysis followed by a predefined analysis. In the exploratory step, individual EMA responses will be examined to identify patterns of associations among variables. To create the index of supportiveness of ERSBs, variables that are significantly correlated with the teaching effort scale will be combined and averaged to form a composite score. Following this, EMA data collected over the 14-day period will be aggregated to generate a single score representing each participant. Additionally, the mean score of the dummy-coded teaching intent variable will be calculated as a separate indicator of supportiveness of ERSBs. In the predefined analysis, composite scores will be created for the utilization of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal strategies from the ERQ, overall parental anxiety from the GAD-2, and overall parenting stress from the PSI-SF and PSS. Internal consistency for each scale will be assessed using Cronbach’s alpha. Stopping Plan Analyses will be conducted with whatever data are 2193 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH available as of the submission of this preregistration. Estimated sample size is expected to be 158 participants and 4,092 EMA survey responses. Excluded Data Participants who dropped out of the study, did not complete entry survey and/or first weekly survey, were not eligible for the study (with regards to children age), or completed less than 5 EMA surveys were excluded. Missing Data The sample size will be based on the availability of the following: caregiver ERQ data, caregiver PSI data, caregiver GAD-2 anxiety data, and caregiver EMA socialization effort data. Missing data will be handled using listwise deletion. Inference Criteria For all intended analyses, we will use p < .05 (two-tailed test) criteria for determining if the overall associations suggest that the results are significantly different from those expected if the null hypotheses were correct. Statistical Models Preliminary analyses will be conducted to examine the 2194 RANGE descriptive statistics and assess the correlations among all focal variables. Then, to assess the hypotheses, we will conduct a linear regression with parenting and perceived stress, anxiety, and ER as predictors and their ERSBs as outcomes. Additionally, we will analyze if the mean score of the teaching intent variable will be associated with frequencies of positive and negative emotion expressions. Descriptive variables including child age, child gender, caregivers’ ethnicity, and household income will be explored as potential covariates. If these variables show significant associations with focal variables in preliminary analyses, they will be included as controls in hypothesis- testing models. RESULTS Preliminary analyses indicated that the potential covariates showed either weak or non- significant correlations with the teaching effort scale (i.e., “how much did you explain this emotion to your child?”). Therefore, the teaching effort scale analyzed independently as a measure of parental supportiveness of ERSBs and was not included in a composite score. Analyses of the focal variables further revealed that child age, child gender, family income, maternal ethnicity, and maternal age were not 2195 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH significantly associated with the teaching effort index when caregivers expressed either joy or anger. Notably, however, teaching effort indices for joy and anger expressions were moderately correlated (r = .464, p < .001). Hypotheses 1 and 2 Hypotheses 1 and 2 were not supported; caregivers’ intention to teach did not significantly predict the frequency of joy or anger expressions. Hypotheses 3 and 4 Hypotheses 3 and 4 were not supported; traitlevel anxiety, perceived stress, and parenting stress measured prior to the EMA survey did not significantly predict caregivers’ in- the-moment supportiveness of ERSBs during expressions of either joy or anger. Hypotheses 5 and 6 Hypotheses 5 and 6 were partially supported; trait-level emotion regulation strategies, including the use of cognitive reappraisal and 2196 RANGE expressive suppression, were not significantly associated with in-the-moment supportiveness of ERSBs during expressions of either joy or anger. However, in-the-moment supportiveness of ERSBs during anger expression was weakly predicted by caregivers’ effort to hide their emotion (B = 0.158, SE = 0.076, β = 0.205 p < .05), and moderately predicted by the automaticity of their emotional expression (B = 0.560, SE = 0.140, β = 0.388, p < .001). When expressing joy, in-the-moment supportiveness of ERSBs was significantly predicted by caregivers’ effort to hide the emotion (B = 0.408, SE = 0.100, β = 0.350, p < .001), automaticity of expression (B = 0.442, SE = 0.116, β = 0.325 p < .001), and perceived control over the emotional expression (B = 0.224, SE = 0.086, β = 222, p < .05). Post-hoc analysis A post-hoc analysis was conducted to examine whether trait-level ER strategies were associated with their in-the-moment counterparts (i.e., 2197 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH “how much did you try to hide this emotion from your child,” “how much was this emotion an automatic response,” and “how much control did you have over expressing this emotion.”) When caregivers expressed anger, expressive suppression was weakly correlated with in-themoment control of emotional expression (r = .195, p < .05), but not with automaticity or hiding. Cognitive reappraisal was also weakly correlated with in-the-moment control of emotional expression (r = .235, p < .01). During expressions of joy, cognitive reappraisal was weakly correlated with both automaticity (r = .252, p < .01) and control of emotion expression (r = .193, p < .05), while expressive suppression was not significantly associated with any in-the-moment ER measure. DISCUSSION The results indicated that trait-level parental anxiety, parenting stress, perceived stress, and emotion regulation strategies were not associated with in-themoment supportiveness of ERSBs, whereas in-themoment emotion regulation capacities significantly predicted supportiveness. Although the null findings for trait-level measures were unexpected, the contrasting 2198 RANGE patterns between the pre-EMA and EMA measures may have important implications. Specifically, these findings suggest that momentary, context-bound expressive tendencies, such as automaticity, control, and efforts to hide emotions, may serve as more proximal and influential predictors of how caregivers respond emotionally in real-time interactions. When expressing anger, greater automaticity (β = 0.39) and stronger efforts to hide the emotion (β = 0.205) positively predicted caregivers’ attempts to explain the emotion to their child. These findings contradict our initial prediction that lower regulatory capacity and a tendency toward expressive suppression would correspond with less supportive ERSBs. One possible explanation is that caregivers who experience less controlled, more automatic emotional responses, or who actively suppress their emotions, may compensate by providing additional verbal guidance to help their child understand the emotional context. Such caregivers might be more conscious of the potential impact of their emotional displays and attempt to offset this through explanation. Another finding revealed a positive relationship between caregivers’ efforts to explain the emotion expressed and the automaticity of joyful expression (β = 0.325), 2199 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH controllability of the expression (β = 0.222), and the effort to hide the emotion (β = 0.350). These results suggest that, within caregiving contexts, emotion regulation efforts such as controlling or hiding emotions may not indicate emotional disengagement or maladaptive suppression. Rather, they could reflect intentional, socially attuned regulation strategies, particularly when accompanied by greater efforts to explain emotions to the child. This pattern implies that ERSBs may be more closely linked to context-sensitive expressive behaviors than to global trait-level ER measures, and that suppressive behaviors in caregiving may sometimes represent deliberate regulatory efforts rather than emotional avoidance. Limitations To better understand why the findings were confined to momentary measures and did not generalize to traitlevel characteristics, several methodological limitations should be considered. First, relying on a single-item measure for ERSB, specifically “how much did you try to explain,” may not fully capture the broader constructs of supportiveness and emotion socialization. This item could reflect caregivers’ momentary need to explain a specific emotional expression rather than indicating a stable, generalizable pattern of supportive socialization. 2200 RANGE Furthermore, it is unclear whether such intentions to explain align with the concept of socialization efforts commonly measured by tools such as the CCNES, raising concerns about construct validity. In addition, averaging 28 EMA signals collected over two weeks may present within- person reliability issues. Each EMA prompt likely captures varying situational contexts and momentary needs, which are not controlled for in this design. As a result, the aggregated scores may not accurately reflect a consistent tendency toward supportiveness or socialization at the trait level. Finally, subjective self-reports of “being supportive” were not objectively coded or evaluated against a standardized framework. This could introduce individual differences in how caregivers interpret and assess their own supportiveness, creating potential across-person reliability concerns. These limitations regarding the generalizability and consistency of EMA responses may help explain why trait-level characteristics were not associated with EMA-derived measures, while EMA responses themselves were significantly related. IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH This study contributes to the existing literature on 2201 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ERSBs and parenting by utilizing EMA to examine which parental psychological factors, both at the trait level and in the moment, influence caregivers’ (primarily mothers’) real-time emotional experiences and socialization efforts. The findings reveal significant associations between momentary regulatory efforts and emotional socialization behaviors; however, these associations did not extend to trait-level regulatory capacity, anxiety, or stress. On one hand, these results suggest that emotion-related socialization behaviors may be shaped more by caregivers’ immediate emotional states and regulatory efforts within specific parent–child interactions, rather than by their broader, trait-like emotion regulation tendencies across contexts. This accentuates the importance of fostering moment-to-moment regulatory skills and strategies to support positive parent–child relationships. On the other hand, these findings may highlight the limited generalizability of momentary measures across broader contexts. This understanding derives from the notion that, while momentary assessments capture immediate emotional processes, they may not reflect stable patterns across different situations. Conversely, this also could mean that trait-level measures, such as the ERQ, are designed to assess 2202 RANGE general tendencies but may fail to capture the situational goals or social motivations that uniquely shape parental emotion regulation in caregiving interactions. Future research employing EMA methods might address these implications in two key ways. First, studies could refine their designs by controlling for the circumstances under which participants respond, improving aggregation methods, diversifying items to more accurately capture key constructs, and applying more objective standards for evaluating emotional experiences and regulatory efforts. Second, researchers can leverage the strengths of EMA in capturing contextual factors by focusing more deliberately on specific caregiving contexts. This approach would enable more nuanced investigations into parent–child interactions that extend beyond what traditional survey methods can offer. BIBLIOGRAPHY Arellano, B., Gramszlo, C., & Woodruff-Borden, J. (2018). Parental reactions to children’s negative affect: The moderating role of parental GAD. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 53, 22–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.janxdis.2017.10.006 Arikan, G., & Kumru, A. (2023). A person-based approach to emotion socialization in toddlerhood: 2203 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Individual differences in maternal emotion regulation, mental-health and parental sense of competence. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 13606–13610. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/s41598-023-40850-x Barreto, S., Wang, S., Guarnaccia, U., Fogelman, N., Sinha, R., & Chaplin, T. M. (2024). Parent stress and observed parenting in a parent-child interaction task in a predominantly minority and low-income sample. Archives of Pediatrics (Lisle), 9(1), 308. https://doi.org/ 10.29011/2575-825x.100308 :contentReference[oaicite:2]{index=2} Berger, A., Kofman, O., Livneh, U., & Henik, A. (2007). Multidisciplinary perspectives on attention and the development of self-regulation. Prog- ress in Neurobiology, 82, 256 –286. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j .pneurobio.2007.06.004 Bertie, L.-A., Johnston, K., & Lill, S. (2021). Parental emotion socialisation of young children and the mediating role of emotion regulation. Australian Journal of Psychology, 73(3), 293–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00049530.2021.1884001 Bridgett, D. J., Burt, N. M., Edwards, E. S., DeaterDeckard, K., & Albarracín, D. (2015). Intergenerational 2204 RANGE Transmission of Self-Regulation: A Multidisciplinary Review and Integrative Conceptual Framework. Psychological Bulletin, 141(3), 602–654. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/a0038662 Cabecinha-Alati, S., O’Hara, G., Kennedy, H., & Montreuil, T. (2020). Parental Emotion Socialization and Adult Outcomes: The Relationships Between Parental Supportiveness, Emotion Regulation, and Trait Anxiety. Journal of Adult Development, 27(4), 268–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-019-09340-1 Cabecinha‐Alati, S., Malikin, H., & Montreuil, T. C. (2020). Emotion Regulation and Personality as Predictors of Mothers’ Emotion Socialization Practices. Family Relations, 69(5), 1055–1072. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/fare.12501 Cao, M., Powers, A., Cross, D., Bradley, B., & Jovanovic, T. (2017). Maternal emotion dysregulation, parenting stress, and child physiological anxiety during dark‐enhanced startle. Developmental Psychobiology, 59(8), 1021–1030. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21574 Cisler, J. M., & Olatunji, B. O. (2012). Emotion Regulation and Anxiety Disorders. Current Psychiatry 2205 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Reports, 14(3), 182–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11920-012-0262-2 Coelho, H. F., Murray, L., Royal-Lawson, M., & Cooper, P. J. (2011). Antenatal anxiety disorder as a predictor of postnatal depression: A longitudinal study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 129(1), 348–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.08.002 Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion Regulation as a Scientific Construct: Methodological Challenges and Directions for Child Development Research. Child Development, 75(2), 317–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-8624.2004.00673.x Cole, P. M., Teti, L. O., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2003). Mutual emotion regulation and the stability of conduct problems be- tween preschool and early school age. Development and Psycho- pathology, 15, 1–18. doi:10.1017/S0954579403000014 Cornish, A. M., McMahon, C. A., Ungerer, J. A., Barnett, B., Kowalenko, N., & Tennant, C. (2006). Maternal depression and the experience of parenting in the second postnatal year. Journal of Reproductive 2206 RANGE and Infant Psychology, 24(2), 121–132. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/02646830600644021 Crandall, A., Deater-Deckard, K., & Riley, A. W. (2015). Maternal emotion and cognitive control capacities and parenting: A conceptual framework. Developmental Review, 36, 105–126. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.dr.2015.01.004 Cummings, E. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1981). Young children’s responses to expressions of anger and affection by others in the family. Child Development, 52, 1274–1282. doi:10.2307/1129516 Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M., & Filion, D. L. (2016). The Electrodermal Psychophysiology University System. (pp. In Handbook 217–243). Press. of Cambridge https://doi.org/10.1017/ 9781107415782.010 Deater-Deckard, K., Sewell, M. D., Petrill, S. A., & Thompson, L. A. (2010). Maternal Working Memory and Reactive Negativity in Parenting. Psychological Science, 21(1), 75–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0956797609354073 Dryman, M. T., & Heimberg, R. G. (2018). Emotion regulation in social anxiety and depression: a systematic 2207 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH review of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal. Clinical Psychology Review, 65, 17–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.07.004 Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9(4), 241-273. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_1 Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Eggum, N. D., Cannon, T., NolenHoeksema, S., & Widiger, T. (2010). Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children’s maladjustment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6(1), 495–525. https://doi.org/10.1146/ annurev.clinpsy.121208.131208 Epifanio, M. S., Genna, V., De Luca, C., Roccella, M., & La Grutta, S. (2015). Paternal and maternal transition to parenthood: The risk of postpartum depression and parenting stress. Pediatric Reports, 7(2), 38–44. https://doi.org/10.4081/pr.2015.5872 Feldman, R. (2007). Parent-infant synchrony: Biological foundations and developmental outcomes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(6), 340–345. Fowles, D. C. (2024). Arousal, Gray’s theory of anxiety, and the etiology of psychopathy. Biological Psychology, 2208 RANGE 188, 108772–108772. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.biopsycho.2024.108772 Frogley, W. J., King, G. L., & Westrupp, E. M. (2023). Profiles of parent emotion socialization: Longitudinal associations with child emotional outcomes. Mental Health & Prevention, 30, 200274. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.mhp.2023.200274 Gordon, I., Zagoory-Sharon, O., Leckman, J. F., & Feldman, R. (2010). Oxytocin and the development of parenting in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 68(4), 377–382. Green, S., & Baker, B. (2011). Parents’ emotion expression as a predictor of child’s social competence: children with or without intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 55(3), 324–338. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01363.x Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348 Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. A. (2007). Emotion Regulation: Conceptual Foundations. In J. J. Gross 2209 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3–24). The Guilford Press. Haskett, M. E., Smith Scott, S., & Sabourin Ward, C. (2004). Subgroups of Physically Abusive Parents Based on Cluster Analysis of Parenting Behavior and Affect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 74(4), 436–447. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.74.4.436 Havighurst, S. S., Kehoe, C. E. (2017). The Role of Parental Emotion Regulation in Parent Emotion Socialization: Implications for Intervention. In Parental Stress and Early Child Development: Adaptive and Maladaptive Outcomes (1st ed.). Springer International Publishing AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-319-55376-4 Hughes, E. K., & Gullone, E. (2010). Parent emotion socialisation practices and their associations with personality and emotion regulation. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(7), 694–699. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.042 Hurrell, K. E., Hudson, J. L., & Schniering, C. A. (2015). Parental reactions to children’s negative emotions: Relationships with emotion regulation in children with 2210 RANGE an anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 29, 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.10.008 Iswinarti, Jadmiko, G. T., & Hasanati, N. (2020). Cognitive emotion regulation: Its relationship to parenting stress. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 11(2), 204–222. Jenkins, J. M., Franco, F., Dolins, F., & Sewell, A. (1995). Toddlers’ reactions to negative emotion displays: Forming models of relationships. Infant Behavior and Development, 18, 273–281. doi:10.1016/ 0163-6383(95)90016-0 Kerr, M. L., Rasmussen, H. F., Buttitta, K. V., Smiley, P. A., Borelli, J. L., & Pietromonaco, P. R. (2021). Exploring the Complexity of Mothers’ Real-Time Emotions While Caregiving. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 21(3), 545–556. https://doi.org/10.1037/ emo0000719 Kiel, E. J., Price, N. N., & Buss, K. A. (2021). Maternal anxiety and toddler inhibited temperament predict maternal socialization of worry. Social Development (Oxford, England), 30(1), 258–273. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/sode.12476 Kim, P., Leckman, J. F., Mayes, L. C., Newman, M. A., 2211 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Feldman, R., & Swain, J. E. (2010). Perceived quality of maternal care in childhood and structure and function of mothers’ brain. Developmental Science, 13(4), 662–673. Lee, A. H., O’Brien, J. R., Binion, G., Lewis, J. K., & Zalewski, M. (2023). Supportive Emotion Socialization Mitigates Risk Between Maternal Emotion Regulation Difficulties and Preschooler Emotion Regulation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 32(3), 824–832. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02404-z Leerkes, E. M., Supple, A. J., O’Brien, M., Calkins, S. D., Haltigan, J. D., Wong, M. S., & Fortuna, K. (2015). Antecedents of Maternal Sensitivity During Distressing Tasks: Integrating Attachment, Social Information Processing, and Psychobiological Perspectives. Child Development, 86(1), 94–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/ cdev.12288 McPherson, A. V., Lewis, K. M., Lynn, A. E., Haskett, M. E., & Behrend, T. S. (2009). Predictors of Parenting Stress for Abusive and Nonabusive Mothers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18(1), 61–69. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10826-008-9207-0 Mennin DS, Heimberg RG, Turk CL, Fresco DM. Preliminary evidence for an emotion dysregulation 2212 RANGE model of generalized anxiety disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43(10):1281–310. Meyer, S., Raikes, H. A., Virmani, E. A., Waters, S., & Thompson, R. A. (2014). Parent emotion representations and the socialization of emotion regulation in the family. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38(2), 164–173. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0165025413519014 Mennin, D. S., Heimberg, R. G., Turk, C. L., & Fresco, D. M. (2005). Preliminary evidence for an emotion dysregulation model of generalized anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(10), 1281–1310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.08.008 Michalik N. M., Eisenberg N., Spinrad T. L., Ladd B., Thompson M. & Valiente C. (2007) Longitudinal relations among parental emotional expressivity and sympathy and prosocial behavior in adolescence. Social Development 16, 286–309. Mochcovitch, M. D., da Rocha Freire, R. C., Garcia, R. F., & Nardi, A. E. (2014). A systematic review of fMRI studies in generalized anxiety disorder: Evaluating its neural and cognitive basis. Journal of Affective 2213 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Disorders, 167, 336–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jad.2014.06.041 Morris, A. S., Criss, M. M., Silk, J. S., & Houltberg, B. J. (2017). The Impact of Parenting on Emotion Regulation During Childhood and Adolescence. Child Development Perspectives, 11(4), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12238 Nelson, J. A., Aguas, A. B., & Katz, J. M. (2024). “Work through it on your own”: parent‐ centered emotion socialization beliefs and parenting stress. Family Process, 63(3), 1521– 1530. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12939 Pereira, A. I., Barros, L., Mendonça, D., & Muris, P. (2014). The Relationships Among Parental Anxiety, Parenting, and Children’s Anxiety: The Mediating Effects of Children’s Cognitive Vulnerabilities. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23(2), 399–409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9767-5 Porges, S. W., Doussard-Roosevelt, J. A., & Maiti, A. K. (1994). Vagal tone and the physiological regulation of emotion. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3), 167–186. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01283.x Premo, J. E., Kiel, E. J., & Fiese, B. H. (2016). Maternal 2214 RANGE Depressive Symptoms, Toddler Emotion Regulation, and Subsequent Emotion Socialization. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(2), 276–285. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/fam0000165 Root, A. E., & Rasmussen, K. E. (2015). Maternal emotion socialization: The contribution of inhibited behaviour and mothers’ dissatisfaction with the parent–child relationship. Infant and Child Development, 24(5), 501–515. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1955 Roskam, I., Gross, James J, & Mikolajczak, Moïra. (2024). Emotion regulation and parenting (First edition..). Rutherford, H. J. V., Wallace, N. S., Laurent, H. K., & Mayes, L. C. (2015). Emotion regulation in parenthood. Developmental Review, 36, 1–14. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.dr.2014.12.008 Sidor, A., Kunz, E., Schweyer, D., Eickhorst, A., & Cierpka, M. (2011). Links between maternal postpartum depressive symptoms, maternal distress, infant gender and sensitivity in a high-risk population. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 5(1), 7–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-5-7 Speck, B., Isenhour, J., Gao, M., Conradt, E., Crowell, 2215 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH S. E., & Raby, K. L. (2023). Pregnant Women’s Autonomic Responses to an Infant Cry Predict Young Infants’ Behavioral Avoidance During the Still-Face Paradigm. Developmental Psychology, 59(12), 2237– 2247. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001632 Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 59(2–3), 25–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01276.x. Vismara, L., Rollè, L., Agostini, F., Sechi, C., Fenaroli, V., Molgora, S., Neri, E., Prino, L. E., Odorisio, F., Trovato, A., Polizzi, C., Brustia, P., Lucarelli, L., Monti, F., Saita, E., & Tambelli, R. (2016). Perinatal parenting stress, anxiety, and depression outcomes in first- time mothers and fathers: A 3-to 6-months postpartum follow-up study. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 938–938. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00938 Wee, K. Y., Skouteris, H., Richardson, B., Mcphie, S., and Hill, B. (2015). The inter-relationship between depressive, anxiety and stress symptoms in fathers during the antenatal period. J. Reprod. Infant Psychol. 33, 359–373. doi: 10.1080/02646838.2015.1048199 Wirtz, C. M., Hofmann, S. G., Riper, H., & Berking, M. 2216 RANGE (2014). Emotion regulation predicts anxiety over a fiveyear interval: A cross-lagged panel analysis. Research Article: Emotion Regulation and Anxiety. Depression and Anxiety, 31(1), 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1002/ da.22198 Zimmermann, P., & Iwanski, A. (2014). Emotion regulation from early adolescence to emerging adulthood and middle adulthood: Age differences, gender differences, and emotion- specific developmental variations. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38(2), 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025413515405 Putnick, D. L., Bornstein, M. H., Hendricks, C., Painter, K. M., Suwalsky, J. T. D., & Collins, W. A. (2008). Parenting stress, perceived parenting behaviors, and adolescent self- concept in European American families. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(5), 752–762. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013177PMC 2217 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 131 Effect of Cellphone Usage on Stress Physiology in a Nature Environment WHITNEY LANG; AMY MCDONNELL; AND COLLEEN LASKO Faculty Mentor: Amy McDonnell (Psychology, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Prior research demonstrates that a walk in nature can 2218 RANGE aid in efficient recovery from stress. This study explored whether cell phone usage influences the stress-related benefits of a 40-minute walk in nature. 88 participants from the Salt Lake Valley were randomized to either walk in nature while talking on their cell phone or walk in nature not on their cell phone. It was hypothesized that the group that was not on their cell phone would show a decrease in stress after their walk whereas the cell phone users would not, suggesting cell phone use may interfere with the stress-related benefits of immersion in nature. Stress was measured in 5-minute intervals before and after the walk using electrocardiography (EKG). Heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) measures were extracted from the EKG trace as indicators of stress and stress recovery, respectively. There were no significant changes in HR for either group. HRV decreased significantly from before to after the walk for the group that was not on their cell phone but did not change for the group that was, indicating less efficient stress recovery for the participants not on their cell phone. It is possible that the cell phone group had better stress recovery due to the social benefits of talking to a loved one on the phone during their walk in nature. 2219 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Keywords: electrocardiography, heart rate, heart rate variability, stress, nature, stress recovery INTRODUCTION In a time when accessibility to mobile phones and other connected devices are at an all-time high, technological overconsumption is easier than ever. The World Health Organization has highlighted excessive technology use as a public health concern (Organization, 2015), and researchers have demonstrated that excessive cell phone use can lead to stress and anxiety (Cheever et al., 2014). How can we unwind? Many seek relaxation by spending time in nature, but if we aren’t fully disconnecting from technology, how effective can it really be? Ulrich and colleagues (1991) have shown that natural environments can help individuals recover from stress more efficiently than urban environments can. Their theory, Stress Reduction Theory (SRT), states that being in nature activates the parasympathetic nervous system—the body’s ‘rest and digest’ system—and increases affect. This helps the body recover from stress more efficiently (Ulrich et al., 1991). Scott et al. (2021) expanded this theory by emphasizing the interconnectedness of the peripheral nervous system 2220 RANGE (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS). Activity in the vagus nerve—which connects the PNS to the CNS—is associated with positive improvements in cognitive function, affect, and is linked to parasympathetic activation. Vagus nerve activity can be measured using heart rate variability (HRV; Uchino et al., 2007), which is defined as the variability between heart beats. High HRV is associated with efficient stress recovery and low variability is linked to poor stress recovery. While nature has been shown to be restorative (McDonnell & Strayer, 2024), it is possible that technology can inhibit this effect (Jiang et al., 2018). Jiang and colleagues (2018) demonstrated that using a laptop while immersed in nature interfered with nature’s restorative effectsAdditionally, excessive cell phone use is associated with lower nature contact and subsequently lower levels of subjective well-being, psychological well-being, and mindfulness (Wang et al., 2021). It is possible that the more time one allocates to being on their cell phone, the less time available to go outdoors and do other activities. Likewise, cell phone usage often leads to more cell phone usage to achieve the same level of satisfaction, suggesting some level of habituation to the rewarding aspects of technology (Wang et al., 2021). 2221 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH There is a gap in the literature regarding how technology use in natural environments influences stress levels. Moreover, there are very few studies investigating technology use in green spaces overall, and virtually none involving mobile phones. The current study explores the influence of cell phone use on the stress-related benefits of a 40-minute walk in nature by randomizing participants to walk in nature on their cell phone or not on their cell phone and measuring HR and HRV before and after their walk. It was hypothesized that participants walking in nature without talking on their cell phone would be less stressed (lower HR) and have better stress recovery (higher HRV) than participants talking on their phone. METHODS All methods were approved by the University of Utah Institutional Review Board and informed consent was obtained from each participant prior to the beginning of the study. Participants. Participants (N = 88; 18-40 years old) were recruited from the University of Utah SONA Participant Pool, social media, and flyers. Procedure. Upon arrival to the laboratory at Red Butte 2222 RANGE Garden, participants completed a consent form and demographics survey. They were then set up in the BIOPAC ECG equipment, which comprised of three electrodes affixed to the torso—one on the right collarbone and two on their abdomen (one on each side). Once ECG electrodes were set up, the researcher collected a 5-minute, “pre-walk” recording before participants went for a 40-minute, 2-mile walk in nature. Participants were randomized to either walk while talking on the cell phone or without their cell phone. The cell phone group was instructed to call someone of their choosing. The walk was the same for each participant and averaged about 40 minutes. Physical movements were tracked using a Garmin GPSan exercise-tracking watch to ensure comparable conditions for both groups. Once the walk was completed participants came back to the lab for a 5-minute, “post-walk” ECG recording. ECG Recording and Processing. ECG data was processed using AcqKnowledge software following a standard protocol created using guidelines from BIOPAC. Bandpass filters were put on ECG recordings from 0.5-35 Hz. QRS peaks were marked using an algorithm built into AcqKnowledge and kept for analysis. Data was visually inspected for missing peaks and artifacts, 2223 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH which were manually replaced or edited using the detection algorithm of Bernston and colleagues (1990). Data were epoched into 60 second intervals, for a total of 5 intervals per recording. Frequency domain (RSA) and time domain (HR; beats per minute) parameters were retrieved from each epoch and then averaged to create overall RSA and HR metrics per file. Data Analysis. All analyses were conducted in Python using Google Collab and linear mixed effects models were run to understand the interaction of interest (Time [pre-walk versus post-walk] by Condition [Cell Phone vs. No Cell Phone]. This was intended to identify whether any pre- to post- walk changes differed between the cell phone and the non-cell phone group. For each outcome measure (HR and HRV), we ran a model testing the main effect of condition, the main effect of time, and the interaction between time and condition. RESULTS no main effect of condition (β = 2.190, z = 0.657, p = 0.511; 95% CI [-4.343, 8.724]) nor time (β = 1.850, z = -1.686, p = 0.092; 95% CI [-6.747, 0.506]) on HR, nor a significant interaction between condition and time (β = 2.617, z = -0.513, p = 0.608; 95% CI [-6.470, 3.787]). 2224 RANGE This suggests that resting HR did not change from prewalk to post-walk for either group. There was no main effect of condition (β = 0.344, z = -1.p = 0.283; 95% CI [-1.044, 0.305]), nor time (β = 0.260, z = 0.325, p = 0.745; 95% CI [-0.425, 0.594]) on HRV. There was a significant interaction between condition and time (β = 0.368, z = 2.072, p = 0.038; 95% CI [0.041, 1.482]), such that the group that was not on their cell phone showed a significant decrease in HRV after their walk while the cell phone group did not. DISCUSSION The intent of this study was to provide insight into a neglected area in research concerning the interaction between technology usage and time in nature. Participants were randomized to either walk in nature undistracted (N=44) or walk in nature while talking on their cell phone (N=44). We hypothesized that participants not on their cell phone would exhibit more efficient recovery from stress after their walk (higher HRV) than those on their cell phones; however, the results indicate otherwise. The cell phone group did not display any significant changes in HRV whereas the no cell phone group displayed a significant decrease in HRV from before to after their walk, indicating a 2225 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH stress response. It is possible that the cell phone group displayed a buffering effect against the stress effect that the no cell phone group exhibited, potentially due to the social connection felt from talking on the cell phone, as all the participants chose to chat with a loved one on their walk. Deits-Lebehn and colleagues (2023) found that the quality and valence of social interactions can influence stress recovery. If we apply this to the current study, the supposed positive social interaction of talking to someone they love could have increased their stress recovery. Negative social interactions can have an impact on HRV as well, leading to decreases in stress recovery (Deits-Lebehn et al., 2023). Additional investigations can explore negative social interactions in nature, which can be done with or without cell phones. Furthermore, subsequent research can be done examining different types of cell phone use while in nature. This could be scrolling on their phones (social media, email, etc.) listening to music, or playing a game. There are many implications to be explored in this field of technology use and nature. There may be other confounds as well, like exercise. It is known that causes oxidative stress within the body (Powers et al., 2011). To see the effect nature has on 2226 RANGE the participant’s stress after the walk, future work may consider waiting 20-30 minutes before collecting the post-walk recording (Javorka et al., 2002). This would allow the body to fully recover from the stress caused by walking. Another study could be done in this same design, but have the participant sit in a natural environment instead of walking. This would remove the confound of exercise, all together. To conclude, this study sought to determine the impact cell phone usage has on stress levels within a natural environment, incorporating electrocardiographic measures of HR and HRV to understand how the body responds to and recovers from a 40-minute nature walk. Interesting results revealed stress recovery was significantly greater in individuals who talked on their cell phone during their walk as opposed to those with no cell phone. This effect could be due to the social restoration from talking to a loved one (Deits-Lebehn et al., 2023). This has opened the door for future research to continue investigating the effects of technology use in nature. BIBLIOGRAPHY Berntson, G. G., Quigley, K. S., Jang, J. F., & Boysen, 2227 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH S. T. (1990). An Approach to Artifact Identification: Application to Heart Period Data. Psychophysiology, 27(5), 586–598. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1469-8986.1990.tb01982.x Cheever, N. A., Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Chavez, A. (2014). Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users. Computers in Human Behavior, 37, 290–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.chb.2014.05.002 Deits-Lebehn, C., Smith, T. W., Williams, P., & Uchino, B. N. (2023). Heart rate variability during social interaction: Effects of valence and emotion regulation. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2023.06.004 Jiang, B., Schmillen, R., & Sullivan, W. C. (2018). How to waste a break: Using portable electronic devices substantially counteracts attention enhancement effects of green spaces. Environment and Behavior, 51(9–10), 1133–1160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916518788603 Javorka, M., Zila, I., Balhárek, T., & Javorka, K. (2002). Heart rate recovery after exercise: relations to heart rate variability and complexity. Brazilian Journal of Medical 2228 RANGE and Biological Research, 35(8), 991–1000. https://doi.org/ 10.1590/s0100-879×2002000800018 Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an Environmental integrative framework. Psychology, 15(3), Journal of 169–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2 McDonnell, A. S., & Strayer, D. L. (2024). Immersion in nature enhances neural indices of executive attention. Scientific Reports, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41598-024-52205-1 Organization, W. H. (2015). Public health implications of excessive use of the internet, computers, smartphones and similar electronic devices: meeting report, Main Meeting Hall, Foundation for Promotion of Cancer Research, National Cancer Research Centre, Tokyo, Japan, 27-29 August 2014. In iris.who.int. World Health Organization. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/184264 Powers, S. K., Nelson, W. B., & Hudson, M. B. (2011). Exercise-induced oxidative stress in humans: Cause and consequences. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 51(5), 942–950. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.freeradbiomed.2010.12.009 2229 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Scott, E. E., McDonnell, A. S., LoTemplio, S. B., Uchino, B. N., & Strayer, D. L. (2021). Toward a unified model of stress recovery and cognitive restoration in nature. Parks Stewardship Forum, 37(1). https://doi.org/10.5070/P537151710 Uchino, K., Rasmussen, P. A., & Hussain, M. S. (2015). Letter by Uchino et al Regarding Article, “Art of Expertise in Stroke Telemedicine: Imaging and the Collaterome.” Stroke, 46(6). https://doi.org/10.1161/ strokeaha.115.009214 Ulrich, R. S., Simons, R. F., Losito, B. D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M. A., & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and Urban Environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11(3), 201–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80184-7 Wang, C., Geng, L., & Rodríguez-Casallas, J. D. (2021). The role of nature-deficit disorder in the associations between Mobile phone overuse and well-being and mindfulness. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12144-021-01453-9 2230 RANGE 132 Virtual Reality and Study of the Effect of Duration and Age on the Confidence/Accuracy Relationship: An Introduction to the Research Topic HANNAH LAWRENCE Faculty Mentor: Kara Moore (Psychology, University of Utah) 2231 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH INTRODUCTION Eyewitness memory is a fascinating subject due to the psychological and legal implications it holds. Eyewitness accounts have historically been highly revered by jurors and judges alike. However, in recent research by the innocence project, it was found that nearly 70% of exonerations involved eyewitness misidentification (The Innocence Project, 2020). Likewise, an examination of three wrongful convictions done by Carla Stenzel (2017) found that in each of the cases, an eyewitness was “sure” they had picked out the correct suspect from the lineup (Stenzel, 2017). The connection between this sense of sureness, or confidence, and accuracy is known as the confidence-accuracy relationship. Simply put, many believe that the more confidence a witness has, the more accurate their recollection must be despite other confounding factors. This claim was supported in work done by Key et al., (2023), utilizing mock jurors. Researchers observed that mock jurors were more likely to vote guilty when the eyewitness’s confidence was high, regardless of the timing of the confidence judgment, or if there were any inconsistencies in the confidence levels (Key et al., 2023). With the number of exoneration cases continuing to rise, practitioners and scholars alike have taken interest in the ability 2232 RANGE confidence has to predict accuracy. This study aims to combine current research on the confidence-accuracy relationship with newly developed factors such as the age of the witness as well as how long they viewed the culprit for. LITERATURE REVIEW One particular goal of this study is to test the pristine conditions hypothesis (Wixted and Wells, 2017) in children and adults with both suboptimal and optimal viewing conditions. The pristine conditions hypothesis is the idea that a highly confident witness will be equally accurate, given pristine testing conditions are used. There are five pristine conditions. The first condition is to only include one suspect per lineup, with the rest of the individuals in the lineup being made up of knowninnocent fillers. This ensures the risk of mistaken identification is minimized, as it does not overwhelm the witness in scenarios with multiple suspects. The second is to create a lineup in which a suspect (both innocent or guilty) does not stand out. The fillers, or other individuals for the lineup should be relatively similar to the description of the suspect to prevent bias and misidentification. As shown by the “dud effect” (Charman, Wells, & Joy, 2011), witnesses have increased confidence when choosing an innocent person who 2233 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH resembles the perpetrator in a mix of fillers who appear completely different from their recollection. The third condition is to alert the witness to the possibility of the offender potentially not being in the lineup. This grants witnesses the peace of mind that they do not have to pick a suspect unless they are confident the suspect is one of the individuals in the lineup. There have been many cases in which the perpetrator was not involved in the lineup and an innocent person was convicted due to the pressure of the witness needing to pick someone (Wixted and Wells, 2017). The fourth is to use doubleblind testing when administering a lineup. This simply means that the individual who is performing the lineup should not be made aware of the suspect to reduce the likelihood of any indicators – conscious or not – being given to the witness by the administrator. Lastly, the fifth is to collect a confidence statement at the time of the identification. Again, this should be collected utilizing the double-blind method. This confidence statement can be used as an indicator of reliability, under the pretense that the other conditions were met. Additionally, the present research aims to discover the mediating factor of viewing conditions on the pristine condition’s hypothesis. Likewise, the current study also seeks to determine if age is a mediator in accuracy in 2234 RANGE addition to duration, which is an expansion on previous literature. One of viewing conditions is the length of time an eyewitness saw the perpetrator. Bornstein et al., (2012) found that longer exposures to perpetrators face did result in greater accuracy when compared to shorter exposures in adults. Keast et al’s 2007 article Children’s metacognitive judgments in an eyewitness identification task, delved into the confidence-accuracy relationship and how correlated they were across different age groups. They found that children were extremely overconfident in their answers, with this result remaining steady across two different experiments. The first experiment tested the confidence-accuracy relationship using a biased and an unbiased lineup. The biased lineup was created by omitting the mention that the suspect may not be in the photos, making the child choose a person regardless of whether the suspect was there or not. Across accurate identifications, it was shown that a child’s confidence was remarkably higher compared to what was seen in the adult groups. For inaccurate identifications or rejections, adults and children were closer in similarity. The second experiment used the same unbiased lineup method with all participants. In this case, half of the participants were given control questions in between their lineup choice and confidence scale, whereas the other half were given 2235 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH hypothesis disconfirmation questions instead. This second experiment upheld the findings that overconfidence is high among children, and the confidence-accuracy relationship being poorly calibrated. Though this research suggests that children may be overconfident, it unfortunately did not use the new cutting-edge analysis used by Wixted and Wells (2017). The analysis used by Keast et al., (2017) is actually known to find weaker confidence-accuracy relationships than what was used by Wixted and Wells (2017). The current study worked to expand on this research, utilizing the pristine conditions hypothesis as well as the same statistical analyses as Wixted and Wells (2017) to further determine the confidence-accuracy relationship in children. One unique component of the current study is the usage of virtual reality (VR) technology. The advantage of utilizing VR technology is that it has “the ability to create recognizable, three-dimensional facsimiles of real objects in space” (Wilson & Soranzo, 2015). This is imperative to our research, as it allows the participant to be fully immersed in the environment, granting the ability to elicit responses similar to a real scenario. As further discussed by Wilson and Soranzo (2015), VR grants researchers the ability to create a very specific 2236 RANGE scenario that will be viewed relatively similarly by each participant. Likewise, VR technology gives us the opportunity to replicate a scenario that cannot otherwise be replicated in the real world due to ethical or an assortment of other issues, such as crime. The current study will use VR to portray the scenario to each participant, fully immersing them into the environment and allowing us to measure their real-life responses. CURRENT RESEARCH As defined above, the pristine conditions hypothesis is the idea that a highly confident witness will be equally accurate, given pristine testing conditions are used. This is theorized to remain true even if the viewing conditions are suboptimal. However, some research has found that this hypothesis does not hold under suboptimal conditions. For example, findings from Lockamyeir et al’s (2020) paper indicated that across multiple experiments, confidence did not predict accuracy at a distance of 20 meters, where it did predict accuracy at 3 and 10. This is where the current study steps in, to further bridge the gap between this knowledge and how other mediating factors affect it. The claim has never been tested with children, which will allow our findings to be the first on the topic – potentially not holding the hypothesis. Likewise, the 2237 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH suboptimal viewing conditions are a shorter length of exposure rather than a longer distance, introducing a different way of testing the concept. Utilizing virtual reality (VR), participants are immersed into a fictional scenario via a 360-degree real video, where they are exposed to the perpetrators for different times, and then asked to recognize the men via lineups and their confidence. It is with this methodology that we hope to test whether the confidence- accuracy relationship maintains itself across diverse ages and two different viewing conditions. METHODS Design The study will use a 2 (exposure length: short [6 seconds] x long [34 seconds]) by 2 (culprits’ presence in lineup: present or absent) mixed design. The presence of the culprit is a within participants variable, meaning the participants will experience a lineup with and without the suspect. Exposure duration will be randomized between participants, meaning the participant will only be given one condition. Lineups consist of six individuals, each appearing simultaneously alongside a red X to indicate the absence of the culprit. Both child and adult participants are given 2238 RANGE the exact same procedure to reduce any confounding variables. Participants Participants in this study are recruited from children’s museums as well as the university lab (adults only.) Participants have to be at least five years of age with no maximum age. Participants will be screened for any potential medical conditions that could harm or hinder their VR experience. Participants who have these conditions, and those who do not finish the study will not be included in the final sample. Procedure Before beginning the study, participants are briefed on the basics of our research as well as the risks associated with using VR. Participants then sign a consent and/or assent form to indicate their permission to participate. After explaining the VR equipment to the participant, trained research assistants will put the technology on the individual, play a practice video (to ensure the participant will not get motion sick), and then the subsequent crime video. Two versions of the video were created, containing either a long (total video length 5 minutes) or short (total video length 3 minutes) 2239 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH exposure duration of the suspect. In both videos, the other events remained the same. The video starts with the main character Ambrosia greeting the viewer and an on-screen friend before discussing various objects she had bought at a shopping mall. She shows the participants the objects and proceeds to put them in her bags on the bench at either side of her. From there, two men appear on screen and approach her on both sides, in a friendly manner. They briefly speak with her before proceeding to grab her bags and run off screen in opposite directions. Ambrosia is then approached by a nearby bystander, who asks if she is okay and proceeds to tell the participant they can help Ambrosia find the men. At the conclusion of the video, the participant alerts the assistant, who will then remove everything. After the headset and accessories have been removed, the research assistant will begin administering the survey. Practice questions for both the line up and confidence questions are given to best ensure comprehension by the participant, regardless of their age. