The impact of a self-compassion intervention on perfectionism in college music students

Emphasis placed on performance excellence may encourage perfectionism in college music students. Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality disposition with positive and negative components. Perfectionistic strivings are associated with intrinsic motivation, increased time practicing, and improved performance. Perfectionistic concerns are associated with extrinsic motivation, performance anxiety, depression, and anger following poor performances. Despite the knowledge of negative outcomes associated with perfectionistic concerns, little research has been conducted with the aim of decreasing negative aspects of perfectionism. In addition, little research has focused on musician populations. Self-compassion is recognizing one's suffering, having a desire to relieve one's suffering, and responding to the self with kindness. Self-compassion is negatively correlated with aspects of perfectionistic concerns, which provides a rationale to use self-compassion skills to reduce perfectionistic concerns in college music students. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of a 6-week self-compassion intervention on aspects of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and concerns) in college music students, as compared to a traditional sport psychology skills intervention. College music students (n = 12) from a university in the mountain west U.S. participated in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to a self-compassion intervention group (n = 7) or an attention control group (n = 5). Measures of personal standards, iv perfectionistic aspirations, doubts about actions, concerns over mistakes, negative reactions to imperfect performance, and self-compassion were administered before the intervention and 1 week following completion of the intervention. According to a Mann- Whitney U test on change scores, no significant differences emerged between the two groups for aspects of perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and selfcompassion. The main explanation of the findings is the lack of sufficient sample size. Further explanations include the timing of questionnaire delivery and potential benefits from the traditional sport psychology intervention. Participants were unable to meet at the same time as a group, which limited the extent of personalization and depth of content in each intervention group. This prevented group discussions and hindered the development of common humanity. Despite a lack of significant findings, the limitations of the study and background literature warrant future intervention studies using self-compassion within music populations.

THE IMPACT OF A SELF-COMPASSION INTERVENTION ON PERFECTIONISM IN COLLEGE MUSIC STUDENTS by Brandon Chad Campbell A thesis submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Health and Kinesiology Department of Health, Kinesiology, and Recreation The University of Utah December 2019 Copyright © Brandon Chad Campbell 2019 All Rights Reserved The University of Utah Graduate School STATEMENT OF THESIS APPROVAL The thesis of Brandon Chad Campbell has been approved by the following supervisory committee members: Maria Newton , Chair 10/17/2019 Date Approved Ryan Donald Burns , Member 10/17/2019 Date Approved Nick Adam Galli , Member 10/17/2019 Date Approved and by A. Mark Williams the Department/College/School of , Chair/Dean of Health, Kinesiology, and Recreation and by David B. Kieda, Dean of The Graduate School. ABSTRACT Emphasis placed on performance excellence may encourage perfectionism in college music students. Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality disposition with positive and negative components. Perfectionistic strivings are associated with intrinsic motivation, increased time practicing, and improved performance. Perfectionistic concerns are associated with extrinsic motivation, performance anxiety, depression, and anger following poor performances. Despite the knowledge of negative outcomes associated with perfectionistic concerns, little research has been conducted with the aim of decreasing negative aspects of perfectionism. In addition, little research has focused on musician populations. Self-compassion is recognizing one’s suffering, having a desire to relieve one’s suffering, and responding to the self with kindness. Self-compassion is negatively correlated with aspects of perfectionistic concerns, which provides a rationale to use self-compassion skills to reduce perfectionistic concerns in college music students. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of a 6-week self-compassion intervention on aspects of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and concerns) in college music students, as compared to a traditional sport psychology skills intervention. College music students (n = 12) from a university in the mountain west U.S. participated in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to a self-compassion intervention group (n = 7) or an attention control group (n = 5). Measures of personal standards, perfectionistic aspirations, doubts about actions, concerns over mistakes, negative reactions to imperfect performance, and self-compassion were administered before the intervention and 1 week following completion of the intervention. According to a MannWhitney U test on change scores, no significant differences emerged between the two groups for aspects of perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and selfcompassion. The main explanation of the findings is the lack of sufficient sample size. Further explanations include the timing of questionnaire delivery and potential benefits from the traditional sport psychology intervention. Participants were unable to meet at the same time as a group, which limited the extent of personalization and depth of content in each intervention group. This prevented group discussions and hindered the development of common humanity. Despite a lack of significant findings, the limitations of the study and background literature warrant future intervention studies using self-compassion within music populations. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... iii INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 METHOD ............................................................................................................................ 8 Participants ...................................................................................................................... 8 Procedures ....................................................................................................................... 8 Measures .......................................................................................................................... 9 Intervention.................................................................................................................... 11 Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 13 RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 16 Screen and Clean ........................................................................................................... 16 Descriptive Statistics ..................................................................................................... 16 Main Analysis................................................................................................................ 17 Fidelity and Contamination ........................................................................................... 19 DISCUSSION.................................................................................................................... 22 Findings in Relation to the Literature............................................................................ 22 General Explanations for Findings ................................................................................ 23 Construct-Specific Explanations ................................................................................... 24 Limitations..................................................................................................................... 26 Future Research ............................................................................................................. 27 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 27 Appendices A: INTERVENTION PROTOCOLS ................................................................................ 29 B: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS EXPANDED ............................................................... 47 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 49 INTRODUCTION “If I miss a day of practice, I know it. If I miss two days, my manager knows it. If I miss three days, my audience knows it” Andre Previn, renowned pianist, conductor, and composer. This quote by Andre Previn highlights the constant pressure musicians perceive as they strive for flawless performances. Similarly so, university music students are expected to perform without errors on notes, lyrics, pitch, rhythm, and multiple other criteria, often while their professors are evaluating their performance. In other words, there is a proclivity to encourage perfection in musician training. Musicians suffer from performance anxiety (Zakaria, Musib, & Shariff, 2013), somatic complaints and emotional fatigue (Stoeber & Eismann, 2007) due to the constant pressure to perform without mistakes. Perfectionism is strongly related to performance anxiety, especially in collegiate musicians, and reducing perfectionism may be a key to limiting performance anxiety (Kenny, Davis, & Oates, 2004; Mor & Day, 1995; Stoeber & Eismann, 2007). While researchers have examined the links among perfectionism, anxiety, and other psychological outcomes in musicians (Kenny et al., 2004; Kobori, Yoshie, Kudo, & Ohtsuki, 2011; Stoeber & Eismann, 2007), few have explored strategies to reduce perfectionism. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate the effectiveness of a self-compassion intervention on reducing perfectionism in collegiate music students. Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality disposition characterized by 2 individuals striving for flawlessness, setting high personal standards, and a tendency to be overly self-critical of behavior (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Perfectionism consists of two major dimensions: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993; Stoeber & Otto, 2006). Perfectionistic strivings (PS) are generally considered healthy and consist of setting high personal standards, striving for excellence, and self-oriented perfectionism. Perfectionistic concerns (PC) are generally considered maladaptive or unhealthy and are comprised of concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, negative reactions to imperfections, feelings of discrepancies between expectations and results, and socially prescribed perfectionism, in which individuals perceive that significant others have unrealistic standards for them, strictly evaluate their performance, and pressure them to be perfect (Enns, Cox, & Clara, 2002; Frost et al., 1993; Stoeber & Otto, 2006; Suddarth & Slaney, 2001). Research in athlete populations highlights the importance of distinguishing between PS and PC. Facets of PC are related to a host of negative or maladaptive outcomes. For instance, greater levels of PC are associated with increased burnout in youth (Appleton & Hill, 2012; Gustafsson, Hill, Stenling, & Wagnsson, 2016; Hill, 2013) and college athletes (Barcza-Renner, Eklund, Morin, Habeeb, & Morin, 2016). Higher levels of PC are also linked to higher levels of trait-anxiety and rumination (Cox & Chen, 2015), fear of failure (Hill, Witcher, Gotwals, & Leyland, 2015), overthinking (Sellars, Evans, & Thomas, 2016), and state-anxiety, depression, and anger following failure (Stoeber, Schneider, Hussain, & Matthews, 2014). On the other hand, facets of PS have been correlated with positive characteristics, such as decreases in athlete burnout 3 (Appleton & Hill, 2012; Barcza-Renner et al., 2016; Hill, 2013), decreased fear of failure (Hill et al., 2015), and increased performance and time spent on a task (Stoeber, Chesterman, & Tarn, 2010). The divergent motivational striving and emotional outcomes associated with the two dimensions is also apparent in musician populations. In a study with young musicians, striving for perfection (a facet of PS) was positively related with intrinsic motivation as well as time spent practicing (Stoeber & Eismann, 2007). In a study with 275 Japanese musicians, self-oriented perfectionism, another feature of PS, was associated with greater effort (Kobori et al., 2011). Conversely, aspects of PC have been associated with negative outcomes. For example, negative reactions to imperfections are positively correlated with