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bornstein, B. H., Deffenbacher, K. A., Penrod, S. D., & McGorty, E. K. (2012). Effects of exposure time and 2240 RANGE cognitive operations on facial identification accuracy: a meta-analysis of two variables associated with initial memory strength. Psychology, Crime & Law, 18(5), 473–490. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 1068316X.2010.508458 Hanczakowski, M., Zawadzka, K. & Higham, P.A. The dud-alternative effect in memory for associations: Putting confidence into local context. Psychon Bull Rev 21, 543–548 (2014). https://doi.org/10.3758/ s13423-013-0497-x Innocence Staff. (2023, April 23). How eyewitness misidentification can send innocent people to prison. Innocence Project. https://innocenceproject.org/howeyewitness-misidentification-can- send-innocent- people- to-prison/ Keast, A., Brewer, N., & Wells, G.L. (2007). Children’s metacognitive judgments in an eyewitness identification task. Journal of experimental child psychology, 97 4, 286-314 . Key, K. N., Neuschatz, J. S., Gronlund, S. D., Deloach, D., Wetmore, S. A., McAdoo, R. M., & McCollum, D. (2023). High eyewitness confidence is always compelling: That’s a problem. 2241 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Psychology, Crime & Law, 29(1), 120–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2021.2007912 Lockamyeir, R. F., Carlson, C. A., Jones, A. R., Carlson, M. A., & Weatherford, D.R. (2020). The effect of viewing distance on empirical discriminability and the confidence-accuracy relationship for eyewitness identification. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 34(5), 1047–1060. https:// doi. org/10.1002/acp. 3683 Stenzel, Carla. (2017). Eyewitness misidentification: mistake that blinds investigations, sways juries, and locks innocent people behind bars. Creighton Law Review, 50(3), 515-532. Wilson, C.J., & Soranzo, A. (2015). The Use of Virtual Reality in Psychology: A Case Study in Visual Perception. Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine, 2015. Wixted, J. T., & Wells, G. L. (2017). The Relationship Between Eyewitness Confidence and Identification Accuracy: A New Synthesis. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(1), 10-65. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1529100616686966 2242 RANGE 133 Research Reflection by Hannah Lawrence HANNAH LAWRENCE Faculty Mentor: Kara Moore (Psychology, University of Utah) My undergraduate research experience truly opened by eyes to the opportunities available in the psychology field. Many of the technologies and methods I worked with were unknown to me before starting, so being a member of this lab granted me the ability to learn how to use these various tools in addition to the research 2243 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH process in general. I have made wonderful connections in my lab and always felt welcomed and supported by fellow lab members and staff. I would say that joining this lab was one of the best decisions I have made while here at the U. Though there were some bad or unmotivated days, the positives of my work far outweighed any of these times. The emphasis put on our physical and mental health by lab staff was also immensely helpful in creating a welcoming and productive environment. ||Though I am not planning on further pursuing psychology in the field I did research in, I do undoubtedly plan to continue doing research. This experience really solidified my enjoyment of the research process and gave me the resources necessary to continue in the future. Without this opportunity, I would undoubtedly feel lost and unmotivated going into graduate school. ||In all, I am very thankful for the opportunity and experience given to me by Dr. Kara Moore. I will surely carry my lessons and knowledge from this time throughout my academic and professional life. 2244 RANGE 134 Assessing the Impacts and Adaptive Strategies of Traditional Ranchers During the 2020-2022 Drought in Baja California Sur. JULIANA MOYANO AND SHANE MACFARLAN Faculty Mentor: Shane Macfarlan (Anthropology, University of Utah) 2245 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ABSTRACT Climate-induced droughts have been occurring with increasing frequency, significantly impacting global livestock managers. This study assesses the effects of the 2020 to 2022 drought in Baja California Sur, Mexico, through semi-structured interviews with 98 rural ranchers. This research seeks to examine both the effects of the drought and the adaptive strategies employed by ranchers. Understanding their responses to environmental stressors is crucial for informing efforts to increase community resiliency. INTRODUCTION Climate-induced droughts are becoming increasingly more frequent worldwide. As these droughts increase in occurrence, the risk of them lasting for years or decades, known as multi-year droughts, also rises (Chen et al., 2025). These drought events cause major ecological impacts, affecting livestock managers globally. Climate change disasters disproportionately affect the rural poor, as their livelihoods are dependent on the land (Hoover & Smith, 2025; Hansen et al., 2019). Agriculturalists have had to adapt to increasing climate shocks, such as droughts, by developing strategies to reduce risk. A primary method of adaptation is 2246 RANGE diversification. This is mainly observed in the diversification of income sources, often involving a shift in labor towards other pursuits outside of the farm or ranch (Barret, Reardon, & Webb, 2001). Other strategies include liquidating assets, varying herd compositions, or diversifying feed sources (Macfarlan et al., 2023). In Baja California Sur, Mexico, traditional ranching families rely on livestock grazing as both a cultural practice and primary livelihood. These ranchers operate in arid landscapes, making them particularly vulnerable to prolonged drought (Macfarlan et al., 2023). This research examines the impact of a severe drought event that occurred from 2020 to 2022 on traditional ranchers in Baja California Sur and the adaptive strategies they employed in response. These findings are significant for understanding the social and ecological limits faced by these communities during drought conditions and to inform policymakers to help increase community resilience. METHODS Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 98 ranching households by a team that included researchers from local NGOs (Pro Natura and Conserva Loreto), 2247 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH local ranchers, and officials from the University of Utah. The interviews took place between April and May 2024 and included participants from all five municipalities in the state. The interview data was compiled and analyzed by student researchers at the University of Utah during the Fall 2024 semester, and descriptive statistics were generated using Stata. STUDY SITE Baja California Sur is characterized by an arid desert environment and is part of the North American Arid West. The state can be divided into three geographic regions: the Cabo region, the Southern Sierra de La Giganta, and the Northern Sierra de La Giganta. It receives very little rainfall and has few freshwater sources, relying on tropical cyclones during late summer and fall to replenish rivers, desert springs, and aquifers. Baja California Sur has been experiencing a prolonged drought, with the period from 2020 to 2022 reaching extreme severity, marking one of the worst droughts in its history (Macfarlan et al., 2024). In September 2022, Hurricane Kay brought significant rainfall, and Hurricane Norma made landfall in October 2023 as the latest tropical cyclone to affect the peninsula (National Hurricane Center). 2248 RANGE In the arid environment of Baja California Sur, humans have learned to adapt, leading to the emergence of a ranching tradition that is an integral part of the local culture and considered the longest living tradition in the state. While Mexico is typically associated with indigenous peoples or mestizaje, Baja California Sur is the only state without a federally recognized living indigenous group. This is because indigenous groups native to the region, specifically the Cochimi, Guaycura, and Pericu, have disappeared in the aftermath of the colonization and settlement of the peninsula. The current indigenous population in Baja California Sur largely consists of individuals from mainland Mexico, while ranchers are primarily of Euro-American descent. The ecological knowledge held by traditional ranchers has been passed down through generations (Macfarlan 2022; 2024). These ranchers are subsistence pastoralists, meaning they raise livestock primarily for personal use. Goats and cattle are the most common types of livestock raised. Most ranchers do not operate their ranches as commercial enterprises, and selling is usually confined to local farmers’ markets. 2249 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1. Map of Baja California Sur, Mexico, Showing Locations of Ranches Interviewed. RESULTS Rancher interviews were conducted across three regions of Baja California Sur: 31 in the Cabo region, 37 in the Southern Sierra de La Giganta, and 30 in the Northern Sierra de La Giganta. Ninety-eight percent of ranchers reported that their households were affected by the drought. Regarding herd composition, 15 ranchers had only goat herds, 24 had only cattle herds, and 59 had mixed herds. Ranchers depend on the local ecology for their livestock 2250 RANGE to graze on during the rainy season. However, during the dry season, they buy feed to supplement their animals’ diets. Alfalfa is the most commonly purchased feed source, followed by concentrate, which is a nutrient-dense supplement. Additionally, a few ranchers reported buying bran (5 ranchers), wheat (2 ranchers), or corn (1 rancher). Feeding habits vary based on herd composition; for instance, cattle require more feed, particularly alfalfa, compared to goats. Ranchers were asked how many units of feed they purchased over a 15-day period. The average units of feed purchased were calculated by herd type and drought conditions, along with the percentage increase from the average during the dry season to the average during drought conditions (Table 1). Table 1. Average Units of Feed Purchased by Herd Type & Drought Conditions. Herd Type Dry Season Drought Conditions Percentage Increase Goat Herds 11 units 20 units 82% Cattle Herds 27 units 32 units 19% Mixed Herds 21 units 30 units 43% Ninety percent of ranchers have reported that they have 2251 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH not seen significant recovery in their herd size, and 93 percent have reported they have not experienced substantial economic recovery. Additionally, 72 percent are concerned that a future drought could force them to leave their ranches. Ranchers estimate they can endure another two to three years of prolonged drought conditions before they will be forced to abandon their ranches. Ranchers were asked, “If there were something that could change today to improve your life, what would it be?” Responses were open-ended and organized into six thematic categories: 34 ranchers reported a need for diversified employment sources, 31 for improved infrastructure, 14 for government assistance, 14 for natural forces (e.g., rain), 2 for natural protections, and 1 for improved general infrastructure. When asked specifically about potential avenues for diversified employment, 90 percent expressed interest in working in tourism projects, and 97 percent reported interest in conservation work. DISCUSSION Ranchers are able to manage normal dry seasons, but they are not prepared to navigate multi-year droughts. During droughts, the lack of natural fodder for livestock 2252 RANGE necessitates that ranchers purchase significantly more feed than normal to sustain their animals. This especially affects goat herders, as they depend less on purchased feed and allow their goats to graze freely. To manage the financial burden of purchasing feed, ranchers had to employ various strategies. According to previous interviews conducted in the region, many had to sell their assets (e.g., their cars), obtain loans, usually informal ones from friends or family with fewer receiving loans from banks, or use their savings if they had any. For some ranchers, either they or a family member had to find employment in urban areas to supplement household income. Ranching is the oldest living tradition in Baja California Sur, making it critical to improve the resilience of these communities to drought in order to preserve their cultural heritage. This is especially urgent given that droughts are projected to become longer, drier, and hotter. Ranchers believe they can withstand two to three more years of extended drought before they may be forced to abandon ranching altogether, which could ultimately threaten the survival of ranching culture itself. 2253 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS The primary need identified is the diversification of employment sources, making it the primary recommendation. Providing these opportunities would give ranchers a stable income to support both their ranches and households. One potential avenue for diversification is ecotourism, which presents sustainable alternatives to mass tourism in Baja California Sur. For instance, ranchers could host visitors for activities such as nature tours, goat milking, or other cultural immersion experiences. Another potential employment opportunity is in conservation efforts, which could involve conducting plant and wildlife surveys, working in land management, or supporting sustainable resource use. Improving agricultural infrastructure could further support ranchers. A significant development would be the construction of facilities for growing and storing feed for livestock. This could help offset the costs associated with purchasing feed. It would be especially beneficial for ranchers living far from marketplaces, as it would reduce the need for long-distance travel to buy feed. Another consideration is improving access to support 2254 RANGE services to better the overall well-being of households. This could include providing assistance with electricity, healthcare, or food. Such support could help alleviate some of the hardships faced by ranching families, making it easier for them to sustain their livelihoods and continue living on their ranches. CONCLUSION The severe drought event from 2020 to 2022 had a profound impact on the ecology and ranching communities in Baja California Sur. These ranchers faced considerable hardships and are still struggling to recover. To cope with the extreme drought conditions, they have learned to diversify their income and feed sources. However, these adaptive strategies have limitations, and ongoing support is essential for helping ranching communities sustain their livelihoods in the face of increasing droughts. Strengthening resilience through improved support is critical for preserving both the livelihoods of the people and the ranching culture of Baja California Sur. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to my fellow members of the Macfarlan Lab Group: Gracyn Hinojosa, Izzy Akers, Sofia Price, Abby Swanson, Jackie Helm, Daxton Sorensen, Riley 2255 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Cummings, and Caleb Kensinger. I also thank Pro Natura Noroeste, Conserva Loreto, and Dr. Sula Vanderplank for their collaboration on this project, as well as Innovaciones Alumbra for providing project funding. Many thanks to the Wilkes Center for Climate Science and Policy for supporting student researchers through the Wilkes Scholars Program. I extend my sincerest gratitude to the ranching families of Baja California Sur for sharing their experiences and collaborating on this research BIBLIOGRAPHY Barrett, C.B, T Reardon, and P Webb. 2001. “Nonfarm Income Diversification and Household Livelihood Strategies in Rural Africa: Concepts, Dynamics, and Policy Implications.” Food Policy 26 (4): 315–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-9192(01)00014-8. Chen, Liangzhi, Philipp Brun, Pascal Buri, Simone Fatichi, Arthur Gessler, Michael James McCarthy, Francesca Pellicciotti, Benjamin Stocker, and Dirk Nikolaus Karger. 2025. “Global Increase in the Occurrence and Impact of Multiyear Droughts.” Science 387 (6731): 278–84. science.ado4245. 2256 https://doi.org/10.1126/ RANGE Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO). “Información Geográfica.” Conserva Loreto. Conservaloreto.org.mx. https://www.conservaloreto.org.mx/en/index. Hansen, James, Jon Hellin, Todd Rosenstock, Eleanor Fisher, Jill Cairns, Clare Stirling, Christine Lamanna, Jacob van Etten, Alison Rose, and Bruce Campbell. 2019. “Climate Risk Management and Rural Poverty Reduction.” Agricultural Systems 172 (June): 28–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2018.01.019. Hoover, David L., and William K. Smith. 2025. “The Growing Threat of Multiyear Droughts.” Science 387 (6731): 246–47. https://doi.org/10.1126/ science.adu7419. Macfarlan, Shane. “Cultures and Characters of Todos Santos.” Lecture, May 20, 2024. Macfarlan, Shane. “Explorations on the Forgotten Peninsula: History, Demography, & Ethnography.” Lecture slides, 2022. Macfarlan, Shane J., Ryan Schacht, Weston C. McCool, Connor Davis, Anahi Yerman, Francisco Javier Higuera Landeros, and Maximo Amador Amador. 2257 2023. OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH “Decision-Making under Climate Shocks and Economic Insecurity: Ranching in Rural Baja California Sur, Mexico.” Evolution and Human Behavior 44 (5): 515–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.evolhumbehav.2023.07.001. Macfarlan, Shane, Sula Vanderplank, Benjamin Wilder, and E. Ezcurra. 2024. “Adaptive Responses to Extreme Drought – a Case Study of Rural Livestock Farmers in Baja California Sur, Mexico.” National Hurricane Center. Noaa.gov. https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/. Pro Natura Noroeste. https://pronatura-noroeste.org/ en/home-eng/. 2258 RANGE 135 Understanding Well-Being in Adult Survivors of the Troubled Teen Industry: The Roles of Moral Injury and Meaning-Making JENNY NGUYEN; AVA ALEXANDER; AND PATRICIA KERIG Faculty Mentor: Patricia Kerig (Psychology, University of Utah) 2259 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ABSTRACT The Troubled Teen Industry (TTI) refers to a network of private youth programs, wilderness camps, boarding schools, and residential facilities marketed as treatment centers for adolescents with perceived mental illnesses or behavioral problems. However, given that a range of negative experiences have been reported by survivors during their time in the TTI, it is important to investigate whether the outcomes associated with these treatment programs are indeed positive ones. The present study aimed to investigate potentially stressful experiences during TTI involvement and their association with adult well-being. This association was examined through the exposure to potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs), defined as experiences in which individuals witness, perpetrate, or fail to prevent acts that violate their personal moral code (e.g., experiencing mistreatment at the hands of therapeutic staff). It is understood that PMIEs, when left untreated, result in symptoms which may significantly impact well-being. 2260 RANGE Additionally, this study further examined the role of meaning-making as a potential moderating factor influencing the association between PMIE exposure and well-being in adulthood. It was hypothesized that there would be a negative association between PMIEs experienced during TTI programs and adult well- being, and that this association would be moderated by meaning-making, such that individuals who have been able to make better sense of moral transgressions and integrate this understanding into their worldviews would be less impacted by PMIEs and have higher wellbeing in adulthood. Participants included 302 survivors of the TTI ages 18 and older who were recruited primarily through outreach to online TTI survivor communities. The majority of participants selfidentified as male and/or Non-Hispanic White, and most reported having attended at least one TTI program for one to two years during their lifetime. Eligible participants completed a Qualtrics survey assessing PMIE exposure during TTI involvement, meaning-making, and adult well-being. A moderation analysis was 2261 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH conducted to investigate these relationships. Results from our analyses did not support the original hypothesis given that no significant association was found between PMIE exposure and well-being in adulthood. Additionally, no significant interaction was found between PMIEs and meaning-making, suggesting no moderation effects. However, meaning-making was found to be a significant predictor of wellbeing, irrespective of PMIE levels. Ultimately, this study not only adds to the current literature on moral injury in youth but may also inform efforts to support youth’s recovery from negative TTI experiences. INTRODUCTION Each year, thousands of teenagers in the United States are sent, often against their will, to private residential treatment centers that claim to rehabilitate youth struggling with perceived mental illnesses or behavioral problems (Golightley, 2020). These reformatories, operating as boarding schools, wilderness therapy programs, military-style boot camps, secured group homes, religious academies, and 2262 RANGE drug rehabilitation centers, collectively fall under what is commonly referred to as the troubled teen industry (TTI; Corsello & Hayes, 2024; Krebs, 2021; Mater, 2022). Although many TTI enterprises emphasize a commitment to supporting the recovery and treatment of troubled youth, concerns regarding the lack of transparency regarding program operations alongside disturbing accounts of survivor experiences have sparked recent media attention pointing towards potential maltreatment occurring within the industry (Etler, 2024; Kingkade, 2022; Porter, 2024; Schreifels & Gilbert, 2022). Methods of treatment in these facilities tend to lack substantiated evidence for their effectiveness as rehabilitative tools (Pfaffendorf, 2019), with a considerable number of survivor testimonies describing questionable practices employed by staff including coercion, discrimination, medical neglect, and extreme uses of force and isolation as methods of discipline for misbehavior (Chatfield, 2019; Corsello & Hayes, 2024; Friedman et al., 2006; 2263 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Mater, 2022). Although thorough documentation of program practices is missing from national databases due to the fact that many facilities operate outside federal regulation and oversight (Friedman et al., 2006; Rubino, 2024), the content of existing survivor narratives (Chatfield, 2019; Corsello & Hayes, 2024; Golightley, 2020; Mater, 2022; Mooney & Leighton, 2019) suggests that youth may be exposed to a host of negative experiences during their time in the TTI that have the potential to significantly compromise their adult functioning following their release from treatment. Adult Outcomes Given the frequent reports of stressful event exposures by survivors of the TTI, one essential yet critically understudied area of research is the examination of adult outcomes for youth with TTI histories. Current research investigating well-being among TTI survivors has largely relied on individual testimonies, many of which report significant challenges to social reintegration and disruptions to quality of life 2264 RANGE (Chatfield, 2019; Golightley, 2020; Mater, 2022). For example, in one qualitative study with adult participants who had prior TTI involvement, Chatfield (2019) found that adjustment to life after residential treatment was characterized by debilitating anxiety, ongoing nightmares, clinical mistrust, impaired relations with parents, social withdrawal, and a “lingering sense of violation” (p. 62). Additionally, TTI survivor testimonies from an undergraduate thesis (Mater, 2022) described persistent states of hypervigilance, identity issues, and impairing mental health symptoms that were either maintained or newly developed as a result of the program. On the positive side, qualitative reports published in the TTI literature also provide valuable insight into the recovery experiences of survivors. However, there have been no quantitative studies to date that measure sources of resilience and their role in promoting positive outcomes for individuals following stressful TTI exposures. Moreover, among survivors 2265 who report OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH challenges to reintegration after their release from the TTI (Chatfield, 2019; Golightley, 2020; Mater, 2022), it is unclear from the existing literature what specific aspects of the TTI experience contribute to impaired functioning in adulthood. This study aimed to investigate a potential mechanism linking adverse event exposure in the TTI to adult wellbeing and proposed a probable protective factor that may moderate this association. MORAL INJURY Given the range of stressful experiences described by TTI survivors and reports involving trust violations, threats to safety and security, and impaired sense of self (Corsello & Hayes, 2024; Golightley, 2020; Mater, 2022), one construct that may particularly impact adult well-being in this population is moral injury. Initially construed within the context of war veterans, moral injury refers to a type of psychological trauma that emerges as a result of witnessing or experiencing an event that violates one’s deeply held moral beliefs and expectations (Jinkerson, 2016; Kidwell & Kerig, 2266 RANGE 2021; Litz et al., 2009; Nash & Litz, 2013). Such violations are particularly salient when perpetrated by authority figures or social institutions which the individual holds in high regard or attributes a profound sense of trustworthiness towards (French et al., 2022; Nash & Litz, 2013; Shay, 2014). In military contexts, a moral injury may entail witnessing a superior violate rules of engagement (Shay, 2014); alternatively, in child welfare settings, moral injury may involve observing a trusted caregiver fail to intervene on behalf of a child who is being physically abused (Haight et al., 2022). Additionally, morally injurious transgressions may result from acts of perpetration, such as a soldier committing acts inconsistent with their own core values (Drescher et al., 2011), when individuals interpret their violations as indications of moral deficiency or failure to act in a just manner (Forkus et al., 2019). Experiences that can lead to moral injury, termed potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs; Litz et al., 2009), produce a state of cognitive dissonance that, if left unremedied, 2267 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH results in symptoms which may significantly impact well-being (Drescher et al., 2011; Jinkerson, 2016; Litz et al., 2009; Nash & Litz, 2013; Roth et al., 2022; Vargas et al., 2013). For example, Battles and colleagues (2018) found in a sample of U.S. veterans that exposure to PMIEs was linked with an increased risk of mental disorders and suicidal ideation. In another study, Roth et al. (2022) described a profound loss of trust experienced by forensic psychiatric patients who felt like they were betrayed by institutions and individuals who were meant to protect them. This breach of moral expectation was found to be associated with prolonged periods of anxiety, PTSD, and a host of depressive symptoms including “intense feelings of sadness, worthlessness, and rumination” (Roth et al., 2022, p. 63). It is valuable to note that internal conflict resulting from PMIE exposure is often indicative of a moral violation which has “exceeded the information-processing capacity of the person at their current stage of development” (Nash & Litz, 2013, p. 370). Thus, if the ability to rectify morally transgressive 2268 RANGE events is contingent upon the availability of social and spiritual resources, youth—who tend to lack the autonomy and prior experience necessary for effective coping—may be at heightened risk for suffering the consequences of moral injury. Moral Injury Among Adolescents A growing body of work has begun to identify adolescents as vulnerable targets for PMIE exposures, suggesting that a limited scope of moral expertise can hinder a young person’s ability to grapple with adverse circumstances (Alexander et al., 2024; Haight et al., 2022; Kidwell & Kerig, 2021). Given adolescents’ limited expertise in navigating moral dilemmas and their dependence on adults for basic survival needs (Haight et al., 2022; Kidwell & Kerig, 2021; Wainryb, 2011), early attachment figures tend to serve as youth’s primary role models and play a critical role in co-constructing with them expectations of what is “right” and “wrong” across social conduct (Kidwell & Kerig, 2021). Importantly, this includes assumptions around the responsibility of socialization agents, such as 2269 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH that of the family, caregiver, or mental health provider, to care for and protect children’s wellbeing (Rawls, 1971; Soffer-Elnekave et al., 2023). If the caregiver’s response fails to alleviate these anxieties, youth’s internal moral framework might substitute a belief that reliance on social relationships is untenable or threatening (Sherman et al., 2015) and withdraw from future opportunities for connection entirely (Charuvastra & Cloitre, 2008; Karrass & Walden, 2005). Such disruptions to moral expectations, specifically when perpetrated by trusted individuals, may also impair a child’s ability to self-regulate and can potentially develop into more serious manifestations of psychopathology (Cook et al., 2005; Spinazzola et al., 2005; van der Kolk, 2005). Further investigating this child-caregiver relationship, Haight et al. (2022) found that experiences of child maltreatment and the failure of adults to protect were the most common form of moral injury among emerging adults with histories of child welfare involvement. These findings support earlier research conducted by Nash and Litz (2013) 2270 RANGE which highlighted that moral injuries inflicted by those most trusted are among the most severe. For youth under the care of total institutions—defined as establishments where similarly-situated individuals are isolated from the wider community and are subject to rigid and uniform authority controlling all aspects of daily life (Goffman, 1958), such as in the TTI—staff members become sole providers of daily needs and, in turn, may exert a profound influence on youth’s basic morality construction and PMIE exposure risk. Moral Injury in the TTI Recognizing adolescents’ heightened susceptibility to moral injury through their attachment needs, there is reason to suggest that TTI institutions may be prime settings for PMIE exposures given that they assume total control over youth’s care and can elicit significant levels of trust and dependence, ones that are comparable to that of a caregiving relationship (Smith & Freyd, 2013). With limited contact to external support networks made available to youth in residential facilities 2271 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (Chatfield, 2019; Corsello & Hayes, 2024; Friedman et al., 2006), program staff may become primary attachment figures responsible for fulfilling the educational, physical, and emotional needs of children in their care (Corsello & Hayes, 2024; Gilbert et al., 2009). There is thus an expectation for these institutional settings, and those that run them, to be kind, safe, and equipped with the necessary resources to provide effective support to those who depend on them for survival (Monteith et al., 2021; Smith & Freyd, 2013). In contrast, when expectations of secure and reliable protection are not met, as suggested through robust survivor testimonies depicting staff misconduct, neglect, and coercive control (Chatfield, 2019; Corsello & Hayes, 2024; Friedman et al., 2006; Golightley, 2020; Mater, 2022), breaches of trust in TTI facilities may constitute potential moral violations that can increase the risk of moral-injury related outcomes among youth. In examining the caretaking role of social service professionals, Haight et al. (2022) found that providers may not only fail to provide 2272 RANGE youth with support and loving care but can sometimes be the ones to perpetrate the abuse or to ignore its presence entirely when the abuse is inflicted by fellow youth. Notably, participants of the study described sentiments which seem to closely correspond with characteristics associated with PMIE exposure, such as the system failing to protect them, betraying their trust, and not being there for them in times of need. In another study, Jones and colleagues (2021) found that youth who experience involuntary hospitalizations frequently report feelings of fear, autonomy loss, and impaired trust, all of which pose additional risks for PMIEs. Such events may also be characteristic of the TTI experience in which youth are admitted into programs unwillingly (Becker, 2010; Golightley, 2020), “legally kidnapped” in the middle of the night under parental authorization and transported from their homes without prior notice (Chatfield et al., 2020; Dobud, 2022; Golightley, 2020; Mater, 2022), and remain in the custody of their institutions with no knowledge of the length of their stay or the date of their discharge (Mooney, 2024). 2273 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Finally, power dynamics between staff and residents once at the TTI facility present additional opportunities for youth to experience severe moral transgressions. In a thematic analysis of open-source testimonies from TTI survivors, Corsello and Hayes (2024) found that psychological abuse, defined as a sequence of intentional or unintentional behavior which conveys to the recipient that they are unloved, unwanted, and unimportant (Haque et al., 2020), was particularly widespread in behavioral modification programs where program attendees were often made to feel small and unworthy by staff. For example, one survivor described how “[Staff] had this way of looking at you and identifying your worst fears and self hate and using it to break you down” (Corsello & Hayes, 2024, p. 2943). Additionally, TTI personnel have been reported to sometimes order and incentivize program attendees to monitor and report on their peers’ misconduct (Golightley, 2020), forcing youth into potentially uncomfortable and morally distressing roles that can undermine their personal sense of morality (Roth et al., 2022). 2274 RANGE Such experiences are consistent with the moral injury literature which specifies that selfperpetrated transgressions may challenge a person’s self-concept and contribute to a belief in moral ineptitude and failure to live up to one’s own ethical standards (Forkus et al., 2019; Litz et al., 2009; Nash & Litz, 2013). Furthermore, existing theories regarding children’s experiences with moral injury suggest that youth who believe they have caused irreparable damage to others may experience critical alterations to their moral understanding and agency (Kidwell & Kerig, 2021; Wainryb, 2011). However, even in cases of moral disagreement between youth and staff, Corsello and Hayes (2024) noted that fear of punishment often distorted youth’s sense of autonomy and compelled them toward compliance with staff orders. As a result, program residents may feel forced to behave in ways that are inconsistent with their moral code and begin to construct a view of the world and of themselves as immoral, unlovable, and irredeemable (Kidwell & Kerig, 2021). In sum, there is evidence to suggest that 2275 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH practices in the TTI may significantly increase the risk of PMIE exposures among youth in the program and that these transgressions, if left unresolved, can result in severe psychological and spiritual struggles that may ultimately compromise adult well-being. Meaning-Making Whereas research and theory support a link between PMIE exposures and adverse mental health outcomes (Battles et al., 2018; Currier et al., 2014; Litz et al., 2009; Nash & Litz, 2013), not all individuals who encounter PMIEs go on to experience negative effects or impaired functioning (Litz et al., 2009). To understand the conditions allowing for these discrepancies in moral recovery, researchers have suggested meaning-making— defined as the ability to appraise a specific event as violating core values and beliefs and integrate this understanding into existing world schemas (Holland et al., 2010)—as a potential protective factor that may support healing following PMIE exposure (Ferrajão & Oliveira, 2015; Gray et al., 2012; Nash & Litz, 2013). 2276 RANGE Litz et al.’s (2009) model of moral injury proposes that there are two routes to moral repair: (1) exposure to corrective life experience and (2) psychological- and emotionalprocessing of one’s memory about a moral transgression. This second restorative element has been supported by recent literature which has highlighted that the ability to find redemptive meaning in morally injurious experiences is critical in healing from the spiritual pains of moral injury and helps to situate transgressions within psychosocial and cultural contexts (Ferrajão & Oliveira, 2015; Gray et al., 2012; Haight et al., 2017; SofferElnekave et al., 2023). For example, in one study examining the role of meaning-making on the recovery processes of Portuguese war veterans, Ferrajão and Oliveira (2015) found that selfintegration of morally discrepant events was a key component in veterans’ PTSD recovery and moral repair. Similarly, Soffer-Elnekave and colleagues (2023) noted that among adolescents, the meanings that children attribute to their moral transgressions likely affect the degree to which those violations are morally injurious. 2277 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Thus, meaning-making that successfully integrates morally-injurious experiences with current belief systems has been suggested as a process that reduces the impacts of moral injury following PMIE exposure (Forkus et al., 2019; Nash & Litz, 2013). Despite these promising theories, research to date has not yet examined meaning- making as a potential source of resilience for those who have been involved with the TTI in adolescence. However, some qualitative studies have suggested the potential of meaningmaking to support readjustment following discharge from residential care. Golightley (2020) found in an interview with 16 former therapeutic boarding school students that time and space away from residential treatment allowed them to “redefine their experiences on their own terms” and that “identifying the hardships they endured was an important part of their healing” (p. 61). Similarly, Mater’s (2022) interviewees highlighted that engaging in activism and finding connection with those who had also 2278 RANGE been in TTI treatment provided a healthy outlet for them to validate and make sense of their personal experiences. Such qualitative reports, while limited, suggest the promising role of meaning-making as redress for harmful TTI exposures and in promoting a space that is conducive to growth and healing. However, more quantitative research is necessary to understand this mechanism, specifically as it relates to moral injury. Current Study To address the current gaps in the literature, this study aimed to investigate the impact of PMIEs experienced during TTI involvement on adult survivors’ well-being. This study further examined whether meaning-making moderated the association between PMIEs and adult wellbeing. Based on previous research and theory, it was hypothesized that there would be a negative association between PMIEs experienced during TTI programs and adult well-being, and that this association would be moderated by meaning-making, such that individuals who had been able to make better sense of moral 2279 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH transgressions and integrate this knowledge into their worldviews would be less negatively impacted by PMIEs and have higher well-being in adulthood. METHOD Participants Participants in this study included 302 survivors of the TTI who were recruited through social media and online survivor communities (87.4%), via participants’ friends and acquaintances (6.3%), and from smaller outreach channels (e.g. fliers, school, other; 6.3%). Eligibility was limited to those who were 18 years and older, with the participant age range falling between 18 and 59 (M = 31.11, SD = 9.06). Self-reported gender identities included 61.9% male, 19.5% female, and 18.5% nonbinary or other. In terms of race and ethnicity, participants primarily self-identified as NonHispanic White (80.5%), followed by Hispanic or Latino (7.0%), Indigenous (2.3%), Asian or Pacific Islander (2.0%), Black or African American (1.0%), mixed race and ethnicity (6.0%), and other (1.3%). 2280 RANGE The majority of survey respondents reported being sent to one (36.8%) or two (35.1%) different TTI programs during their life, with the total number of programs attended ranging from one to thirteen; two participants (0.7%) endorsed having attended thirteen total different programs. While 4% did not provide program type information, the remaining participants indicated attending residential treatment centers (41.4%), therapeutic boarding schools (28.5%), wilderness therapy programs (13.9%), or other types of TTI programs (12.3%). Length of attendance ranged from less than one week (0.3%) to over two years (15.2%), with the majority of participants remaining in programs for one to two years (31.5%); 3.6% did not report the duration of their stay. Of the 32 U.S. states in which participants reported attending programs, nearly half (49.7%) of programs were located in Utah; 4% of participants reported attending programs located outside of the United States, and 4% of respondents did not specify a location. 2281 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Procedures All procedures were approved by the University of Utah’s Institutional Review Board prior to recruitment and data collection. Data for this project was collected as part of a larger study conducted by the Risk to Resilience Lab. Eligible participants completed an online Qualtrics survey which assessed several measures related to the TTI experience. The link to this survey was provided to participants through the lab’s online advertisements on various social media outlets (e.g., TTI survivor Reddit communities, Utah Reddit page, Facebook groups) as well as via QR codes printed on flier materials posted at local coffee shops around Salt Lake City. Upon opening the survey, participants were provided a description of the present study’s purpose, that is, to examine the impact of the Troubled Teen Industry on teens who are sent to these programs and to understand what their lives look like now. Participants then completed informed consent which highlighted the voluntary nature of their participation and explained that they may choose to skip questions or stop the survey at 2282 RANGE any point without penalty. The survey was broken up into three tiers containing various measures related to the TTI experience, with participants given the choice to proceed to the next tier of questions if they wished. The survey could be completed on any electronic device with internet service and took approximately 15 to 20 minutes to complete. All participants were given the option to enter a raffle for a $50 gift card as part of their survey completion. Materials PMIEs. PMIE exposure was assessed using a modified 22-item version of the Moral Injury Scales for Youth (MISY; Chaplo et al., 2019), with slight changes in phrasing from the original 24-item scale. This scale is a downward extension of the Moral Injury Events Scale (MIES; Nash et al., 2013), originally designed to assess PMIEs within military contexts, by adapting it to measure PMIEs experienced among nonmilitary emerging adults and adolescents. The measure contains items assessing different types of PMIEs: commission with agency (“I have done things to other 2283 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH people that break my own personal rules about what is right and wrong”), commission under duress (“I have been forced to do things to others that I think are wrong”), omission (“I let a bad thing happen to someone when I should have done something to stop it”), witnessing (“I have seen other people do bad things”), and betrayal (“I feel betrayed by people I thought I could trust”). Participants were asked to respond using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Total scores were summed with possible results ranging from 22 to 110, where higher scores reflected a higher severity of moral injury. The MISY has been found to be a valid and reliable measure of moral injury among emerging adults and demonstrates strong potential utility as an assessment tool for civilian youth populations (Chaplo et al., 2019). Cronbach’s alpha for the current sample was .94. Meaning-making. Meaning-making was assessed using the Integration of Stressful Life Experiences Scale (ISLES; Holland et al., 2010). The ISLES was developed to measure the degree to which a stressful life experience has been 2284 RANGE successfully integrated into broader life narratives in a way that might promote coherence and security (Holland et al., 2010). This scale comprises a total of 16-items assessing (1) the degree to which one feels they have some footing in the world following a stressful TTI event (“Since this experience, the world seems like a confusing and scary place”), and (2) the comprehensibility of the stressor (“This experience is incomprehensible to me”). Participants indicated their ratings using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree). One item (“I have made sense of this event”) was reverse- scored. Total scores were computed by summing up individual responses to produce a value ranging from 16 to 80. Items were coded such that higher scores reflected greater difficulties with integration—that is, those who scored higher on the ISLES were less successful at integrating stressful events into their broader life narratives. This scale has demonstrated good internal consistency as well as convergent validity with adjacent instruments assessing meaning-making 2285 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (Holland et al., 2010). Cronbach’s alpha for this scale for the present sample was .89. Well-being. Well-being was measured using the Flourishing Scale (FS; Diener et al., 2010), designed to evaluate several important aspects of human functioning. This measure contains an 8-item self-report summary capturing wellbeing across dimensions of relationships (“My social relationships are supportive and rewarding”), self-esteem (“I am a good person and live a good life”), purpose (“I lead a purposeful and meaningful life”), and optimism (“I am optimistic about my future”). Items were rated using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). Items were summed to create a total score that ranged from 8 to 56, with higher scores representing greater psychological resources and a more positive selfview across important areas of functioning. The present sample demonstrated good internal consistency for this measure, Cronbach’s alpha (⯑) = .89. DATA ANALYSIS Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 2286 RANGE version 29. Prior to analyses, all variables were inspected for normality and potential outliers. Visual inspection of histograms and Q-Q plots for the dependent variable, well-being, revealed an approximately normal distribution with no substantial deviations. A box plot analysis did not suggest the presence of outliers. Following assessment of normality and outliers, dummycoded variables for gender were generated for later inclusion as covariates in regression models. Non-binary/other served as a reference category, and two variables were created: (1) Female (1 = female, 0 = male or non-binary/ other) and (2) Male (1=male, 0 = female or nonbinary/other). PMIE and meaning-making scores were mean centered prior to analysis. Missing data ranged from 17.9% (PMIEs) to 23.8% (well-being). Little MCAR’s test was significant (χ2(5) = 12.34, p = .030), suggesting that missingness patterns were not completely random. Chi-square tests indicated that race and ethnicity were associated with patterns of missingness for meaning-making (χ2(1) = 5.71, p = .017) and well-being (χ2(1) = 4.27, p = .039), 2287 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH but were not significantly related to the PMIE measure (χ2(1) = 2.97, p = .085). Specifically, non-Hispanic White participants had higher proportions of missing data compared to youth of color for the meaning-making (22.2% vs. 8.5%) and well-being (26.3% vs. 13.6%) constructs. Additionally, independent t-tests were conducted to examine whether missing data were associated with participants’ ages. Results revealed that participants who were younger at the time of program entry were significantly more likely to have missing data for PMIEs (t(285) = 2.40, p = .017), while older participants at the time of the survey were more likely to have missing data for well-being (t(299) = -2.35, p = .019). Neither current age nor age at program entry were significantly related to the missingness of the meaning-making measure. No other demographic characteristics were observed to be significantly related to patterns of missingness. To account for missing values, multiple imputation was performed using ten imputations in SPSS, and pooled results from the imputed data sets were used for analysis. 2288 RANGE To test our hypotheses regarding the association between PMIEs and well-being, as well as the potential moderating effect of meaningmaking, multiple linear regression was run with well-being regressed onto PMIEs, meaningmaking, and their interaction term. Gender, race/ethnicity, and current participant age were included as covariates to control for their potential influence on the relationships between PMIEs, meaning- making, and well-being. RESULTS In the original dataset (prior to multiple imputation), participants had a mean score of 80.74 (SD = 19.21, range: 10-110) out of 110 on the MISY scale assessing for PMIE exposure, 55.63 (SD = 11.76, range: 26-79) out of 80 on the ISLES scale measuring meaning-making, and 36.68 (SD = 9.25, range: 12-56) out of 56 on the Flourishing Scale capturing well-being. Contrary to expectations, pooled results from the multiple linear regression model revealed that PMIEs did not statistically predict wellbeing outcomes (B = .01, SE = .034, p = .77). 