extrinsic motivation, performance anxiety, somatic complaints, and emotional fatigue (Kobori et al., 2011; Stoeber & Eismann, 2007). The extant literature provides a rationale for developing interventions that foster PS and minimize PC. One concept that might minimize PC is self-compassion, which stems from Buddhist psychology and has strong links with psychological health (Brach, 2003; Salzberg, 1997). Neff (2003a) states that self-compassion involves being touched by and open to one’s own suffering, generating the desire to alleviate one’s suffering, and treating oneself with understanding. According to Neff (2003a) self-compassion has three interacting components: 1) self-kindness, which involves being understanding of and caring toward oneself, instead of extending harsh self-judgment; 2) a sense of common humanity, which is an understanding that all humans are imperfect and make mistakes, instead of feeling isolated in one’s imperfections; and 3) mindfulness, which involves 4 being aware of one’s negative experiences in a balanced way, instead of ignoring or overreacting to the negative emotions, a process Neff (2003a) calls “over-identification.” Cross sectional research supports the possibility of substantial benefits with increased self-compassion. Within student populations, self-compassion is positively related with intrinsic motivation, happiness, and life satisfaction (Neff, 2003b; Neff, YaPing, & Dejitterat, 2005). Conversely, self-compassion is negatively associated with anxiety and unhealthy perfectionism in student populations (Neff, 2003b; Neff, Kirkpatrick, & Rude, 2007; Neff et al., 2005) and fear of failure, doubts about actions, and concerns over mistakes in an athletic population (Mosewich, Kowalski, Sabiston, Sedgwick, & Tracy, 2011). While these findings are suggestive of the positive impact of self-compassion the cross-sectional nature of the studies precludes causal inferences. Researchers have begun assessing the efficacy of self-compassion interventions aimed at fostering psychological well-being (Adams & Leary, 2007; Gilbert & Irons, 2004; Leary, Tate, Adams, Batts Allen, & Hancock, 2007; Mosewich, Crocker, Kowalski, & DeLongis, 2013; Neff & Germer, 2013). To date, only one study has examined self-compassion and aspects of perfectionism. Mosewich, Crocker, Kowalski, and Delongis (2013) implemented a 7-day self-compassionate writing intervention with 60 women athletes and assessed impacts on outcomes associated with PC. The intervention included a psychoeducation session and multiple compassionate writing exercises that targeted the three main components of self-compassion. Participants in the attention control group also completed a psychoeducation session and writing exercises. However self-compassion was not emphasized. Both between-within group interaction and within group differences are worthy of consideration. Between-within group 5 interaction analyses revealed that the intervention group significantly differed in selfcompassion (d = .82), self-criticism (d = .91), rumination (d = 1.16), and concern over mistakes (d = .78) compared to the control group from baseline to 1-month follow-up. These findings suggest that the self-compassion intervention was effective when compared to an alternative. The more interesting finding relates to the within group findings. Participants in the intervention group did not significantly decrease in mean values of concern over mistakes across the three time points (baseline, 1 week post, 1 month post). This is particularly relevant because concern over mistakes is the variable that aligns with perfectionistic concerns. This may be linked to the notion that perfectionistic concerns are a dispositional characteristic, and thus difficult to alter. Despite the scarcity of self-compassion interventions and perfectionism in performance settings, multiple studies have assessed the impact of self-compassion interventions outside of the performance context. Many variations of interventions exist including compassionate writing (Leary et al., 2007; Mosewich et al., 2013), compassionate imagery (Gilbert & Irons, 2004), and psychoeducation (Adams & Leary, 2007). Neff and Germer (2013) developed a program, called Mindful Self-Compassion (MSC), which encompasses many aspects of the individual interventions. The MSC Program is an 8-week intervention that consists of psychoeducation sessions, experiential exercises within sessions, and homework assignments between sessions consisting of compassionate imagery, writing, and meditation (Neff & Germer, 2013). The research to date supports the efficacy of the MSC interventions at fostering well-being. For instance, in a study with participants from the general population, the MSC intervention group reported significant decreases in depression, anxiety, and stress along with significant 6 increases in self-compassion, mindfulness, and life satisfaction compared to a control group (Neff & Germer, 2013). Interestingly self-compassion scores in the intervention group significantly increased from pretest to week 3, and from week 3 to week 6. However no significant change occurred from week 6 to posttest (week 8), 6-month, or 1year follow-up (Neff & Germer, 2013). This suggests that a 6-week, multimodal intervention may be sufficient to develop self-compassion skills, and once developed, the skills remain relatively stable. In summary, the aforementioned literature suggests that training to be an accomplished musician in college is a challenging task often accompanied by feelings of perfectionism. Perfectionism can be both adaptive (PS) and maladaptive (PC). Finding strategies to attenuate PC would benefit the psychological well-being of musicians. Conceptually, the components of self-compassion directly oppose perfectionistic concerns, while allowing for perfectionistic strivings. This dissonance makes selfcompassion a logical basis for an intervention to temper perfectionistic concerns in collegiate music students. To date only one study has examined the effectiveness of a self-compassion intervention on perfectionistic concerns. Limitations exist in the prior intervention research. First, researchers have only assessed the impact of self-compassion on concern over mistakes, leaving a void on the impact of self-compassion on doubts about actions and negative reactions to mistakes, both aspects of PC. Second, the previous intervention did not provide sufficient time for a full development of