2289 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH However, meaning-making was a significant predictor of participants’ reported levels of wellbeing (B = -.35, SE = .051, p < .001), such that greater difficulties with integration (higher scores on the ISLES) were significantly associated with a lower degree of flourishing in adulthood. In regard to moderation effects, the two-way interaction between PMIEs and meaning-making was not a statistically significant predictor (B = -.003, SE = .002, p = .24), suggesting that meaning-making did not significantly moderate the association between PMIEs and well-being. Among the demographic variables, participants who identified as males reported significantly higher well-being scores compared to those identifying as non-binary or other (B = 3.29, SE = 1.43, p = .022). Additionally, youth of color were more likely to report higher levels of well-being compared to non-Hispanic White participants (B = 3.04, SE = 1.32, p = .022). Participants’ current age at the time of the survey did not demonstrate a significant association with the outcome variable. 2290 RANGE DISCUSSION The Troubled Teen Industry is a multibilliondollar enterprise which has generated growing media attention and criticism over its ambiguous curriculum, questionable treatment practices, and punitive disciplinary measures (Corsello & Hayes, 2024; Friedman et al., 2006; Golightley, 2020; Mater, 2022). Despite popular media coverage and qualitative studies providing survivor testimonies that describe a range of stressful and negative experiences endured during the TTI (Chatfield, 2019; Corsello & Hayes, 2024; Golightley, 2020; Mater, 2022), there are currently limited quantitative studies investigating the long-term impacts and well-being of youth after they have been released from residential treatment. Moreover, it is unclear from the current literature what specific aspects of the TTI experience might be contributing to well-being outcomes in adulthood as well as what protective factors may be helpful for individuals following these experiences. The present study aimed to examine potentially morally injurious 2291 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH event exposure experienced in the TTI and its association with adult well-being. Secondly, this study sought to understand whether meaning-making moderated this association. It was hypothesized that there would be a negative association between PMIEs and adult well-being, and that this association would be moderated by meaning- making, such that greater integration of negative TTI experiences would be correlated with reduced impacts of PMIEs and elevated levels of wellbeing. Results from this study did not provide evidence in support of the original hypotheses. Our analyses found that there was not a significant association between reported TTI-related PMIE exposure and reported well-being in adulthood. Additionally, no interaction effects were found between meaning-making and PMIEs, suggesting that meaning-making was not a significant moderator of the relationship between PMIEs experienced during the TTI and adult well-being. Notably, however, meaning-making was found to have a 2292 RANGE statistically significant association with wellbeing. Specifically, our findings suggest a negative association between meaning-making scores and well-being levels, such that individuals who indicated greater difficulties with meaning-making often experienced lower levels of well-being in adulthood. In contrast, successful integration of stressful TTI experiences into existing world schemas was associated with higher degrees of self-reported well-being. This effect remained constant across all levels of PMIE exposure, suggesting the capacity of meaning-making to operate independently and irrespective of our original PMIE predictor. The non-significant association found between PMIEs and well-being is inconsistent with existing literature which suggests that PMIEs are associated with lasting negative symptoms and considerable compromises to healthy functioning (Currier et al., 2014; Haight et al., 2022; Litz et al., 2009; Roth et al., 2022). In the context of child welfare settings, research has investigated these PMIE-related consequences in youth under institutional care, describing 2293 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH distress and challenges to well-being as a result of moral violations inflicted by social institutions (Haight et al., 2022; Soffer-Elnekave et al., 2023). However, results from our study failed to support these previous findings, providing no significant association between participants’ PMIE exposure during the TTI to their later life well-being. One potential explanation for these null effects can be attributed to our study’s emphasis on well-being as opposed to specific markers of mental health and psychopathology. The current moral injury literature provides extensive evidence for the impacts of PMIE exposure on the development and maintenance of psychiatric conditions including depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder (Forkus et al., 2019; Hoffman et al., 2018; McEwen et al., 2021; Nazarov et al., 2015; Roth et al., 2022). The present study instead focused on the holistic construct of well-being, which captures participant attitudes related to selfworth, social relationships, life satisfaction, and broader worldviews. Thus, this study’s focus on the concept of well-being, which assesses health 2294 RANGE across multiple dimensions, may not be directly impacted by PMIEs or be shaped differently by external factors in the same way as measures that target specific mental health outcomes. Finally, because our well-being measure comprises a range of individual, social, and environmental dimensions, it is possible that PMIEs may contribute to some areas but not others. As a result, there may be impacts of PMIEs that are not detectable when well-being is assessed through a composite score, as was done by this study. Nonetheless, our study did find evidence for a negative association between meaning-making difficulties and self-reported well-being, which is consistent with the existing literature (Park, 2010; Ryff, 2014; Tavernier & Willoughby, 2012). Specifically, our results indicate that, regardless of the frequency and intensity of a participant’s exposure to PMIEs during their TTI involvement, individuals with high levels of meaning-making reported higher levels of well-being. This supports prior theory regarding the reparative potential of life-story narratives, conceptualized as “the connected 2295 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH stories we tell ourselves to make sense of our experiences” (Soffer-Elnekave et al., 2023, p. 149), to rectify distorted perceptions of stressful life events and offer a feeling of internal clarity and coherence (Ferrajão & Oliveira, 2015; Gray et al., 2012; Soffer-Elnekave et al., 2023). Additionally, multiple studies confirm that adaptive meaning-making is a powerful predictor of personal as well as psychological well-being (deRoon-Cassini et al., 2009; García-Alandete, 2015; Tavernier & Willoughby, 2012). In accounting for the lack of a moderation effect of meaning-making, one explanation could be that meaning-making is a universally adaptive tool that contributes to well-being generally, regardless of prior PMIE exposure (Park, 2010; Ryff, 2014; Tavernier & Willoughby, 2012). For example, Tavernier and Willoughby (2012) found in a sample of Grade 12 students that well-being was significantly associated with positive adjustment following a turning point, defined as “a significant life event that changed the way you thought about something or how you behaved” (p. 1061). In this study, turning 2296 RANGE points were assessed irrespective of moral transgressions or PMIEs and could range from relationship conflicts to the loss of a loved one. This suggests that meaning-making confers a healing influence on well-being globally, not solely in response to adversity but across general life transitions and personal growth journeys. In the context of the present study, meaningmaking was found to be effective for TTI survivors who achieved well- being, regardless of their PMIE exposures during treatment. Thus, our findings establish meaning-making as a potential source of resilience that can help to inform therapeutic approaches to support youth recovering from adverse TTI experiences. Strengths and Limitations One strength of the present study is its conceptualization of well-being holistically and across numerous dimensions of functioning. This consideration allows for the PMIEs experienced during TTI involvement to be evaluated within broader contexts of wellness and flourishing as opposed to being isolated to mental health problems specifically. 2297 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Furthermore, this study examined the consequences of PMIEs as they are experienced by adolescents in the TTI, a topic of research that remains largely unexplored despite garnering much media attention in recent decades. Thus, this study can inform future research towards elucidating the TTI experience and investigating pathways that may contribute to youth adverse outcomes or resilience. Nevertheless, several limitations should be noted. First, the study’s assessment of well-being using Diener et al.’s (2010) Flourishing scale may have been insufficient to capture a detailed assessment of well-being. Although the 8-item summary was valuable in addressing healthy functioning across various flourishing indicators, a more detailed instrument with more refined subscales might be beneficial in isolating specific PMIE effects on each wellbeing item. Due to this limitation, the absence of a significant association found between PMIEs and well-being may be more reflective of our outcome definitions and method of measurement as opposed to an indication that PMIE have no impact. 2298 RANGE Second, this study emphasized meaning-making as a primary indicator of well- being while neglecting other potentially significant protective factors. For instance, moral injury research has highlighted the powerful influences of social connection, activism, and selfcompassion and forgiveness in healing from morally transgressive events (Forkus et al., 2019; Mater, 2022; Nash & Litz, 2013; SofferElnekave et al, 2023). Therefore, by only examining a single resilience factor, such as that of meaning-making, it may have been difficult to discern alternate pathways that buffer the effects of PMIEs and contribute to well-being. However, because meaningmaking was found in the present study to be a valuable protective tool broadly, future research should strongly consider including this measure as a protective factor in conjunction with additional buffering agents against PMIEs. Finally, due to the self-report and retrospective nature of our study, it is possible that participants exhibited recall bias and may misremember or under-report specific events of 2299 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH their TTI experience. To address this limitation, future longitudinal research may be helpful in assessing PMIEs at or near the time of TTI involvement to improve predictions of wellbeing in adulthood. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Given that the TTI remains a critically under researched but seemingly consequential source of potential distress, future research should direct investigations towards understanding the pathways linking negative TTI experiences to survivor outcomes. Moral injury remains a compelling mechanism by which this association may occur, though it could potentially be examined using a more comprehensive measure of well-being to detect direct PMIE effects. Furthermore, there is limited research to date investigating the consequences of PMIEs on well-being. However, evidence within the moral injury framework calls attention to specific markers of internal distress and moral conflict (i.e., shame, guilt, loss of trust, spiritual crises) that may be suggestive of more permeating impacts of 2300 RANGE PMIEs beyond mental health diagnoses (Litz et al., 2009; Nash & Litz, 2013; Jinkerson, 2016; Roth et al., 2022). Thus, future research should examine the impacts of PMIEs on well-being and adaptive functioning holistically rather than focusing narrowly on psychopathology. CONCLUSION Although the results of this study did not support our hypothesis regarding an association between PMIE exposure and well-being, available qualitative reports of the TTI experience suggest compelling experiences of moral violations that are consistent with the moral injury literature (Chatfield, 2019; Corsello & Hayes, 2024; Golightley, 2020; Mater, 2022). Future research should continue to explore this association in order to better understand youths’ experiences in TTI programs and identify mechanisms that may be contributing to negative survivor outcomes. Despite the absence of evidence for an interaction effect between PMIEs and meaningmaking, this study did find a significant association between meaning-making and adult 2301 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH well-being. This suggests the healing capacity of meaning-making to restore disjointed perceptions of stressful life events in a way that provides harmony and coherence to the individual. Future investigative efforts should continue to expand the search for potential sources of resilience (e.g., support networks, social activism, self- forgiveness) that may help to mitigate against potentially distressing TTI experiences and support youth’s recovery following release from residential treatment. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alexander, A. R., Mendez, L., & Kerig, P. K. (2024). Moral injury as a transdiagnostic risk factor for mental health problems in detained youth. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 51(2), 194–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 00938548231208203 Battles, A. R., Bravo, A. J., Kelley, M. L., White, T. D., Braitman, A. L., & Hamrick, H. C. (2018). Moral injury and PTSD as mediators of the associations between morally injurious experiences and mental health and substance 2302 RANGE use. Traumatology, 24(4), https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000153 246–254. Becker, S. P. (2010). Wilderness therapy: Ethical considerations for mental health professionals. Child Youth Care Forum, 39(1), 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-009-9085-7 Chaplo, S. D., Kerig, P. K., & Wainryb, C. (2019). Development and validation of the moral injury scales for youth. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(3), 448–458. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/jts.22408 Charuvastra, A., & Cloitre, M. (2008). Social bonds and posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Psychology, 59(1), 301–328. https://doi.org/10.1146/ annurev.psych.58.110405.085650 Chatfield, M. M. (2019). Totalistic programs for youth. Journal of Extreme Anthropology, 3(2), 44–71. https://doi.org/10.5617/jea.7015 Chatfield, M. M., Diehl, D. C., Johns, T. L., Smith, S., & Galindo‐Gonzalez, S. (2020). Quality of experience in residential care 2303 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH programmes: Retrospective perspectives of former youth participants. Child & Family Social Work, 26(1), 132–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/ cfs.12796 Cook, A., Spinazzola, J., Ford, J., Lanktree, C., Blaustein, M., Cloitre, M., DeRosa, R., Hubbard, R., Kagan, R., Liautaud, J., Mallah, K., Olafson, E., & van der Kolk, B.A. (2005). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 390–398. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20050501-05 Corsello, R. M., & Hayes, B. E. (2024). “When can I call home?” Coercive control, structural isolation, and functional isolation among attendees of residential behavioral modification programs. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 39(13–14), 2933–2958. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 08862605231222878 Currier, J. M., Holland, J. M., Jones, H. W., & Sheu, S. (2014). Involvement in abusive violence among Vietnam veterans: Direct and indirect associations with substance use problems and suicidality. Psychological Trauma: Theory, 2304 RANGE Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(1), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032973 deRoon-Cassini, T. A., de St. Aubin, E., Valvano, A., Hastings, J., & Horn, P. (2009). Psychological well-being after spinal cord injury: Perception of loss and meaning making. Rehabilitation Psychology, 54(3), 306–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016545 Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y Dobud, W. W. (2022). Experiences of secure transport in outdoor behavioral healthcare: A narrative inquiry. Qualitative Social Work, 21(4), 697–713. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 14733250211020088 Drescher, K. D., Foy, D. W., Kelly, C., Leshner, A., Schutz, K., & Litz, B. (2011). An exploration of the viability and usefulness of the construct 2305 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of moral injury in war veterans. Traumatology, 17(1), 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1534765610395615 Etler, C. (2024, March 21). I spent 16 months trapped in a troubled teen program. Now I help kids recover from them. TODAY. https://www.today.com/popculture/essay/ troubled-teen-program-experiencercna143623 Ferrajão, P. C., & Oliveira, R. A. (2015). From self-integration in personal schemas of morally experiences to self-awareness of mental states: A qualitative study among a sample of Portuguese war veterans. Traumatology, 21(1), 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000019 Forkus, S. R., Breines, J. G., & Weiss, N. H. (2019). Morally injurious experiences and mental health: The moderating role of selfcompassion. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(6), 630–638. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000446 French, L., Hanna, P., & Huckle, C. (2022). “If 2306 RANGE I die, they do not care”: U.K. national health service staff experiences of betrayal-based moral injury during COVID-19. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 14(3), 516–521. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001134 Friedman, R. M., Pinto, A., Behar, L., Bush, N., Chirolla, A., Epstein, M., Green, A., Hawkins, P., Huff, B., Huffine, C., Mohr, W., Seltzer, T., Vaughn, C., Whitehead, K., & Young, C. K. (2006). Unlicensed residential programs: The next challenge in protecting youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(3), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.76.3.295 García-Alandete, J. (2015). Does meaning in life predict psychological well-being?: An analysis using the spanish versions of the purpose-in-life test and the Ryff’s scales. The European Journal of Counselling Psychology, 3(2), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejcop.v3i2.27 Gilbert, R., Widom, C. S., Browne, K., Fergusson, D., Webb, E., & Janson, S. (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. The Lancet, 2307 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 373(9657), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/ s0140-6736(08)61706-7 Goffman, E. (1958, April). Characteristics of total institutions. In Symposium on preventive and social psychiatry (pp. 43-84). Washington, DC: Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. Golightley, S. (2020). Troubling the ‘troubled teen’ industry: Adult reflections on youth experiences of therapeutic boarding schools. Global Studies of Childhood, 10(1), 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/2043610619900514 Gray, M. J., Schorr, Y., Nash, W., Lebowitz, L., Amidon, A., Lansing, A., Maglione, M., Lang, A. J., & Litz, B. T. (2012). Adaptive disclosure: An open trial of a novel exposure-based intervention for service members with combatrelated psychological stress injuries. Behavior Therapy, 43(2), 407–415. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.beth.2011.09.001 Haight, W., Cho, M., Soffer-Elnekave, R., Nashandi, N. J. C., & Suleiman, J. (2022). Moral injury experienced by emerging adults with 2308 RANGE child welfare histories in developmental and sociocultural contexts: “I knew the system was broken.” Children and Youth Services Review, 139, 106537. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.childyouth.2022.106537 Haight, W., Sugrue, E., Calhoun, M., & Black, J. (2017). “Basically, I look at it like combat”: Reflections on moral injury by parents involved with child protection services. Children and Youth Services Review, 82, 477–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.childyouth.2017.10.009 Haque, M. A., Moniruzzaman, S., Janson, S., Rahman, A. F., Mashreky, S. R., & Eriksson, U. (2020). Children’s exposure to psychological abuse and neglect: A population‐based study in rural Bangladesh. Acta Paediatrica, 110(1), 257–264. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.15340 Hoffman, J., Liddell, B., Bryant, R. A., & Nickerson, A. (2018). The relationship between moral injury appraisals, trauma exposure, and mental health in refugees. Depression and 2309 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Anxiety, 35(11), 1030–1039. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/da.22787 Holland, J. M., Currier, J. M., Coleman, R. A., & Neimeyer, R. A. (2010). The integration of stressful life experiences scale (ISLES): Development and initial validation of a new measure. International Journal of Stress Management, 17(4), 325–352. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/a0020892 Jinkerson, J. D. (2016). Defining and assessing moral injury: A syndrome perspective. Traumatology, 22(2), 122–130. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/trm0000069 Jones, N., Gius, B. K., Shields, M., Collings, S., Rosen, C., & Munson, M. (2021). Investigating the impact of involuntary psychiatric hospitalization on youth and young adult trust and help-seeking in pathways to care. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 56(11), 2017–2027. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00127-021-02048-2 Karrass, J., & Walden, T. A. (2005). Effects of 2310 RANGE nurturing and non‐nurturing caregiving on child social initiatives: An experimental investigation of emotion as a mediator of social behavior. Social Development, 14(4), 685–700. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-9507.2005.00324.x Kidwell, M. C., & Kerig, P. K. (2021). To trust is to survive: Toward a developmental model of moral injury. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 16(2), 459–475. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s40653-021-00399-1 Kingkade, T. (2022, September 7). Teens were sent to Wyoming ranches for therapy. They say they found a nightmare of hard labor and humiliation. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/ wyoming-christian-troubled-teenranchesabuse-rcna46112 Krebs, C. E. (2021). Five facts about the troubled teen industry. American Bar Association. https://www.americanbar.org/groups/litigation/ resources/newsletters/childrensrights/fivefacts-about-troubled-teen-industry 2311 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Litz, B. T., Stein, N., Delaney, E., Lebowitz, L., Nash, W. P., Silva, C., & Maguen, S. (2009). Moral injury and moral repair in war veterans: A preliminary model and intervention strategy. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(8), 695–706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.07.003 Mater, C. J. (2022). The troubled teen industry and its effects: An oral history. Inquiry Journal. 8. https://www.unh.edu/inquiryjournal/blog/ 2022/04/troubled-teenindustry-its-effectsoral-history McEwen, C., Alisic, E., & Jobson, L. (2021). Moral injury and mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Traumatology. 27(3), 303-315. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000287 Monteith, L. L., Schneider, A. L., Holliday, R., & Bahraini, N. H. (2021). Assessing institutional betrayal among female veterans who experienced military sexual trauma: A Rasch analysis of the institutional betrayal questionnaire.2. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(23–24), 10861–10883. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0886260520983959 2312 RANGE Mooney, H. E. (2024). Reflection: Transported to the troubled teen industry. In A. Conyers, V. Lynn, & M. E. Leigey (Eds.), Mass incarceration in the 21st century (pp. 161-164). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003274292-22 Mooney, H. E., & Leighton, P. (2019). Troubled affluent youth’s experiences in a therapeutic boarding school: The elite arm of the youth control complex and its implications for youth justice. Critical Criminology, 27(4), 611–626. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10612-019-09466-4 Nash, W. P., & Litz, B. T. (2013). Moral injury: A mechanism for war-related psychological trauma in military family members. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 16(4), 365–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10567-013-0146-y Nash, W. P., Marino Carper, T. L., Mills, M. A., Au, T., Goldsmith, A., & Litz, B. T. (2013). Psychometric evaluation of the moral injury events scale. Military Medicine, 178(6), 646–652. https://doi.org/10.7205/milmed-d-13-00017 2313 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Nazarov, A., Jetly, R., McNeely, H., Kiang, M., Lanius, R., & McKinnon, M. C. (2015). Role of morality in the experience of guilt and shame within the armed forces. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 132(1), 4–19. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/acps.12406 Park, C. L. (2010). Making sense of the meaning literature: An integrative review of meaning making and its effects on adjustment to stressful life events. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 257–301. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018301 Pfaffendorf, J. (2019). Wayward elites: From social reproduction to social restoration in a therapeutic boarding school. Social Psychology Quarterly, 82(2), 113–133. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0190272519831978 Porter, C. (2024, July 8). In the problematic ‘troubled teen’ industry, all roads lead to Utah. Salt Lake Magazine. https://www.saltlakemagazine.com/troubledteen- industry-in-utah/ Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice: Original 2314 RANGE edition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674042605 Roth, S. L., Qureshi, A., Moulden, H. M., Chaimowitz, G. A., Lanius, R. A., Losier, B. J., & Mckinnon, M. C. (2022). “Trapped in their shame”: A qualitative investigation of moral injury in forensic psychiatry patients. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 49(4), 593–612. https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548211039877 Rubino, M. (2024). More than troubling: The alarming absence of ‘troubled teen industry’ regulation and proposals for reform. Journal of Legislation, 50(2), 429-456. https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/jleg/vol50/iss2/6/ Ryff, C. D. (2014). Self-realisation and meaning making in the face of adversity: A eudaimonic approach to human resilience. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 24(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/14330237.2014.904098 Schreifels, J. M., & Gilbert, C. (2022, March 22). Even after serious allegations, here’s why shutting down a Utah teen treatment facility 2315 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH is no easy task. The Salt Lake Tribune. https://www.sltrib.com/news/2022/03/22/evenafter-serious/ Shay, J. (2014). Moral injury. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 31(2), 182–191. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/a0036090 Sherman, L. J., Rice, K., & Cassidy, J. (2015). Infant capacities related to building internal working models of attachment figures: A theoretical and empirical review. Developmental Review, 37, 109–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.dr.2015.06.001 Smith, C. P., & Freyd, J. J. (2013). Dangerous safe havens: Institutional betrayal exacerbates sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(1), 119–124. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21778 Soffer-Elnekave, R., Haight, W., Nashandi, N. J. C., Cho, M., Suleiman, J., & Park, S. (2023). Re-orienting narratives of moral injury towards positive development: The experiences of emerging adults with child welfare histories. Children and Youth Services Review, 149, 106922. 2316 RANGE https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.childyouth.2023.106922 Spinazzola, J., Ford, J. D., Zucker, M., van der Kolk, B. A., Silva, S., Smith, S. F., & Blaustein, M. (2005). Survey evaluates: Complex trauma exposure, outcome, and intervention among children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 433–439. https://doi.org/10.3928/ 00485713-20050501-09 Tavernier, R., & Willoughby, T. (2012). Adolescent turning points: The association between meaning-making and psychological well-being. Developmental Psychology, 48(4), 1058–1068. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026326 van der Kolk, B. A. (2005). Developmental trauma disorder: Toward a rational diagnosis for children with complex trauma histories. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 401–408. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20050501-06 Vargas, A. F., Hanson, T., Kraus, D., Drescher, K., & Foy, D. (2013). Moral injury themes in combat veterans’ narrative responses from the National Vietnam Veterans’ Readjustment 2317 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Study. Traumatology, 19(3), 243–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765613476099 Wainryb, C. (2011). ‘And so they ordered me to kill a person’: Conceptualizing the impacts of child soldiering on the development of moral agency. Human Development, 54(5), 273–300. https://doi.org/10.1159/000331482 2318 RANGE 136 Reconstruction of Tropical Dry Forest Disturbances Over the Last Seven Centuries ÂNGELO BUENO PERILLO III AND SUSANA VELÁSQUEZ-FRANCO Faculty Mentor: Susana Velásquez-Franco (Environment, Society & Sustainability, Natural History Museum of Utah, University of Utah) It is widely recognized that fire is an integral process of ecosystems, but the study of historical wildfires in 2319 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH the tropics has received limited attention compared to other regions. This work was focused on fire frequency reconstruction and identifying charcoal morphotypes for a tropical dry forest. The El Tabor Maar (ETM) is a type of volcano that holds a crater lake or maar-lake surrounded by a tropical dry forest, located in Tolima Department, Colombian Andes (Martínez Espinosa, 2025). Fire frequency reconstruction and morphometrics on charred botanical particles from this area allowed us to better understand how frequent and severe past drought cycles have been. Charcoal morphotypes and morphometrics (i.e., length/width) can also help to differentiate if there have been any significant changes in forest structure and land cover types of the surrounding plant communities in response to droughts or other climatic driven disturbances. To help determine fire frequency, charcoal particles were counted for each sample using a stereomicroscope. About half (52.2%) of the ETM samples yielded ≤1 charcoal particles but there are at least two periods with significantly higher counts: one between 71.5-74.5 cm that peaked at 7 between 73.0-73.5 cm and a much larger and prolonged one between 78.5-86.5cm that peaked three times at 80.5-81.0 cm with 12, 2320 RANGE 83.0-83.5 cm with 64, and 85.5-86.0 cm with 12 (Figure 1). The identification of morphotypes in the sediment core samples was based on previous work by Gray, et al. (2023) and Mustaphi & Pisaric (2014). Among the charcoal particles analyzed, morphotypes consistent with wood, monocot leaves, dicot leaves, and seeds were identified (figure 2). To obtain the images in the plate (Figure 2), tangential macrophotography was used (Gray, et al., 2023). In addition to the charcoal fragments, other botanical macroremains were collected, including a seed, possibly a petiole, and a possible fern leaf with sori (Figure 2). Other unidentified remains may be of animal origin. In addition to charcoal, the reflectance and elements concentrations were estimated using a Multisensor Core Logger (MSCL) with in-line magnetometer, spectrophotometer and pXRF at 1mm steps (figure 1). We used light ratios R660/ 670t as proxy for bioproductivity. Elementary 2321 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ratios such as Si/Al and K/Al to measure weathering and erosion as they indicate how much sediment was being deposited in the maar-lake via rainfall and runoff. Authigenic Calcium Carbonate (Ca/∑TiAlFe) was used as an indicator of drought, and Phosphorus (P) was measured as it indicates periods of eutrophication that inhibited bioproductivity. ETM24C 2 D 1 RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION The history of the tropical dry forest during the last ~700 yrs is synthetized below into 11 major events throughout the record. These events are highlighted in figure 1 from the bottom to the top of the record. Each event is described by the values of the independent lines of evidence as follows: 1. ratio 660/670 (as indicator of biological productivity); 2. Phosphorous (ppm) (detrital input and inverse indicator of bioproductivity); 3. Si/Al and K/Al (detrital input/weathering/runoff/rainfall) and 4. Ca/∑TiAlFe (as proxy for droughts). Event a.) (~32.5 cm, ca. 1383 CE). During this event R660/670presents values around 0.99 (min= 0.99728, max= 1.00095, x̄= 0.99941), indicating a peak of bioproductivity. Phosphorus 2322 concentrations on a RANGE downward trend at just above 200 ppm (min= 204.8, max= 218.37, x̄= 210.46), indicating a period of low disturbance in the areas around the maar. Si/Al and K/Al levels both dip to nearly 2 ppm for Si/Al (min=2.056753, max= 2.118529, x̄= 2.0855) and about 0.06 ppm for K/Al (min=0.053151, max=0.057442, x̄=0.055202), respectively indicating a decrease in rainfall/runoff with a tendency to increment. Ca/∑TiAlFe also dips (min=0.024775, max=0.026556, x̄= 0.025821) indicating drought was not occurring at the time. Charcoal values for this event are at 0, indicating a lack of wildfire activity. In general, this event indicates that bioproductivity was high and stable supported by an environment with a tendency to be oligotrophic during a period of rainfall/runoff decrease. Event b.) (~28.1 cm, ca. 1472 CE). For this event, R660/ 670 presents around 0.99 (min=0.99367, max=0.99823, x̄=0.99628), indicating a peak of bioproductivity. Phosphorus concentrations in a fluctuating but generally downward trend at just above 160 ppm (min=160.78, max=162.23, x̄=161.2833), indicating a steady and low detrital contribution. Si/Al and K/Al both on an upward trend with Si/Al at around 2.3 ppm (min=2.243534, max=2.325243, x̄=2.284117) and K/Al at around 0.05 ppm (min=0.050638, max=0.053753, 2323 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH x̄=0.052492) indicating a small increase in rainfall/ runoff. Ca/∑TiAlFe (min=0.0276595, concentrations max=0.030946, also fall x̄=0.029454) indicating there was no drought occurring at the time. Charcoal values in this period are at 0, indicating no wildfires occurred. In general, the numbers indicate high bioproductivity in an oligotrophic environment in which rainfall/runoff was increasing. Event c.) (~22.0 cm, ca. 1590 CE) During this event, values for R660/670 hovered at around 1 (min=1, max=1.00496, x̄=1.00201), pointing to another peak in bioproductivity. Phosphorus remained fluctuous but relatively stable at around 128.5 ppm (min=121.42, max=132.44, x̄=128.5267), indicating little detrital contribution. Si/Al values experience a low of about 2.2 ppm (min=2.204391, max=2.267843, x̄=2.227462) and K/Al values are at about 0.09 ppm (min=0.087198, max=0.094612, x̄=0.090496) and gradually rising, indicating a general decrease in rainfall/runoff. Ca/∑TiAlFe fell to a low of around 0.02 ppm (min=0.024154, max=0.025687, x̄=0.024791) indicating no drought was occurring at the time. Charcoal counts for this event came in at 0. In general, the values indicate high bioproductivity, low rainfall/ runoff, and no drought or wildfires. 2324 RANGE Event d.) (~20.1-18.2 cm, ca. 1630-1665 CE) During this event R660/670 remained mostly steady around 0.99. Phosphorus first peaks around 323 ppm before falling to around 218 ppm and rising again (min=218.48, max=323.36, x̄=269.8725), indicating significant wildfire events. Si/Al peaks and falls between around 2.7 ppm and 2.3 ppm (min=2.309481, max=2.672114, x̄=2.455268) while K/Al begins at a downward trend, going as low as 0.07 ppm (min=0.072103, max=0.106785, x̄=0.087971). These values indicate a major decrease in rainfall/runoff during this period. Ca/∑TiAlFe also peaks at around 0.08 ppm before falling to about 0.045 ppm (min=0.045377, max=0.07759, x̄=0.056929), indicating a major drought that becomes significantly less severe. Charcoal counts (min=4, max=12, x̄=7.25) climb during and then peak just after this event at 64. In general, these values indicate falls in rainfall/runoff amidst a drought of first high and then lower severity with minor changes in bioproductivity. Charcoal counts indicate a major wildfire event(s) in and around this period of time. Event e.) (~15.5-13.9, ca. 1719-1750 CE). In this event, values for R660/670 averaged about 0.99 (min=0.98428, max=0.99647, x̄=0.99119) but varied considerably. Phosphorus values peaked around 508 ppm before 2325 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH falling sharply to about 184 ppm (min=183.77, max=508.16, x̄=335.8124), indicating the occurrence of wildfires. Si/Al values peak around 2.8 ppm (min=2.546333, max=2.840042, x̄=2.68944) around the middle of this period while K/Al values follow a general downward trend (min=0.095263, max=0.117319, x̄=0.10797), indicating a rise and then fall in rainfall/ runoff. Value for Ca/∑TiAlFe peaks around 0.09 ppm (min=0.065713, max=0.093883, x̄=0.078675) before falling sharply. Charcoal counts are higher in this period, peaking at 12 (min=4, max=12, x̄=7.75), indicating some wildfires in this period. In general, these values indicate at first the occurrence of extreme drought and wildfires before those conditions ameliorate because of increased rainfall. A rise and then fall is seen in bioproductivity as a result. Event f.) (~12.0 cm, ca. 1790 CE). For this event, values for R660/670 fall to around 0.986 (min=0.98601, max=0.98624, x̄=0.98612). Phosphorus peaks at around 309 ppm (min=299.43, max=309.06, x̄=303.3267), indicating some detrital contribution. Si/Al values on a downward trend (min=2.261536, max=2.318524, x̄=2.290429) while K/Al experiences a low peak around 0.09 ppm (min=0.085266, max=0.090264, x̄=0.086986), indicating low rainfall/runoff. Ca/∑TiAlFe value low 2326 RANGE around 0.035 ppm (min=0.034985, max=0.035752, x̄=0.035453), indicating no drought. Charcoal counts come in at 0, suggesting wildfires did not contribute to Phosphorus values. In general, these values indicate low bioproductivity and rainfall/runoff amidst no drought conditions or wildfires. Event g.) (~10.8 cm, ca. 1815 CE). In this event, values for R660/670 spiked greatly to around 1.009 (min=1.004862, max=1.00913, x̄=1.00665). Phosphorus began a gradual downward trend (min=244.43, max=274.01, x̄=257.28), indicating a reduction in detritus. Si/Al and K/Al both fall to around 2.19 ppm (min=2.196224, max=2.223398, x̄=2.205645) and 0.072 ppm (min=0.071629, max=0.077141, x̄=0.074172) respectively, indicating a significant reduction in rainfall/runoff. Ca/∑TiAlFe remains low around 0.029 ppm (min=0.026627, max=0.031853, 0.029065). Charcoal counts come in at 0, indicating wildfires did not occur. In general, these values indicate high bioproductivity, low rainfall/runoff, no wildfires, and no drought. Event h.) (~9.1-8.2 cm, ca. 1848-1867 CE). For this event, R660/670 values started high before falling to around 0.9845 and rising back to around 0.999 (min=0.984556, max=0.998852, 2327 x̄=0.98959). OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Phosphorus values were initially stable before gradually trending down (min=158.99, max=258.51, x̄=217.502), indicating lower detrital contribution. Si/Al and K/Al values ranged (min=2.284591, 0.156-0.106 from around 2.65-2.28 ppm max=2.655202, x̄=2.434083) and ppm (min=0.106381, max=0.156276, x̄=0.126414) respectively, indicating a major decline in rainfall/runoff. Values for Ca/∑TiAlFe also fell from around 0.06-0.03 ppm (min=0.0311, max=0.060681, x̄=0.043018), indicating a reversal of drought conditions. Charcoal values for this event peak at 5, indicating small or less severe wildfires. In general, these values indicate an eventual increase in bioproductivity with falls in rainfall/runoff and lessened drought conditions. Event i.) (~7.0 cm, ca. 1890 CE). Values for R660/670 fall to around 0.98 (min=0.982732, max=1, x̄=0.99368). Phosphorus values remain relatively steady, averaging around 120 x̄=119.9433), ppm (min=104.64, indicating lower max=132.47, but consistent contributions of detritus to the maar. Value for Si/Al and K/Al both peak around 2.7 ppm (min=2.626107, max=2.733374, (min=0.184061, x̄=2.689598) and max=0.195704, 0.196 ppm x̄=0.191056) respectively, indicating very high rainfall/runoff. Value 2328 RANGE for Ca/∑TiAlFe forms a low peak at around 0.05 ppm (min=0.048573, max=0.050237, x̄=0.049348) indicating a very mild drought. Charcoal counts for this event came in at 4, indicating some wildfire or possibly the clearing of cropland with fire. In general, these values indicate low bioproductivity due to very high rainfall/runoff. Event j.) (~4.0 cm, ca. 1948 CE). For this event, values for R660/670 dropped to their lowest point at around 0.977 (min=0.976608, max=0.993174, x̄=0.98556). Phosphorus values were near the peak of an upward trend, averaging around 86.5 ppm (min=78.27, max=96.12, x̄=86.56667), indicating very low detrital contributions which point to a lack of major disturbances in the surrounding areas. Si/Al and K/Al values were relatively stable, averaging around 2.48 ppm (min=2.477254, max=2.485637, x̄=2.480143) and 0.11 ppm (min=0.110728, max=0.112821, x̄=0.111435) respectively, indicating a period of high but stable rainfall/runoff. Values for Ca/∑TiAlFe were near their lowest, averaging around 0.027 ppm (min=0.026225, max=0.027509, x̄=0.026969). Charcoal counts for this event are at 1, indicating minimal wildfires or land clearing with fire. These values indicate a period of 2329 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH higher rainfall/runoff, very low bioproductivity, and no drought. Event k.) (~1.3 cm, ca. 2002 CE). In this event, values for R660/670 were at some of their highest around 1.025 (min=1.006652, max=1.024658, x̄=1.01697). Values for phosphorus were at 0 (min=0, max=0, x̄=0). Values for Si/Al had begun to go down, averaging 2.57 ppm (min=2.458097, max=2.647693, x̄=2.568935) while those for K/Al remained high, averaging 0.126 ppm (min=0.105518, max=0.148348, x̄=0.126196), indicating rainfall/runoff remained relatively high. Values for Ca/∑TiAlFe also remained low, averaging 0.033 ppm (min=0.031363, max=0.034847, x̄=0.032699). Charcoal values for this event came in at 0, indicating no wildfire activity. These values indicate very high bioproductivity and rainfall/runoff. CONCLUSION The use of charcoal counts and Multisensor Core Logger (MSCL) results to help determine fire frequency as well as other disturbances has shown itself to be a reliable method to do so. The comparisons between the different light and elementary ratios with the charcoal counts correlate with each other and the relationships each of the 2330 RANGE variables has with each other can easily be observed in the results. In general, during the period examined (1350-2024 CE), a period of stability was observed until about 1600 CE when a period of large disturbances began before somewhat stabilizing again around 1900 CE. This coincides with the arrival of Europeans in the area and the founding of the town of Ibagué in 1550 (Martínez Espinosa, 2025). The frequency and intensity of these disturbances have been seen to be closely related to conditions that may have been present at the time, such as drought and rainfall/runoff levels and were probably influenced by the effects of different land use practices introduced by settlers. In the future, more work comparing charcoal counts with light and elementary ratios should be done on other, deeper cores of El Tabor in order to build an even more complete history of disturbances, especially wildfires. Similar work should be done in other maars in the region to help build a larger regional timeline of disturbances. 2331 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Figure 1. Light and elementary ratios and charcoal counts for El Tabor Maar for 1350-2025 CE. Ratios obtained via Multisensor Core Logger (MCL). 2332 RANGE Figure 2. Images of charred botanical fragments and other biological macroremains macrophotography. obtained Charcoal via tangential morphotypes determined following Mustaphi & Pisaric (2014) and Snitker (2020): 2333 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH a.) Type B: geometric, compact, partially black, structured; b.) Type S: geometric, compact, black, structured c.) Type C: geometric, compact, no visible structure (seed) d.) Type F: geometric, elongated, no ramifications; e.) Type C: geometric, compact, no structure; f/g.) Type F: geometric, elongated, no ramifications; h/i.) Type P: irregular, no structure; j.) Types S and F: black and structured elongated with no ramifications k/l.) Type S: geometric, compact, structured, black; m.) Type M: irregular, structured; n.) Type S: geometric, compact, structured, black; o.) Type M: irregular, structured; p/q/r.) Type P: irregular, no structure; s.) Type M: irregular, structured; t.) Type P: irregular, no structure; u/v/w.) Type M: irregular, structured; x/y.) Type C: geometric, compact, structured, and black in color; z.) Type M: irregular, structured; aa.) Fern leaf with sori; bb.) seed; cc.) invertebrate egg; dd.) exoskeleton;ee.)possible stem or petiole fragment. BIBLIOGRAPHY Gray, W., Velásquez-Franco, S., Mosher, S., & Power, M. (2023, August 7). Visualizing Surface Morphology of Sedimentary Charred Botanical Particles Using Tangential Flash Macrophotography https://zenodo.org/records/8221934 2334 Creators. RANGE Martínez Espinosa, L. F. (2025). Explorando disturbios ecológicos a través del registro sedimentario del maar El Tabor (Andes Colombianos). Universidad de Caldas Faculdad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Mustaphi, C. J. C., & Pisaric, M. F.J. (2014). A classification for macroscopic charcoal morphologies found in Holocene lacustrine sediments. Progress in Physical Geography Earth and Environment, 1-21. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 265014310_A_classification_for_macroscopic_charc oal_morphologies_found_in_Holocene_lacustrine_se diments. Snitker, G. (2020). The Charcoal Quantification Tool (CharTool): A Suite of Open-source Tools for Quantifying Charcoal Properties in Analysis. Ethnobiology Fragments Archaeological and and Letters, Paleoecological 11(1), https://doi.org/10.14237/ebl.11.1.2020.1653 2335 Sediment 103-115. OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 137 Gender and Sexuality in Agriculture: Comparing U.S. and Salt Lake City, UT Experiences MELISSA PHELPS; TALULA PONTUTI; AND ADRIENNE CACHELIN Faculty Mentor: Adrienne Cachelin (School of Environment, Society, and Sustainability) INTRODUCTION In many societies, jobs are traditionally associated with 2336 RANGE gender roles. Men are expected to perform physically demanding work, such as farming and construction, and are often viewed as primary providers. Women, on the other hand, are expected to stay home, care for children, clean, and cook (Leslie et al., 2019). While Hyde et al. (2019) note gender is not inherently binary, many aspects of professional culture reinforce the idea that it is. As both local and national efforts call for a new generation of farmers, it is crucial to examine how gender shapes participation in this sector. Our study explores how these diverse identities are framed in U.S. agricultural research as compared to specific experiences and narratives within SLC (Pontuti, 2025 in prep). Through interviews conducted with farmworkers in SLC and a broader literature review of farmworkers’ intersecting identities in the U.S., we uncover more nuanced understandings of how farmers are experience gender and why it matters within diverse agricultural contexts. It’s important to understand gender and sexuality as linked but distinct aspects of identity. Gender and gender expression refer to how a person presents or identifies with masculinity or femininity in a broad and inclusive way (Hyde et al., 2019). Sexuality refers to a person’s sexual or romantic identity and who they 2337 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH choose to engage with sexually and/or romantically (Michigan State University, 2025). Gender is influenced by societal and cultural norms. From birth, children are typically assigned pink or blue items based on their physical gender characteristics (Rahman et al., 2023). Certain characteristics are socially classified as either feminine or masculine. While we recognize that not all individuals who identify with the LGBTQIA+ community identify as queer; we use this terminology interchangeably given data collection techniques. In Western cultures, gender has long been considered a binary concept, reinforced throughout a person’s life. Many factors influence one’s gender identity. In the 1960s, the prevailing belief was that diverse gender expressions were a mental illness caused by paternal neglect and excessive maternal nurturing (Polderman et al., 2018). However, research has since shown that gender identity is influenced by a combination of biological and psychological factors. Cultural and social influences have been found to correlate with gender identity. Psychological factors, including self-concept and cognitive development, also play a role in shaping gender identity. Additionally, gender roles and cultural norms can influence how gender is expressed and constructed (Fiveable, 2024). 2338 RANGE With this understanding of gender identity and preliminary data concerning urban farmers in SLC, we explore the experiences of farmers and farmworkers. Members of the LGBTQIA+ community often face discrimination in the agriculture industry. Many have reported feeling unsafe in the workplace and experiencing harassment from coworkers (Cramer, 2020). On the other hand, community gardens are known for their inclusivity and for fostering a sense of belonging, providing healing spaces for individuals with diverse sexual identities (Turner et al., 2021). This study seeks to understand the experiences of gender diverse farmers in different agriculture context across the U.S. Our literature search was performed by using the University of Utah’s J. Willard Marriott Library database, with supplementary searches conducted on Google Scholar and Google. Keywords used included “queer,” “agriculture,” “gender,” “identity,” “LGBTQIA+,” “power dynamics,” “gender expression in agriculture,” and “commercial agriculture,” among others. The criteria for article relevance included publications within the period of 2000 to 2025 and a focus on gender identity experiences in the U.S. In all, we reviewed twenty articles that met these criteria. Four distinct lines of inquiry were identified in our 2339 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH review of academic research articles, community reports and news articles including gendered labor roles, privilege and gender awareness, safety and trust, access to healthcare and power dynamics in agriculture. Seeking common themes in the literature helped us to better contextualize local data within a national scope. Gendered Labor Roles In agriculture, heteronormative practices are prevalent. Historically, educational programs such as the 4-H program exemplify how gender roles were influenced in agriculture. Lesson plans introduced heterosexual relationships and instilled the idea that males were responsible for generating revenue as farmers and businessmen and the women played the role of farmer’s wife (Leslie et al., 2019). As of 2018, 4-H has recognized and allows the participation of LGBTQIA+ community members. However, the Trump administration revoked the inclusion of LGBTQIA+ community members and continues to push for heteronormative behaviors to be taught in the program (Crowder & Clayworth, 2018). Geography plays a role in how gender expressions are perceived. Rural areas tend to be less accepting of gender diverse roles in their farm practices while more urban areas tend to be more accepting with more varied 2340 RANGE gender representation (Wilbers et al., 2004; Leslie et al., 2019). This trend can be seen across the U.S. with multiple reports stating that queer people who work in rural agricultural environments experience discrimination in the face of more Euro-dominant farm practices (Nadasdy, 2003). For example, women who are partnered with another women are more likely to have a farm in an urban area than a man who is partnered with another man due to discrimination and discomfort of farming in a rural area (Joseph et al., 2024). Access to Healthcare Accessing healthcare is crucial for maintaining a healthy body and mind, which is necessary to perform one’s job. However, the agriculture industry is not designed to support queer farmers, and they often struggle to access the same resources as their heteronormative counterparts. The National Young Farmers Survey found that 78 percent of young farmers said they worked on a farm in a rural area. Queer and trans farmers often struggle to have their voices heard, as they are a minority in the farming industry. Legislative actions have denied trans people access to healthcare, and the lack of non-discrimination protections has left queer farmers vulnerable to discrimination in healthcare. It is also noted that queer BIPOC farmers face even 2341 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH greater challenges when trying to get access to healthcare resources (Burdsall, 2023). In some cases, farms are located in rural areas, presenting additional challenges in accessing health care. Doctors who are knowledgeable about and affirming of LGBTQIA+ identities may be located far away, requiring farmworkers to take time off work to attend appointments adding both logistical and financial burdens (MHP Salud, 2025). The introduction of online consultations and virtual therapy has improved access to certain health care services, contributing to better physical and mental health outcomes for remote farmworkers. However, these services can be expensive, and some medical needs cannot be adequately addressed in a virtual setting (Renner et al., 2021). Safety in the Workplace Being a queer farmer in a predominately white, cisgendered community can introduce unsafe situations and lack of acceptance in the agriculture industry (Cramer, 2020). Farmworkers who identify as part of the LGBTQIA+ community and are also BIPOC reported feeling unsafe and not accepted in the rural farming area where they work. They felt like they needed to hide their identity when they went to get farm supplies 2342 RANGE (Guha, 2024). Farmers identifying as lesbian have faced discrimination in rural areas while trying to create an inclusive environment for all gender and sexual identities (Cramer, 2020). These dynamics seem to be changing as different farms in the U.S. seek to provide safe spaces and access to land for queer farmers. In North Carolina, there is a group that is trying to provide an inclusive environment where queer farmers can engage in agricultural practices, social gatherings, and educational programs (Pierce, 2024). There are also programs in SLC and New Mexico that seek to change the narrative of farming and support marginalized communities. These programs include providing access to a safe community through events that seek to connect all gender identities with farming (Larsen, 2024; The Guardian, 2023). In this way, there are many attempts to invite queer individuals to explore their identity in nature and challenge the perception that farming is a heteronormative activity. Power Dynamics in Agriculture The agricultural industry is historically male-dominated, making it difficult to navigate for women and individuals who identify as part of the LGBTQIA+ community (Miller, 2001). 2343 For example, some OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH agricultural organizations have policies that limit women’s advancement into certain positions by restricting access to training, reinforcing traditional gender norms. These policies restrict women’s access to administrative roles and diminish their influence in the workplace. As a result, such power imbalances have contributed to hostile work environments (Acker, 2006). A more subtle but equally impactful example of uneven power dynamics is the reportedly intersectional gendered reception of farmers in traditional agricultural communities. In one scenario, the male partner was often able to navigate their community with relative ease, while his partner, a mixed-race queer woman, reported feeling as if she was not taken seriously and perceived merely as “the farmer’s wife.” She also experienced discrimination when visiting local farm stores alone. This ongoing bias led the couple to disengage from local financial institutions, reducing their access to funding (Ackoff et al., 2022). Empowerment “Queering farming” is a term used on a farm in New Mexico that seeks to reimagine agriculture, as highlighted in work by Burdsall (2023). They have 2344 RANGE invited queer and BIPOC farmers—who may not have access to land—to join them, embrace their identities, and challenge the cis-heteropatriarchal framework that exists in some farming spaces. The farm aims to use the space they have created to build a better vision for agriculture and to help others recognize that building a relationship with the land is more important than the profit that can be made from it (Burdsall, 2023). And this seems to be an emerging trend. A co-op in SLC is providing a safe space for LGBTQIA+ individuals to engage in community building, learn about land stewardship, and educate others about land access and food sovereignty. Larsen (2024), highlights the work this co-op is doing, through challenging the binary thinking that is prevalent in some agricultural spaces. This co-op is changing the way queer individuals can thrive in a farm-based landscape by hosting monthly events to get community members involved, raise awareness of legislation, and ensure that the community is informed about political motions that could harm the LGBTQIA+ community. The farm not only provides a safe space for queer community members but is also run by queer and femme partners. They invite those who may not be part of the queer or LGBTQIA+ community to learn 2345 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and grow alongside those who are, continuing to teach others how to create a positive and safe space for all (Larsen, 2024). In New Mexico, a queer-owned vegetable farm values the individuality of its employees by reimagining the structure of farming through inclusive practices. The farmers in this space have reported feeling like their authentic selves and no longer face threats of homophobia, racism, sexism, or transphobia. They have implemented a zero-tolerance policy for any abusive behavior or language and do not follow a hierarchical structure. Some of their employees have experienced discrimination in conventional agricultural spaces and are using those experiences to advocate for systemic change. This group recognizes that queer individuals often do not have the same access to funding that is linked to traditional family dynamics, and they help those struggling to secure land due to their queer identity. They also seek to advocate for better working conditions and systemic change in the agricultural industry. Additionally, they are working to provide farmworkers without land access a space to grow (Guardian, 2023). 2346 RANGE METHODS To explore the experiences of gender and sexuality identities in the agricultural sector in SLC, we collected and analyzed local interview data. Participants included individuals who had worked on a commercial farm located within the Salt Lake City municipal boundaries between 2019 and 2024. These participants were identified through a comprehensive list of commercial farms in SLC generated in collaboration with community partners and the SLC Sustainability Department. Further recruitment was facilitated through existing professional relationships between the research team and local farmworkers. We then used snowball sampling, where initial participants referred additional eligible individuals to the study (Etikan et al., 2016). In total, twenty-three individuals from ten commercial farms were interviewed. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews conducted between November 2023 and August 2024. Interviews lasted approximately one hour and were held at a location selected by each participant, including farms, public libraries, and cafes. All participants provided informed consent prior to the interview and were compensated for their time and knowledge. The interview was designed 2347 to elicit participants’ OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH perspectives on workplace dynamics and broader issues in agriculture. Core topics included access to healthcare, community connections, workplace safety, economic resources, power dynamics, and goals related to the food system. While the interview did include prompts about gender identity and its influence in agricultural workspaces, participants frequently brought up gender and sexuality organically throughout the conversation. Researchers analyzed the interview transcripts using ATLAS.ti as a tool to support qualitative coding. For this study, we focused our analysis on the theme of gender and sexuality, which we defined as any reference to gender and sexuality in farmers’ lives or work. Both researchers independently coded all transcripts and later resolved any discrepancies and reach consensus on final coding. This analytical coding process centers specifically on how participants discussed gender and sexuality within the context of their work in commercial agriculture (Cope, 2021). RESULTS Examining local farmworker interviews, we see many of the same issues around gendered labor roles, safety in the workplace, and power dynamics in agricultural experiences. In addition, we noted representation in 2348 RANGE public leadership positions, and gendered influences more broadly. Gendered Labor Roles Gendered labor roles on farms in SLC alco occurred, specifically in regards to daily work on the farm and working with partners, coworkers, and employees. Two interviewees commented on what makes the farm most efficient and what makes sense for the people working on the farm. They discussed how, at times, gendered roles work best, while other times they do not. However, they emphasized that they are not designating certain tasks based on gender, but rather with the person acquired skills and ability to keep production on pace: “The differences between men and women were highlighted, how we set things up for flow…Let me do the thing I’m good at, you do the thing you’re good at but simultaneously teach me how you’re good at your thing. I’ll teach you how to be good at my thing, but not while we’re trying to get the work done.” One farmworker discussed the different working environments, whether the environment was male- or female-dominated, and the different gender dynamics that were prevalent in each space, noting how work 2349 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH seemed to be done and how communication differed in each setting: “Everyone there is like, like very willing to ask for help and like very willing… like if anyone doesn’t know something like help to teach each other and stuff like that. And I… in like a number of like male-dominated workforces or spaces that I have been in, that has not been the case.” Safety in the Workplace We heard discussions specifically about men using their position of power to create an unsafe environment for women or people with different cultural backgrounds. There were also feelings of being criticized for being female in the industry and feeling inferior to male counterparts. In the interviews, several farmworkers shared experiences that made them feel unsafe in the workplace: “He’s also… incredibly culturally insensitive and me… Our whole, my whole experience with him was fraught with never ending arguments and also… me having to stand up for myself when he would criticize the way that I would do things and the way that I would use my time, and so that had been really stressful, those power dynamics were like very… It was really fraught with a lot of rancor.” 2350 RANGE Conversely, two male farmworkers discussed how they try to make the environment feel safer for their employees recognizing the position they are in as a male in agriculture. An interviewee discussed a friend’s experience with World Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms (WWOOFing), which allows farmworkers to receive housing from the farmer or farm they are working with. Often, these farms are in rural areas, requiring workers to place a great deal of trust in a farmer they don’t know: “I’ve had some friends who’ve done [WOOFing] who have felt a little unsafe or weird… you are putting a lot of trust in their hands when you go to live at someone’s house and work on their farm.” Unequal Representation in Public Leadership Positions Farmworkers commented on local conference panels and discussed the discrimination against women in these panels. Men with lesser degrees made up most of the panel. They mentioned how women are not seen as equals or peers in the eyes of the board or the people who attend the conference: “Especially at the larger conferences, when you go to a 2351 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH conference and they’ve set up a speaker panel and they have a dude with one year of farming experience and a woman with a PhD and you go, those people are not … They’re not peers.” One interviewee noted how male-centered the Farm Bureau is and how being a woman presents issues due to legislative control and the influence of big agriculture practices. They mentioned that they are not involved in their local community government, noting that it doesn’t affect them or their farming practices, except for the issue of the lack of gender diversification in leadership positions: “I think as like a cis person, probably less so, and if I was maybe out in the community advocating for things I could see being a women present itself (as an issue), especially because the legislature, very male, especially in agriculture, like the Farm Bureau, that is very male centric and big ag focused.” Gendered Influences In three interviews, gender influences in a family setting were discussed, particularly in how their parents introduced them to different aspects of agriculture. The maternal and paternal approaches to sustainability or traditional agriculture were also discussed. It was noted 2352 RANGE that binary gender roles were portrayed in how they were taught about agriculture. The farmworkers seemed to have little influence on the binary gender role in agriculture they were taught and how they influence gender in their farm spaces: “My dad had the sensibility to know that we should be raising our own food because it’s gonna taste better and we should grow a huge garden and our relatives would come up and pick tomatoes, Italians, you know, they love tomatoes… My mom did all the office work, and my dad was always out.” Power Dynamics in Agriculture Two of the male farmworkers interviewed mentioned that they recognize the power they have as cisgendered white men but choose to find ways to work in awareness of their privilege. One interviewee was given a job, which they believe was due to the fact that they are a cisgendered white man: “I’m a cisgender white man. I have the ability to like get power and privilege in a way that I don’t even want or ask for. So… this job kind of fell into my lap.” While male participants recognize the potential toxicity of the dynamic and work toward creating a better and 2353 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH safer space, their quotes are not free from problematic power dynamics: “I do think you… maybe you know I don’t… I don’t know how this sounds but I think you just got to be really aware as a male manager your energy around your girls because like if we’re having… if I’m having a bad day that’s going to carry over if I’m stressed.” In this quote, we see the tension between caring about the female employees the participant manages, and also hearing concepts of power embedded in his use of ‘your girls’. It highlights an embedded possessive dynamic in this use of ‘girls’ as opposed to ‘women’. These results across both the literature review and the interviews, show themes around gender and sexuality in safety, power dynamics, gender influence in positive and negative ways, and public leadership representation. DISCUSSION Gender and sexuality significantly shape the agricultural experience in both the U.S. and Salt Lake City. Across the literature and the farmworker interviews, several recurring themes emerged: gendered labor roles, unsafe work environments, and power dynamics. These patterns reflect broader societal narratives about whose 2354 RANGE identities are acknowledged and valued within agricultural spaces. The interviews with SLC farmworkers reinforced many of the national findings while offering important localized insight. While multiple farms reflected traditional gender norms, others demonstrated efforts to move away from binary frameworks in the workplace. Farmworkers described practices like open communication, peer learning, and task-sharing as ways to challenge hierarchical, gendered workplace structures. These approaches suggest that inclusive agricultural spaces are not only possible but are actively being cultivated within the SLC farming community. One key divergence between the interviews and the literature was the level of engagement with queer identity. The interviews elicited more ideas about gender performance and workplace culture, with limited direct mention of sexuality. This could indicate that queer visibility remains limited within the SLC agricultural landscape, whether due to personal, cultural, or structural factors. Amplifying these stories is essential to creating a more inclusive agricultural sector and dismantling the hierarchies that exclude marginalized farmers. Future research should prioritize the experiences of queer and BIPOC farmers to better 2355 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH understand and address barriers related to land access, healthcare, and representation. This research also leaves several important questions unanswered. What economic barriers do queer individuals face when trying to access land or funding? How are younger generations of farmers reshaping perceptions of gender and sexuality within agriculture—both in SLC and nationally? Given need for more farmers, further investigation into the experiences of queer farmers is essential. BIBLIOGRAPHY Acker, J. (2006). Inequality Regimes: Gender, Class, and Race in Organizations. Gender & Society, 20(4), 441-464. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243206289499 Ackoff, S., Wyatt, L., Rippon-Butler, H., Mueller, C., Manly, J., Howard, D., García Polanco, V., & Flom, E. (2022). Building a future with farmers 2022: Results and recommendations from the National Young Farmer Survey. National Young Farmers Coalition. https://www.youngfarmers.org/resource/ nationalsurveyreport2022/ Burdsall, N. (2023, June 28). Queering farming: How LGBTQIA+ farmers are reimagining agriculture. 2356 RANGE Chicago Council on Global Affairs. https://globalaffairs.org/commentaryand-analysis/blogs/ queering-farming-how-lgbtqia-farmers-arereimagining-agriculture California Department of Housing and Community Development. (2025). Farmworkers. https://www.hcd.ca.gov/planning-and-communitydevelopment/housingelements/building-blocks/ farmworkers Cope, M. (2021). Organizing, Coding, and Analyzing Qualitative Data. In Qualitative Research Methods in Human Geography, 5th Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cramer, S. E. (2020). Gaining ground: An exploration into the lives of Missouri’s lesbian farmers. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 9(3), 163– 178. https://doi.org/10.5304/ jafscd.2020.093.017 Crowder, C., & Clayworth, J. (2018). How Trump administration pressure to dump 4-H’s LGBT policy led to Iowa leader’s firing. Des Moines Register. https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/news/ investigations/2018/11/18/4-htransgender-lgbt-iowa2357 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH john-paul-chaisson-cardenas-iowa-state-universitycivilrights/1572199002/ Etikan, I., Alkassim, R., & Abubakar, S. (2016). Comparison of snowball sampling and sequential sampling technique. Biometrics and Biostatistics International Journal, 3(1), 55. Fiveable. (2024). Biological, psychological, and social influences on gender: Human sexuality class notes. https://library.fiveable.me/human-sexuality/unit-3/ biological-psychologicalsocial-influences-gender/ study-guide/IuzkRzJZ45mFuXW5 Glazebrook, T., Noll, S., & Opoku, E. (2020). Gender Matters: Climate Change, Gender Bias, and Women’s Farming in the Global South and North. Agriculture, 10(7), 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10070267 Guardian News and Media. (2023, February 3). Radishes and rainbows: The LGBTQ growers reimagining the traditional family farm. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/feb/ 03/queer-farmers-bipoc-agriculturemidwest Guha, N. (2024, November 24). Queer farmers are working to transform our food systems – and paying a price. Truthout. https://truthout.org/articles/queer2358 RANGE farmers-are-working-totransform-our-food-systemsand-paying-a-price/ Hyde, J. S., Bigler, R. S., Joel, D., Tate, C. C., & van Anders, S. M. (2019). The future of sex and gender in psychology: Five challenges to the gender binary. American Psychologist, 74(2), 171–193. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/amp0000307 Joseph, C., Roesch-McNally, G., & Looser, A. (2024, January). The state of gender equity in U.S. agriculture. FIC. https://farmlandinfo.org/publications/gender- equity-report/ Larsen, B. (2024, April 30). A salt lake valley collective brings gardening and Queer Communities together. High Country News. https://www.hcn.org/issues/asalt-lakevalley-collective-brings-gardening-and-queercommunities-together/ Leslie, I. S., Wypler, J., & Bell, M. M. (2019). Relational Agriculture: Gender, Sexuality, and Sustainability in U.S. Farming. Society & Natural Resources, 32(8), 853–874. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 08941920.2019.1610626 Little, J., & Panelli, R. (2003). Gender research in rural 2359 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH geography. Gender, Place and Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography, 10(3), 281-289. Michigan State University. (2025). Glossary | The Gender and Sexuality Campus Center | Michigan State University. https://gscc.msu.edu/ education/glossary.html MHP Salud. (2025). Farmworkers in the United States. https://mhpsalud.org/who-weserve/farmworkers-inthe-united-states/ Miller, E. (2001). Gender, power and politics: an alternative perspective. In Gender, peace and conflict (pp. 80-103). SAGE Publications Ltd. Nadasdy, P. (2003). Hunters and Bureaucrats: Power, Knowledge, and Aboriginal-State Relations in the Southwest Yukon. UBC Press, Vancouver, Canada. Pierce, B. (2024, June 7). Rainbow Gardens highlights the relationship between nature and queerness. https://www.dailytarheel.com/article/2024/06/lifestylewildwoods-lgbtq-farm Polderman, T. J. C., Kreukels, B. P. C., Irwig, M. S., Beach, L., Yee-Ming Chan, Derks, E. M., Esteva, I., 2360 RANGE Ehrenfeld, J., Den Heijer, M., Posthuma, D., Raynor, L., Tishelman, A., & Davis, L. K. (2018). The Biological Contributions to Gender Identity and Gender Diversity: Bringing Data to the Table. Behavior Genetics, 48(2), 95–108. https://doiorg.ezproxy.lib.utah.edu/10.1007/ s10519-018-9889-z Pontuti, T., Cachelin, A. (2025). Salt Lake Agricultural Worker Experiences – Understanding the Landscape for Resilience. In prep. Rahman, S., Bowman, N., Jackson, D., Lushtak, Newman, R., & Sunder, P. (2023, March 3). Social Construction of Gender. Social Sci LibreTexts. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/ Gender_Studies/Sexuality_the_Self_and_Soci ety_(Ruhman_Bowman_Jackson_Lushtak_Newman_a nd_Sunder)/05%3A_Gender_Ident ity_Gender_Roles_and_Gender_Differences/ 5.07%3A_Social_Construction_of_Gender Renner, J., Blaszcyk, W., Täuber, L., Dekker, A., Briken, P., & Nieder, T. O. (2021, November). Barriers to Accessing Health Care in Rural Regions by Transgender, Non-Binary, and Gender Diverse People: A Case-Based Scoping Review. 2361 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 12, 717821. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2021.717821 Roberts, A. (2024, June 12). Queer-led Mobile Moon Coop offers Salt Lakers a space to build community and learn from the land. Salt Lake City Weekly. https://www.cityweekly.net/utah/queer-led-mobilemoon-co-op-offers-salt-lakers-aspace-to-buildcommunity-and-learn-from-the-land/ Content?oid=21632077 Roselli CE. Neurobiology of gender identity and sexual orientation. J Neuroendocrinol. 2018 Jul;30(7):e12562. doi: 10.1111/jne.12562. PMID: 29211317; PMCID: PMC6677266. Sunder, P., Newman, R., Rahman, S., Bowman, N., Jackcson, D., & Lushtak. (2023, March 3). 5.7: Social Construction of Gender. Social Sci LibreTexts. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/ Gender_Studies/Sexuality_the_Self_and_Soci ety_(Ruhman_Bowman_Jackson_Lushtak_Newman_a nd_Sunder)/05%3A_Gender_Ident ity_Gender_Roles_and_Gender_Differences/ 5.07%3A_Social_Construction_of_Gender Turner, B., Abramovic, J., & Hope, C. (2021, April 26). 2362 RANGE More-than-human contributions to place-based social inclusion in community gardens. SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/ 978-3-030-48277-0_96-1 2363 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 138 Comparing Alpha Power During In-Noise Listening Task as a Parameter of Listening Effort in Young versus Older Adults MCKENZIE PRICE Faculty Mentor: Jack Silcox (Psychology, University of utah Around two thirds of older adults experience hearing 2364 RANGE loss, which can make listening to conversation very fatiguing. Because this fatigue can cause older adults to withdraw socially, it has important implications for their health. The current study seeks to explore the relationship between background noise and the cognitive resources allocated toward comprehending speech—known as listening effort (LE)—through the use of electroencephalography (EEG). From an EEG signal represented in the frequency domain, we can obtain information regarding the rhythmic patterns of electrical activity in the brain, or neural oscillations. Alpha waves (8-12 Hz) are a type of neural oscillation that respond to stimuli with changes in power (amplitude squared). Increases in alpha power are often positively related to LE in the literature. What little work exists studying this relationship in older adults has obscured the current understanding of alpha power. We hypothesized that young and older adults would experience increased alpha power when listening to speech in background noise with a greater increase in older adults. To test this, we gave young and older adults a listening task in which recorded sentences were presented either in background noise or quiet. Alpha power analysis of EEG data collected during this task revealed that neither age group showed a significant difference in alpha power between the quiet and noise 2365 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH conditions. While these findings may highlight key limitations in our methods, they may also provide compelling evidence that increased alpha power does not serve as a compensatory mechanism when listening to speech-in-noise (For bibliography, see references 1 – 31). REFERENCES 1. R. Lin, R. Thorpe, S. Gordon-Salant, and L. Ferrucci, “Hearing Loss Prevalence and Risk Factors Among Older Adults in the United States,” J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci, vol. 66A, no. 5, pp. 582–590, May 2011, doi: 10.1093/gerona/glr002. 2. Klimesch, “Alpha-band oscillations, attention, and controlled access to stored information,” Trends Cogn Sci, vol. 16, no. 12, pp. 606–617, Dec. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2012.10.007. 3. J. Foxe and A. C. Snyder, “The Role of Alpha-Band Brain Oscillations as a Sensory Suppression Mechanism during Selective Attention,” Front Psychol, vol. 2, p. 154, Jul. 2011, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00154 4. León-Cabrera, V. Piai, J. Morís, and A. Rodríguez-Fornells, “Alpha power decreases 2366 RANGE associated with prediction in written and spoken sentence comprehension,” Neuropsychologia, vol. 173, p. 108286, Aug. 2022, doi: 10.1016/ j.neuropsychologia.2022.108286. 5. Wilsch, M. J. Henry, B. Herrmann, B. Maess, and J. Obleser, “Alpha Oscillatory Dynamics Index Temporal Expectation Benefits in Working Memory,” Cerebral Cortex, vol. 25, no. 7, pp. 1938–1946, Jul. 2015, doi: 10.1093/ cercor/bhu004. 6. Strauß, M. Wöstmann, and J. Obleser, “Cortical alpha oscillations as a tool for auditory selective inhibition,” Front Hum Neurosci, vol. 8, p. 350, 2014, doi: 10.3389/ fnhum.2014.00350. 7. B. Ryan et al., “Performance Monitoring and Cognitive Inhibition during a Speech-inNoise Task in Older Listeners,” SEMIN HEAR, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 124–139, May 2023, doi: 10.1055/s-0043-1767695. 8. Wöstmann, B. Herrmann, A. Wilsch, and J. Obleser, “Neural alpha dynamics in younger and older listeners reflect acoustic challenges 2367 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and predictive benefits,” The Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 1458–1467, Jan. 2015, doi: 10.1523/ JNEUROSCI.3250-14.2015. 9. Varela, J.-P. Lachaux, E. Rodriguez, and J. Martinerie, “The Brainweb: Phase Synchronization and Large-Scale Integration,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 229–239, Apr. 2001, doi: 10.1038/35067550. 10. X. Cohen, Analyzing Neural Time Series Data: Theory and Practice. The MIT Press, 2014. doi: 10.7551/mitpress/9609.001.0001. 11. C. Motter, “Focal attention produces spatially selective processing in visual cortical areas V1, V2, and V4 in the presence of competing stimuli,” J Neurophysiol, vol. 70, no. 3, pp. 909–919, Sep. 1993, doi: 10.1152/ jn.1993.70.3.909. 12. S. Worden, J. J. Foxe, N. Wang, and G. V. Simpson, “Anticipatory Biasing of Visuospatial Attention Indexed by Retinotopically Specific α-Bank Electroencephalography Increases over 2368 RANGE Occipital Cortex,” J. Neurosci., vol. 20, no. 6, pp. RC63–RC63, Mar. 2000, doi: 10.1523/ JNEUROSCI.20-06-j0002.2000. 13. R. Kerlin, A. J. Shahin, and L. M. Miller, “Attentional Gain Control of Ongoing Cortical Speech Representations in a ‘Cocktail Party,’” J Neurosci, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 620–628, Jan. 2010, doi: 10.1523/ JNEUROSCI.3631-09.2010. 14. Strauß, S. A. Kotz, M. Scharinger, and J. Obleser, “Alpha and theta brain oscillations index dissociable processes in spoken word recognition,” NeuroImage, vol. 97, pp. 387–395, Aug. 2014, doi: 10.1016/ j.neuroimage.2014.04.005. 15. Terporten, J.-M. Schoffelen, B. Dai, P. Hagoort, and A. Kösem, “The Relation between Alpha/Beta Oscillations and the Encoding of Sentence induced Contextual Information,” Scientific Reports, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–12, Dec. 2019, doi: 10.1038/ s41598-019-56600-x. 16. S. Rogers, L. Payne, S. Maharjan, A. Wingfield, and R. Sekuler, “Older adults show 2369 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH impaired modulation of attentional alpha oscillations: Evidence from dichotic listening,” Psychology and Aging, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 246–258, Mar. 2018, doi: 10.1037/ pag0000238. 17. T. Paul, J. Chen, T. Le, V. Lin, and A. Dimitrijevic, “Cortical alpha oscillations in cochlear implant users reflect subjective listening effort during speech-in-noise perception,” PLoS One, vol. 16, no. 7, p. e0254162, Jul. 2021, doi: 10.1371/ journal.pone.0254162. 18. Alhanbali, K. J. Munro, P. Dawes, E. Perugia, and R. E. Millman, “Associations between pre-stimulus alpha power, hearing level and performance in a digits-in-noise task,” INT J AUDIOL, vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 197–204, Mar. 2022, doi: 10.1080/14992027.2021.1899314. 19. A. Forner-Phillips, J. E. Brown, B. M. Silck, and R. S. Ross, “Alpha oscillatory power decreases are associated with better memory for higher valued information,” Cognitive Neuroscience, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 87–98, Apr. 2022, doi: 10.1080/17588928.2021.1963694. 2370 RANGE 20. S. Chiang, E. A. Lydon, M. A. Kraut, J. Hart Jr, and R. A. Mudar, “Differences in electroencephalography oscillations between normal aging and mild cognitive impairment during semantic memory retrieval,” European Journal of Neuroscience, vol. n/a, no. n/a, doi: 10.1111/ejn.16001. 21. C. Oldfield, “The assessment and analysis of handedness: the Edinburgh inventory,” Neuropsychologia, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 97–113, Mar. 1971, doi: 10.1016/ 0028-3932(71)90067-4. 22. Abbondanza et al., “Language and reading impairments are associated with increased prevalence of non-right-handedness,” Child Development, vol. 94, no. 4, pp. 970–984, 2023, doi: 10.1111/cdev.13914. 23. S. Nasreddine et al., “Montreal Cognitive Assessment.” Mar. 10, 2014. doi: 10.1037/ t27279-000. 24. Carhart and J. Jerger, “Preferred method for clinical determination of pure-tone thresholds,” Journal of Speech & Hearing Disorders, vol. 24, pp. 330–345, 1959, doi: 2371 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 10.1044/jshd.2404.330. 25. W. Silcox and B. R. Payne, “The costs (and benefits) of effortful listening on context processing: A simultaneous electrophysiology, pupillometry, and behavioral study,” Cortex, vol. 142, pp. 296–316, Sep. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2021.06.007. 26. H. Klem, H. O. Lüders, H. H. Jasper, and C. Elger, “The ten-twenty electrode system of the International Federation. The International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology,” Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Suppl, vol. 52, pp. 3–6, 1999. 27. The MathWorks, Inc. (2022). MATLAB version: 9.13.0 (R2022b). Accessed: January 01, 2023. Available: https://www.mathworks.com. 28. Delorme and S. Makeig, “EEGLAB: an open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis,” Journal of Neuroscience Methods, vol. 134, no. 1, pp. 9–21, Mar. 2004, doi: 10.1016/ j.jneumeth.2003.10.009. 29. J. Woods, J. W. Silcox, and B. R. Payne, 2372 RANGE “Evaluating Aperiodic and Periodic Neural Activity as Markers of Listening Effort in Speech Perception,” Auditory Perception & Cognition, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 203–218, Jul. 2024, doi: 10.1080/25742442.2024.2395217. 30. B. Petersen, M. Wöstmann, J. Obleser, S. Stenfelt, and T. Lunner, “Hearing loss impacts neural alpha oscillations under adverse listening conditions,” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 6, Feb. 2015, doi: 10.3389/ fpsyg.2015.00177. 31. “Loneliness and Social Isolation — Tips for Staying Connected,” National Institute on Aging. Accessed: Jan. 27, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/ loneliness-and-social-isolation/lonelinessand-social-isolation-tips-staying-connected 2373 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 139 Research Reflection by McKenzie Price MCKENZIE PRICE Faculty Mentor: Jack Silcox` (Psychology, University of Utah) I began my undergraduate research experience out of necessity. Research hours were a requirement for a bachelor’s in biomedical engineering, and I had put it off for way too long. Absolutely petrified at the thought of 2374 RANGE cold emailing PIs, I mustered up the courage to message Dr. Brennan Payne with the Language and Memory Aging (LaMA) lab. Long story short, I have now been a research assistant with the LaMA lab for two years. Both Dr. Payne and Dr. Jack Silcox, my UROP mentor, have been instrumental in not only my independent research but also my overall undergraduate experience. I have always been curious and asked a lot of questions, but they have given me the tenacity and confidence to find the answers. Research wasn’t a career option I had considered before, but now it seems like a viable way to turn my love of learning to a lifelong endeavor. 2375 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 140 Pilot Study to Test the Use of Fitness Trackers to Monitor the Well Being of People Experiencing Homelessness ZOHA RIAZ AND AUBREY HAMPTON Faculty Mentor: Akiko University of Utah) 2376 Kamimura (Sociology, RANGE INTRODUCTION Exercise has been linked to many health benefits, both mental and physical. It has also been recommended for those who struggle with managing stress, anxiety and depression. People experiencing homelessness deal with stressors extensively compared to the general population. People experiencing homelessness are more vulnerable to mental health illnesses and lack significant resources to get the help they need. About 80% of the homeless population struggle with some kind of mental illness (diagnosed and undiagnosed) (Cassidy, 2024). Exercise and meditations, such as Tai Chi, are easy and accessible and have shown promising results in other vulnerable populations and may be effective in this population. Tai Chi is an ancient meditation martial arts practice that originated in China. Many systemic studies have concluded a positive association between people struggling with mental and physical illnesses and a decrease in such levels. Some of the benefits include, benefit for depression, dementia, and improving cognitive capacity in older adults (Huston, 2016). This study aims to explore whether physical activity, 2377 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH tracked via fitness trackers, is associated with improved well-being in individuals experiencing homelessness. We expect to observe positive trends in heart rate, blood pressure, and sleep score that would indicate that there is increased well-being in those that participate in consistent physical activity. METHODS This study involved a sample of participants (n=4) experiencing homelessness recruited through a local Tai Chi program. Researchers attended the program four times per week over a two-week period. Each participant was provided with a wearable fitness tracker and instructed to download the corresponding mobile app. The tracker monitored daily heart rate, sleep score, blood pressure, step counts, and blood oxygen levels. Researchers accessed data via the app for analysis (Table 1). Due to a brief timeline of data collection, statistical analysis was not feasible. Predicted trends were generated from initial observations. All participation in the study was voluntary and anonymized to protect participant privacy. RESULTS Data was collected from 4 participants over a two-week 2378 RANGE period. Data included metrics like heart rate, blood pressure, sleep score, and step counts. Participants were engaged through a Tai Chi program serving those experiencing homelessness in Salt Lake City, Utah. Early observations of these metrics could indicate improved well-being in the population. Due to limited data collection, we are unable to provide a statistical analysis. However, existing literature (Figure 2), indicates improvement in stress levels within a defined population. As data collection continues within our project, we project to see similar outcomes within those who are experiencing homelessness. CONCLUSIONS The preliminary findings suggest that incorporating physical activity programs for this population can translate to improved well-being. We plan to continue our study with an extended timeline for increased data collection and with a broader participant sample. We will do this to better understand the impact of physical activity on those who are experiencing homelessness. With our findings, we hope to see improvement in the rehabilitation of individuals experiencing homelessness. This can be done through funding programs that increase access to exercise for the population, which can 2379 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH have a significant impact not only on the individual, but the structure as a whole. BIBLIOGRAPHY “The Health Benefits of Tai Chi – Harvard Health Publishing.” Harvard Health, 24 May 2022, www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/the-healthbenefits-of-tai-chi. Huston, Patricia, and Bruce McFarlane. “Health Benefits of Tai Chi: What Is the Evidence?” Canadian Family Physician Medecin de Famille Canadien, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Nov. 2016, pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ articles/ PMC9844554/#:~:text=Excellent%20evidence%20of%2 0be nefit.,COPD)%2C%20and%20cognitive%20functionin g. Lerner, Shanti. “A Free Tai Chi Class for Utah’s Homeless Is Almost 10 Years Old. Here’s How the Program Is Helping.” FOX 13 News Utah (KSTU), FOX 13 News Utah (KSTU), 13 Nov. 2024, www.fox13now.com/news/positively-utah/a-free-taichi-class-for-utahshomeless-is-almost-10-years-old-heres-how-theprogram-is-helping. 2380 RANGE Sauer, Mary. “Tai Chi Benefits: Stress Reduction, Weight Loss, for Older Adults.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 27 Sept. 2024, www.healthline.com/health/taichi-benefits. Utah Stories. “Tai Chi and Transformation: Bernie Hart’s Bold Solution to Utah’s Homelessness Crisis.” Utah Stories, 29 Jan. 2025, utahstories.com/2025/01/taichi-and-transformation-bernie-harts-bold-solution-toutahs-homelessness-crisis/. Yang, Fei-Chi, et al. “Effectiveness of Tai Chi for Health Promotion of Older Adults: A Scoping Review of Meta-Analyses.” American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 24 Mar. 2021, pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9644143/. 2381 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 141 Hindutva: Transforming India into a Hindu Civilization State ZACHARY SILVA Faculty Mentor: Hakan Yavuz (Political Science, University of Utah) Abstract In recent years, the political leaders of countries such as China and Russia have embraced the concept of the “civilization state,” a notion that challenges the 2382 RANGE mainstream conception of statehood. According to this framework, certain states are far greater than mere political units – they are entities with a special purpose to act as guardians of a unique civilization. Proponents of the civilization state regularly reject Western norms and values, arguing that concepts like liberal democracy and human rights are not universal but rather rules specific to Western civilization. They contend that “civilization states” have the right to follow the cultural norms of their unique civilization, even if they clash with currently accepted international standards of governance. This concept has gained an especially prominent role in Indian politics, where many activists and politicians are seeking to redefine India as a uniquely Hindu civilization state. India’s ruling political establishment, under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), has championed this reshaping of India’s identity through the ideology of Hindutva. This essay will examine India’s evolving identity through the civilization state argument, exploring the proponents of this ideology and the motivations driving its popularity. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT To fully grasp the BJP’s attempt to redefine India as a “Hindu civilization state,” it is essential to consider the 2383 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH cultural and political landscape in which the country exists. As of April 2023, India surpassed China to become the world’s most populous nation, exceeding 1.429 billion inhabitants. This massive population is marked by an extraordinary level of diversity, being home to over 2,000 recognized ethnic groups, each with unique histories, traditions, dialects, and cultural norms. India is also noted for its remarkable religious diversity. Hindus comprise a sizeable majority, making up 79.8% of India’s population. There also exists a substantive Muslim community, which comprises 14.2% of the overall population, alongside smaller communities of Sikhs, Christians, Jains, and Buddhists. This incredible diversity has been a source of both tension and conflict, leading to the development of two distinct visions of what India “is.” The first, supported by organizations such as the Indian National Congress (INC), characterizes India as a secular, pluralistic state – one in which all who live in India are considered Indian, regardless of religious or cultural background. The second, advocated by the BJP, defines India as a uniquely Hindu society. This latter perspective has gained increasing prominence under the ruling BJP government, which 2384 RANGE has sought to redefine India’s history and political order to fit its narratives. HINDUTVA AND THE BJP Hindutva, meaning “Hindu-ness,” is the governing ideology of the BJP. Proponents of Hindutva define India through a cultural lens, holding Indian society to be synonymous with “Hindu civilization.” Being “Indian” is understood as being one who practices the Hindu faith or lives by the cultural and social standards of Hinduism. Non-Hindus are viewed as less Indian or even as threats to the social fabric of a uniquely Hindu society. Hindutva has a distinct conception of the Indian government’s role, one that contrasts sharply with the Western model of statehood. Reminiscent of the rhetoric of other self-proclaimed “civilization states,” adherents of Hindutva believe that the government has a unique responsibility to uphold and protect“Hindu civilization.” The Indian state is not viewed as merely a political unit but as the legitimate guardian of Hindu culture, values, and way of life. Hindutva strongly opposes multiculturalism, which is seen as a threat to India’s identity as the representative of Hinduism. Instead, it emphasizes a homogenized Hindu-Indian 2385 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH identity as the foundation for national unity. Highly controversial policies implemented by the BJP-led government, which give preferential treatment to the Hindus or seek to limit the growth of India’s Muslim population, are thus viewed as necessary actions to preserve India’s character as a Hindu civilization state. Fundamental ideals of Western governance, such as secularism, freedom of religion, and inclusivity, are largely rejected by Hindu nationalists in favor of promoting a uniquely Hindu governance. This philosophy has drawn the sharp criticism of many Western observers, who label the BJP’s ideology as exclusionary. Critics point to the BJP policies that have marginalized non-Hindu communities, including Muslims, Sikhs, and Jains, as evidence of the threat that Hindutva poses to democracy and human rights. The BJP’s rebuttal to these claims is that the West simply doesn’t understand their unique civilizational worldview, contending that Western ideals are not compatible with India’s identity. Hindu nationalists accuse the West of attempting to impose a Eurocentric worldview on India, one that they argue does not align with their cultural and religious heritage. Since 2014, the BJP has held control of the Indian government, securing majorities in both houses of the 2386 RANGE Indian legislature. Dominating Indian politics, the BJP is believed to be the largest political party in the world, claiming to have over 180 million members. Under its rule, India has experienced marked democratic backsliding and faced significant international scrutiny for implementing policies perceived as discriminatory toward non-Hindus, especially Muslims. The BJP is viewed by many as the direct successor of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS), an extreme Indian nationalist party founded in 1951 and the political arm of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a Hindu paramilitary organization. The BJS sought to establish a Hindu-centric state and was heavily involved in promoting “Hindu supremacy.” The BJS, alongside the RSS, hoped to defend the Hindu community from perceived threats, particularly from Muslims. The organization actively opposed the spread of Islam within India, labeling Muslims as invaders. The organization was criticized for its use of violence and intimidation against Indian Muslims. Despite this controversy, the RSS continues to operate to this day, claiming to have over 5 million members. The influence of the RSS has expanded in recent years, emboldened by the political success of the BJP. Today, the actions and ideology of the BJP are largely 2387 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH shaped by its leader, Prime Minister Narendra Modi, who is himself a former RSS member. Modi is an extremely controversial figure, having played a pivotal role in bringing more extreme nationalist ideologies into mainstream politics over the past decade. As Prime Minister, Modi has consistently pursued populist Hindu policies, including promoting the construction of Hindu temples and banning the sale of cattle for slaughter. Modi has sought to present himself as a deeply religious figure to the Indian electorate, publicly acting as a chief patron of religious Hindu rituals or leading temple consecration ceremonies. Critics accuse Modi of fostering a cult of personality, eroding India’s democratic institutions, and promoting discriminatory attitudes toward the country’s non-Hindu population. Opponents point to Modi’s particular animosity towards India’s Muslim community, the nation’s second-largest religious group. In 2019, the BJP-led government passed the controversial “Citizenship Act,” which provided a pathway to citizenship for all refugees fleeing religious persecution – except Muslims. The law sparked a huge backlash amongst India’s Muslim community, leading to mass protests. Modi’s repeated escalations with neighboring Pakistan and assertion of control over the disputed Kashmir region led to further unrest amongst Muslims. Modi has openly defended his anti2388 RANGE Muslim sentiments, consistently referring to Muslims as “infiltrators” who pose a threat to India’s stability and cultural values. Modi justifies these actions by claiming that, as Prime Minister, he must defend the Hindu way of life and the nation’s identity as a uniquely Hindu state. REDEFINING INDIA’S HISTORY To justify Hindutva’s definition of India as a Hindu civilization state, Hindu nationalists embrace a distorted historical narrative that frames India’s development as a continuous struggle between Hindus and foreign invaders. Many of these nationalists draw inspiration from a semi-mythical “golden age” of Hindu civilization, in which they believe Hindu culture flourished. According to this view, ancient India was a monolithic society united by the common cultural and religious practices of Hinduism. However, most experts agree that this historical narrative has little basis in reality, but only emerged as a political construction in the modern era. Even while many historians and archaeologists question the existence of this mythical Hindu civilization, adherents of Hindutva continue to emphasize the need for India to return to the ideals of this imagined golden age. 2389 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Hindu nationalists argue that this mythical golden age was interrupted by centuries of occupation and oppression, beginning with the Delhi Sultanate in the 12th Century. They claim that India’s Hindu population was subjected to brutal domination by successive, cruel Islamic empires, which inflicted atrocities and ultimately hindered the development of Hindu civilization. When Islamic rule ended as the British Raj replaced the Mughal Empire, Hindu nationalists asserted that Hindus continued to suffer under Western colonial occupation. For Hindu nationalists, it was only when India regained full independence in 1947 that Hindu civilization could once again thrive. Hindu nationalists view the British partition of India as having established their state as having a uniquely Hindu character, in contrast to the uniquely Muslim Pakistan and Bangladesh. Through adhering to Hindutva, India can be reborn as a modern Hindu nation, where the Hindu civilization will once again be able to chart its own course. On this uniquely Hindu path, nationalists believe that India must safeguard its civilization against corrupting external influences, including Islamic and Western ideologies, to prevent being dominated by foreign powers once more. 2390 RANGE THE APPEAL OF HINDUTVA The motivations driving millions of Indians to support the BJP and Hindutva are complex and multifaceted. For some, Hindutva serves as a powerful political tool, allowing leaders to tap into populist sentiments to consolidate power, while for others, it provides a compelling framework for understanding what it means to be truly Indian. In the eyes of many Hindu nationalists, India lacks a strong unifying force to bind its society together. India is incredibly varied, being comprised of a myriad of different ethnic groups, languages, and cultural traditions, making it difficult to find common ground. The sheer diversity of India has led to some concerns about whether the country can effectively function as a unified state. Hindutva, however, provides a solution to this problem by positioning Hinduism and its cultural values as the foundational bedrock of Indian society. By framing religion as a central unifying factor, Hindutva offers a common ground for millions, even while excluding millions who do not fit within its narrow framework of what an Indian should be. For many, this religious and cultural unity feels more meaningful than other potential sources of national identity, such as a shared constitution or market economy. 