self-compassion, which development occurs around week 6 (Neff & Germer, 2013). Third, no studies have assessed the impact of self-compassion on PS. In an attempt to address these limitations 7 and attend to a need in the musician community, the purpose of the current study was to assess the impact of a 6-week self-compassion intervention on perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns among college music students. Using a 2 (self-compassion intervention, attention control) X 2 (Pretest, Posttest) experimental design, the following hypotheses were examined: 1) The self-compassion intervention group would increase self-compassion scores compared to the attention control group; 2) The self-compassion intervention group would decrease PC (concerns over mistakes, doubts about actions, and negative reactions to nonperfect performance) compared to the attention control group; and 3) The self-compassion intervention group would not significantly differ on PS (setting high personal standards and striving for perfectionism) compared to the attention control group. METHOD Participants A convenience sample of 12 college students in pursuit of a music degree was recruited from the School of Music at a University in the mountain west of the United States. Within the School of Music all students are required to perform, regardless of whether they emphasize music education or music performance. Therefore, no further recruitment criteria were used. Initially the sample included 13 students. One participant dropped out of the study prior to completion of the study. As such, their information was not included in the final analysis. Participants had an average age of 25.3 years (SD = 6.41, Range = 21-40). The sample was primarily non-Hispanic (75%). Participants were either Caucasian (83%) or Mixed race (17%). The sample consisted of 6 males and 6 females. Procedures Prior to the start of the study, IRB approval was obtained. Potential participants were then contacted and invited to participate in the study. During a designated meeting, the lead researcher discussed the study aims, and those willing to participate completed the informed consent and pretest questionnaires (demographics, Social Desirability Scale, perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns questionnaires, and the SelfCompassion Scale). Prior to the first session, participants were randomly assigned to 9 either an attention control group (n = 5) or a self-compassion intervention group (n = 7). Participants in each group attended 6 weekly sessions, lasting approximately 30 minutes each. Due to a large variability in participant’s schedules, sessions consisted of one to two participants, as opposed to all participants in each group meeting together. One week after the final session, participants were again asked to fill out self-compassion and perfectionism (PC and PS) questionnaires. Measures Perfectionism. To measure the different aspects of perfectionism, five scales were used: two scales measuring perfectionistic strivings, and three scales measuring perfectionistic concerns. Each scale was used from questionnaires designed to measure multidimensional perfectionism in sports: the English version of the Multidimensional Inventory of Perfectionism in Sport (MIPS; Stoeber, Otto, & Stoll, 2006) and the Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-2 (Sport-MPS-2; Gotwals & Dunn, 2009). Both measures have shown good reliability and validity (Gotwals, Dunn, Causgrove Dunn, & Gamache, 2010; Stoeber, Stoll, Pescheck, & Otto, 2008; Stoeber, Stoll, Salmi, & Tiikkaja, 2009). To better fit the musician population, certain vocabulary was adapted in the questionnaires (i.e., competition changed to performance, practice changed to rehearsal, and sport changed to music). The first measure of PS is the MIPS Perfectionistic Aspirations subscale (Stoeber et al., 2006), which consists of eight items measuring an individual’s striving for perfection (e.g., “I strive to be as perfect as possible”). The second measure of PS is the Personal Standards subscale from the SportMPS-2 (Gotwals & Dunn, 2009), which comprises seven items assessing perfectionistic 10 personal standards (e.g., “It is important to me to be thoroughly competent in everything I do in my music performance”). The first measure for PC is the MIPS Negative Reactions to Non-perfect Performance subscale (Stoeber et al., 2006), which consists of eight items that captures negative reactions to less than perfect performances (e.g., “I feel extremely stressed if everything does not go perfectly”). The second PC measure is the Concern Over Mistakes subscale of the Sport-MPS-2, which consists of eight items capturing perfectionistic concerns (e.g., “Even if I fail slightly in performance, for me, it is as bad as being a complete failure”). The third measure of PC is the Doubts About Actions subscale of the Sport-MPS-2, which consists of six items that captures an individual’s uncertainty about their performance (e.g., “I rarely feel that my training fully prepares me for performance). For the MIPS subscales, participants responded on a 6-point scale ranging from never (1) to always (6). For the Sport-MPS-2 subscales, participants responded on a 5-point scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The scores for each scale of PS and PC were obtained by calculating the mean. The scales do not contain items that require reverse scoring. Self-compassion. Self-compassion was assessed to ensure the quality of the selfcompassion intervention using the 26-item Self-Compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003b). The SCS contains six subscales, which include the three key components of selfcompassion: Self-Kindness (e.g., “I try to be understanding and patient toward aspects of my personality I don’t like”); Common Humanity (e.g., “I try to see my failings as part of the human condition”); and Mindfulness (e.g., “When something painful happens I try to take a balanced view of the situation”), as well as three countering components: Selfjudgment (e.g., “I’m disapproving and judgmental about my own flaws and 11 inadequacies”); Isolation (e.g., “When I think about my inadequacies it tends to make me feel more separate and cut off from the rest of the world”); and Over-Identification (e.g., “When I’m feeling down I tend to obsess and fixate on everything that’s wrong”). Participants responded on a 5-point scale ranging from almost never (1) to almost