2391 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Another powerful motivator behind the rise of Hindutva is the search for a clear sense of identity in post-colonial India. The modern state of India was born out of a colonial project, with the nation’s modern borders and parliamentary systems being largely shaped by the British Empire. This has left many Indians grappling with questions about what it truly means to be Indian and what India “is.” For struggling nationalists, Hindutva provides straightforward, easy answers to all of these questions: India is the representation of Hindu civilization, and to be Indian means to subscribe to the ideals, beliefs, and norms of Hinduism. Yet another driving force behind Hindutva’s rise is the desire to defend India’s way of life against perceived external threats. The BJP often employs rhetoric that frames the Hindu way of life as under attack by groups viewed as “non-Indian,” particularly Muslims. With Muslims forming the second-largest religious community in India, Hindu nationalists often view the spread of Islam as the largest threat to their way of life. This belief has justified the implementation of discriminatory policies aimed at Muslim communities in the name of preserving Hindu civilization. The hegemony of the West and the encroachment of Western liberal values, such 2392 as secularism and RANGE multiculturalism, are additionally seen as dangers to India’s identity. Hindu nationalists often emphatically reject Western norms, claiming that Westernization is eroding their culture and is detrimental to the flourishing of a Hindu society. In this context, the West’s criticism of the BJP is often viewed as a positive confirmation that India is forging its own distinctly “Hindu” path. For nationalists, Hindutva offers a way to defend the Indian way of life in a chaotic and uncertain world. A final motivator behind Hindutva’s success is the BJP’s use of Hindu nationalism as an effective populist political strategy. India is a nation afflicted with a myriad of problems, including widespread poverty, corruption, wealth inequality, and social problems like alcoholism. Many Indians seek easy explanations for these problems or are searching for someone to blame. The BJP’s populist rhetoric resonates with many Hindus, which uses non-Hindus as a scapegoat for their country’s troubles. The explanations offered by the BJP for India’s woes, although often overly simplistic and faulty, have gained widespread appeal, contributing to the party’s political success and helping it secure a strong base of support. 2393 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH CONCLUSION Modi and the BJP have effectively utilized Hindutva and the civilization state argument to fundamentally reshape the discourse surrounding India’s identity. This strategy has led to remarkable political success, mobilizing large segments of the Indian electorate and reshaping government policy to align with its agenda over the past decade. Despite concerns about democratic backsliding and rising intolerance of non-Hindu communities, the party’s promotion of Hindutva continues to resonate deeply with millions of Hindu nationalists, offering a compelling vision of India’s past and future. Despite its electoral success, Hindutva’s civilization state project faces substantial challenges. Divisions in culture, caste, language, and religion continue to play a large role in Indian society, while successive economic struggles threaten the continued popularity of the BJP rule. The voices of opposition groups that disagree with the BJP’s narrow definition of India have grown louder, especially in non-Hindu communities. Whether the BJP and Hindutva succeed in permanently redefining India’s identity as a “civilization state” remains an open question, one that will be continually debated by Indians in the coming years. 2394 RANGE BIBLIOGRAPHY Agrawal, Ravi. “The New Idea of India.” Foreign Policy, September 9, 2024. https://foreignpolicy.com/ 2024/04/08/india-modi-bjpelections/?tpcc=recirc_carousel091023. Anklesaria Aiyar, Swaminathan S. “Indian Nationalism and the Historical Fantasy of a Golden Hindu Period.” Cato.org, June 21, 2023. https://www.cato.org/policyanalysis/indian- nationalism-historical-fantasy-goldenhindu-period. Banerjee, Soumi. “Hindu Nationalists’ Strategy of ‘Othering.’” The Loop, April 18, 2023. https://theloop.ecpr.eu/hindu-nationalists-strategy-ofothering/. “Bharatiya Janata Party.” Encyclopædia Britannica, December 4, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Bharatiya-Janata-Party. Bhatnagar, Armaan. “In 10 Charts: How BJP Became World’s Largest Political Party in 4 Decades: India News – Times of India.” The Times of India, April 26, 2022. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-10-chartshow-bjp-became-a-political- juggernaut-in-4-decades/ articleshow/90680606.cms. 2395 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH “Constitutional Provisions Relating to Eighth Schedule.” Republic of India. Accessed December 5, 2024. https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/ EighthSchedule_19052017.pdf. Das, Sabyasachi. “Democratic Backsliding in the World’s Largest Democracy.” SSRN, July 25, 2023. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/ papers.cfm?abstract_id=4512936. Das, Udayan. “India’s Civilizational Imagination of Southeast Asia.” E-International Relations, March 26, 2024. https://www.e-ir.info/2024/03/12/indias- civilizational-imagination-of- southeast-asia/. Frayer, Lauren, and Furkan Latif Khan. “The Powerful Group Shaping the Rise of Hindu Nationalism in India.” NPR, May 3, 2019. https://www.npr.org/2019/05/03/ 706808616/the-powerful-group-shaping-the-rise-ofhindu-nationalism-in-india. “Indian National Congress.” Encyclopædia Britannica, November 28, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Indian-National-Congress. “Integral Humanism.” Bharatiya Janata Party. Accessed December 4, 2024. integralhumanism. 2396 https://www.bjp.org/ RANGE Khandekar, Omkar. “India’s Modi Inaugurates a LongPromised but Ayodhya.” Controversial NPR, Hindu January Temple 22, in 2024. https://www.npr.org/2024/01/22/1226039104/indiaayodhya-hindu-nationalists-temple- modi- hinduism#:~:text=AYODHYA%2C%20India%20%E2 %80%94%20With%20priests%20c hanting,of%20the%20Hindu%20god%20Ram. Kramer, Stephanie. “Key Findings about the Religious Composition of India.” Pew Research Center, September 21, 2021. https://www.pewresearch.org/ short-reads/2021/09/21/key- findings-about-the- religious-composition-of-india/. Mashal, Mujib, and Hari Kumar. “Strangers in Their Own Land: Being Muslim in Modi’s India.” The New York Times, May 18, 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/ 2024/05/18/world/asia/muslims-india.html. “Modi Accused of Hate Speech for Calling Muslims ‘infiltrators’ at a Rally Days into India’s Election.” NBCNews.com, April 23, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/india- 2024. modi- accused-hate-speech-calling-muslims-infiltratorsrcna148916. 2397 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH “Narendra Modi.” Encyclopædia Britannica, December 3, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/biography/ Narendra-Modi. Rachman, Gideon. “China, India and the Rise of the ‘Civilisation State.” Financial Times, March 4, 2019. https://www.ft.com/content/ b6bc9ac2-3e5b-11e9-9bee-efab61506f44. Raghavan, Srinath. “History in the Service of Hindutva.” The India Forum, February 28, 2023. https://www.theindiaforum.in/book-reviews/historyservice-hindutva. Rathore, Manya. “Topic: Demographics of India.” Statista. Accessed December 4, 2024. https://www.statista.com/topics/10801/demographicsof-india/. Saaliq, Sheikh. “India’s New Citizenship Law Excludes Muslims. Here’s What to Know.” AP News, March 15, 2024. https://apnews.com/article/india-citizenship-lawmodi-muslimscaa-28909f8df0e6d5e0915e065195abef14. Saaliq, Sheikh. “Why India’s Government Wants to Change the Country’s Name to ‘Bharat.’” AP News, September 6, 2023. https://apnews.com/article/india2398 RANGE sanskrit-name-bharat- modi- g20-72782ba81aa67dcf7e197a98fec9b5f5. Silver, Laura. “Key Facts as India Surpasses China as the World’s Most Populous Country.” Pew Research Center, February 9, 2023. https://www.pewresearch.org/short- reads/2023/02/09/ key-facts-as-india-surpasses-china-as-the-worldsmost-populous- country/. Sirabella, John. “Hinduism: An Identity for India’s Diverse Cultures.” CNEWA. Accessed December 4, 2024. https://cnewa.org/magazine/hinduism-an- identity-for-indias-diverse- cultures-30259/. Viswanath, Sunita. “Modi’s Religious Nationalism Hurts India’s Hindus, Too.” Foreign Policy, May 27, 2021. https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/05/26/modi-hindunationalism-hindutva- hurts-hindus-too/. “What Is Hindutva?” Hindutva Harassment Field Manual. Accessed December 4, https://www.hindutvaharassmentfieldmanual.org/ defininghindutva. 2399 2024. OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 142 Research Reflection by Zachary Silva ZACHARY SILVA Faculty Mentor: Hakan Yavuz (Political Science, University of Utah) I will forever be grateful for the research skills I have gained while an undergraduate at the University of Utah. I aspire to one day work in the field of international diplomacy, a field whose bedrock is 2400 RANGE compiling accurate research. Without a deep and thorough understanding of the internal politics, cultural dynamics, and social fabric of a nation, effective diplomacy would be impossible. This experience allowed me to improve upon those vital skills, which I have no doubt will enhance my effectiveness as a future diplomat and scholar of international relations. 2401 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 143 Does Maternal Sensitivity Mediate the Intergenerational Impact of Maternal Emotion Dysregulation? THEA WULFF Faculty Mentor: Lee Raby (Psychology, University of Utah) A Senior Honors Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of The University of Utah 2402 RANGE ABSTRACT Emotion dysregulation recognizing and involves accepting difficulties with emotions and one’s modulating emotional responses and behaviors to act in alignment with one’s goals. Mothers’ emotion dysregulation may have intergenerational implications for the developing child. Of particular interest in this study are children’s risks of developing socioemotional difficulties underlying psychopathology. Mothers’ parental sensitivity during parent-infant interactions may be involved in mediating the impact of a mother’s emotion dysregulation socioemotional on outcomes. the young Parental child’s sensitivity is generally conceptualized as an ability to “follow the child’s lead” through an awareness of their needs, moods, interests, and capabilities. The aims of the current study are: (1) to test whether mothers’ emotion dysregulation during pregnancy predicts toddlers’ socioemotional difficulties and (2) examine whether maternal sensitivity during infancy mediates the intergenerational association between maternal emotion dysregulation and toddlers’ socioemotional difficulties. Data were collected from 385 mothers (average age = 29 years) who were recruited while pregnant. Mothers’ selfreported difficulties with emotion regulation were 2403 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH assessed at a prenatal visit. The mothers were observed interacting with their infants during a non-distressing 10-minute play task when their infants were approximately 7 months old, and their sensitivity to the infants’ signals was rated by a team of trained coders. When the children were age 18 months, mothers reported on their toddlers’ socioemotional difficulties using a well validated parent-report measure. Consistent with my first hypothesis, the results indicated that mothers who reported higher prenatal emotion dysregulation had toddlers with greater externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, and dysregulation. Contrary to my second hypothesis, maternal sensitivity did not significantly mediate these intergenerational associations. Specifically, mothers with higher prenatal emotion dysregulation were not significantly less sensitive during non-distressing mother-infant interactions, and maternal sensitivity during infancy did not significantly predict toddlers’ socioemotional outcomes. The results of this study support the idea that programs designed to support mothers’ mental health may also have benefits for their children. INTRODUCTION Emotion regulation is conceptualized as an awareness, 2404 RANGE understanding, and acceptance of one’s emotions, as well as the ability to modulate emotional responses and control behaviors in order to act in alignment with goals when experiencing negative emotions (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). In contrast, emotion dysregulation is marked by difficulties with these components. Emotion regulation is widely acknowledged as a critical facet of one’s well-being throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood (Brewer et al., 2016; Daniel et al., 2020; Gross & Munoz, 1995). Conversely, emotion dysregulation is thought to underlie many abnormal behaviors and psychopathology symptoms, including borderline personality disorder, self-injurious thoughts and behaviors, depression, and anxiety (Lin et al., 2019). In this way, emotion dysregulation functions as a risk factor for multiple clinical diagnoses (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). Emotion dysregulation among parents also is thought to have intergenerational implications for the developing child, especially children’s socioemotional development (Keenan, 2000; Li et al., 2019). For example, mothers’ self-reported emotion regulation difficulties predict behavioral problems in children, including internalizing behaviors like anxiety and depression and externalizing behaviors like aggression and defiance (Leerkes et al., 2405 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2020). However, many of these studies focus on children at preschool age or older, so there is a general lack of information about implications of emotion dysregulation for children’s outcomes during early toddlerhood. Gaining an understanding of what transpires during this early time period is essential in targeting early intervention to ameliorate the effects of intergenerational emotion dysregulation. A second critical gap in this field of research is identifying the precise mechanisms by which maternal emotion dysregulation may influence children’s early socioemotional outcomes. Parenting behaviors might be one mechanism through which this occurs, as maternal emotion dysregulation has important implications for parenting behaviors during infancy and later child development (Dix, 1991; Leerkes et al., 2020; Teti & Cole, 2011). One key dimension of parenting behavior that is especially important during infancy is parental sensitivity. Parenting sensitivity is generally conceptualized as the mother’s ability to “follow the child’s lead” through an awareness of the child’s needs, moods, interests, and capabilities (Ainsworth et al., 2015). A highly sensitive mother is able to accurately perceive and interpret their child’s cues and respond appropriately, whereas an insensitive mother is often 2406 RANGE intrusive, disengaged, or hostile towards their child (Rosenblum et al., 2020). Maternal sensitivity during parent-child interactions might mediate the impact of a mother’s emotion dysregulation on the child’s outcomes. Parents’ effective regulation of negative emotions can lend itself to sensitive parenting behaviors (Dix, 1991; Teti & Cole, 2011). Conversely, higher emotion dysregulation is associated with decreased sensitivity to the child’s needs during parent-child interactions (Borairi et al., 2024; Carreras et al., 2019; de Campora et al., 2014; Leerkes et al., 2020). These findings are consistent with evidence that mental health disorders like depression can disrupt sensitive parenting behaviors, possibly through a reduced emotion regulation capacity (Bernard et al., 2018; Borairi et al., 2024; Haga et al., 2012). It is also generally recognized that maternal sensitivity promotes more competent outcomes among young children (Frick et al., 2018). For example, a recent meta-analysis of over 100 studies indicated that parenting sensitivity has small but statistically significant negative associations with internalizing behavior problems and externalizing behavior problems among children (Cooke et al., 2022). However, very few studies have directly tested whether maternal sensitivity 2407 mediates the OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH intergenerational associations between parental emotion dysregulation and child outcomes using a longitudinal research design. The purpose of this study was to address these research gaps. The first aim of this project was to examine whether maternal emotion dysregulation during pregnancy predicts toddler socioemotional outcomes. The second aim was to test whether maternal sensitivity to their infants’ signals during mother-infant interactions mediates the intergenerational associations between prenatal maternal emotion dysregulation and toddlers’ socioemotional outcomes. Data for the project were collected from 385 mother-child dyads between pregnancy and 18 months postpartum. Maternal selfreported emotion dysregulation was measured during the third trimester of pregnancy, observations of maternal sensitivity were collected when children were approximately 7-months old, and toddlers’ socioemotional outcomes were measured using parentreport questionnaires when the children were 18-months old. I hypothesized that mothers who report higher prenatal emotion dysregulation would have toddlers with greater socioemotional difficulties (Hypothesis 1). I hypothesized that mothers with higher prenatal emotion 2408 RANGE dysregulation would be less sensitive during nondistressing mother-infant interactions (Hypothesis 2a) and that mothers who are less sensitive to infants would have toddlers with greater socioemotional difficulties (Hypothesis 2b). Lastly, I hypothesized that the association between prenatal emotion dysregulation and toddlers’ socioemotional outcomes would be significantly weaker after accounting for maternal sensitivity (Hypothesis 2c). See Figure 1 for an illustration of the hypothesized model. Figure 1. Hypotheses regarding the intergenerational associations between maternal prenatal emotion dysregulation and toddlers’ socioemotional difficulties (Hypothesis 1) as well as the mediational role of maternal sensitivity (Hypotheses 2a, 2b, and 2c). 2409 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH METHODS Participants The data used in this project were collected from the Baby Affect and Behavior Study (BABY), which is a longitudinal project that examines the intergenerational transmission of emotion dysregulation from mother to child. Pregnant individuals were recruited from Salt Lake City and the surrounding area through their obstetrician appointments and through flyers, brochures, and posts on social media. Eligibility criteria included being between 18 and 40 years old, at least 25 weeks pregnant, no pregnancy complications, no substance use during pregnancy, and a plan to deliver at a participating hospital. Those interested in participating completed a brief demographic questionnaire to determine eligibility as well as the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS; Gratz & Roemer, 2004). In order to facilitate a sample with a uniform distribution of emotion dysregulation scores, pregnant individuals with high and low DERS scores were intentionally oversampled. In addition, pregnant individuals who identified as belonging to a minority racial/ethnic group were also intentionally oversampled to increase the racial/ethnic diversity of the sample. 2410 RANGE A total of 385 pregnant individuals were ultimately included in the BABY project. Most (60%) mothers identified as White/non-Hispanic, 20% identified as Hispanic, and 20% identified as a different non-White race or ethnicity. Mothers’ ages ranged from 18 to 40 years (average of 29 years old). Mothers reported a median household income of $50,000 to $79,999, and 55% of the mothers had graduated college. Approximately 52% of the children were assigned female at birth, and 48% were assigned male. Procedure This thesis focuses on data collected from these 385 mother-child dyads during the prenatal, 7-month, and 18-month time points. Mothers completed the DERS during their third trimester of pregnancy. Later, they were observed playing with their infants during a nondistressing interaction when their infants were approximately 7-months old. When the children were 18 months, mothers reported on their toddlers’ socioemotional outcomes. Measures Maternal emotion dysregulation (prenatal). Mothers completed the DERS (Gratz & Roemer, 2004) during 2411 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH their third trimester of pregnancy. The DERS is a wellvalidated self-report questionnaire that includes 36 questions designed to assess adults’ emotion regulation difficulties in six domains, including nonacceptance of emotional responses, difficulty engaging in goaldirected behavior, impulse control difficulties, lack of emotional awareness, limited access to emotion regulation strategies, and lack of emotional clarity. Examples of questions asked on the DERS include: “I experience my emotions as overwhelming and out of control” and “I have difficulty making sense out of my feelings.” Participants respond to these questions on a 5-point Likert scale (1 – almost never to 5 – almost always). A total emotion dysregulation score was created by reverse scoring relevant questions and then calculating the average of the 36 items. A higher score indicates greater difficulty with regulating emotions. Maternal sensitivity (7 months) months). Maternal sensitivity to the child was observed during a non-distressing 10-minute play interaction at the 7-month visit. The observations were coded using the Observational Record of the Caregiving Environment, which is a well-validated system for coding parental sensitivity to their infant’s signals (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 1996). Parental behavior was coded using four scales. 2412 RANGE The first was sensitivity to non-distress, which captures the mother’s ability to “follow the child’s lead” through an awareness of the child’s needs, moods, interests, and capabilities (Bernard et al., 2013). The second rating was intrusiveness, which represents the extent to which the mother pushes their agenda on the child (i.e., adultcentered play), despite indicators that a different activity, level, or pace of interaction is needed. The third rating was detachment, which indicates whether a mother is emotionally uninvolved in the interaction or unaware of the child’s needs for appropriate interaction to facilitate involvement with objects or people. The fourth rating was positive regard, which reflects the mother’s positive feelings toward the child, including behaviors like speaking in a warm tone of voice, affectionate physical contact, and listening and watching attentively. For each of these scales, the mother’s behavior was rated using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from one to five. Half scores were permitted. Each video was independently coded by two trained coders, and the correlations between the scores assigned by the two coders were between .54 and .70 for the four scales. Coders’ scores were conferenced to arrive at a final score for each scale. There is meta-analytic evidence 2413 that composite OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH measures of maternal sensitivity predict child behavior problems more strongly than single scales (Cooke et al., 2022). For this reason, a composite measure of maternal sensitivity was created. Specifically, maternal intrusiveness and detachment were reserve-scored, and a composite measure of overall maternal sensitivity during the free-play interaction was created by averaging the scores for the four ratings. Toddler socioemotional outcomes (18 months) months). Mothers completed the Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA; Carter et al., 2003) at the 18-month visit. The ITSEA is a comprehensive parent-report questionnaire that includes 166 items that examine children’s externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems, regulation abilities, and socioemotional competencies. The behaviors include those that are atypical for normal child development, as well as behaviors that are done in excess or are lacking when compared to typical development. The ITSEA includes 17 subscales that can be consolidated into four domains. The first domain is externalizing behaviors, which captures children’s activity/impulsivity, aggression/ defiance, and peer aggression. The second domain is internalizing behaviors, which is composed of toddlers’ depression/withdrawal, general 2414 anxiety, separation RANGE distress, and inhibition to novelty. The third domain is dysregulation, which assesses toddlers’ sleep problems, negative emotionality, eating difficulties, and sensory sensitivities. The fourth domain is competence, which includes toddlers’ compliance, attention, imitation/play, mastery, motivation, empathy, and prosocial peer relations. I examined each of these domains separately in my analyses. Questions are answered using a 3-point Like scale (0 = not true or rarely, 1 = somewhat true or sometimes, 2 = very true or often). Composite scores were created by reverse scoring the necessary items and then calculating the average of the relevant questions. RESULTS Descriptive Statistics The descriptive statistics for the variables included in the analyses are reported in Table 1. All descriptive statistics were run in RStudio. The average DERS was 2.23, which suggests that mothers’ responses tended to fall in the midpoint on this 5-point scale. The minimum score on the DERS was 1.00 (equivalent to selecting “almost never” for all items) and the maximum score was 4.58 (which is between “most of the time” and “almost always”), indicating that mothers’ levels of self-reported emotion dysregulation exhibited wide variability. 2415 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The average for mothers’ parental sensitivity was 3.58, suggesting that mothers tended to receive scores between a 3 (somewhat characteristic) and a 4 (moderately characteristic) in their sensitive parenting behaviors on the 5-point rating scales. Parental sensitivity had a minimum of 1.75 and a maximum of 4.81, indicating that some mothers received low ratings, while other mothers received very high ratings. The average scores for ITSEA externalizing behaviors, internalizing behaviors, and dysregulation were between 0.42 and 0.54, suggesting that, on average, mothers reported their toddlers’ problematic behaviors as falling between 0 (not true/rarely) and 1 (somewhat true/sometimes). Scores on these scales ranged from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 1.36, indicating a relatively wide range in toddlers’ problematic behaviors in this sample. The average score for ITSEA competence was 1.27, suggesting that, on average, mothers reported behaviors related to their toddlers’ competence as falling between 1 (somewhat true/sometimes) and 2 (very true/often). Scores ranged from a minimum of 0.39 to a maximum of 1.93, indicating substantial variability in mothers’ reported behaviors related to their toddlers’ competence. 2416 RANGE Table 1. Correlational Analyses For this study, I addressed two main research questions. First, I examined whether maternal emotion dysregulation during pregnancy predicted toddler socioemotional difficulties. I hypothesized that mothers who report higher prenatal emotion dysregulation would have toddlers with greater externalizing behavior problems, internalizing dysregulation as well behavior problems, as socioemotional lower and competence (Hypothesis 1). I used Pearson’s productmoment correlation in RStudio to evaluate whether the correlations among these variables were statistically different from zero. As I expected, maternal emotion dysregulation was positively correlated with toddlers’ externalizing behavior problems (r = .18, p = .008), internalizing behavior problems (r = .16, p = .007), and 2417 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH dysregulation (r = .18, p = .002). In contrast to my hypothesis, maternal emotion dysregulation was not significantly correlated with toddlers’ socioemotional competence (r = .00, p = .96). Second, I examined whether maternal parenting sensitivity at least partially mediates the association between maternal emotion dysregulation and toddler socioemotional outcomes. I hypothesized that mothers with higher prenatal emotion dysregulation would be less sensitive during non-distressing mother-infant interactions (Hypothesis 2a). I used Pearson’s productmoment correlation in RStudio to determine whether the correlation between these variables was statistically different from zero. In contrast to my hypothesis, maternal emotion dysregulation was not significantly correlated with parenting sensitivity (r = -.09, p = .15). I also hypothesized that mothers who were less sensitive to infants would have toddlers with greater externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, and dysregulation as well as less socioemotional competence (Hypothesis 2b). I used Pearson’s productmoment correlation in RStudio to determine whether the correlations among these variables are statistically different from zero. In contrast to my hypothesis, 2418 RANGE maternal sensitivity was not significantly correlated with toddlers’ externalizing behavior problems (r = -.09, p = .21), internalizing behavior problems (r = .07, p = .27), dysregulation (r = -.04, p = .51), or socioemotional competence (r = .01, p = .92). Mediation Analyses Lastly, I hypothesized that the association between prenatal emotion dysregulation and toddlers’ socioemotional outcomes would be significantly weaker after accounting for maternal sensitivity (Hypothesis 2c). To test that hypothesis, I ran a mediation analysis for each of the four socioemotional outcomes (externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, dysregulation, and competence). These mediation analyses were run in RStudio using the lavaan package. Contrary to my hypothesis but consistent with the results of the correlational analyses reported above, I found that the indirect effect between prenatal emotion dysregulation via the mediator (maternal sensitivity) was not significant for toddler externalizing behavior problems (p = .28), toddler internalizing behavior problems (p = .29), toddler dysregulation (p = .67), or toddler socioemotional competence (p = .81). Even after accounting for maternal sensitivity, DERS predicted 2419 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH toddler’ externalizing behavior problems (β = .20, p = .004), internalizing behavior problems (β = .16, p = .007), and dysregulation (β = .18, p = .003). DERS did not significantly predict toddler socioemotional competence with maternal sensitivity included in the model (β = -.02, p = .75). DISCUSSION The first aim of this project was to examine whether maternal emotion dysregulation during pregnancy predicted toddler socioemotional difficulties. As I hypothesized, mothers’ prenatal emotion dysregulation was positively correlated with toddlers’ externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, and dysregulation. These results align with the findings of other studies which suggest that maternal emotion dysregulation predicts later behavioral problems in children, externalizing particularly internalizing behaviors, and behaviors, socioemotional dysregulation (Leerkes et al., 2020). My project also extends findings in existing literature, as maternal emotion dysregulation was assessed at the prenatal time point, compared to many studies that examine emotion dysregulation postnatally. Measuring maternal emotion dysregulation prenatally is important because it helps reduce the likelihood that the associations between 2420 RANGE maternal emotion dysregulation and toddler outcomes are due to children evoking emotion dysregulation. Because maternal emotion dysregulation was measured before the child was born, there is increased confidence that it is the mother’s emotion dysregulation shaping toddler outcomes, rather than the other way around. Also, children’s outcomes were assessed during toddlerhood for the current study, rather than at preschool age or older as is common in other research in this area (e.g., Leerkes et al., 2020). Given that children’s brains are generally assumed to be especially plastic during the first couple years of development, it is critical that research examines these early years. Understanding when these problems develop can contribute to more effective early intervention strategies. In contrast to my hypothesis, maternal emotion dysregulation was not significantly correlated with toddlers’ socioemotional competence. It is possible that the early emergence of competence is not shaped by the home environment (including maternal emotion regulation), but instead by other factors that may be more in line with temperament. It is also possible that competence might appear more strongly associated with features of the home environment at a later age. Existing literature suggests that toddlers who exhibit early 2421 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH behavior problems like externalizing behavior problems and dysregulation are at greater risk for developing problems with socioemotional competence at around 5 years old (Blandon et al., 2010). The second aim of this project was to examine whether maternal parenting sensitivity at least partially mediates the association between maternal emotion dysregulation and toddler socioemotional outcomes. In contrast to my hypothesis, parenting sensitivity was not significantly correlated with maternal emotion dysregulation or with toddlers’ externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, dysregulation, or socioemotional competence. Thus, the indirect effects of maternal emotion dysregulation and toddler socioemotional outcomes via parenting sensitivity were not significant. Prior studies have suggested that parents’ effective regulation of negative emotions can lend itself to sensitive parenting behaviors (Dix, 1991; Teti & Cole, 2011) and conversely that emotion dysregulation is associated with decreased sensitivity to the child’s needs during parent-child interactions (Borairi et al., 2024; Carreras et al., 2019; de Campora et al., 2014; Leerkes et al., 2020). In contrast, the results of this study indicated that maternal emotion dysregulation was not significantly correlated with parenting sensitivity. It is 2422 RANGE possible that measuring maternal emotion dysregulation prenatally does not accurately capture the mother’s emotion dysregulation after the birth of the child. The measure of maternal sensitivity used in this project may also be an incomplete picture of the quality of caregiving mothers generally provide for their children on a day-to-day basis. For example, using multiple observations of parenting sensitivity may provide a more complete measure of the quality of caregiving mothers generally provide for their children. Existing research indicates that effect sizes between maternal sensitivity and related variables increased as the number of observations of maternal sensitivity increased (Lindhiem et al., 2010). In general, maternal sensitivity has been found to be associated with more competent outcomes among young children (Frick et al., 2018). For example, a recent meta-analysis of over 100 studies indicated that parenting sensitivity is negatively associated with internalizing behavior problems and externalizing behavior problems among children (Cooke et al., 2022). In contrast to this existing literature, my project found that maternal sensitivity was not significantly correlated problems, with toddlers’ internalizing 2423 externalizing behavior behavior problems, OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH dysregulation, or socioemotional competence. While these associations observed in this study were not statistically different from zero, it is important to note that the magnitude of the association for toddler externalizing behavior problems was similar to those reported in the meta-analysis (r = -.09 and r = -.14, respectively; Cooke et al., 2022). It is possible that the current project lacked sufficient power to generate a significant effect. This is despite the fact that the current study had a sample size of 385, which is nearly three times as large as the median sample size of prior studies included in the meta-analysis (Cooke et al., 2022). In other words, although the current had a relatively large sample size, an even larger sample size might be necessary to detect the small effects of maternal sensitivity on child behavior problems as statistically significant. FUTURE DIRECTIONS A potentially valuable direction for future research would be to examine different measures of maternal sensitivity. Specifically, this project used a measure of maternal sensitivity during free-play interactions when infants were not distressed. It is possible that parental responses to an infant’s distress cues may be more strongly associated with children’s later socioemotional 2424 RANGE outcomes than responses to play/exploration, which may be a better predictor of cognitive outcomes. For example, maternal sensitivity to infant distress has been shown to be associated with fewer behavior problems at 24 and 36 months and with greater social competence at 24 months (Leerkes et al., 2009). In addition, parents’ difficulty with managing negative emotions might be more strongly associated with their responses to their infant’s distress than their responses to non-distress bids for play and exploration. Regarding toddlers’ socioemotional outcomes, it might be more effective to use assessments other than parentreport including observations or teacher report measures. It could also be helpful to examine toddlers’ socioemotional outcomes at later ages, including preschool, elementary school years, and beyond. Studies could also measure toddlers’ socioemotional outcomes at an additional later time point, in order to determine the effect of these early socioemotional difficulties on longer term socioemotional functioning. Research could also look at toddlers’ outcomes in other domains like cognitive functioning. CONCLUSION In summary, this project examined whether maternal 2425 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH emotion dysregulation during pregnancy predicted toddler socioemotional difficulties. This project also examined whether maternal parenting sensitivity at least partially mediated the association between maternal emotion dysregulation and toddler socioemotional outcomes. Maternal emotion positively correlated with dysregulation toddlers’ was externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, and dysregulation, but not with toddler competence. Maternal emotion dysregulation was not significantly correlated with maternal parenting sensitivity and parenting sensitivity was not significantly correlated with toddlers’ socioemotional problems, indicating that the indirect effect of parenting sensitivity on the relationship between maternal emotion dysregulation and toddler socioemotional outcomes was not significant. These findings contribute to developmental psychology by highlighting the role that maternal mental health may play on toddlers’ socioemotional outcomes during early child development. This research provides insights for interventions that support mothers’ emotion regulation, which may have implications for toddlers’ socioemotional outcomes. REFERENCES Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, 2426 RANGE S. N. (2015). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. New York: Psychology Press. Beauchaine, T. P., & Cicchetti, D. (2019). Emotion dysregulation transdiagnostic, and emerging psychopathology: transdisciplinary A perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 31(3), 799–804. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579419000671 Bernard, K., Meade, E. B., & Dozier, M. (2013). Parental synchrony and nurturance as targets in an attachment based intervention: Building upon Mary Ainsworth’s insights about mother-infant interaction. Attachment & Human Development, 15(5-6), 507-523. 10.1080/ 14616734.2013.820920 Bernard, K., Nissim, G., Vaccaro, S., Harris, J. L., & Lindhiem, O. (2018). Association between maternal depression and maternal sensitivity from birth to 12 months: A meta-analysis. Attachment & Human Development, 20(6), 578–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14616734.2018.1430839 Blandon, A. Y., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2010). Predicting emotional and social competence during early childhood from toddler risk and maternal behavior. 2427 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Development and Psychopathology, 22(1), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579409990307 Borairi, S., Deneault, A., Madigan, S., Fearon, P., Devereux, C., Geer, M., Jeyanayagam, B., Martini, J., & Jenkins, J. (2024). A meta-analytic examination of sensitive responsiveness as a mediator between depression in mothers and psychopathology in children. Attachment & Human Development, 26(4), 273–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2024.2359689 Brewer, S. K., Zahniser, E., & Conley, C. S. (2016). Longitudinal emerging impacts adults: of emotion Variable- approaches. Journal of Psychology, 47, 1–12. regulation on and person-centered Applied Developmental https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.appdev.2016.09.002 Bushman, B. J., Baumeister, R. F., & Phillips, C. M. (2001). Do people agree to improve their mood? Catharsis beliefs, affect regulation opportunity, and aggressive responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 17–32. Carreras, J., Carter, A. S., Heberle, A., Forbes, D., & Gray, S. O. (2019). Emotion regulation and parent distress: Getting at the heart of sensitive parenting 2428 RANGE among parents of preschool children experiencing high sociodemographic risk. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(11), 2953–2962. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10826-019-01471-z Carter, A. S., Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Jones, S. M., & Little, T. D. (2003). The Infant- Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA): Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 495–514. https://doi.org/10.1023/ a:1025449031360 Cooke, J. E., Deneault, A., Devereux, C., Eirich, R., Fearon, R. M. P., & Madigan, S. (2022). Parental sensitivity and child behavioral problems: A meta‐analytic review. Child Development, 93(5), 1231–1248. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13764 Daniel, S. K., Abdel-Baki, R., & Hall, G. B. (2020). The protective effect of emotion regulation on child and adolescent wellbeing. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(7), 2010–2027. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10826-020-01731-3 De Campora, G., Giromini, L., Larciprete, G., Volsi, V. L., & Zavattini, G. C. (2014). The impact of maternal overweight and emotion regulation on early eating 2429 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH behaviors. Eating Behaviors, 15(3), 403–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.04.013 Dix, T. (1991). The affective organization of parenting: Adaptive and maladaptative processes. Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/ 0033-2909.110.1.3 Fenson, L., Marchman, V. A., Thal, D. J., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J. S., & Bates, E. (2007) MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories: User’s Guide and Technical Manual. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Frick, M. A., Forslund, T., Fransson, M., Johansson, M., Bohlin, G., & Brocki, K. C. (2017). The role of sustained attention, maternal sensitivity, and infant temperament in the development of early self‐regulation. British Journal of Psychology, 109(2), 277–298. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/bjop.12266 Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2003). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 2430 RANGE 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/ b:joba.0000007455.08539.94 Gross, J. J., & Muñoz, R. F. (1995). Emotion regulation and mental health. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice, 2(2), 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1468-2850.1995.tb00036.x Haga, S. M., Ulleberg, P., Slinning, K., Kraft, P., Steen, T. B., & Staff, A. (2012). A longitudinal study of postpartum depressive symptoms: multilevel growth curve analyses of emotion regulation strategies, breastfeeding self-efficacy, and social support. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 15(3), 175–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-012-0274-2 Keenan, K. (2000). Emotion dysregulation as a risk factor for child psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice, 7(4), 418–434. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/clipsy.7.4.418 Leerkes, E. M., Blankson, A. N., & O’Brien, M. (2009). Differential effects of maternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress on Social‐Emotional functioning. Child Development, 80(3), 762–775. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01296.x Leerkes, E. M., Su, J., & Sommers, S. A. (2020). Mothers’ 2431 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH self‐reported emotion dysregulation: A potentially valid method in the field of infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 41(5), 642–650. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/imhj.21873 Li, D., Wu, N., & Wang, Z. (2019). Intergenerational transmission of emotion regulation through parents’ reactions to children’s negative emotions: Tests of unique, actor, partner, and mediating effects. Children and Youth Services Review, 101, 113– 122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.03.038 Lin, B., Kaliush, P. R., Conradt, E., Terrell, S., Neff, D., Allen, A. K., … & Crowell, S. E. (2019). Intergenerational transmission of emotion dysregulation: Part I. Psychopathology, self-injury, and parasympathetic responsivity among pregnant women. Development and Psychopathology, 31(3), 817-831. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579419000336 Lindhiem, O., Bernard, K., & Dozier, M. (2010). Maternal sensitivity: Within-person variability and the utility of multiple assessments. Child Maltreatment, 16(1), 41– 50. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1077559510387662 Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive–behavioral treatment 2432 RANGE of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press. Mennin, D. S., Heimberg, R. G., Turk, C. L., & Fresco, D. M. (2002). Applying an emotion regulation framework to integrative approaches to generalized anxiety disorder. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice, 9(1), 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1093/ clipsy.9.1.85 NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1996). Observational Record of the Caregiving Environment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 11(3), 269-306. Rosenblum, K. L., Muzik, M., Jester, J. M., Huth‐Bocks, A., Erickson, N., Ludtke, M., Weatherston, D., Brophy‐Herb, H., Tableman, B., Alfafara, E., & Waddell, infant–parent R. (2020). psychotherapy Community‐delivered improves maternal sensitive caregiving: Evaluation of the Michigan model of infant mental health home visiting. Infant Mental Health Journal, 41(2), 178–190. https://doi.org/10.1002/ imhj.21840 Rutherford, H. J., Wallace, N. S., Laurent, H. K., & Mayes, L. C. (2015). Emotion regulation in parenthood. 2433 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Developmental Review, 36, 1–14. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.dr.2014.12.008 Teti, D. M., & Cole, P. M. (2011). Parenting at risk: New perspectives, new approaches. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(5), 625–634. https://doi.org/10.1037/ a0025287 2434 RANGE 144 Research Reflection by Thea Wulff THEA WULFF Faculty Mentor: Lee Raby (Psychology, University of Utah) My undergraduate research experience has had a huge impact on both my education and career goals. Before beginning my work as a research assistant in the Early Experiences Lab (supervised by Dr. Lee Raby), I had no idea what I would do after graduating. However, just one month into working in Dr. Raby’s lab, it became 2435 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH clear that I had a passion for research in developmental psychology. Over the past two years, I have fulfilled various roles in the Early Experiences Lab, joined the Life-span Development & Adaptation Lab (supervised by Dr. Cynthia Berg), participated in the UROP, worked on an Honors thesis, and more. My goal is to earn a doctoral degree in developmental psychology. I feel fortunate to have come across these opportunities during my time at the University of Utah, and for the mentorship I have received from faculty, graduate students, and peers along the way. 2436 RANGE 145 Reconstructing Ice-Age Climates of the Great Basin Using Paleoclimate Proxy Data ELLIE ZIEMER Faculty Mentor: Larry Coats (Geography, University of Utah) PROJECT BACKGROUND During the Late Wisconsin, alpine glaciers and pluvial lakes were present in the Great Basin. In Smith Creek 2437 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Canyon in the northern Snake Range Lake Bonneville reached 3-4 km below the entrance of the canyon (Emslie and Mead, 2023). While mountain glaciers reached as low as 29000 meters a large gap remained between the lake and glaciers. This gap would have been home to different biotic communities, some of these containing Pleistocene fauna that no longer exist at this site. Ladder Cave is located on the northern face of Smith Creek Canyon. It sits at 2060 meters in elevation within steep east-west limestone cliffs. It has two entrances, one on south side and one on the north side. The north entrance is surrounded by xeric pinyon juniper woodlands as well as an abundance of desert plants. Water runs in the canyon throughout the year, however the level of flow has varied over time. During the late Pleistocene if would have been a very different environment. For example, there was much more effective moisture than we have today, either because of lower temperatures or higher precipitation, this glacial environment would have supported different floral communities than present today. From previous work we know bristlecone pine, Engelmann spruce, and the Rocky Mountain juniper were present at lower elevations and growing in the 2438 RANGE valleys below the cave (Thompson and Mead 1982). Initially, with Lake Bonneville at its high stand, this vegetation would have surrounded the lakeshore. After the Bonneville Flood the basin would have transformed into marshes and wetlands. Finally, in the Holocene, modern day aridity would eventually set in, although there were cooler phases with increased precipitation earlier, and dry periods with intense droughts later (Wriston 2008). The purpose of this study is to detect ecosystem changes, specifically floral changes, that are revealed by the study of cave sediments from Ladder Cave. Because of the abundance of floral macro- and micro-fossils in these sediments, reconstruction of the late-glacial to Holocene transition will be possible at a detail never attained before. METHODS Ladder Cave Test Pit 4 was excavated in 2023. This test pit reached a depth of 140 cm, with and radiocarbon analysis confirming that the ages range from 50,000 yr BP to present. Once sediment was collected from the cave it was brought back to the lab for processing. The sediment was first washed and dried. After sediment was washed, it was transferred into a bag to be picked. 