always (5). Self-compassion scores were calculated by reverse scoring the countering elements (self-judgment, isolation, and over-identification), then calculating the mean. Internal consistency reliability for the SCS has been reported between α = .73 to .94 in university student and female athlete populations (Leary et al., 2007; Mosewich et al., 2011; Neff, 2003b; Neff et al., 2005). The SCS is distinguishable from measures of self-esteem, such as the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Neff, 2003b). Social desirability. To minimize the likelihood of receiving socially desirable answers, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MC-SDS) was given at pretest only. The MC-SDS is a 33-item questionnaire, which assesses the extent to which an individual is concerned with social approval. Reliability for the MC-SDS has been supported with a Kuder-Richardson reliability coefficient estimate of .88 (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960). Intervention The first author conducted all self-compassion intervention and attention control group sessions. The first author has received training in self-compassion and sport psychology through coursework and personal practice. The intervention breakdown for both groups is presented in Table 1. For further detail on lesson plans for both groups, please see the appendix. 12 Self-compassion intervention group. The intervention consisted of 6 weekly meetings, lasting approximately half an hour in length. The intervention, based on the MSC Program (Neff & Germer, 2013), consisted of both psychoeducation components and experiential exercises that allowed the participants to practice and engage in the principles of self-compassion. Given that this intervention was not meant to be clinical in nature, discussions were centered on music performance, and participants were asked to only share those aspects that they felt comfortable sharing and that were pertinent to cultivating self-compassion in music. Attention control group. The attention control group received interventions in the same format as the intervention group. However the focus did not include selfcompassion. The attention control group met once a week for 6 weeks, for approximately 30 minutes per session. Sessions included psychoeducation and experiential exercises geared towards increasing psychological skills for optimal performance. Fidelity of intervention protocols. Intervention fidelity is the extent to which an intervention was conducted as planned (Horner, Rew, & Torres, 2006). According to Nigg, Allegrante, and Ory (2002) intervention fidelity must be maximized to ensure internal validity of intervention research. An absence of fidelity data interferes with the interpretation of results, whether significant or nonsignificant (Rubin, 1997). The following procedures were used to address fidelity of intervention protocols. Prior to implementation of the intervention, an expert in self-compassion evaluated the weekly self-compassion intervention protocols to ensure the intervention would cover the intended material. Similarly, an expert in the field of sport psychology evaluated the weekly attention control group protocols. The experts evaluated the weekly protocols on 13 a 3-point Likert scale with values none (1), adequate (2), and excellent (3). To ensure content was covered during the implementation of interventions, independent observers attended a vast majority of the sessions in both groups and rated how well the material was covered. The raters used a 3-point Likert scale from not covered (1) to excellently covered (3). To further increase intervention fidelity, attendance was measured during each session. To assess participant engagement two items were included at posttest. Participants were asked to indicate on a 0-5 scale, “On average, how many times during a week did you engage in the assigned activity?” Participants were also asked, “On average, to what extent did you engage in the assigned weekly activity?” and rated their engagement from not at all engaged (1) to highly engaged (5). Contamination. To address issues of cross group contamination, two items were included at post-test. Participants were asked, “How frequently did you discuss the intervention with individuals within your group?” Participants were also asked, “How frequently did you discuss the intervention with individuals who were in the other group?” Answers ranged from almost never (1) to daily (5). Analysis All data analysis was completed using The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 25. Screen and clean. The data were assessed for missing or miscoded values using descriptive statistics and frequency tables. To assess for univariate outliers, z-scores were used. Further, histograms, skewness, kurtosis, and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test were 14 conducted to assess for normality. Skewness and kurtosis scores greater than 2 or less than -2 were considered non-normal. Following data screening and cleaning, descriptive statistics (i.e., means and standard deviations) and bivariate correlations were calculated for all variables. Original analysis and alterations based on sample size issues. The initial intended analysis to answer each of the hypotheses was a 2 X 2 doubly multivariate analysis of variance. The between-subjects factor would have been the treatment variable (experimental group vs. attention control group). The within-subjects factor would have been time (pretest and posttest), and the dependent variables were self-compassion, personal standards, perfectionistic aspirations, doubts about actions, concerns over mistakes, and negative reactions to imperfect performance. According to an a priori power analysis with an alpha of .05 and a large effect size of .5, a total sample size of 34 participants was required to achieve a power of .80 (G*Power 3; Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007). However, due to the small sample size (n = 12) and a non-normal distribution, a new analysis was required. Main analysis. Due to the small size of the sample and a non-normal distribution of each outcome variable, a Mann Whitney U test was used to assess the impact of selfcompassion or attention control on indices of perfectionism. When running a MannWhitney U test, all data from both groups are ranked (i.e., lowest to highest), and then the mean ranks of the groups are compared. The output contains a U statistic, which is similar in meaning to the t statistic in a t-test. It also contains a z-score (standardized score), and a p-value (significance value). The analyses were conducted on each of the outcomes’ change scores (post – pre). A Bonferroni adjustment was made to the 15 significance level due to the multiple number of outcome variable. The alpha level was set a priori at p < .01. The effect sizes (r) were calculated for each outcome variable by dividing the z-statistic by the square root of the sample size. The following criteria are used to interpret the effect sizes; 0.1 = small, 0.3 = medium, and 0.5 = large (Cohen, 1988) Table 1 Intervention Breakdown Session # Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Self-compassion group Attention control group Introduction and program overview Foundational Knowledge of mindfulness Structure and function of brain components Developing a compassionate inner voice Increase common humanity through compassionate writing Compassionate imagery and review of program Introduction and program overview Goal setting Confidence Self-talk, specifically cue words Applied writing tasks in performance Imagery and review of program RESULTS Screen and Clean The data were assessed for missing or miscoded values using descriptive statistics and frequency tables. Due to the use of Qualtrics, there were no missing data. No values fell outside of the possible range used by each scale (i.e., no numbers greater than 5 on a Likert scale consisting of numbers 1-5). To assess for univariate outliers, z-scores on change score variables were used. No standardized scores fell above 3 or below -3, an indication of a possible outlier. Therefore, no cases were removed. Histograms, skewness, kurtosis, and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test were used to assess normality on the change scores for each experimental group. While the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test did not produce any significant results, the sample still may be considered non-normal due to the small sample size, which would require a large discrepancy in data in order to produce significant results (Öztuna, Atilla Halil, & Tüccar, 2006). Multiple (6) subscales had kurtosis scores outside of the normal limits (-2, +2). Therefore, the data were considered non-normal, which provided further justification for the use of a nonparametric test. Descriptive Statistics The median and range are provided for the change score on each dependent variable in Table 2 (For further descriptive statistics, see Table 3 and Table 4 in 17 Appendix B). The median for both the self-compassion group and attention control group indicate that the intervention was effective at improving levels of self-compassion. Further, aspects of perfectionistic strivings (PS) either decreased or remained the same, which may indicate that interventions may have detrimentally impacted levels of PS. In consideration of aspects of perfectionistic concerns (PC), all variables decreased with the exception of doubts about actions in the self-compassion group. These findings indicate that both interventions may be beneficial in decreasing levels of perfectionistic concerns. Of note, the ranges in the self-compassion group are larger than those in the attention control group, suggesting a larger variation in responses for the self-compassion group. Main Analysis Each hypothesis was explored with a Mann-Whitney U test. The Mann-Whitney U test is a nonparametric test designed to examine group differences, similar to an independent t-test. The first hypothesis stated that the self-compassion group would significantly increase in self-compassion compared to the attention control group. In regard to self-compassion change scores participants in the self-compassion group (Mdn = .568) did not significantly differ from participants in the attention control group (Mdn = .6; U = 16, z = -.244, p = .876, r = -.07). Self-reported self-compassion improved approximately the same amount for both groups. This hypothesis was not supported. The second hypothesis stated that the self-compassion group would significantly decrease aspects of perfectionistic concerns compared to the attention control group. In regard to change scores for doubts about actions, there was not a significant difference between the self-compassion group (Mdn = 0) and the attention control group (Mdn = - 18 .25; U = 13, z = -.735, p = .5, r = -.21). In regard to change scores for concerns over mistakes, there was not a significant difference between the self-compassion group (Mdn = -.625) and the attention control group (Mdn = -1.375; U = 16, z = -.248, p = .845, r = .07). Finally, in regard to change scores for negative reactions to imperfect performances, there was not a significant difference between the self-compassion group (Mdn = -.875) and the attention control group (Mdn = -1; U = 15, z = -.407, p = .755, r = -.12). In summary, perfectionistic concerns decreased in both groups (albeit doubts about actions remained unchanged in the self-compassion group), the decrease being larger in the attention control group, and there were no differences between the groups. This hypothesis was not supported. The third hypothesis stated that the self-compassion group would not significantly differ in aspects of perfectionistic strivings, when compared to the attention control group. In regard to change scores in personal standards, there was not a significant difference between the self-compassion group (Mdn = -.714) and the attention control group (Mdn = -.143; U = 11.5, z = -.98, p = .367, r = -.28). Further, in regard to change scores in perfectionistic aspirations, there was not a significant difference between the self-compassion group (Mdn = 0) and the attention control group (Mdn = -.25; U = 13, z = -.736, p = .528, r = -.21). In summary, aspects of perfectionistic strivings decreased in both groups (except perfectionistic aspirations for the self-compassion group, which remained the same). There were no differences between the two groups. The third hypothesis was supported. 