2439 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Sediment from Ladder Cave has preserved several types of insects, macrofossils, and microfauna. The tools needed in the picking process are small tweezers, a microscope, a metal dish, and a petri dish. It is a tedious process where you use these tweezers to pick up every fossil one by one. Once picking was finished, the sediment was sorted into vials. Finally, the fossils were identified and sent for radiocarbon dating. After everything has been sorted and identified, I made a C2 graph to display the data. C2 is a program made specifically for displaying, analyzing, and visualizing paleoclimatic data. The C2 graph displays seven different species from levels 1-7. The graph uses numbers to show abundance. One means there is little material present, 2 being moderate, and 3 being the species is very abundant. Results/C2 graph explanation The C2 graph (figure 1) displays different species who each thrive in unique conditions. The presence of Pinus longavea (bristlecone pine) reflects cooler and wet conditions. Celtis reticulata grows in the bottomlands of rocky canyons and prefers dry conditions. Acer glabrum (rocky mountain maple) is absent in level seven, and becomes spare in 4-6, 1-2 2440 RANGE and is more prevalent in level 3. The change in occurrence means there is variability in precipitation. Pinus monophylla (pinyon pine) in present in levels 5-7 as well as 1-2. It becomes absent in levels 3-4. Pinyon pine typically grows in association with juniper and prefers dry rocky slopes. Juniperus osteosperma (Utah juniper) is present in all levels and is most abundant in 1,2, and 5. Juniper prefers dry conditions with hot dry summers, and warm wet winters. The increase in the upper levels indicates a shift toward drier conditions. Ribes montigenum (mountain gooseberry) has little variation level to level. It is however less abundant in the upper levels and prefers dry conditions, but it will grow along streams and washes. Jamesia americana (cliff bush) is present in all seven levels with an increase in abundance in levels 3-5. Like its name, cliff bush prefers sandstone cliffs as well as a wetter climate. CONCLUSIONS With the conclusion of this study, there has been an increased abundance of data from a variety of floral macro- and micro- fossils. During the late Pleistocene there was more effective moisture due to lower temperatures or higher precipitation. This is reflected by the presence of species that prefer these 2441 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH environments like bristlecone pine and cliff bush. Past climate regimes allowed for mesic and xeric communities to occur in the same environments. The next steps for this project would be preparing for publication. BIBLIOGRAPHY Emslie, S. D., & Meltzer, D. J. (2019). Late Quaternary vertebrates from the Upper Gunnison Basin, Colorado, and small-mammal community resilience to climate change since the last glacial maximum. Quaternary Research, 92(2), 388-407. Mead, J. I., Emslie, S. D., & Meltzer, D. J. (2023). Late Pleistocene herpetofauna from two highelevation caves in the Upper Gunnison Basin, Colorado. Western North American Naturalist, 83(3), 413-426. Reheis, M. (1999). Highest pluvial-lake shorelines and Pleistocene climate of the western Great Basin. Quaternary research, 52(2), 196-205. Wriston, T. “Great Basin Archaeology During the Middle Holocene: a Reflection of Environmental Change.” AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. Vol. 2008. 2008. 2442 RANGE 146 Edible Campus Gardens Impact and Engagement Study ELISABETH DIAZ AND COLLEEN JAMES Faculty Mentor: Colleen James (Undergraduate Studies, University of Utah) University Campus Gardens (UCGs) play an important role on their campuses yet are vulnerable to institutional change. Identifying the role of a UCG can potentially ease challenges the garden faces from an administrative 2443 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH perspective. Through the literature, UCGs have been connected to academics, student wellbeing, and food justice on campus. The objective of this project was to conduct a mixed methods engagement and impact study in collaboration with the Edible Campus Gardens (ECG) at the University of Utah. The study used three focus groups and a survey to gather data on student perspectives of the gardens in addition to feedback on what can be improved within the ECG. Deductive qualitative analysis indicated three major themes: experiential learning, wellbeing, and food justice. Wellbeing was the strongest theme, with students discussing both the social aspect of the garden environment and mental health benefits. Focus group data was used to inform the development of the subsequent survey. Quantitative analysis demonstrated that most students experienced positive outcomes related to the ECG, even when spending relatively few hours in the garden space during their first year. In assessing years in school and time spent in the garden as independent variables, an increase did not necessarily predict more positive outcomes such as deepened education, belonging, or feeling involved on campus; these outcomes were reported by all students to some degree. However, Fisher’s exact test revealed that spending more than ten hours engaging with the ECG was a 2444 RANGE significant predictor of a positive impact to student personal wellbeing. While limited in scope, this study served as a pilot for the Edible Campus Gardens, providing insight into the varied opinions of engaged students. Additional research on University Campus Gardens can improve our understanding of impacts to student experiences and garden connection to health, sustainability, and belonging. BIBLIOGRAPHY Baur, J. (2022). Campus community gardens and student health: A case study of a campus garden and student wellbeing. Journal of American College Health, 70(2), 377-384. Bice, M., Ball, J.W., Bickford, N., Bickford, S.H., Hollman, A.K., Coughlin, A.T., Dinkel, D., Meyer, R.C., & Ranglack, D. (2018). Community gardens: Interactions between communities, schools, and impact on students. Health Educator, 50(1), 2-10. Classens, M., Adam, K., Crouthers, S.D., Sheward, N., Lee, R. (2021). Campus Food Provision as Radical Pedagogy?Following Students on the Path to Equitable Food Systems. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, Vol 5. 2445 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Duram, L. A., & Klein, S. K. (2015). University food gardens: A unifying place for higher education sustainability. International Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development, 9(3-4), 282-302. Marsh, P., Mallick, S., Flies, E., Jones, P., Pearson, S., Koolhof, I., Byrne, J., & Kendal, D. (2020). Trust, connection and equity: Can understanding context help to establish successful campus community gardens?. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(20), 7476. Ruhl, J., & Lordly, D. (2021). University students harvesting the benefits of a garden laboratory. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 82(3), 107-114. Sherry, C. (2022). Learning from the dirt: Initiating university food gardens as a cross disciplinary tertiary teaching tool. Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education; Springer Link. Williamson, F. A., Rollings, A. J., Fore, G. A., Angstmann, J. L., & Sorge, B. H. (2023). Building capacity for socio-ecological change through the campus farm: A mixed methods study. Environmental Education Research, 29(2), 212-231 2446 RANGE 147 Research Reflection by Elisabeth Diaz ELISABETH DIAZ Faculty Mentor: Colleen James (Undergraduate Studies, University of Utah) My research project in collaboration with the Edible Campus Gardens, has been a transformative and wonderful experience during my undergraduate career. Seeing the project from 2447 conceptualization to OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH completion has allowed me to gain a well-rounded understanding of the research process. Conducting data collection and analysis has built my experience both with qualitative and quantitative research methods. Through using mixed methodology, I was able to see the strengths of both methods, and in turn, my project was more robust. Additionally, my project being a community-based research project has deepened my understanding of what role research can play to benefit the community. This research experience, while also personally fulfilling, has supported my intention to pursue graduate school for Environmental Sociology. I feel confident in my ability to succeed in a graduate program focused on research. Through my research experience, I have learned that I deeply enjoy working on community-based projects. I plan to continue doing this type of work and to continue building relevant and useful projects for the community at large. 2448 RANGE 148 Enrichment and Expansion of Individual Identity Through the Formation of Place DALLEN CALDER Faculty Mentor: Dominic Pecoraro (Honors College, University of Utah) Exit 103 1-84 East 2449 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Morgan 1 Mile I see the familiar sign and begin my unconscious routine. The speed limit on the freeway is 75 but as always, I am going five over. I wait about ten seconds then I put the car in neutral and let my momentum take me to exit 103. I’m on my way home from what people in my hometown would consider the big city, Salt Lake City. Getting off the freeway, I roll down my window. The wind rushes by but eventually slows as I brake at the stop sign. I don’t even see the stop sign; I just know it is there. I stay at the stop sign while I change my music. I scroll through my mental list of acceptable songs and pick a classic; “Country Roads, Take Me Home” by John Denver. The familiar rolling guitar melody comes on, giving me permission to continue my course. Putting the car back in gear, I make a right turn underneath the railroad tracks. With the windows down I breath in the cool air, practically smelling the mountains as I do. There is also a slight scent of manure that is less than novel. Passing the gas station, there is a speed limit sign, but I already know the speed limit is 30 mph. I glace down at my speedometer and match it to the speed limit and engage the cruise control. It comes to my attention that I have 2450 RANGE broken my normal procedure in so strictly obeying the speed limit. I begin to ponder what has brought on such a drastic change in my behavior. What makes this road any different than all the others I drive? I notice that upon rolling into town, time has seemed to slow down. The normal agitation that I feel while driving, caused by my desire to be doing other things with my precious time, has vanished. Though I am still a close three minutes away from my parent’s house, I already feel as though I am home. “Country Roads take me home. To the place I belong” The concepts of space and place are often used in conjunction in such fields as geography, anthropology and sociology. (Tuan et al., 2018) While apparently simple, both space and place can and have been used by intellectuals of many different disciplines and perspectives which has led to an incomplete coherence of definition and application of space and place. (Space and Place. 2017) While similar and related, both concepts contain the key to very different qualitative and quantitative information. As one article describes it, space corresponds to the 2451 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH “physical part” or aspect of a geographical location while place is signified as the “social”, and I will add cultural, facet that is attributed to the geography by those that have experienced it. (Grantham, 2017). Another article frames place as the “geographical context” where “physical, social, and economic processes” take place. (Agnew & Livingstone, 2011) Even the common phrase “take place” denotes some sort of happening or experience, almost as if to bestow possession of spatial meaning through occurrence. In words more specific to this piece, space is the geographical locales that I enter and experience that are not part of my identity. Places, on the other hand, are regions that are a part of who I am. They are the terrains that I understand and derive meaning from based on my own lived experience. It is the addition of a lived culture, be it communal, familial, personal, etc, that changes a space into a place and allows a connection to develop. In this work I hope to explore the difference between space and place and how the former can become the later within the context of a morphing individual culture. 2452 RANGE The period being examined is the transition from home to school and while there is an implicit shift in identity associated with a loss of a home-based anchor, this piece will deal more with changes in place identity than place attachment. (Chow & Healey, 2008) With this focus on place identity, I will analyze how the identity formed in my hometown was altered and added to through a geographical relocation along with the development of meaning in novel spaces. One author wrote about “surviv[ing] by mov[ing] through space and time” and I hope to expand and personalize this research by understanding how to “thrive” “through space and time” as identity is expanded through place formation. (Ortiz-Martin, 2020) Concepts of place identity theory, specifically the way attachment occurs and leads to long-term identity will also be incorporated in my research. (Hauge, 2007) I received my driver’s license in when I was 16 years old. That little card gave me access to all the open roads in Morgan and I definitely used it for that purpose. It also let me venture out to Ogden, Utah on occasion, usually to go out 2453 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH with friends. My world consisted of those few routes and I was in my element driving them. If I ever went to Salt Lake or elsewhere, one of my parents was usually driving. This meant I was never in charge of navigating the relative hustle and bustle of downtown. This changed when I made the move to Salt Lake City and suddenly, I was the one at the helm. I had to know when my desired turn was coming up. I needed to be aware of the cars around me and their drivers’ behaviors. I even had to keep my eye on the stoplights! Stoplights were not completely foreign to me; I grew up in a small town, not outer space. I had interacted with stoplights hundreds if not thousands of times but not on a daily basis. In Morgan, I never had to stop at a stoplight simply because we didn’t have any. Of course, there were stop signs, yield signs, and every other type of road sign you can think of; we just did not have any stoplights. Stoplights are used to control traffic, to tell each direction of travelers when to stop and when to go. They serve to prevent any accidents that may potentially be caused by two drivers’ intersecting courses. They help organize the movements of large amounts of people 2454 RANGE going in many different directions. In Morgan, there were neither lots of people nor many directions in which to go, and so there was no need for a stoplight. Before coming to college, going home meant leaving the stoplights behind. When I moved to Salt Lake however, that directionality was inverted. Suddenly home, or at least the place I took my shoes off at night, was surrounded by stoplights. Though not entirely uncomfortable or out of place, I was in a space, not a place. I was a stranger to the culture with just as many transferable experiences as I had decorations to put on my cement dorm walls. But just as I put up those few decorations, I began applying what little experience I had in common with the culture I knew corresponded to the space, though this was more an effort to mitigate contrast than to reconcile my personal culture. The contrast between country and city has been around since civilization began, when goods and services began to gravitate towards one another and the humans that offered them followed. In The Country and the City by 2455 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Raymond Williams, we are reminded that these two words represent two powerful ideas lived by similar but distinct portions of the population. The city represents an “achieved centre” where existence is concentrated, and resources are conquered. (Williams, 1975, p. 1) It is characterized by learning, abundance, and action. It is characterized by noise, filth, and the masses. The country, in the sense of an antagonist to “the city”, is the branch of civilization that extends far enough away from the center as to be considered a separate space. The country is clean, simple, and innocent. It is also ignorant, slow, and sparce. Each space contributes to a way of life, a culture that is often antithetical to the other. Individuals tend to associate themselves with one of these identities, or some hybrid of the two (i.e., suburbanite), as a way of providing a foundation or springboard for their experiences and/or identity. Identifying with a region and the way of life that is typically associated with it brings a “sense of belonging, based on ties of sentiment, interest, value, or knowledge”. (Hummon, 1986) Each geography provides unique 2456 RANGE opportunity for experience that differs from the other and leads to identity being developed in juxtaposing spaces. You mean like what they do in truck commercials? I was speaking to one of my peers in what was turning out to be a surface level, introductory conversation. The usual “where are you from?” and “what are you studying?” was asked. I told her I was from Morgan, Utah, but this was only responded to by a clueless glance. I wondered aloud if she was from out of state. No. I am from here in Salt Lake. Morgan is only an hour’s drive from Salt Lake and she still didn’t know where it was. And I thought I lived in a bubble! I went on to explain where my hometown was and what it was like. Yep. Just like those truck commercials. You just pick it up and heave it up onto the trailer. I was talking about hauling hay. A large portion of the square milage of my little valley is used for farming which means a lot of hay is grown. 2457 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH In order to harvest it properly you have to cut it, bale it, and store it somewhere dry. This means that someone has to pick it up out of the field and haul it to where it will be stored. That niche is where some of my friends and I found ourselves during the summer. It was hard work, but we had fun with it, and we learned from it. Didn’t that get your hands dirty? Did she really just ask that? I chose to ignore the question and simply move the conversation along. Just like Williams, I came “from a village to a city: to be taught, to learn”. This move has achieved the manifest function of increasing my knowledge through participation in the institution of academia, but it has also latently affected my individual identity. As described in 7 Habits of Highly Effective People I experienced a “paradigm shift” which opened the world to me. (Covey, 1989). Before attending school in Salt Lake my world view was unconsciously Morgan-centric. The totality of my lived experience found its roots in the same fertile mountain 2458 RANGE valley. However, upon venturing out of from the “country” to the “city”, I was able to explore and add to my identity. In writing this piece, I have been able to reflect on how this frame shift has altered my sense of self in relation to place. This shift has not decreased my ability or even desire to “get my hands dirty”; the experiences, skills and memories derived from growing up in the country have not been lost in this new world of books and PhDs. Instead, I have learned many new skills and developed new schemas based on the world that I have observed outside of my previous world. I have learned how to navigate the public transit system, what to wear to a black-tie event, and how to interact with people that have completely different cultures than mine. I have even come to appreciate the colorful predictability of stoplights as part of my environment. Simply put, I have added variety to the somewhat drab “cultural mosaic” that, up until my move, consisted of very few colors and themes. Mosaics are created by using many small bits of color, usually ceramic tiles, to create a stylistic pattern or to depict some sort of imagery. The idea of a “cultural mosaic” takes into account the piecewise nature of identity and culture by recognizing that just as a mosaic will utilize many colors to tell a story so too will 2459 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH an individual cultural identity consist of many unique characteristics and experiences. Each individual has a unique cultural mosaic even if they come from the same region, community or even family as someone else. Even a brief search in Google Scholar will demonstrate the wealth of characteristics that can contribute to make an individual’s cultural mosaic; among them, ethnicity, religion, language, nationality, familial background, and disability status. An individual’s intersectionality plays an enormous role in their identity but minor characteristics such as experiences and interpretation can also play a significant part in a person’s identity. As stated by one author, contributions such as “demographic” and “geographic” are among the many “tiles” that can make up a cultural mosaic. (Chao & Moon, 2005) My move was not characterized by any sort of demographic change, but the geographic newness brought about by my move contributed to my mosaic in a very meaningful way. Stop signs to stop lights 2460 RANGE Slow lane to fast. First names to last names Or maybe none at all. Canyon Creek to City Creek Fairgrounds to mall. Mountains seem the same But not so pretty in the fall. Everyone knows me To another in the crowd. Driving with the windows down To the world is just too loud. I’m like you and you’re like me To where is that? Tell me more. Same Friday nights To different lives. 2461 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Small and slow To big and fast. From same ol’ same ol’ To a place to grow “Country Roads take me home. To the place I belong” I have made many trips back to Morgan. Every time I ritualistically exit the freeway, turn right under the railroad tracks, and set my speedometer at 30 I feel like I am coming home. But now I do not always perform that ritual. Sometimes I am listening to a podcast or I am on the phone with a friend. Sometimes I forget to set my speedometer and then find my foot pressing a little too heavy on the gas pedal. Occasionally I will even drive through town in silence, simply thinking. Looking back, I can begin to understand my own unconscious thinking. Morgan was the only place that I knew to call home and as such it was a central aspect of who I considered myself to be. It was the “place I belong[ed]” when life required my constant interaction with regions I considered 2462 RANGE mere spaces. Matching my behavior and mindset with those characteristics previously associated with the place (Morgan) was a way for me to interact with past memories and to maintain a connection to my place identity. I consider it a form of “clearing the cupboard” or interacting with and unearthing memories whether deeply or shallowly buried. (Jones & Garde- Hansen, 2014). Clearing the cupboard is all about transitionary phases in which old artifacts and memories are interacted with usually for the purpose of cleaning out old belongings. It provides the owner the chance to remember and interact with memories and can lead to a deeper understanding of identity as well as changes to identity. For me this was not done with physical artifacts but more so with feelings, habits and roads. Exit 103 1-84 East Morgan 1 Mile 2463 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH The same familiar exit sign signals my entrance into town. I take my car out of cruise control and open the sunroof as I start decelerating down the exit ramp. Turning on my right turn signal, I tell Siri to turn on some John Denver. Familiar sights, sounds and smells stimulate my senses while I set my speedometer to 30 mph. Everything as it should be. Now that I do all of these little steps consciously, I feel almost performative. In a way it is a performance, a farmer’s hat tip to a constant but abated part of my identity that will always be associated with this place. Briefly in my mind I image two different versions of myself both the same but somehow different, maybe in just the way that the city and the country are different. One busy, one calm. One simple the other being governed by stoplights. Different but somehow so similar, like two unique and integral whole. Each being representative of a geography that has provided a space where I could create my personal mosaic. Each one representing a place in my life. My life in each of these places is so different. One of them is in the past the other in the present. One represents childhood and the other the beginnings of adulthood. One is the roots the other is the trunk and young branches. Both a part of one individual, a part of me. The places parts of a symbiotic 2464 RANGE in my life, namely Morgan and Salt Lake, serve as “loc[i] of the self”, as a geographic location when I center my memories, fantasies and realities. (Sampson, 2009) The process of developing a place from a space takes time and only occurs as you expand your mosaic through exposure to the world around you. However, once a place has been incorporated into your identity it stays there. I have learned this over the many trips from space to place and eventually from place to place. Identity is expanded and enriched when we as individuals add to it through the transformation of spaces by the creation of memories, communities and realities. “Country Roads take me home. To the place I belong” BIBLIOGRAPHY Agnew, J. (2011). Space and place. In J. Agnew, & D. Livingstone The SAGE handbook of geographical knowledge (pp. 316-330). SAGE Publications Ltd, https://www.doi.org/10.4135/9781446201091.n24 2465 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Chao, G. T., & Moon, H. (2005). The cultural mosaic: A metatheory for understanding the complexity of culture. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1128–1140. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1128 Chow, K., &amp; Healey, M. (2008, March 4). Place attachment and place identity: First-year undergraduates making the transition from home to university. Journal of Environmental Psychology. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0272494408000236. Covey, S. (1989) 7 habits of highly effecive people. Free Press Grantham, C. (2019, November 19). How culture can turn your space into a place. Work Design Magazine. https://www.workdesign.com/2017/05/culture-canturn-space-place/ Hauge, Å. L. 2007. Identity and place: A critical comparison of three identity theories. Architectural Science Review 50 (1):44–51. Retrieved April 11, 2021, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ abs/10.3763/asre.2007.5007 Hummon, D.M. City mouse, country mouse: The 2466 RANGE persistence of community identity. Qual Sociol 9, 3– 25 (1986). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00988246 Jones, O., &amp; Garde-Hansen, J. (2014). Geography and memory: explorations in identity, place and becoming. Palgrave Macmillan. Ortiz-Martin A. (2020) I -395. In R. M. Boylorn & M.P. Orbe (Eds.) Critical autoethnography: Intersecting cultural identities in everyday life. (Second Edition, pp. 165-174). Milton: Taylor and Francis. Sampson, K. A. & Goodrich, C. G. (2009) Making place: Identity construction and community formation through “sense of place” in westland, new zealand, society & natural resources. 22:10, 901-915, DOI: 10.1080/08941920802178172 Space and Place. obo. (2017, March 30) https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/ document/obo-9780199766567/ obo-9780199766567-0170.xml. Tuan, Y.-F. (2018). In space and place: the perspective of experience (pp. 3–7). essay, University of Minnesota Press. 2467 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Williams, R. (1975). The Country and the City. Italy: Oxford University Press. 2468 RANGE 149 Research Reflection by Dallen Calder DALLEN CALDER Faculty Mentor: Dominic Pecoraro (Honors College, University of Utah) My education at the University of Utah focused mostly on the sciences. This piece is one which I started writing during on of my Honors courses and is a way that I sought to challenge myself to new modes of writing, 2469 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH thinking, and expressing myself. It is written through an autoethnographical lens and has been a foundation for future frameworks through which I have come to define my professional goals and vision. This piece is one I reference frequently and the associated research experience is one that amplifies my expressive range. As I move forward towards a medical degree, this research experience will continue to provide the tools for meaningful, explorative, and scholarly self exploration and expression. 2470 RANGE 150 Social Support Across the Cancer Care Continuum in Malawi: Narratives of Cancer Survivors ABHILASHA KHATRI; MELISSA WATT; NEHAL BAKSHI; STEPHEN KIMANI; GITA SUNEJA; AGATHA BULA; MERCY TSIDYA; OLIVIA HANSON; APARNA MANGADU; MELISSA A. STOCKTON; AND BRANDON A. KNETTEL Faculty Mentor: Melissa Watt (, University of Utah) 2471 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ABSTRACT Informational, emotional, and instrumental support provided by an individual’s social network can help individuals cope with life stressors like a cancer diagnosis. As the cancer burden in lower-and middleincome countries (LMICs) continues to increase, cancer patients face challenges that may be alleviated in part through the provision of social support. The goal of this study was to examine the role of social support in the journeys of cancer survivors, from diagnosis to initiation of care to completion of treatment, and to better understand how social support can act as a facilitator to the initiation and completion of treatment. We conducted individual in-depth interviews with 29 patients who completed treatment for breast cancer or lymphoma at Kamuzu Central Hospital in Lilongwe, Malawi. Interviews examined the lived experiences of survivors along the cancer continuum (diagnosis, initiation of care, retention in care). Applied thematic analysis was used to identify patterns of informational, emotional and instrumental support across each of the three stages of the cancer care continuum. Participants included 17 women and 12 men, with 20 lymphoma survivors and 9 breast cancer survivors. The median age of the sample was 45 years old, with a median of 2472 RANGE 3 years since diagnosis. The interviews demonstrated social support was an important facilitator at all stages of the cancer care continuum, but the types of social support that emerged as important differed at each stage. At the stage of diagnosis, informational support was important, with recognition of symptoms and knowledge of healthcare facilities by patients’ family and friends helping to facilitate faster diagnosis. At the initiation of treatment stage, emotional and informational support were important, with patients receiving encouragement and advice from family and friends to begin medical treatment. At the retention and completion of treatment stage, instrumental and emotional support were most important. This involved caretakers helping patients adhere to treatment through managing medications and appointments, helping to manage side effects such as nausea, assisting the patient with activities of daily living, and providing reassurance and motivation for the patient to continue treatment. These findings can be used to inform effective and appropriate interventions along the cancer care continuum to promote patient wellbeing and adherence to treatment in Malawi. This could include communitylevel education about cancer symptoms, screening, and treatment to address informational support needs at diagnosis; support groups composed of cancer patients 2473 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and survivors to address emotional and informational support needs at the initiation of treatment stage; and supporting caretakers fulfilling emotional and instrumental support needs at the retention and completion stage while filling in the gaps for those who do not have this support with formal assistance such as provision of transportation and food. INTRODUCTION In 2020, an estimated 10 million deaths worldwide occurred due to cancer (Sung et al., 2021). As lower and middle income countries experience demographic changes, noncommunicable diseases like cancer will become more prominent in the disease burden (Sung et al., 2021; Ward & Goldie, 2024). The global cancer burden is projected to be 28.4 million cases in 2040, with an increasing share of those cases occurring in LMICs ((Sung et al., 2021). Cancer deaths in LMICs are expected to account for approximately three-quarters of all cancer deaths in 2030 (Pramesh et al., 2022). Cancer patients in LMICs face various barriers to care due to limited public awareness of cancer and inadequate healthcare infrastructure (Anandasabapathy et al., 2024). Multiple studies in LMICs demonstrate there are widespread myths and misinformation about cancer, including the idea that cancer is contagious, that it is 2474 RANGE untreatable, or can be treated by alternative medicine (Ajith et al., 2023; Bamodu & Chung, 2024; Banning & Hafeez, 2009; Ezeome & Anarado, 2007). Essential medical technology such as imaging, pathology services, and radiotherapy are limited in availability across LMICs, with radiotherapy unavailable in 55 LMICs (Datta et al., 2014). Limited capacity due to lack of technology and inadequate oncology workforce result in limited screenings and delays in diagnosis (Anandasabapathy et al., 2024; Pace et al., 2015). Treatment abandonment is common due to community misbeliefs that drive cancer stigma, as well as costs of treatment. In this context, social support may act as an important buffer and source of resilience for cancer patients to navigate often lengthy and complicated pathways tocare and to adhere to treatments. Social support, including informational, emotional, and instrumental support, is a resource which could mediate these negative impacts. The aim of this study is to examine the role of social support in the journeys of cancer survivors in Malawi along the cancer care continuum, to better understand how social support can act as a facilitator 2475 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH to the initiation and completion of treatment. This addresses an important gap in literature concerning social support among cancer patients in LMICs, which may be used to develop effective interventions that promote engagement and well- being along the cancer care continuum. Theories of Social Support Social support can be defined as the “perception and actuality that one is cared for, has assistance available from other people, and that one is part of a supportive social network” (House et al., 1988). Historically, the term “social support” was used broadly to describe various aspects of social relationships, but distinctions between different terms have since been clarified in literature. Social integration and social networks are often used to describe the quantity of ties an individual has and the structure of those ties, while social support is used to describe the functional and qualitative aspects of social relationships, including the content and functions of these relationships (House et al., 1988; Muñoz-Laboy et al., 2014; Taylor, 2012). The functions of social support are often divided into three main categories: informational support (providing advice, knowledge sharing 2476 RANGE behaviors), emotional support (interactions conveying caring, trust, love), and instrumental support (tangible and practical support) (Cai et al., 2021; Cohen & Wills, 1985; Drageset, 2021; House et al., 1988; Muñoz-Laboy et al., 2014; Taylor, 2012; Wortman, 1984). When applied to the example of breast cancer, informational support may involve a family member giving advice to seek diagnosis based on recognition of changes in the breast as a symptom of cancer; instrumental support may involve providing the means to adhere to treatment by providing transportation or helping to schedule appointments; emotional support could involve encouragement and reinforcement to stay in treatment until completion. Additionally, social support can refer to both perceived or actual support (Drageset, 2021; Gottlieb & Bergen, 2010). While perceived support refers to the belief that support is available from one’s social network if needed, actual support refers to the mobilization and expression of this support. Studies have demonstrated that perceived support, rather than actual support received, is the quality 2477 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH which is connected to better health and wellbeing (Drageset, 2021; Gottlieb & Bergen, 2010; Taylor, 2012). Social support can be provided formally, through support groups or professionals such as medical providers, and informally, through nonprofessionals like friends and family who provide helping relationships (Drageset, 2021; Gottlieb & Bergen, 2010; Taylor, 2012). The idea that social participation can have positive effects for individuals is one that dates back to classical sociology, with Emile Durkheim’s assertion that group life can help combat anomie and self-destruction (Berkman et al., 2000; Portes, 1998). The related but distinct concept of social capital was defined by Pierre Bourdieu as “the aggregate of the actual or potential resources” linked to a network of relationships (Portes, 1998). Literature on social capital has explored its desirable impacts on various outcomes such as academic performance and occupational attainment (Portes, 1998). Additionally, the study of social networks in sociology is helpful in understanding the role 2478 RANGE of social support. Pescosolido (2012) proposed the network-episode model to understand the relationship between an episode of illness and changes to the structure and function of an individual’s social network. The networkepisode model is based on the social organization strategy framework, which asserts that when individuals are faced with disruptive events such as diagnosis of an illness, “network ties are selectively activated to help handle problems that exceed one’s personal capacity for coping” (Perry & Pescosolido, 2012). Another framework which can be used to understand social support is the concept of sense of coherence by Antonovsky (Drageset, 2021). With this model, an individual’s sense of coherence consists of the comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness of their life, which is linked to health outcomes. The sense of coherence of individuals is promoted by their access to “generalized resistance resources,” which includes material, ego identity, and social support (Drageset, 2021). From this lens, social support can be viewed as a resource which assists individuals in achieving a sense of coherence 2479 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH about their lives, better equipping them to face life’s stressors. Relationship Between Social Support & Health Links between social support and health outcomes have been studied since the 1970s. House (1988) notes that several studies indicate greater social connections being related with lower mortality, while maintaining confounding variables, indicating a strong causal relationship between availability of social support and health. One study examined mortality among a group of older adults as well as their close friends and family and marital status, showing that widowed older adults with fewer than 4 to 6 close relationships had a significantly increased risk of death 10 years later compared to their married counterparts (Manvelian & Sbarra, 2020). Beyond demonstrating positive impacts, studies have explored whether social relationships benefit health through buffering effects, meaning those who are exposed to health stress and have social support are able to avoid or reduce negative health outcomes, or through main effects, 2480 RANGE meaning those with social support have better health regardless of exposure to stress (Drageset, 2021; Gottlieb & Bergen, 2010; Taylor, 2012). Evidence of both mechanisms have been demonstrated. The buffering effect is best represented by the seminal paper by Cohen & Willis (1985). The authors’ model suggests social support can buffer stress at the moment of stress appraisal by modifying an individual’s perception of an event as “stressful” by making them feel better equipped to handle it. Social support thus alleviates the impact of stress through minimized reaction to stress and facilitating healthy behaviors to cope (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Several studies have examined the buffering effects of social support on psychological distress. For example, one study among older individuals in nursing homes demonstrated that loneliness is prominent, and social relationships are an important buffer that helps cope with loneliness (Drageset et al., 2015). Evidence for the “main effect” model can be 2481 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH seen in morbidity and mortality studies. Early work has established the relationship between social support and mortality: high quality or quantity of social networks is associated with decreased risk of mortality compared to those with a lower quantity or quality of social relationships, even when controlling for baseline health (Berkman et al., 2000; Reblin & Uchino, 2008) . Several studies have found social integration to affect mortality from diseases including diabetes, hypertension, and myocardial infarction (Reblin & Uchino, 2008). In one review of 80 studies from 1976 to 1988 on morbidity/mortality and social relationships, more emotional and instrumental support was associated with less physical symptoms including headache, fever, and stomach pain ((Schwarzer & Leppin, 1991). Personal satisfaction with the support received was even more strongly negatively correlated with physical symptoms, reiterating the importance of perceived support. There are limitations and complications to the positive effects of social support. For example, Taylor (2012) notes that the benefit of having 2482 RANGE a spouse or a few close friends has been shown, but having a dozen close friends does not continue to have benefits, suggesting social support has benefits up to a certain point after which there are diminishing returns. Social relationships can also have negative impacts through potential for conflict, such as overly intrusive networks of family or friends who might cause an individual to feel overwhelmed by advice and interference during times of stress (Taylor, 2012). Additionally, support providers may sometimes deliver support poorly despite good intentions and effort: they may give bad advice or fail to deliver enough tangible and emotional support (Taylor, 2012). Support providers run the risk of pushing too hard for evidence of the affected person’s recovery, or on the opposite end of the spectrum, may become so overprotective that the affected person begins to resent their implied dependency (Thoits, 1995). This could explain why perceived support, which is simply knowing that support is available, is better correlated with health and wellbeing than actual received support. The possibilities for social support to do harm 2483 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH rather than good has led to discussion on the instances when it is helpful, and from which sources. Thoits (1995) suggests in her review that helpers may offend victims by claiming understanding without an experiential basis; thus, the most effective support-givers may be “similar others,” or individuals who have faced the same stressful circumstances the victim is facing. This is related to the “matching hypothesis,” suggesting that in order to be supportive, the actions of the social support provider must meet the needs of the recipient (Thoits, 1995). The needs may not be based solely on the function of the support (informational, emotional, instrumental) but also the source of the support. For example, Taylor (2012) suggests emotional support may be valued when received from intimate members of an individual’s social support network, such as a spouse or close friend, but resented when a casual friend tries to provide it. In the same way, informational support may be valued from experts but not when it is provided by friends or family members. 2484 RANGE Social Support for Cancer Patients Social support has been studied in cancer populations. The idea of helpful and unhelpful social support is discussed by Helgeson and Cohen (1996) in their review of social support and cancer. Emotional and instrumental support were perceived to be helpful from any source, while informational support was perceived to be helpful only when the source was a healthcare professional. Emotional support was identified by multiple studies as the most helpful when present and the most detrimental when absent, which manifested in avoidance of the patient, minimizing their problems, and forced optimism (Helgeson & Cohen, 1996). The availability of emotional support showed beneficial effects on the patient’s adjustment. Multiple studies have demonstrated a relationship between social support and breast cancer mortality: engagement in activities such as religious services was associated with lower mortality after breast cancer diagnosis (Beasley et al., 2010), women without close relatives had greater risk of breast cancer and all-cause mortality compared with women with more 2485 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH social ties (Kroenke et al., 2006), and all mortality was greater for women who reported smaller social networks and less social support compared to women who reported more social support (Kroenke et al., 2013). The study by Kroenke (2013) demonstrated that quality of relationships mattered, as women reporting small social networks and high social support did not have a higher risk of mortality compared to those with large networks and high support. The authors also found being a caregiver for others was associated with higher mortality when social support was lacking. A larger social network may buffer the stress of caregiving responsibilities by providing emotional support to the caregiver or alleviating them of some of their responsibilities. Another study by Cai et. al. (2021) characterized classes of informational, emotional, and instrumental support among Chinese breast cancer patients, identifying demographic factors such as education and income which predicted these classes. The authors found patients with high monthly income and adequate health insurance were more likely to belong to the class characterized 2486 RANGE by high social support, and those in the class characterized by low social support were more likely to report high levels of anxiety and depression. Studies on social support and health in LMICs are limited. A review by Story (2013) explored studies from LMICs which focused on measures of social capital and health behaviors related to sexual health, HIV, and maternal and child health. Studies demonstrated that improvements in self- rated health and improved child nutrition status showed the strongest associations with social capital (Story, 2013). Another review by Agampodi et. al. (2015) found that only 21 LMICs have evidence on social capital and health based on primary data and that most of the studies reviewed relied on tools originally developed in HICs. The authors suggest that qualitative assessment of social capital may help identify appropriate indicators for the community being studied (Agampodi et al., 2015). In a study by Watt et al., qualitative interviews with cancer survivors in Malawi demonstrated that cancer stigma impacted patients through negative mental health effects, 2487 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH barriers to engaging in care, lack of cancer disclosure, and self-isolation (Watt et al., 2023). Given the potential for social support to have positive impacts on patients’ ability to navigate cancer care and the lack of research in this area in LMICs, the present study addresses an important gap. A qualitative approach is ideal for understanding patients’ self-reported perceptions of social support and gaining detailed insight into an underreported area. METHODS Summary This qualitative study analyzed 29 in-depth interviews with survivors of lymphoma (n=20) and breast cancer (n=9) in Malawi. Analysis focused on the role of informational, emotional, and instrumental support at the stages of diagnosis, initiation of treatment, and retention/ completion of treatment. Approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Boards at the University of Utah, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and the Malawi National Human Subject Research Council. 2488 RANGE Setting This study took place in Lilongwe, Malawi. The population of Malawi is 20.8 million and it is a landlocked, rural country in southeastern Africa. The participants all received treatment at Kamuzu Central Hospital (KCH) in Lilongwe. Healthcare in Malawi is provided by the public and private sectors, including traditional healers (Makwero, 2018). The public sector of healthcare is organized into three tiers: primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. There are four tertiary hospitals, one of which is Kamuzu Central Hospital. Local district hospitals often act as referral centers for higher levels of care. Sample Individuals were eligible to participate if they were 18 years or older, had a history of a biopsyproven breast cancer or lymphoma, completed cancer treatment at KCH at least one year prior, and were currently in remission. Participants were selected from existing cohorts of breast cancer and lymphoma patients at KCH, with purposive sampling to provide variety in age 2489 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH and gender, and to identify participants who would be reflective and willing to share their experiences. Participants were compensated with $10 in local currency. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to conducting the interview. Procedures Individual in-depth interviews were conducted using a semi-structured guide. The interview guide was written to elicit personal narratives of cancer survivorship, including the impact of diagnosis and treatment on quality of life, experiences with cancer care delivery, and relationships with caregivers. Interviews were conducted either in person in a private room at the site of clinical care (n=11) or over the phone (n=18), with no significant differences in patient demographics or interview length between the two methods. Interviews lasted 55 minutes on average. Audio recordings of the interviews were transcribed and translated from Chichewa to English by study staff. 2490 RANGE Data Analysis Interviews were analyzed using an applied thematic analysis approach (Guest et al., 2012), with a goal to explore the role of social support across the cancer care continuum. To examine this topic in-depth across participant data, and to identify emerging themes, we wrote detailed memos for each transcript. The memos were organized by stages along the cancer care continuum: pathway to diagnosis, initiation of cancer treatment, and retention/completion of treatment. The diagnosis stage was conceptualized as the time leading up to official cancer diagnosis; the initiation of treatment stage was conceptualized as the time after diagnosis up to beginning medical treatment for cancer; the retention and completion of treatment stage was conceptualized as the time from beginning medical cancer treatment to completion of treatment. At each of the stages, we synthesized the participant data into categories of “barriers” and “facilitators,” and included representative quotes to support the description of the patient experience. The goal of the memo writing was to fully synthesize 2491 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH each transcript in a common framework and to retain the core meaning of the patient narrative so that the memos could be analyzed directly, with the original transcript referred to only as needed.It took approximately three hours to write each memo, and the memos were on average 6 pages (Range: 3-9). The memos were coded using NVivo 14 software. Codes included emotional, informational, and instrumental support at the stages of diagnosis, initiation, and retention/ completion of cancer treatment, and a code for opportunities to increase social support. Coded data were retrieved and synthesized to identify overall patterns of social support at each stage. RESULTS The sample consisted of 20 lymphoma survivors and 9 breast cancer survivors. The sample included 17 females and 12 males, with a median age of 45 years old. Participant characteristics are shown in Table 1. 2492 RANGE Table 1. Baseline Participant Characteristics The interviews suggested that the social support individuals received differed across the cancer care continuum (Figure 1; Table 2). At the stage of diagnosis, informational support emerged as key. Informational support allowed patients to recognize symptoms and seek out healthcare. This sometimes co-occurred with instrumental support, such as transportation and advocating for timely procedures. Emotional support did not emerge at this stage. At the stage of initiation of care, emotional support was important. This came in the form of encouragement from the patients’ social support network to begin medical treatment, often cooccurring with informational support based on knowledge of cancer treatment and survivors. In some cases, informational support was unhelpful and advised patients against starting treatment. Instrumental support did not emerge at this stage. At the stage of retention and completion 2493 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH of care, all three forms of social support emerged, with instrumental support being the most mentioned, followed by emotional support, with the two co-occurring at times. Instrumental support included assistance with activities of daily living such as cooking and bathing, as well as treatment adherence through appointment tracking and transportation. Emotional support included encouragement to continue treatment, as well as companionship and reassurance. 