19 Fidelity and Contamination Evaluation of the weekly protocols. In the self-compassion group the expert rated four of the protocols as excellent and two as adequate. In the attention control group five were rated as excellent and one was rated as adequate. No protocols were assigned a “none” rating. As a result no changes were made to the protocols. How well the material was covered. The content in the self-compassion group was rated excellently covered in five sessions and adequately covered in one session. The content in the attention control group was rated excellently covered in five sessions and adequately covered in one session. Attendance. In the self-compassion group three individuals each missed one of the sessions. Attendance was perfect in the attention control group. There was not a significant difference on any change scores for individuals with full attendance compared to individuals who missed one session. In regard to self-compassion, individuals with full attendance (Mdn = .567) were no different from individuals who missed one session (Mdn = .592; U = 13, z = -.092, p = .93, r = -.03). In regard to personal standards, individuals with full attendance (Mdn = -.286) were no different from individuals who missed one session (Mdn = -.714; U = 10.5, z = -.558, p = .58, r = -.16). In regard to perfectionistic aspirations, individuals with full attendance (Mdn = -.25) were no different from individuals who missed one session (Mdn = 0; U = 8, z = -1.02, p = .31, r = -.29). In regard to doubts about actions, individuals with full attendance (Mdn = -.167) were no different from individuals who missed one session (Mdn = -.5; U = 11.5, z = -.372, p = .71, r = -.11). In regard to concerns over mistakes, individuals with full attendance (Mdn = -.63) were no different from individuals who missed one session (Mdn = -1.63; U = 12, 20 z = -.282, p = .78, r = -.08). In regard to negative reactions to imperfect performance, individuals with full attendance (Mdn = -1) were no different from individuals who missed one session (Mdn = -.875; U = 9, z = -.834, p = .41, r = -.25). Social desirability. There was not a difference in social desirability scores between the self-compassion group (Mdn = 22, IQR = 13) and the attention control group (Mdn = 21, IQR = 10; U = 16.5, z = -.163, p = .870, r = -.05). Furthermore, there were no significant correlations between the social desirability scores and all dependent variables. Participant engagement. On average participants in the self-compassion group engaged in the weekly activity of the intervention almost every other day (Selfcompassion: Mdn = 3, IQR = 1). Participants in the attention control group engaged in the weekly activity almost daily (Control: Mdn = 4, IQR = 2). There was not a significant difference in frequency of daily engagement. However the large effect size warrants further discussion on the impact of participant’s frequency of engagement on dependent variables (U = 7, z = -1.8, p = .073, r = -.52). Participants in both groups rated themselves as equally and highly engaged in each activity (Self-compassion: Mdn = 4, IQR = 2; Control: Mdn = 4, IQR = 2). There was not a significant difference in quality of daily engagement (U = 17, z = -.087, p = .931, r = -.03). These findings suggest that the main analysis may have been influenced by the group differences in participant’s frequency of engagement, while not influenced by participant’s quality of engagement in either experimental group. To assess contamination. Participants in both groups reported infrequent discussions of the intervention with individuals in their experimental group (Selfcompassion: Mdn = 1, IQR = 1; Control: Mdn = 1, IQR = 0) and with individuals in the 21 other group (Self-compassion: Mdn = 1, IQR = 1; Control: Mdn = 1, IQR = 1). There was not a significant difference in discussion of intervention (Own group: U = 12.5, z = -1.25, p = .212, r = -.36; Other group: U = 15.5, z = -.43, p = .67, r = -.12). These findings suggest participants in each experimental group received mainly information from their own intervention, as opposed to information intended for both experimental groups. Table 2 Median (Mdn) and Interquartile range (IQR) for change scores on dependent variables. Self-compassion Attention control (n = 7) (n = 5) Self-compassion Mdn = .567 Mdn = .6 IQR = 0.94 IQR = 0.73 Personal standards Mdn = -.714 Mdn = -.143 IQR = 1.71 IQR = 0.36 Perfectionistic Strivings Perfectionistic aspirations Mdn = 0 Mdn = -.25 IQR = 1.00 IQR = 0.63 Doubts about actions Mdn = 0 Mdn = -.167 IQR = 1.33 IQR = 1.08 Perfectionistic Concerns over mistakes Mdn = -.625 Mdn = -1.375 Concerns IQR = 1.75 IQR = 1.88 Negative reactions to imperfect Mdn = -.875 Mdn = -1.00 performance IQR = 1.00 IQR = 1.50 DISCUSSION The present study sought to examine the impact of a 6-week self-compassion intervention on aspects of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns among college music students. Overall, the intervention did not impact levels of selfcompassion, perfectionistic concerns, or perfectionistic strivings when comparing the self-compassion group with the attention control group. This discussion will present the current findings in relation to the literature, provide general explanations for the findings, and provide construct-specific explanations of the findings. Further, the discussion will present limitations of the current study and provide insight into future research. Findings in Relation to the Literature Contrary to hypothesis one, no significant difference was found between groups for change in levels of self-compassion. This finding is inconsistent with prior research, which has shown significant increases in self-compassion scores for participants in a selfcompassion group compared to participants in a control group (Mosewich et al., 2013; Neff & Germer, 2013). Contrary to hypothesis two, no significant differences were found between groups for change in levels of perfectionistic concerns (PC) variables (doubts about actions, concerns over mistakes, and negative reactions to imperfect performances). This finding is inconsistent with prior cross sectional and experimental research. Specifically, self- 23 compassion is negatively related to aspects of PC (Neff, 2003b; Neff et al., 2007; Neff et al., 2005), and individuals in a self-compassion intervention have reported decreased levels of concerns over mistakes (PC) compared to a control group (Mosewich et al., 2013). Consistent with hypothesis three, no significant differences were found between groups for levels of perfectionistic striving variables (personal standards and perfectionistic aspirations). This supports prior research, which has revealed that selfcompassion has no association with levels of perfectionistic strivings (Neff, 2003b). General Explanations for Findings Despite