2494 RANGE Figure 1. Patterns of Social Support Across the Cancer Care Continuum Note. Only the most prominent forms of social support at each stage are displayed and described. Table 2. Representative Quotes Illustrating the Impact of Social Support across the Cancer Care Continuum 2495 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Social Support Leading up to Diagnosis The most prominent form of social support during the survivors’ pathways to diagnosis was informational support, sometimes co-occurring with instrumental support. The most common instances of informational support were: family members or friends who provided knowledge of hospitals to go to receive care and family or friends suggesting going to the hospital based on the patient’s symptoms. Informational Support at Diagnosis During their pathway to diagnosis, survivors were advised by members of their social network, including family or friends, about which hospitals to attend to seek care. Recommendations were based on the social network member’s experience with the hospital. He [patient’s brother] said he had a friend who got injured and was assisted at the Daeyang hospital. He gave us the map on how to get there. So, my mother and I set off for the Daeyang hospital. (male, lymphoma survivor) 2496 RANGE In multiple cases, the symptoms survivors experienced were recognized by network members, prompting them to suggest seeking out medical care and obtaining a diagnosis. Yes, so when I saw it myself, I then showed my inlaw, my brother … They said, ‘You should go to a big hospital, maybe this is a disease…’ So, I didn’t take long. I searched for transport to reach here at Kamuzu Central Hospital. (female, 51 years old, breast cancer) Some survivors received advice which discouraged or delayed their journey to receiving a cancer diagnosis. One survivor was advised by her family to repeat her biopsy due to disbelief that she could be diagnosed with cancer, based on lack of family history of cancer and general mistrust of the lab results due to the wait time, which was one month. They were like, ‘No. We know that breast cancer especially affects people who are 50 years and above and you are just…’ that time, I was just 31 [years old]. ‘How is that possible? No way! You are too young to have cancer,’ and also they were like, ‘look at your breast, it is just fine. ’(female, 35 years old, breast cancer) 2497 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Instrumental Support at Diagnosis Instrumental support at this stage co-occurred with informational support for some survivors when members of their social network worked in healthcare, which gave them knowledge as well as access to practical resources. One survivor received medicine to treat her symptoms from her sister’s friends, who worked at a hospital. Another survivor had a friend who was able to give him an x-ray. I have a friend at Nkhotakota hospital and I went to Nkhotakota so when he x-rayed me he said, ‘This is a swelling that does not have any pus, so in this condition, I cannot do anything, but I will give a referral letter to Kamuzu Central Hospital.’ (male, 38 years old, lymphoma) Other instances of instrumental support involved supporting transportation costs or giving someone a place to stay so that the survivor could be seen by a doctor at a tertiary level hospital, and advocating for the patient to receive biopsy results in a timely manner. He [brother] pushed…they said that in December there is a holiday and it was not possible to do the procedure but after my 2498 RANGE brother had pushed it worked and I was diagnosed. (female, 46 years old, lymphoma) Social Support at Initiation of Treatment At the stage after diagnosis up to initiation of treatment, emotional support was most common. This came in the form of encouragement from family members and friends to start treatment, and in one case, encouragement from a cancer survivor. In some cases, emotional support co-occurred with informational support, as family members encouraged patients to begin treatment based on knowledge of survival chances or cancer survivors. There were also some instances where informational support provided was based on misinformation. Instrumental support did not emerge at this stage. Emotional Support at Initiation of Treatment Instances of emotional support at this stage involved encouragement from friends and family members to begin treatment. These involved expressions of support such as prayers, as well as reassurance that the patient can survive their diagnosis through adherence to treatment. When my relatives got to know that I had breast cancer, 2499 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH they urged and reassured me, especially my mother, she was the first one I disclosed to, and she encouraged me very much and she said, ‘Do not worry, there are drugs that cure that illness. The hospital which diagnosed your cancer is in a position to start the process to treat your breast cancer and you are going to be healed.’ These were the first words that my mother told me. (female, 42 years old, breast cancer survivor) In many cases, emotional support came in the form of sharing information. This took place when caregivers and other members of the survivor’s social support network encouraged them to begin treatment based on evidence of the efficacy of cancer treatment, either through trust in the medical system or personal knowledge of cancer survivors. So when I went home and explained to my husband, he reassured me by saying, ‘Do not worry, do not decline the medication … Go and receive the medication, because there are so many people out there whom we heard that they had surgery or received the treatment and they got well.’ (female, 38 years old, breast cancer) Informational Support at Initiation of Treatment In some cases, informational support discouraged patients from pursuing medical treatment at the hospital. One survivor said she was told by people in her 2500 RANGE community that cancer medication would make her sicker than she already was, while other patients said that people in their community recommended they see traditional healers. I remember this other time, my maid said, ‘You should come to our church! I told people in our church that you were not feeling well but they said you were ill, but not in that context but it was witchcraft.’ (female, 32 years old, lymphoma) Social Support at Retention & Completion of Treatment At the stage of retention in treatment, all three forms of support emerged, but instrumental support and emotional support appeared to be significant. There were some cases where instrumental and emotional support co-occurred. The most common form of instrumental support was assistance with activities of daily living such as bathing, mobility, cooking food, and chores around the house. Emotional support came in the form of encouragement from family, friends, and sometimes other people in the community to continue treatment. This was often provided from other cancer survivors who patients interacted with at the hospital. One common type of informational support during this 2501 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH time was dietary recommendations from friends and family to boost immunity. Emotional Support at Completion of Treatment Survivors described receiving emotional support in the form of encouragement to continue treatment, as well as through companionship, comfort and reassurance. Some survivors mentioned receiving encouragement from fellow cancer patients who finished treatment. We would be encouraged by friends who came for the checkup and they also gave their testimonies, ‘I was also like you are, even worse, but look at me now!’ So little by little, the worries were reduced. (male, 50 years old, lymphoma) Family members were mentioned often as a source of emotional support, providing companionship to survivors and making them feel loved and reassured during the completion of treatment. I told that other sibling that she should remember me in my prayers because I was ill. Then she said, ‘You should not worry, we will be praying for you. I will be coming to you so that we should be encouraging 2502 RANGE each other.’ She helped me quite a lot because she used to come to our house every Sunday and she would pray for me and reassure me. As a result, the worries that affected me…gradually started to ease. (female, 32 years old, lymphoma) Instrumental Support at Completion of Treatment Almost all survivors discussed instrumental support from caregivers at the retention and completion stage as part of their narrative. These forms of support often cooccurred with emotional support, either explicitly by encouraging the survivor to adhere to treatment or implicitly by making them feel loved and cared for. A common form of instrumental support was assistance with activities of daily living including bathing, mobility, and household chores like cooking. This assistance was necessary given the side effects that patients experienced from treatment, such as fatigue and weakness. My wife was caring for me in many ways, even when going to the clinic. She was the one holding me, bathing me, pushing me around on a wheelchair. All these were done by my wife. (male, 50 years old, lymphoma) 2503 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Cooking and feeding food were mentioned by several survivors, which was often a challenge due to nausea and vomiting experienced during treatment. She [his partner] was taking good care of me … She was making sure that she gives me things even when I did not want them… For instance I have said that I was not having good appetite… she was making sure she finds food that I used to like when I was not sick and she was encouraging me that everything is going to be alright. (male, 50 years old, lymphoma) Some survivors who were caretakers also received instrumental support in the form of childcare, with one survivor having assistance from her parents and siblings to take care of her son. It was also common for survivors to receive financial support from family members, both to manage the costs of attending treatment and also to supplement lost income. Another common form of instrumental support was providing transportation and accompaniment to appointments at the hospital. Several survivors described treatment as an unpleasant experience due to the amount of medication which had to be taken, as well as the sometimes painful and timeconsuming nature of chemotherapy. For these patients, 2504 RANGE instrumental support, combined with emotional support, helped them adhere to treatment through reminders and insistence to take medications and avoid missing appointments. Well for her [wife] during my treatment, I think…there was a time when I got tired of the drugs. You would take 30, 35 [pills] at once…so I feel my wife was tough and would force me to take the drugs, because there was a time I used to refuse to take them. (male, lymphoma survivor) One unique form of instrumental and emotional support at the retention and completion phase experienced by two survivors was family planning decisions. One survivor, when advised by his provider to avoid sex or engage in family planning due to possible birth defects from the cancer treatment, said his wife decided to undergo tubal ligation. The other survivor and his partner agreed to abstain from sex while he received treatment. Informational Support at Completion of Treatment Though informational support emerged less often at this stage compared to the other forms of social support, it did emerge. The most common instances of 2505 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH informational support were advice about the patient’s diet during treatment and advice to adhere to medication without missing any appointments. Survivors said they received many recommendations from relatives and other members of the community about what foods to eat to boost their immunity during cancer treatment. In some instances, this co-occurred with instrumental support, with friends and family bringing foods they perceived to be nutritional and beneficial to the patient. So he [relative] was aware that the type of medication we were receiving was the same as TB in terms of nutrition needs. So he used to bring me some different types of foods … milk, eggs, Sobo [some local juice], margarine, things like those, he also brought me … some instant porridge flour … Without this, I do not know how my life was going to turn out to be. (female, 52 years old, lymphoma survivor) Some survivors received advice from friends and family to adhere to treatment without missing any doses. In some instances, friends and family had contact with health professionals who were knowledgeable about cancer treatment and could be a source of information. 2506 RANGE He [father] was working in accounting, but he was working with doctors at the clinic, he had other colleagues there whom he could go and ask questions on what we could do. (male, 45 years old, lymphoma survivor) While these survivors received informational support that was helpful, other survivors received advice that was not helpful. Some survivors received advice from members of their community to avoid cancer treatment, suggesting alternative medicine instead because “the cancer drugs are not good.” Some advice was based on misinformation, for example the idea that cancer is an infectious disease that could be spread to others. At times they would tell my husband that, ‘When you have sex with your wife, you will get infected with cancer.’ (female, 42 years old, breast cancer survivor) Opportunities for Interventions Multiple patients suggested it would be helpful for people newly diagnosed with cancer to meet cancer survivors. For some patients, speaking with cancer survivors or fellow patients was a source of encouragement that influenced their decisions to initiate 2507 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH or continue treatment. Many patients said they themselves would be willing to speak to newly diagnosed cancer patients to provide this encouragement. Patients also mentioned that people should be told about the realities of treatment, including side effects, and that it can be helpful to speak to other cancer patients to get advice and learn from how they are managing treatment and side effects. As a cancer survivor, I would tell the cancer patients or those on treatment that they should not worry, they will be fine and that I have experience and, ‘Look at how I am,’ things like those. And personally, I would be happy if you can call me at any time so that I should come and sensitize these people so that they should be encouraged. I have been cured because other people gave me advice. (female, 41 years old, breast cancer survivor) Several patients identified instrumental support needs including assistance obtaining nutritious food, money to cover costs of transportation, and ensuring the availability of medication at the hospital. Financial support to afford food and transportation were commonly identified by patients as an opportunity for intervention, with some patients complaining that 2508 RANGE although they received advice about which foods to eat during treatment, they could not afford these foods. Sometimes you are told to take fruits, juices. Such things for us, the less privileged, are hard to come by…people on active treatment should be assisted with some food supplements…medicine is available at the hospital, but it is the food that is a challenge once the patient goes home. (female, 41 years old, breast cancer) Other patients mentioned that although some monetary support for transportation is provided, it is often not adequate to cover the costs for patients who are living far away. Related to this, some patients suggested that accommodations should be made to allow patients a place to stay overnight while receiving treatment so that travelling time does not prevent adhering to treatment. I observed that many people were coming from far, and this caused them to miss their appointments, I would feel sorry for them…most did not have relations in town so they could get to KCH, spend a night there so that they could start treatment the following day…people would come and 2509 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH they have nowhere to sleep. (male, 45 years old, lymphoma) Patients also indicated need for informational support interventions including: community- level education to combat misinformation and promote early identification of symptoms, and medical advice to manage side effects during treatment. In communities, people are suffering from different types of swellings. If they go to the hospital and are tested for cancer, they can be assisted in time. But because they are not aware that certain types of swelling can be cancer, so they just live with them or else, they waste time looking for alternative type of treatment, like traditional healers and the rest. (male, 23 years old, lymphoma) Gender Differences Social support needs across the cancer care continuum for men and women did not appear to differ. Considering that men were underrepresented in the sample, the emergence of informational, emotional, and instrumental support was similar between the two groups at the stages of diagnosis, initiation, and completion of treatment. The only point at which men 2510 RANGE reported lower levels of support was informational support at the stage of retention and completion of treatment, which was present overall at low levels. Although the amount of support did not differ, the sources of support sometimes did. The majority of the male survivors named their wife or partner as their primary caretaker and source of emotional and instrumental support, while most female survivors did not name their husband or partner. Instead, female survivors more commonly named female family members as their primary source of support. Most often, this was sisters, followed by mothers, daughters, and sisters-in-law. Both men and women commonly reported more than one family member who contributed to social support, including parents and siblings. Both men and women named cancer survivors and patients receiving treatment at the same time as sources of emotional support. Overall, friends who were not relatives and not cancer survivors were not frequently mentioned, but were mentioned more often by women. I was being encouraged, because you have friends who encourage you, they pray with you. So when people were encouraging me, I thought, ‘All these people cannot be just 2511 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH talking about one thing [for nothing], let me make a choice.’ (female, 38 years old, breast cancer survivor) DISCUSSION The results demonstrate that social support was an important facilitator to help patients move successfully across the cancer care continuum and into survivorship. The types of social support received by cancer patients fluctuated across the cancer care continuum. While informational support was critical at the diagnosis stage, emotional and informational support was needed at the initiation of treatment stage, and instrumental and emotional support was needed in the retention and completion stage. As the interviews come from a sample of survivors, it should be noted that these sources of support were resources that allowed people to complete cancer treatment and reach the stage of survivorship. Other cancer patients may have lacked these forms of support, contributing to their inability to complete treatment. This is something we are unable to examine in the present study. However, even though survivors received social support, it is possible they may have still had gaps in certain types of social support at various points along their cancer journey. Knowledge of the social support needs at each stage of the cancer care 2512 RANGE continuum can be used to create more effective, targeted interventions. Possible interventions to address social support needs for cancer patients in Malawi are shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. Intervention Opportunities to Address Social Support Needs Across the Cancer Care Continuum Informational support appeared most significantly at the stage of diagnosis but also appeared at initiation and retention of care. In LMICs, it is common for patients to present with advanced stages of cancer due to barriers to diagnosis, including delayed recognition of symptoms, presentation to healthcare, and receipt of diagnostic services (Brand et al., 2019). The informational support identified at this stage appears to help close the gaps, with friends or family recognizing the severity of symptoms and giving them advice to present to hospitals that are equipped to diagnosis them. An effective intervention to address the need for informational support at diagnosis could 2513 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH be education to promote greater community-level awareness of cancer, including screening tools, recognition of symptoms, and where diagnostic technology is available. A review of interventions to provide cancer patient education in LMICs found that studies have most frequently included technologybased interventions such as videos or apps, followed by pamphlets or posters, written materials, education sessions over phone calls, or group education sessions, with most studies reporting improvements in the outcomes being measured (Christiansen et al., 2023). In a study in Korea, community-based interventions including posters, phone calls, and small group educational sessions were effective in decreasing belief in myths about breast cancer and increasing intention to undergo a mammography (Park et al., 2011). These strategies could be effective in increasing knowledge of cancer symptoms and diagnosis in Malawi, though instrumental support is still needed for patients to access hospitals, and infrastructure is needed to complete timely screenings and diagnosis. It should be noted that not all informational support received by the cancer survivors was accurate or helpful. In some cases, advice from family and friends delayed access to care by presenting doubt in a cancer 2514 RANGE diagnosis or advising them against medical treatment for cancer based on the belief that the drugs and treatment given at the hospital would be harmful. There was advice rooted in misinformation, such as to avoid sex because the cancer could be spread to the patient’s spouse, and advice to pursue alternative medicine. These instances highlight the importance of high-quality informational support, and the potential for what is intended as informational support to spread misinformation. This is an issue that has been examined in studies focusing on the quality of informational support provided online, especially through online health communities, where there is no gatekeeping of who can make a post or the content posted (Petrič et al., 2023). There is a prevalence of health misinformation on social media, including about cancer treatments, which cancer patients in Malawi are likely also accessing. In one study among US adults with cancer, almost 1 in 4 received advice, mostly from family and friends, about alternative ways to treat cancer, and more than half were exposed to cancer treatment misinformation on social media (Lazard et al., 2023). Susceptibility to misinformation and advice from family and friends suggesting alternative medicine 2515 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH emerged among many of the patients we interviewed in Malawi, underscoring the importance for high quality informational support. One way to facilitate this is the involvement of healthcare providers in the community-based education methods discussed previously. Some level of gatekeeping or moderation by a healthcare provider in an online support group, for example, could be helpful in combatting advice rooted in misinformation. Emotional and informational support often cooccurred for patients linking to and initiating cancer care. Especially considering community myths and beliefs about cancer as a death sentence, strong encouragement was needed from friends and family to take the leap and commit to undergoing cancer treatment. Encouragement to start treatment was often rooted in a belief in the medical system and effectiveness of cancer drugs, sometimes based on personal knowledge of people who survived cancer. The need for emotional support in the form of encouragement to continue treatment was also highly present in the retention and completion stage. An effective intervention to address the need for encouragement through emotional and informational support, especially at the stage of initiating care, could 2516 RANGE be the use of support groups connecting newly diagnosed cancer patients to cancer survivors. Multiple survivors expressed in their interviews a willingness and desire to help newly diagnosed patients by providing this support. This aligns with the idea of reciprocity, which suggests that patients not only benefit from receiving social support, but also by providing it to others themselves (Robinson & and Tian, 2009). Additionally, in accordance with the view that the most effective social support may come from “similar others,” cancer survivors would be wellpositioned to provide informational and emotional support related to treatment to newly diagnosed patients, as individuals who have experienced the same challenges (Thoits, 1995). Previous studies have shown social support groups can reduce psychological distress for patients experiencing cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, heart disease, and others (Taylor, 2012). These are especially beneficial for health conditions that are stigmatizing, such as HIV, alcoholism, and epilepsy. Given that cancer can be highly stigmatized in LMICs where diagnosis and treatment services are not widely available (Bamodu & Chung, 2024; Watt et al., 2023), these interventions may be salient for cancer in LMICs. In their review, 2517 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Helgeson and Cohen (1996) examined studies on interventions, including those with an educational component and discussion component, aiming to provide informational Comparisons between and emotional the two support. indicated that educational support groups were more effective than discussion-based support groups, generating positive effects in a shorter period of time. Helgeson and Cohen provide multiple possible explanations. One explanation is that patients may prefer emotional support from existing network members, such as family and friends, rather than emotional support from other cancer patients, with whom the relationship might not be as intimate. A study by Poole (2001) observed the impacts of support groups for men with prostate cancer by comparing support group attendees and nonattenders. The study found that patients who were in support groups were more likely to report other cancer patients as a source of informational support compared to those who were not in support groups. Both attenders and non- attenders cited their spouses most often as their primary source of emotional and instrumental support. Patients who attended support groups did not report better coping or quality of life compared to non- attenders, likely because some patients who did not attend had access 2518 RANGE to social support from their own personal networks (Poole et al., 2001). The authors concluded that there may be certain men for whom support groups are a better fit than others, such as those who lack personal social support networks, and those who benefit from upward comparisons. This idea could be applied in the clinical setting in Malawi by screening for cancer patients reporting low levels of social support and targeting these groups with interventions focused on discussion and emotional support. Those who already have strong sources of emotional support from their personal networks may benefit more from support groups with other cancer patients and survivors focused on informational support. Support groups are also a good fit for LMICs due to being a relatively cost-effective intervention (Ochalek et al., 2023). Instrumental support was significant at the retention and completion stage, explicitly referenced by almost every participant. Instrumental support has been much less commonly measured and emphasized in the literature in comparison to emotional and informational support, but the literature is clear that structural barriers such as transportation and finances create significant barriers to cancer care in LMICs (Bamodu & Chung, 2024; Brand et al., 2019). In the 2519 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH cases where instrumental support has been measured, its importance has been limited to patients with poor prognosis and worse functioning (Courtens et al., 1996; Helgeson & Cohen, 1996). Instrumental support has been conceptualized as an important resource for a successful transition from the hospital to home care in the wake of hospitalization, particularly for elderly adults (Schultz et al., 2022). There are welldocumented side effects of cancer treatment, including nausea, vomiting, and fatigue, which would require more extensive instrumental support (Pedersen et al., 2013). Another reason instrumental support may have emerged more prominently in Malawi is the low-resource setting, which creates a need for certain tangible aid such as transportation or a place to stay while receiving treatment in hospitals located at far distances from patients’ homes. This is mirrored in certain populations in the US of lower socioeconomic status. For example, a study on Latina women with breast cancer showed that participants with lower levels of instrumental support were more likely to drop out of treatment prematurely, due to issues such as inability to pay for treatment and long transportation distances (Galván et al., 2009). Instrumental support related to food was particularly prominent, co-occuring with informational support 2520 RANGE in the form of nutritional advice, such as which foods to eat to boost immunity and avoid nausea. Patients in Malawi may be particularly concerned with nutrition due to the abundance of malnutrition and undernutrition. This has been studied particularly among children and adolescents with cancer. A study on malnutrition among children with cancer in Malawi revealed that more than half of the children are severely malnourished and over 95% have some degree of malnutrition (Israëls et al., 2008). Similar findings were present in other LMICs, including India and Guatemala (Barr & Antillon-Klussmann, 2022). Malnutrition contributes to early abandonment of therapy, treatment-related toxicities, poor clinical outcomes, and low survival rates (Barr & AntillonKlussmann, 2022). Considering the importance of nutrition in this context, it could be helpful to incorporate advice on nutrition into informational support provided by the medical team, as well as instrumental support to provide nutritious food that minimizes unpleasant side effects to those who are otherwise unable to obtain it. Emotional support emerged as a major need during the stage of retention and completion. The importance of emotional support for cancer patients 2521 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH has been the most heavily emphasized in literature (Hegelson & Cohen, 1996). One study examined the effects of participation in a computer-mediated emotional support group among breast cancer patients, finding that participation was associated with perceived bonding, which was associated with positive coping strategies (Namkoong et al., 2013). There were multiple ways emotional support manifested at this stage. It emerged similarly to the stage of initiation of care in many cases, with family and friends providing encouragement for patients to continue treatment. In other cases, it co-occurred with instrumental support to promote treatment adherence. The connection between social support and treatment compliance was demonstrated in one study among patients with cardiovascular disease, showing that patients with higher social support also had greater adherence to appointments (Wenn et al., 2022). Emotional support also appeared in the form of providing companionship and making the patients feel loved and cared for. The source of emotional support was most often caregivers who were immediate family members such as the patient’s spouse, parents, or siblings. The role of support from family members in alleviating symptoms of depression 2522 RANGE in cancer patients has been documented in other studies (Hann et al., 2002). The presence of emotional support from these sources suggests that patients’ existing social support networks through their immediate families can, in many cases, be tapped into to provide them with needed support. Asking patients about their social support network and identifying individuals to fulfill certain needs can ensure needs are met effectively (Krishnasamy, 1996). As mentioned previously, not all cancer patients may need a formal support group to get emotional support. In these cases where they already have a strong social network, members of this network can be looped into care and given knowledge and tools to strengthen the support they are already providing. The results did not demonstrate significant differences in social support needs between men and women across the cancer care continuum. One possible explanation for this is that gender differences might disappear after controlling for social roles, and in this case both men and women held the social role of a cancer patient (Matud et al., 2003). However, men more frequently cited their wife or partner as the person providing emotional and instrumental support, compared to less women who mentioned their 2523 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH husband. Past studies would support this finding. For example, although levels of confiding in others were the same between male and female cancer patients in one study, men were more likely to limit confiding to one person, usually their partner, while women were more likely to confide in a larger network of family and friends (Harrison et al., 1995). In a study observing differences in depression symptoms among cancer patients by age and gender, having a larger social support network was associated with less depression for women but was unrelated for men, echoing these findings (Hann et al., 2002). This is not to say that men do not need social support, as more social support was associated with less depression for both groups. Additionally, previous literature has established that the burden of social support typically falls on women, who are more likely than men to take on informal caregiving roles, as caregiving falls into expected gender norms (Parks & Pilisuk, 1991; Schrank et al., 2016). Female caregivers report higher levels of burden, stress, anxiety and fatigue compared with male caregivers, and spend more hours performing care duties and performing more intimate duties such as toilet tasks (Schrank et al., 2016). This highlights the need to not only support cancer patients but also the informal caregivers in their social support 2524 RANGE network, who may experience a large burden from their caretaking roles. Past studies have demonstrated that caretakers of patients with cancer can experience negative effects to their mental health and quality of life, and that these effects are interdependent with the patients’ mental health and quality of life (Grov et al., 2005; Kim et al., 2015). This study has several limitations that must be considered. First, the study is limited in that it draws from a sample of survivors, meaning it does not capture perspectives from people who were unsuccessful in completing treatment, which would be helpful in determining if social support was a significant factor in treatment adherence and completion. A second limitation is that only informal sources of social support, including friends, family, and others in the community, were considered. Formal sources of social support, most notably healthcare providers including oncologists and nurses, were not considered in our analysis as social support. Although their contribution emerged in some patient narratives which referenced conversations with nurses or medical providers as a source of informational and emotional support, these references were excluded from analysis. Other studies have considered these 2525 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH formal sources of support, such as one study which explored sex-based trends and found women with breast cancer preferred nurses as their source of informational support, while men with prostate cancer preferred their oncologist (Dubois & Loiselle, 2009). Another study explored the provision of informational and emotional support by medical providers for the caregivers of cancer patients in Finland, finding that relatives considered it important to receive informational support from healthcare providers but felt they received very little in relation to their needs (Eriksson & Lauri, 2000). Especially considering the issues with the quality of informational support provided by patients’ informal social support networks, connections to formal sources of support including healthcare providers may be even more important in this population. Third, the interview guide was not designed to specifically ask about social support. Although themes surrounding social support emerged organically in the survivors’ narratives, it is possible that asking more targeted questions around social support would have better informed the results. Fourth, the interviews were translated from Chichewa to English but were not back translated, which may have resulted in the loss of some nuance in the transcripts. Finally, the sample of survivors included 2526 RANGE only those with breast cancer and lymphoma, limiting the generalizability of this study, although some broader social support patterns are applicable regardless of cancer type. In conclusion, social support is a valuable resource utilized by cancer patients across the stages of the cancer care continuum. This study provides insight into how informational, emotional, and instrumental social support facilitated the journey of cancer survivors in Malawi from diagnosis to initiation to completion of treatment. Interventions to address gaps in social support should be a top priority to promote successful adherence to cancer treatment. This may include community-level education to address informational support needs in the pathway to diagnosis; peer-support groups to address emotional and informational support needs at the initiation of care; and transportation and food vouchers to meet instrumental support needs at retention in care. Insights from the narratives of cancer survivors should be used to inform and implement interventions that fulfil unmet social support needs and promote cancer survival. 2527 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY Agampodi, T. C., Agampodi, S. B., Glozier, N., & Siribaddana, S. (2015). Measurement of social capital in relation to health in low and middle income countries (LMIC): A systematic review. Social Science & Medicine, 128, 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.01.005 Ajith, K., Sarkar, S., Sethuramachandran, A., Manghat, S., & Surendran, G. (2023). Myths, beliefs, and attitude toward cancer among the family caregivers of cancer patients: A community- based, mixed-method study in rural Tamil Nadu. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 12(2), 282. https://doi.org/ 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_193_22 Anandasabapathy, S., Asirwa, C., Grover, S., & Mungo, C. (2024). Cancer burden in lowincome and middle-income countries. Nature Reviews Cancer, 24(3), 167–170. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/s41568-023-00659-2 Bamodu, O. A., & Chung, C.-C. (2024). Cancer Care Disparities: Overcoming Barriers to Cancer Control in Low- and Middle-Income 2528 RANGE Countries. JCO Global Oncology, 10, e2300439. https://doi.org/10.1200/GO.23.00439 Banning, M., & Hafeez, H. (2009). Perceptions of breast health practices in Pakistani Muslim women. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention: APJCP, 10(5), 841–847. Barr, R. D., & Antillon-Klussmann, F. (2022). Cancer and nutrition among children and adolescents in low- and middle-income countries. Hematology (Amsterdam, Netherlands), 27(1), 987–993. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 16078454.2022.2115437 Beasley, J. M., Newcomb, P. A., TrenthamDietz, A., Hampton, J. M., Ceballos, R. M., Titus-Ernstoff, L., Egan, K. M., & Holmes, M. D. (2010). Social networks and survival after breast cancer diagnosis. Journal of Cancer Survivorship, 4(4), 372–380. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11764-010-0139-5 Berkman, L. F., Glass, T., Brissette, I., & Seeman, T. E. (2000). From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium. 2529 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Social Science & Medicine (1982), 51(6), 843–857. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00065-4 Brand, N. R., Qu, L. G., Chao, A., & Ilbawi, A. M. (2019). Delays and Barriers to Cancer Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review. The Oncologist, 24(12), e1371– e1380. https://doi.org/10.1634/ theoncologist.2019-0057 Cai, T., Huang, Q., & Yuan, C. (2021). Emotional, informational and instrumental support needs in patients with breast cancer who have undergone surgery: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 11(8), e048515. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-048515 Christiansen, K., Buswell, L., & Fadelu, T. (2023). A Systematic Review of Patient Education Strategies for Oncology Patients in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. The Oncologist, 28(1), 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/ oncolo/oyac206 Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. 2530 RANGE Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310–357. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310 Courtens, A. M., Stevens, F. C., Crebolder, H. F., & Philipsen, H. (1996). Longitudinal study on quality of life and social support in cancer patients. Cancer Nursing, 19(3), 162–169. https://doi.org/10.1097/ 00002820-199606000-00002 Datta, N. R., Samiei, M., & Bodis, S. (2014). Radiation Therapy Infrastructure and Human Resources in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Present Status and Projections for 2020. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics, 89(3), 448–457. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ijrobp.2014.03.002 Drageset, J. (2021). Social Support. In G. Haugan & M. Eriksson (Eds.), Health Promotion in Health Care – Vital Theories and Research. Springer. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/ NBK585650/ Drageset, J., Eide, G. E., Dysvik, E., Furnes, B., & Hauge, S. (2015). Loneliness, loss, and 2531 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH social support among cognitively intact older people with cancer, living in nursing homes – a mixed-methods study. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 10, 1529–1536. https://doi.org/10.2147/ CIA.S88404 Dubois, S., & Loiselle, C. G. (2009). Cancer informational support and health care service use among individuals newly diagnosed: A mixed methods approach. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 15(2), 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1365-2753.2008.01013.x Eriksson, E., & Lauri, S. (2000). Informational and emotional support for cancer patients’ relatives. European Journal of Cancer Care, 9(1), 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.13652354.2000.00183.x Ezeome, E. R., & Anarado, A. N. (2007). Use of complementary and alternative medicine by cancer patients at the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu, Nigeria. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 7, 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-7-28 2532 RANGE Galván, N., Buki, L. P., & Garcés, D. M. (2009). Suddenly, a carriage appears: Social support needs of Latina breast cancer survivors. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 27(3), 361–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/07347330902979283 Gottlieb, B. H., & Bergen, A. E. (2010). Social support concepts and measures. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 69(5), 511–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jpsychores.2009.10.001 Grov, E. K., Dahl, A. A., Moum, T., & Fosså, S. D. (2005). Anxiety, depression, and quality of life in caregivers of patients with cancer in late palliative phase. Annals of Oncology, 16(7), 1185–1191. https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/ mdi210 Guest, G., M.MacQueen, K., & E.Namey, E. (2012). Applied Thematic Analysis. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/ 9781483384436 Hann, D., Baker, F., Denniston, M., Gesme, D., Reding, D., Flynn, T., Kennedy, J., & Kieltyka, 2533 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH R. L. (2002). The influence of social support on depressive symptoms in cancer patients: Age and gender differences. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 52(5), 279–283. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/s0022-3999(01)00235-5 Harrison, J., Maguire, P., & Pitceathly, C. (1995). Confiding in crisis: Gender differences in pattern of confiding among cancer patients. Social Science & Medicine, 41(9), 1255–1260. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(94)00411-L Helgeson, V. S., & Cohen, S. (1996). Social support and adjustment to cancer: Reconciling descriptive, correlational, and intervention research. Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 15(2), 135–148. https://doi.org/10.1037//0278-6133.15.2.135 House, J. S., Umberson, D., & Landis, K. R. (1988). Structures and Processes of Social Support. Annual Review of Sociology, 14, 293–318. Israëls, T., Chirambo, C., Caron, H. N., & 2534 RANGE Molyneux, E. M. (2008). Nutritional status at admission of children with cancer in Malawi. Pediatric Blood & Cancer, 51(5), 626–628. https://doi.org/10.1002/pbc.21697 Kim, Y., van Ryn, M., Jensen, R. E., Griffin, J. M., Potosky, A., & Rowland, J. (2015). Effects of gender and depressive symptoms on quality of life among colorectal and lung cancer patients and their family caregivers. Psycho-Oncology, 24(1), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.3580 Krishnasamy, M. (1996). Social support and the patient with cancer: A consideration of the literature. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 23(4), 757–762. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.13652648.1996.tb00048.x Kroenke, C. H., Kubzansky, L. D., Schernhammer, E. S., Holmes, M. D., & Kawachi, I. (2006). Social Networks, Social Support, and Survival After Breast Cancer Diagnosis. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 24(7), 1105–1111. https://doi.org/10.1200/ JCO.2005.04.2846 2535 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Kroenke, C. H., Quesenberry, C., Kwan, M. L., Sweeney, C., Castillo, A., & Caan, B. J. (2013). Social networks, social support, and burden in relationships, and mortality after breast cancer diagnosis in the Life After Breast Cancer Epidemiology (LACE) study. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, 137(1), 261–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10549-012-2253-8 Lazard, A. J., Nicolla, S., Vereen, R. N., Pendleton, S., Charlot, M., Tan, H.-J., DiFranzo, D., Pulido, M., & Dasgupta, N. (2023). Exposure and Reactions to Cancer Treatment Misinformation and Advice: Survey Study. JMIR Cancer, 9(1), e43749. https://doi.org/10.2196/43749 Makwero, M. T. (2018). Delivery of primary health care in Malawi. African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine, 10(1), 1799. https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v10i1.1799 Manvelian, A., & Sbarra, D. A. (2020). Marital Status, Close Relationships, and All-Cause Mortality: Results From a 10-Year Study of Nationally Representative Older Adults. 2536 RANGE Psychosomatic Medicine, https://doi.org/10.1097/ PSY.0000000000000798 82(4), 384–392. Matud, M. P., Ibáñez, I., Bethencourt, J. M., Marrero, R., & Carballeira, M. (2003). Structural gender differences in perceived social support. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(8), 1919–1929. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0191-8869(03)00041-2 Muñoz-Laboy, M., Severson, N., Perry, A., & Guilamo-Ramos, V. (2014). Differential Impact of Types of Social Support in the Mental Health of Formerly Incarcerated Latino Men. American Journal of Men’s Health, 8(3), 226–239. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988313508303 Namkoong, K., McLaughlin, B., Yoo, W., Hull, S. J., Shah, D. V., Kim, S. C., Moon, T. J., Johnson, C. N., Hawkins, R. P., McTavish, F. M., & Gustafson, D. H. (2013). The Effects of Expression: How Providing Emotional Support Online Improves Cancer Patients’ Coping Strategies. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2537 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Monographs, 2013(47), 169–174. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/jncimonographs/lgt033 Ochalek, J., Gibbs, N. K., Faria, R., Darlong, J., Govindasamy, K., Harden, M., Meka, A., Shrestha, D., Napit, I. B., Lilford, R. J., & Sculpher, M. (2023). Economic evaluation of self-help group interventions for health in LMICs: A scoping review. Health Policy and Planning, 38(9), 1033–1049. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/heapol/czad060 Pace, L. E., Mpunga, T., Hategekimana, V., Dusengimana, J.-M. V., Habineza, H., Bigirimana, J. B., Mutumbira, C., Mpanumusingo, E., Ngiruwera, J. P., Tapela, N., Amoroso, C., Shulman, L. N., & Keating, N. L. (2015). Delays in Breast Cancer Presentation and Diagnosis at Two Rural Cancer Referral Centers in Rwanda. The Oncologist, 20(7), 780–788. https://doi.org/ 10.1634/theoncologist.2014-0493 Park, K., Hong, W. H., Kye, S. Y., Jung, E., Kim, M., & Park, H. G. (2011). Communitybased intervention to promote breast cancer 2538 RANGE awareness and screening: The Korean experience. BMC Public Health, 11, 468. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-468 Parks, S. H., & Pilisuk, M. (1991). Caregiver burden: Gender and the psychological costs of caregiving. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61(4), 501–509. https://doi.org/10.1037/ h0079290 Pedersen, B., Koktved, D. P., & Nielsen, L. L. (2013). Living with side effects from cancer treatment—A challenge to target information. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 27(3), 715–723. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1471-6712.2012.01085.x Perry, B. L., & Pescosolido, B. A. (2012). Social Network Dynamics and Biographical Disruption: The Case of “First-Timers” with Mental Illness. American Journal of Sociology, 118(1), 134–175. https://doi.org/10.1086/ 666377 Petrič, G., Cugmas, M., Petrič, R., & Atanasova, S. (2023). The quality of informational social 2539 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH support in online health communities: A content analysis of cancer-related discussions. DIGITAL HEALTH, 9, 20552076231155681. https://doi.org/10.1177/20552076231155681 Poole, G., Poon, C., Achille, M., White, K., Franz, N., Jittler, S., Watt, K., Cox, D. N., & Doll, R. (2001). Social support for patients with prostate cancer: The effects of support groups. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 19(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1300/J077v19n02_01 Portes, A. (1998). Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 1–24. Pramesh, C. S., Badwe, R. A., Bhoo-Pathy, N., Booth, C. M., Chinnaswamy, G., Dare, A. J., de Andrade, V. P., Hunter, D. J., Gopal, S., Gospodarowicz, M., Gunasekera, S., Ilbawi, A., Kapambwe, S., Kingham, P., Kutluk, T., Lamichhane, N., Mutebi, M., Orem, J., Parham, G., Weiderpass, E. (2022). Priorities for cancer research in low- and middle-income countries: A global perspective. Nature Medicine, 28(4), 2540 RANGE 649–657. s41591-022-01738-x https://doi.org/10.1038/ Reblin, M., & Uchino, B. N. (2008). Social and Emotional Support and its Implication for Health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 21(2), 201–205. https://doi.org/10.1097/ YCO.0b013e3282f3ad89 Robinson, J. D., & and Tian, Y. (2009). Cancer Patients and the Provision of Informational Social Support. Health Communication, 24(5), 381–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10410230903023261 Schrank, B., Ebert-Vogel, A., Amering, M., Masel, E. K., Neubauer, M., Watzke, H., Zehetmayer, S., & Schur, S. (2016). Gender differences in caregiver burden and its determinants in family members of terminally ill cancer patients. Psycho-Oncology, 25(7), 808–814. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.4005 Schultz, B. E., Corbett, C. F., & Hughes, R. G. (2022). Instrumental support: A conceptual analysis. Nursing Forum, 57(4), 665–670. https://doi.org/10.1111/nuf.12704 2541 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Schwarzer, R., & Leppin, A. (1991). Social Support and Health: A Theoretical and Empirical Overview. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 8(1), 99–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407591081005 Story, W. T. (2013). Social capital and health in the least developed countries: A critical review of the literature and implications for a future research agenda. Global Public Health, 8(9), 983–999. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 17441692.2013.842259 Sung, H., Ferlay, J., Siegel, R. L., Laversanne, M., Soerjomataram, I., Jemal, A., & Bray, F. (2021). Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 71(3), 209–249. https://doi.org/10.3322/ caac.21660 Taylor, S. E. (2012). Social Support: A Review. In H. S. Friedman (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Health Psychology (1st ed., pp. 190–214). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/ oxfordhb/9780195342819.013.0009 2542 RANGE Thoits, P. A. (1995). Stress, coping, and social support processes: Where are we? What next? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 53–79. https://doi.org/10.2307/2626957 Ward, Z. J., & Goldie, S. J. (2024). Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 estimates: Implications for health policy and research. The Lancet, 403(10440), 1958–1959. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0140-6736(24)00812-2 Watt, M. H., Suneja, G., Zimba, C., Westmoreland, K. D., Bula, A., Cutler, L., Khatri, A., Painschab, M. S., & Kimani, S. (2023). Cancer-Related Stigma in Malawi: Narratives of Cancer Survivors. JCO Global Oncology, 9, e2200307. https://doi.org/10.1200/ GO.22.00307 Wenn, P., Meshoyrer, D., Barber, M., Ghaffar, A., Razka, M., Jose, S., Zeltser, R., & Makaryus, A. N. (2022). Perceived Social Support and its Effects on Treatment Compliance and Quality of Life in Cardiac Patients. Journal of Patient Experience, 9, 23743735221074170. https://doi.org/10.1177/23743735221074170 2543 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Wortman, C. B. (1984). Social Support and the Cancer Patient: Conceptual and Methodologic Issues. Cancer, 53(S10), 2339–2360. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.1984.53.s10.2339 2544 RANGE 151 Motivations, Expectations, and Experiences of Parents Who Take a Child to a Village Doctor With a Complaint of Diarrhea: A Qualitative Study in Rural Bangladesh JANE PUTNAM; MELISSA WATT; APARNA MANGADU; JYOTI BHUSHAN DAS; SARAH DALLAS; OLIVIA HANSON; DANIEL T. LEUNG; AND ASHRAFUL ISLAM KHAN 2545 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Faculty Mentor: Melissa Watt (Anthropology, University of Utah) ABSTRACT Background: In Bangladesh, informal healthcare providers (“village doctors”) meet the healthcare needs of the rural poor, but also contribute to inappropriate antibiotic prescriptions in rural communities. In cases of acute pediatric diarrhea, antibiotics are usually unnecessary, and inappropriate use can harm patients and contribute to antibiotic resistance. This study explored parents’ motivations and expectations for care, including antibiotics, when seeking treatment for pediatric diarrhea from a village doctor, and examined how village doctors respond to and manage these expectations. Methods: We conducted in-depth interviews with parents who took their child to a village doctor (n = 12) and village doctors (n = 18) in Bangladesh. Analysis identified motivations and expectations of parents, and how those expectations impacted village doctor decision making. Results: Motivating factors for seeking care from a 2546 RANGE village doctor included geographic proximity, accessibility, familiarity and trust. Parents often expected antibiotics for pediatric diarrhea treatment. Village doctors described how parents’ expectations contributed to their decision to dispense antibiotics, even if not clinically necessary. Conclusion: Village doctors are trusted members of communities and play a critical role in meeting rural healthcare needs. Their antibiotic-related clinical decisions can play a role in antibiotic resistance rates. Educational and diagnostic interventions should target both community members and village doctors to reduce inappropriate antibiotic use in children. INTRODUCTION The informal healthcare sector (e.g., drug vendors, traditional birth attendants, traditional healers, and untrained allopathic providers) plays an important role in meeting the health care needs of the world’s population (Kumah, 2022) (Nayak et al., 2022). In many low- and middle- income countries (LMICs), informal healthcare providers deliver the bulk of healthcare services, especially for the rural poor (Kong et al., 2021). These providers often step in to fill the gap left by limited access to the formal healthcare sector by 2547 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH providing medical advice and treatment, despite lacking formal medical training (Sudhinaraset et al., 2013). Informal healthcare providers frequently operate in environments with weak pharmaceutical regulations, resulting in large scale and unregulated antibiotic use within the community (Tandan et al., 2024) (Murray et al., 2024). While the World Health Organization suggests antibiotics may be appropriate for pediatric diarrheal disease under key circumstances (Departments of Child and Adolescent Health and Development and HIV/AIDS), unrestricted and universal antibiotic dispensing by informal providers is common in LMICs (Bashar et al., 2024). The inappropriate use of antibiotics contributes to the growing global health threat of antibiotic resistance (Murray et al., 2024). The overuse and misuse of antibiotics by informal providers reflect a brloader global issue, as inappropriate antibiotic dispensing practices contribute to the escalating problem of antibiotic resistance (Salam et al., 2023, Llor, Bjerrum, 2014). With continued and increasing reliance on antibiotics, emergent strains of resistant bacteria begin to propagate (Salam et al., 2023). Resistance diminishes the effectiveness of these crucial medications, posing a severe threat to public health worldwide and signaling the potential onset of a post2548 RANGE antibiotic era where common infections may become difficult to treat(Wang et al., 2020). In Bangladesh, informal healthcare providers that practice allopathic medicine without formal training are called “village doctors” (Mahmood SS, et al., 2010). They are a crucial component of the healthcare system, particularly for the rural poor, typically providing patient consultations and selling medications, including antibiotics (Hanson et al., 2024). Due to their lack of formal medical training and clients’ demand for quick remedies, village doctors often resort to prescribing antibiotics indiscriminately (Rasu et al., 2014), including for viral cases of pediatric diarrhea where antibiotics are not an effective treatment. Village doctors’ antibiotic dispensing habits may be influenced by parental expectations of care for pediatric diarrhea. A study conducted in India suggests that external pressure from patients significantly influenced the antibiotic dispensing habits of informal healthcare practitioners (Khare et al., 2022), with patients often viewing antibiotics as a “quick fix” and demanding antibiotics from informal practitioners. The financial motivations of informal practitioners lead them to comply with patient demands (Khare et al., 2022). Patients and parents of pediatric patients frequently view 2549 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH antibiotics as a catch-all solution for various ailments, pressuring village doctors to fulfill these expectations to maintain their clientele and livelihood (Murray et al., 2024). Thus, an investigation of community attitudes and perspectives on antibiotics may provide crucial insight into the potential motivations and contributing factors for inappropriate antibiotic dispensing practices among village doctors. Given the significant role of the informal healthcare sector in many LMICs, particularly in rural areas, it is crucial to understand the dynamics that influence clinical decision-making, including decisions related to antibiotic use. As patients and parents of pediatric patients have been shown to play a critical role in shaping providers’ clinical behavior, including antibiotic dispensing practices in other regions (Khare et al., 2022) (Murray et al., 2024), understanding the motivations and expectations of parents when they bring their children to village doctors in Bangladesh is essential. This study aims to qualitatively explore parents’ expectations when seeking care for pediatric diarrhea from a village doctor and to understand how these expectations influence village doctors’ clinical decision-making. 2550 RANGE METHODS Overview In-depth interviews (IDIs) were conducted with parents (n=12) who brought their child to a village doctor with the primary complaint of diarrhea to gain insights on parents’ motivations, expectations, and experiences when seeking care from village doctors. IDIs were also conducted with village doctors (n=18) to explore their perspectives of parents’ motivations and expectations, and how these influence clinical decision making. Study Setting & Population The study was conducted in the Sitakunda Upazila (subdistrict) of the Chattogram District in Southeastern Bangladesh. The Situkunda Upazila is comprised of about 500 square kilometers and its population consists of approximately 383,000 people (Bangladesh Local Health Bulletin, 2023). Through a community-based survey, we previously identified approximately 400 village doctors practicing in this area (Hanson et al., 2024), which served as our sampling framework. Study participants consisted of: 1) adult parents of pediatric patients and 2) village doctors. Parents were eligible if they identified as the primary adult responsible 2551 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH for a child under 5 years of age that had visited a village doctor with a primary complaint of diarrhea. All caregiver participants were the biological parents of the child patients and are thus referred to throughout this paper as “parents”. Village doctors were defined as informal healthcare providers or drug vendors without medical degrees who practiced allopathic medicine outside of formal healthcare facilities. Procedures Face-to-face individual IDIs were conducted in June and July of 2023. Caregiver participants were approached and recruited directly from the village doctor practices and screened for eligibility. Village doctor participants were approached at their clinical work locations and invited to participate. Interviews, conducted by a member of the qualitative research team at the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), ranged in duration from 20 to 30 minutes and were conducted in Bangla. Semi-structured interview guides included open-ended questions and follow-up probes. The interview guide for parents of pediatric patients (Supplement 1) covered topics such as the child illness, rationale for seeking village doctor care, past experiences with village doctors, 2552 RANGE and opinions on treatment improvements. The interview guide for village doctors (Supplement 2) covered the village doctor’s role in the community, typical care provided, typical treatment for pediatric diarrhea, and personal views on pediatric antibiotic use. IDIs with village doctors also focused on their perceptions of parents’ expectations and how they manage these expectations in their clinical practice. All IDIs were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and translated into English for analysis. Analysis An applied thematic analysis framework (Guest et al., 2012) guided the analysis of the IDIs, aimed at developing a nuanced understanding of parents’ motivations, expectations, and experiences when taking a child for care from a village doctor. The analysis involved several stages: familiarization with the raw data, coding, identification of emerging themes, extracting, analytic memo writing, and interpretation of the data. Analysis was conducted in NVivo (ver 12). We developed a codebook to identify emerging themes across three domains: 1) parents’ motivations for seeking village doctor care, 2) parens’ expectations of village 2553 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH doctors, and 3) village doctors’ perspectives of parental expectations and influence on clinical decision making. Once coding was completed and emerging themes were identified, analytic memos were written to develop a comprehensive understanding of the data and identify representative quotes for the emerging themes. Ethics This study was approved by the ethics board of both the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (iccdr,b) and the University of Utah. Participants provided written consent to participate in the study and did not receive financial compensation beyond transportation reimbursement. RESULTS The 12 pediatric parents included both mothers (n=9) and fathers (n=3). The average age of parents was 29 years (Range: 18-40 years). Village doctor participants (n=18) were all male, with an average age of 41 years (Range: 28-63 years). Figure 1 illustrates the thematic findings related to parent motivations and expectations, and the influence on village doctor care. 2554 RANGE Parents’ Motivations for Seeking Village Doctor Care Three themes emerged that characterized parents’ motivations for seeking care for their child from a village doctor: 1) geographic accessibility, 2) financial accessibility, and 3) trust in and familiarity with village doctors. Geographic accessibility Since Bangladesh offers government funded healthcare services through hospitals and MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery) doctors, parents of patients may seek care from either trained practitioners or village doctors. While parents acknowledged that government hospitals with trained healthcare workers provide higher quality of care, they primarily visited village doctors as the first point of care for pediatric diarrhea. “If the fever or cough is not getting better by the medicine provided by Dr A, then I visit hospital for better treatment by the specialized doctors. I also need to go to the hospital to diagnosis. Few days ago, my younger 2555 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH son was suffering from fever and sore throat. He was unable to breastfeeding. At the very first, I consult with Dr A and gave him medicine. But he was not improving. Then I managed some money and visit a child specialist in sitakundo. With that medication, he was cured.” (Mother of a 16-month-old, living in the community for 16 years) Parents often mentioned geographic barriers to seeking care in formal health facilities. They mentioned the time and cost it takes to travel to a formal healthcare facility, general difficulties with transportation, and appreciation that village doctor performed house calls. Given the rural nature of the study setting, limited transportation and the time commitment associated with visiting a government hospital were strong deterrents from seeking care at these locations unless serious care is required. “The truth is, distance matters. The hospitals are not too far from here, but the VD’s chamber is walking distancefrom here.… It feels inconvenient to go to the hospital as it takes almost one hour to reach.”(Father of a 3-year-old, living in the community for 4 years). 2556 RANGE Another key difference between MBBS doctors and village doctors is accessibility via house calls. Village doctors often live and work locally which allows them the flexibility to preform house calls. Parents expressed gratitude towards these house calls. If we go to a hospital at night then we will not get a doctor. They will say [MBBS] is not available even despite being available. That’s why we visit [a village doctor]. He visits home if needed. Other doctors (MBBS) will not come at home. [The village doctor] is good for us.” (Mother of a 3-year-old, living in the community for 6 years). Financial accessibility Financial restraints also play a significant role in the decision to seek care from a village doctor. Parents indicated the lesser cost of village doctor care, compared to a MBBS doctor in a hospital facility. “He gives good advice, and his medicines work. We don’t need to go to the doctor outside our village/community or in the farthest area. [The village doctor] gives the same medicines, an MBBS doctor or specialist doctor gives. If [the village doctor] gives the same medicines then why should we go to a big doctor (MBBS)? The medicines of a doctor with 800TK fees and the medicine of [the village 2557 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH doctor] are the same. We visit other doctors as well if the situation becomes so critical.” (Mother of a 3.5-year-old). Trust and confidence in village doctor care Trust and familiarity with village doctors played an important role in the decision to seek care at a village doctor practice. Parents who had received care from a village doctor in the past felt comfortable with continuing to utilize them as a resource for care for their children. Families typically all visit the same village doctor, forming generational connections. A close and trusted relationship between the family and the village doctor was cited as being among the most important motivations to continue returning to the same practitioner. “Now the point is that I have been seeing Dr A here for treatment since my birth. In addition to this, all of our family took treatment from him. People go to others too, but actually I like him so I go to him. Apart from this, the effectiveness of medicine also works here.” (Father of a 1.6-year-old, living in the community for 20 years) Parent Expectations of Village Doctors Three themes emerged regarding parents’ expectations during a visit to a village doctor: 2558 RANGE 1) health education and understanding of health conditions, 2) proper treatment, and 3) effective medications. Health education and understanding of health conditions When visiting a village doctors, parents explained that they expected to get information about their child’s health condition and a specific diagnosis. Specifically, they expected that the village doctor would take into account the patient’s medical history, symptoms, and parental concerns in order to fully understand the health status and move forward with appropriate treatment. “The medicines that he prescribes work well in our body. The main thing is that if a doctor can diagnose the diseases, then he can be able [to] give them better treatment. So, in terms of understanding a patient’s problems, I think he is a good doctor.” (Father of a 3-year-old, living in the community for 4 years) Proper treatment Proper and prompt treatment was also noted as an important expectation of parents. Participants expressed that the treatment received from 2559 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH village doctors will provide quick resolution of symptoms and more timely recovery. “Her fever decreased, and the diarrhea stopped. Just one day has passed since the medicines were given. He [VD] gave us the medicine the other day.” (Father of a 3-yearold, living in the community for 38 years) Effective medications The receipt of effective and essential medications was also an important expectation held by parental caregivers. Parents describe “effective medications” as those that work quickly with limited side effects. Parents noted that the majority of medications that patients received were antibiotics. However, parents did not explicitly state that they expected to receive antibiotics from a village doctor, just that they expected medications to work quickly and properly. “I went to him [VD] because I expected to get well by taking medicine from him without buying medicine from the [MBBS] doctor again and again.”(Father of a 1.6-year-old, living in the community for 20 years) The baby had soft stool two/three times, (VD) give medicines so that it recovers. The doctor gave some medicines and told try these medicines if not improve 2560 RANGE then antibiotics will be provided. If the condition becomes improve or is cured we usually don’t revisit the doctor. (Mother of 3-year-old, living in the community for 6 years) Village Doctors’ Perspectives of Parental Expectations and Influence on Clinical Decision Making The village doctor IDIs identified themes surrounding: 1) village doctors’ perspectives on parent expectations, and 2) how parental expectations influence course of care. Village doctors’ perspectives on parent expectations Village doctors said that parents often come to their shop with set expectations regarding care and treatment. Village doctors indicated that expectations held by parents have an impact on how they proceed with providing care. “They [parents] expect powerful antibiotics. Usually, if there is not need to give antibiotics, [parents] force us to give one” (Village doctor, 28 years old) How parental expectations influence course of care Village doctors explained how the explicit and implicit 2561 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH expectations of parents led them to sell antibiotics. They said that village doctors will sell antibiotics in order to maintain long-term financial security. “Yes, some of the VDs are involved in selling medicines. That’s the problem. So for better profit margins, some of them are prescribing and selling excess antibiotics.” (Village doctor, 47 years old, 22 years of experience) Village doctors also noted that appeasing parents and maintaining clientele are additional factors in their decision-making practices. Practitioners will supply antibiotics when they feel pressure from a patient or patient caregiver, for fear of them finding business elsewhere. “They say, give me the best antibiotics, no matter what it costs. If I try to motivate them and advise them not to do so, they leave my shop and go to another.” (Village doctor, approx. 19 year of experience) “Some patients will recover without antibiotics for 7 days, but they (the patient or parent of patient) cannot tolerate this. So, if I do not give them, he will go to the other doctor; they will provide the antibiotics, and in the meantime, he will recover quickly. For this, I become bad, and that doctor becomes good for providing the antibiotics.” (Village doctor, age and experience not specified) 2562 RANGE DISCUSSION Inappropriate dispensing of antibiotics within the informal healthcare sector of LMICs is an important factor contributing to the ongoing threat of antibiotic resistance (Tandan et al., 2024). These unregulated prescription habits have previously been linked to patient expectations regarding antibiotic care (Murray et al., 2024). Understanding why parents take their children to village doctors and what they expect from the clinical encounter is important to provide a full understanding of the drivers of antibiotic misuse (Kotwani et al., 2010, Mangione-Smith et al., 1999). This study aimed to analyze parents’ motivations and expectations surrounding a visit to a village doctor, and how these factors can influence antibiotic dispensing practices in Bangladesh. Factors such as location, price, and trust all contributed to parents bringing their children to village doctors. Parents expected village doctors to be knowledgeable, prompt and provide effective treatment, including antibiotics. Village doctors in turn stated that they felt pressure to prescribe antibiotics because of the expectations set forth by parents. This pressure is echoed throughout studies in the United 2563 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Kingdom and West Bengal, India, where clinicians (with varying levels of medical training) felt that patient expectations surrounding treatment affect their antibiotic prescription habits (Cole et al., 2014, Nair et al., 2019). These globally recognized trends demonstrate the importance of formal medical training and health education for both informal providers and the broader community. Previous studies exploring the healthcare dynamics of LMICs note that informal providers typically fill gaps in healthcare left by poor access to trained doctors and government funded hospitals (Sudhinaraset et al., 2013). In our study, parents noted that geographic accessibility is among the main reasons they opt to visit an untrained village doctor over a clinician at a government hospital. As village doctor become more accessible to lower income communities, their patient load is likely to increase. However, increased rates of patients seeking village doctor care places a large burden of care on these untrained practitioners (Sudhinaraset et al., 2013). It is important to recognize the value of informal providers and 2564 RANGE the accessible healthcare they can provide, while also advocating for additional training and diagnostic tools to aid in clinical care. Perspectives of both parents and village doctors suggest the importance of improved health education for both parties. Many parents expressed their understanding of antibiotics as a more powerful medication, but did not necessarily expect or want antibiotic prescriptions. Parents also solely expressed their desire for “effective” medications, regardless of the type. Additionally, most parents indicated that they typically trusted the diagnoses received from village doctors and followed their treatment recommendations. While these findings suggest that parents don’t necessarily visit a village doctor with the expectation of receiving antibiotics, many village doctors believed that caregivers expected antibiotics, regardless of village doctor recommendation or diagnosis. There is a clear disconnect between caregiver expectations and village doctors’ understanding of these expectations. This miscommunication could potentially be addressed with increased health literacy 2565 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH initiatives and educational tools aimed at antibiotic stewardship and the dangers of antibiotic resistance (Hunter, Owen, 2024). Past literature confirms the benefits of educational tools for parents, aimed at expanding their understanding of antibiotics and the dangers associated with their misuse (Taylor et al., 2003, Trepka et al., 2001, Hunter, Owen, 2024, Khan et al., 2024). Our findings demonstrate that parents rely heavily on village doctors and typically defer to their judgement regarding what an “effective” prescription is, demonstrating the value of increased health education for these untrained providers. Given the community-wide level of trust in village doctors, as expressed by parents of pediatric patients, they are clearly a valued aspect of the Bangladeshi healthcare system and should be trained and utilized to the highest possible level. There are several limitations of this study to consider when interpreting these results. The study includes a relatively small sample with only twelve caregiver and eighteen village doctors. The sample is limited to a small rural 2566 RANGE region, restricting our ability to generalize our findings and adapt them to a broader population. It is also important to note that human antibiotic use is not the only factor contributing to the global antibiotic resistance crisis, and that antibiotic use in agriculture and livestock production plays a large role in the ongoing resistance problems we see today (Salam et al., 2023). CONCLUSIONS The results of this study indicate a need for future investigations surrounding factors leading to rising antibiotic resistance threats, particularly within the informal healthcare sector of LMICs. In LMICs with large informal healthcare sectors, it is important to acknowledge the impact that these untrained providers can have on broader and global public health concerns. Parent motivations and expectations are among many influential reasons for changes in informal practice habits. These changes can contribute to higher rates of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, which can play a key role in rising antibiotic resistance 2567 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH crises. The findings of this study can additionally inform health education interventions that will address the communication gap identified between healthcare providers and patients. Figure1: Interview data themes regarding caregiver motivations and expectations, and village doctor perspectives BIBLIOGRAPHY Anwar, M., Raziq, A., Shoaib, M., Baloch, N. S., Raza, S., Sajjad, B., Sadaf, N., Iqbal, Z., Ishaq, R., Haider, S., Iqbal, Q., Ahmad, N., Haque, N., & Saleem, F. (2021). Exploring Nurses’ Perception of Antibiotic Use and Resistance: A Qualitative Multidisciplinary Healthcare, Inquiry. 14, Journal of 1599–1608. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S309020 Baral, R., Nonvignon, 2568 J., Debellut, F., RANGE Agyemang, S. A., Clark, A., & Pecenka, C. (2020). Cost of illness for childhood diarrhea in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review of evidence and modelled estimates. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 619. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s12889-020-08595-8 Bashar, S. J., Islam, M. R., Nuzhat, S., Amin, R., Rahman, M. M., Pavlinac, P. B., Arnold, S. L. M., Newlands, A., Ahmed, T., & Chisti, M. J. (2024). Antibiotic use prior to attending a large diarrheal disease hospital among preschool children suffering from bloody or non-bloody diarrhea: A cross- sectional study conducted in Bangladesh. PloS One, 19(11), e0314325. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314325 Bloom, G., Standing, H., Lucas, H., Bhuiya, A., Oladepo, O., & Peters, D. H. (2011). Making health markets work better for poor people: the case of informal providers. Health Policy and Planning, 26(suppl_1), i45–i52. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/heapol/czr025 Chandy, S. J., Mathai, E., Kurien, K., Faruqui, A. R., Holloway, K., & Lundborg, C. S. (n.d.). 2569 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Antibiotic use and resistance: perceptions and ethical challenges among doctors, pharmacists and the public in Vellore, South India. Indian Journal of Medical Ethics. Retrieved February 7, 2025, from https://ijme.in/articles/antibioticuse-and-resistance-perceptions-and-ethicalchallenges-amongdoctors-pharmacists-and-the-public-invellore-south-india/?galley=html Cole, A. (2014). GPs feel pressurised to prescribe unnecessary antibiotics, survey finds. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g5238 Departments of Child and Adolescent Health and Development and HIV/AIDS (CAH). (n.d.). WHO recommendations on the management of diarrhoea and pneumonia in HIV-infected infants and children. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/ handle/10665/44471/ 9789241548083_eng.pdf;sequence=1 Global Burden of Disease Pediatrics Collaboration, Kyu, H. H., Pinho, C., Wagner, J. A., Brown, J. C., Bertozzi-Villa, A., Charlson, F. J., Coffeng, L. E., Dandona, L., Erskine, H. 2570 RANGE E., Ferrari, A. J., Fitzmaurice, C., Fleming, T. D., Forouzanfar, M. H., Graetz, N., Guinovart, C., Haagsma, J., Higashi, H., Kassebaum, N. J., … Vos, T. (2016). Global and national burden of diseases and injuries among children and adolescents between 1990 and 2013: Findings from the global burden of disease 2013 study. JAMA Pediatrics, 170(3), 267–287. https://doi.org/10.1001/ jamapediatrics.2015.4276 Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. (2023). Local Health Bulletin. Guest, G., M.MacQueen, K., & E.Namey, E. (n.d.). Sage Research Methods – Applied Thematic Analysis – Introduction to Applied Thematic Analysis. Retrieved February 3, 2025, from https://methods.sagepub.com/book/mono/ applied-thematic-analysis/chpt/introductionapplied- thematic-analysis Hanson, O., Khan, I. I., Khan, Z. H., Amin, M. A., Biswas, D., Islam, M. T., Nelson, E. J., Ahmed, S. M., Brintz, B. J., Qadri, F., Watt, M. H., Leung, D. T., & Khan, A. I. (2024, 2571 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH September 13). Identification, mapping, and self-reported practice patterns of village doctors in Sitakunda subdistrict, Bangladesh. JOGH. https://jogh.org/2024/jogh-14-04185/ Holloway, K. A., Kotwani, A., Batmanabane, G., Puri, M., & Tisocki, K. (2017). Antibiotic use in South East Asia and policies to promote appropriate use: reports from country situational analyses. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j2291 Hunter, C. R., & Owen, K. (2025). Can patient education initiatives in primary care increase patient knowledge of appropriate antibiotic use and decrease expectations for unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions? Family Practice, 42(2), cmae047. https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/ cmae047 Khan, I. I., Hanson, O. R., Khan, Z. H., Amin, M. A., Biswas, D., Das, J. B., Munim, M. S., Shihab, R. M., Islam, M. T., Mangadu, A., Nelson, E. J., Ahmed, S. M., Qadri, F., Watt, M. H., Leung, D. T., & Khan, A. I. (2024). Potential for an Electronic Clinical Decision Support Tool to Support Appropriate Antibiotic 2572 RANGE Use for Pediatric Diarrhea Among Village Doctors in Bangladesh. Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, 13(11), 605–607. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpids/piae094 Khare, S., Pathak, A., Lundborg, C. S., & Atkins, S. (n.d.). Understanding Internal and External Drivers Influencing the Prescribing Behaviour of Informal Healthcare Providers with Emphasis on Antibiotics in Rural India: A Qualitative Study. ResearchGate. 10.3390/ antibiotics11040459 Kong, L. S., Islahudin, F., Muthupalaniappen, L., & Chong, W. W. (2021). Knowledge and Expectations on Antibiotic Use Among the General Public in Malaysia: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Survey. Patient Preference and Adherence, 15, 2405–2416. https://doi.org/ 10.2147/PPA.S328890 Kotwani, A., Wattal, C., Katewa, S., Joshi, P. C., & Holloway, K. (2010). Factors influencing primary care physicians to prescribe antibiotics in Delhi India. Family Practice, 27(6), 684–690. https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/cmq059 2573 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Kumah, E. (2022). The informal healthcare providers and universal health coverage in low and middle- income countries. Globalization and Health, 18(1), 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12992-022-00839-z Llor, C., & Bjerrum, L. (2014). Antimicrobial resistance: risk associated with antibiotic overuse and initiatives to reduce the problem. Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety, 5(6), 229–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 2042098614554919 Mahmood, S. S., Iqbal, M., Hanifi, S. M. A., Wahed, T., & Bhuiya, A. (2010). Are “Village Doctors” in Bangladesh a curse or a blessing? BMC International Health and Human Rights, 10(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/ 1472-698X-10-18 Mangione-Smith, R., McGlynn, E. A., Elliott, M. N., Krogstad, P., & Brook, R. H. (1999). The Relationship Between Perceived Parental Expectations and Pediatrician Antimicrobial Prescribing Behavior. Pediatrics, 103(4), 2574 RANGE 711–718. peds.103.4.711 https://doi.org/10.1542/ Murray, J. L., Leung, D. T., Hanson, O. R., Ahmed, S. M., Pavia, A. T., Khan, A. I., Szymczak, J. E., Vaughn, V. M., Patel, P. K., Biswas, D., & Watt, M. H. (2024). Drivers of inappropriate use of antimicrobials in South Asia: A systematic review of qualitative literature. PLOS Global Public Health, 4(4), e0002507. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pgph.0002507 Nair, M., Tripathi, S., Mazumdar, S., Mahajan, R., Harshana, A., Pereira, A., Jimenez, C., Halder, D., & Burza, S. (2019). “Without antibiotics, I cannot treat”: A qualitative study of antibiotic use in Paschim Bardhaman district of West Bengal, India. PLOS ONE, 14(6), e0219002. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0219002 Nayak, P. R., Oswal, K., Pramesh, C. S., Ranganathan, P., Caduff, C., Sullivan, R., Advani, S., Kataria, I., Kalkonde, Y., Mohan, P., Jain, Y., & Purushotham, A. (2022). Informal 2575 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH providers-ground realities in south asian association for regional cooperation nations: Toward better cancer primary care: a narrative review. JCO Global Oncology, 8, e2200260. https://doi.org/10.1200/GO.22.00260 NVivo 12 Pro. (n.d.). [Lumivero]. https://lumivero.com/products/nvivo Rasu, R. S., Iqbal, M., Hanifi, S., Moula, A., Hoque, S., Rasheed, S., & Bhuiya, A. (2014). Level, pattern, and determinants of polypharmacy and inappropriate use of medications by village doctors in a rural area of Bangladesh. ClinicoEconomics and Outcomes Research: CEOR, 6, 515–521. https://doi.org/ 10.2147/CEOR.S67424 Salam, M. A., Al-Amin, M. Y., Salam, M. T., Pawar, J. S., Akhter, N., Rabaan, A. A., & Alqumber, M. A. A. (2023). Antimicrobial Resistance: A Growing Serious Threat for Global Public Health. Healthcare, 11(13), 1946. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11131946 Sudhinaraset, M., Ingram, M., Lofthouse, H. K., 2576 RANGE & Montagu, D. (2013). What is the role of informal healthcare providers in developing countries? A systematic review. PloS One, 8(2), e54978. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0054978 Tandan, M. (n.d.). Antibiotic dispensing practices among informal healthcare providers in low-income and middle-income countries: a scoping review protocol. BMJ Open. Taylor, J. A., Kwan-Gett, T. S. C., & McMahon, E. M. (2003). Effectiveness of an educational intervention in modifying parental attitudes about antibiotic usage in children. Pediatrics, 111(5), e548–e554. https://doi.org/ 10.1542/peds.111.5.e548 Trepka, M. J., Belongia, E. A., Chyou, P.-H., Davis, J. P., & Schwartz, B. (2001). The Effect of a Community Intervention Trial on Parental Knowledge and Awareness of Antibiotic Resistance and Appropriate Antibiotic Use in Children. Pediatrics, 107(1), e6. https://doi.org/ 10.1542/peds.107.1.e6 Wang, C.-H., Hsieh, Y.-H., Powers, Z. M., 2577 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH & Kao, C.-Y. (2020). Defeating AntibioticResistant Bacteria: Exploring Alternative Therapies for a Post-Antibiotic Era. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(3), 1061. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21031061 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS SUPPLEMENT 1 Interview guide for patient caregivers The purpose of our interview today is to get your feedback as a caregiver of a child who is presenting to a village doctor with a primary complaint of diarrhea. We are mainly interested in understanding what you expect and desire when you take your child to see the village doctor. As a reminder, your conversation with me today is for research purposes only. Nothing you say today will be shared with your doctor or any member of your clinical team. We hope you will feel comfortable talking openly and honestly about your experiences as a parent or caregiver. If any of my questions are not clear, please let me know and I can repeat or reword the question. 2578 RANGE Do you have any questions before we begin? Demographic information: Village Doctor ID (from survey) Caregiver ID CG-## Name of the interviewee Relationship to the child Age Sex Educational Qualification (highest degree) Occupation Monthly income of the family How many years living in this community/village Contact Number Address Date of Interview I. Introduction First, I’d like to talk to you about the events leading up to coming to the village doctor for your child’s diarrhea. 1. Please tell me about yourself, and how you are related to the child. a. What is your role in caring for the sick child? 2579 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH b. Who else in your family is involved in caring for the sick child? What are their roles? 2. Please tell me briefly about your child’s illness. (Probe: How long? How often?) a. Severity: How many stools a day? Is it bloody? b. Any other symptoms? [dehydration level etc.] 3. Prior to coming to this village doctor, did you do anything else to try and treat your child’s diarrhea? (Traditional healer, Homeopathy or any doctor) a. Any medication used i. Type of medication ii. Where they got the medication iii. Why did you chose this medication? iv. Whether medication was helpful b. Other treatment 2580 RANGE i. Oral rehydration ii. Home remedies II. Reasons for choosing a village doctor Now I’d like to talk to you about why you decided to come see this village doctor for your child’s diarrhea. 1. In your household, in what circumstances do you use village doctors? a. For what type of ailments/diseases do you go to a village doctor? b. What else would make you go to a village doctor instead of a clinic or hospital? (probe: severity, time of day, cost, distance) c. Who in your household makes the decision for when you should visit a village doctor? 2. In what circumstances would you go to a clinic or hospital instead of a village doctor? a. For what type of ailments/diseases do you go to a clinic or hospital instead of a village doctor? b. Who in your household makes the decision to visit clinic or hospital rather than a village doctor? 2581 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 3. For your child’s diarrhea today, what made you decide to visit the village doctor, instead of a clinic or hospital? [Probe: accessibility, easy communication, less fees/cost] 4. What was your reason for visiting this particular village doctor? [Probe: accessibility, cost, trust] III Experience with village doctor 1. Please tell me about your visit to the village doctor, from the time you arrived to the time you left. a. How did you explain your child’s condition to the village doctor? b. What questions did the village doctor ask you? c. What treatments did you receive? (medication, ORS, IV fluid, etc.) d. Did the village doctor tell you why he gave you the treatment, or how he arrived at the decision for the treatment? e. What other advice or guidance did the village doctor give you? 2582 RANGE f. Were you told to come back for a follow up visit? (Probe: when) 2. At this village doctor, were you given any medication to help your child’s diarrhea? If YES a. Please tell me about these medications. (Probe to find out if these are antibiotics; ask to see prescription/medication/strip or bottle if possible) Write down name of medication/s to add to spreadsheet b. What instructions did you receive from the village doctor? [Dose/duration] c. What were you told about the reasons for these medications? d. How did you feel about receiving medications? If NO e. What were you told about the reasons medications were not given? What advice did you get? 2583 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH f. How did you feel about not receiving medications? 3. For some families, it’s very important for them to get medications (like antibiotic pills) for their child’s diarrhea. How important is it for you to get antibiotic pills when your child has diarrhea? a. Why do you say that this is important / not important? b. What do you think that antibiotic pills do for your child? c. How would you feel if you didn’t receive antibiotic pills from the village doctor? d. What suggestion do you get if the doctor does not give you antibiotic pills? 4. Did the village doctor advise you to go to a clinic or hospital for the treatment of your child? If YES a. Why did they advise you to go to a clinic or hospital? b. Where did they advise you to go? c. Do you expect that you will go to the clinic or hospital? Why or why not? 2584 RANGE 5. If you don’t mind telling me, I’d like to know how much your visit to the village doctor cost. a. Detailed cost by items: consultation, medication, other treatments, other costs Write down details of costs to add to spreadsheet b. Do you think these costs are reasonable? (Why / why not) c. If a village doctor comes to visit your home then do you have to pay extra fees? d. How does the cost of seeing a village doctor compare to going to a clinic or hospital? e. Are you satisfied with the services you got today? Why or why not, please explain. IV Areas for improvement Thank you for all of your comments. To conclude, I’d like to hear your ideas about how the services from a village doctor could be improved. 1. What would you like to be different when you visit a village doctor? 2. Is there anything that a village doctor could do 2585 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH to make you feel more confident in the treatment you receive? I have reached this end of my questions. Do you have anything to add on this topic of village doctors? SUPPLEMENT 2 Interview guide for village doctors The purpose of our interview today is to understand how village doctors provide care in this community, and in particular how they manage complaints of pediatric diarrhea. As covered in the consent form, our conversation today will be used for research purposes only. When we present the results, we will aggregate everything we hear so that no individual is identified. We hope you will feel comfortable talking openly and honestly about your experiences as a village doctor. If any of my questions are not clear, please let me know and I can repeat or reword the question. Do you have any questions before we begin? 2586 RANGE Demographic information: Study ID (ID from Survey) Name of the interviewee Age Sex Educational Qualification Contact Number Date of Interview I. Experience becoming a village doctor Let’s start by talking about your work as a village doctor in this community. 1. First can you tell me what made you become a village doctor? a. What previous work had you done prior to becoming a village doctor? 2. What type of formal training did you receive to become a village doctor? (course, certificate) a. Who provided this training? 3. What type of informal training did you receive to become a village doctor? (apprenticeship, self-taught) 2587 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH a. Who provided this training? 4. Since becoming a village doctor, what types of training have you participated in? (on-going training to keep up skills) a. Who provided this training? 5. Do you belong to any associations? How do they support you? II. Role and work of a village doctor 1. As a village doctor, what do you see as the role of village doctors in meeting the health needs of this community? a. What type of ailments do you treat? b. What populations do you serve? c. How do village doctors relate to the formal healthcare system? 2. What specific services do you provide as a village doctor? a. Diagnostics b. Medicines (what type; specify antibiotics) c. IVs or other treatment d. Referrals to the formal healthcare system 2588 RANGE e. Other referrals outside of the formal healthcare system f. Suggestions/advice 3. What does a typical day look like for you? a. Number of patients seen (adults, children) b. Types of ailments/concerns c. How does this differ by season? d. Do you make a home visit? 4. If you feel comfortable telling me, I would like to know how you make your money as a village doctor? a. Role of consultation fees b. Role of selling medications c. Do you make enough money to meet your family’s needs? III Practice in treatment of pediatric diarrhea Now I’d like to ask you about how you treat children who come in with a case of diarrhea. 1. How often do you treat children who have a primary complaint of diarrhea? a. In the last week, how many children 2589 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH under 5 years old with diarrhea did you see? b. How is this different from other times of year? (variation by month/seasons/natural calamity/outbreak) Let’s imagine that a parent brought a child under the age of 5 to you who has been having severe diarrhea for two days. 2. What questions would you ask about the child? 3. How would you treat / help this child? a. Medication b. Rehydration (ORS or IV) c. Nutritional recommendations (Food, breastfeeding suggestions) d. Vitamins or supplements e. Other 4. What type of medication would you consider for a child with diarrhea? a. Types of antibiotics i. How do you choose the best fit? b. Other medications i. How do you choose the best fit? 2590 RANGE 5. What information do you use to decide whether or not to give antibiotics to a child with diarrhea? a. What patient characteristics do you consider? (e.g., age) b. How does your patient’s clinical presentation (e.g., severity of diarrhea, nutritional status, can’t breastfeed) play a role in your decision to give antibiotics? c. How does your patient’s economic situation (e.g., ability to pay) play a role in your decision to give antibiotics? d. Do you consider season/weather when choosing to give antibiotics? e. Do you consider information about outbreaks / illness in other recent patients? f. What other factors do you consider? 6. Do you use any guidelines/books/websites that help you to decide which antibiotic to use? Can you please show me that guideline/book/website if possible? 7. If you give antibiotics to a child with diarrhea, do you ask families to come for follow-up? 2591 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 8. Do you ever consult someone else if you have a severe case of diarrhea? a. If yes, who do you consult? 9. In what cases do you recommend that the family take the patient to a clinic or hospital? 10. Do you have anything you want to add about how you would treat a child with diarrhea? IV Caregiver expectations Now I’d like to ask about your conversations with the parents or caregivers of your patients, and how this informs your treatment. 1. When a family brings a child with diarrhea to see you, what do you think they are expecting? a. How important is it for them to be given a medicine/antibiotic? i. Does this differ by characteristics of the family? (e.g., wealth, education, rural/urban) b. Do they directly ask you to prescribe antibiotics? 2592 RANGE 2. If you saw a child and decide to not give or recommend an antibiotic, how would a family react? a. Do families’ expectations somehow influence what you intend to do? 3. Why do you think a family would bring a child with diarrhea to see a village doctor, instead of going to a clinic or hospital? V Attitudes to antibiotics Now I’m going to ask you some questions about antibiotics in general. 1. In your opinion, what do antibiotics do for a person who is sick? 2. In what situations do you think antibiotics are most important to give to patients? a. Types of illness b. Severity of illness c. Types of patients 3. In what situations, if any, do you think antibiotics may be bad for a patient? a. Types of illness 2593 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH b. Severity of illness c. Types of patients 4. When you give antibiotics to a patient, what do you explain to them about how to use the medication? a. What do you tell patients about how long they should take the antibiotics? 5. Please tell me about any training you have received on antibiotic use. a. Have you received any training on antibiotics from the health care system or the government? (if yes, explain) b. Have you received any training on antibiotics from drug companies? (if yes, explain) c. Have any of these trainings taught you how to manage diarrhea in children? d. Have any of these trainings been specific for village doctors? 6. Do you think some village doctors inappropriately prescribe antibiotics? (If yes, explain) 2594 RANGE 7. Do you think that antibiotics may be prescribed for the financial benefit of the village doctor rather than the interest of the patients? (if yes, please explain) I have reached the end of my questions. Do you have anything to add on this topic of treating children with diarrhea or using antibiotics? As a reminder, we will be visiting you again soon to talk about developing a tool that can help village doctors to make decisions about how to treat children with diarrhea. 2595 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 152 Research Reflection by Jane Putnam JANE PUTNAM Faculty Mentor: Melissa Watt (Anthropology, University of Utah) I am a pre-dental student, pursuing a Bachelor’s in Anthropology. My coursework and health-related interests led me to Dr. Watt’s Global Health class, and subsequently, her research group. While my interests in 2596 RANGE public and global health are more oral-health focused, I believe it is important for every future healthcare professional to have experience and understanding in the public health field. I am extremely grateful for the research opportunities I have had throughout my undergraduate experience, and hope to continue to utilize my knowledge of public health as a healthcare provider in the future. 2597 OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2598 RANGE RANGE: Undergraduate Research Journal 2599