the use of randomization into multiple groups, factors outside of the intervention itself may have had an impact on the findings. One main limitation and potential explanation for each nonsignificant result was the lack of a sufficient sample size. Many potential participants indicated a desire to be in the study but they did not have the time or perceived they did not have the time to participate. The pressure to physically practice and rehearse multiple hours a day did not leave any time for psychological pursuits that may have aided their performance. This corresponds to literature suggesting that time constraints are a main reason people do not join groups aimed at psychological growth (Mohr et al., 2010). The small sample size permitted greater impact on group scores due to variation. The variability may have been less statistically impactful with a larger sample size. Another possible explanation for the general nonsignificance of the findings is the timing of questionnaire delivery. The pretest questionnaire was administered in the first 24 few weeks of a new semester, which may be a less stressful time of the semester. The posttest questionnaire was administered within a week of mid-semester performances, with some participants also engaged in graduate school auditions. Therefore, the lack of decrease in perfectionistic concerns, or increase in self-compassion could be due to situational influences. Furthermore, frequency of participant engagement in the weekly activities may have impacted the results. While there was not a statistically significant difference between groups on frequency of participant engagement, the effect size (r = -.52) for the median difference was large (Cohen, 1988). The participants in the attention control group reported engaging in the weekly activity almost daily, compared to participants in the self-compassion group, who reported engaging in the weekly activity almost every other day. This discrepancy in frequency of engagement between groups may explain the lack of significant difference on self-compassion and perfectionistic concern variables between the self-compassion group and the attention control group. Construct-Specific Explanations While the participants in the attention control group did not receive any selfcompassion instruction, their increase in levels of self-compassion was statistically nonsignificant compared to the participants in the self-compassion group. Interestingly, individuals in both groups improved approximately one-half of one point. It is possible that the participants increased in levels of self-compassion due to the time spent interacting with the researcher, instead of their typical student routine. In addition, the fact that they volunteered to be in a psychologically-centered intervention focusing on 25 perfectionism and anxiety indicates some level of self-reflection and a desire to utilize psychological skills to mitigate those challenges. One potential explanation for the lack of significant differences in aspects of perfectionistic concerns between the self-compassion group and the attention control group could be the effectiveness of both interventions. Overall, participants in both groups reported decreases in perfectionistic concerns. It may have been that the traditional sport psychology skills taught in the attention control group decreased participants’ levels of perfectionistic concerns. Content from three sessions may have been particularly relevant in this instance. All facets of perfectionistic concerns (concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, and negative reactions to imperfect performance) could have been attenuated by the insights and skills they learned in the confidence, selftalk, and imagery sessions. Notably, the cue words the participants learned in the self-talk session (e.g., “good posture”) focused on process and controllable factors, which may have kept their focus away from being too concerned over any mistakes they may have made. Furthermore, the skills taught during the confidence session may have lessened the participants’ negative reactions to imperfect performance. In support of hypothesis number three, both the self-compassion and attention control interventions did not impact perfectionistic strivings. Conceptually, the skills associated with self-compassion should have no impact on personal standards and perfectionistic aspirations (the components of perfectionistic strivings). Interestingly, the statistical ranges (see Table 2) and standard deviations (see Table 3 and Table 4) were the largest for these variables in the self-compassion group. This indicates that participants’ levels of perfectionistic striving may have been both positively and negatively impacted 26 by the self-compassion sessions. It may be that the self-compassion content may have encouraged some participants to question whether striving was in their best interest or alternatively encouraged to embrace the qualities of striving more so. This would be interesting to examine in the future. Similarly, the attentional control sessions were not intended to influence strivings positively or negatively. These findings may be due to the lack of intended impact by the intervention on these constructs. Limitations The intervention was based on previous interventions that have been effective at improving self-compassion (Neff & Germer, 2013). However, due to participants’ schedules, it was not possible to meet with all participants in their respective experimental group at the same time. This limited the amount of personalization and depth of information within the intervention. Self-compassion, specifically common humanity, is most effectively improved in group settings (Neff & Germer, 2013). The room in which all sessions were held had windows that faced into a hallway in an academic building. The participants may have been self-conscious and more hesitant to fully engage as a result. A further limitation was the inability to control participants’ engagement in their weekly activity in both groups. The quality of participants’ engagement and frequency of engagement were assessed at posttest and both were quite high. Anecdotally, this does not correspond with the level of engagement in the weekly activity expressed to the researcher each week during the sessions. These limitations, in connection with the small sample size, reduce the external validity of the findings. Clearly, addressing issues 27 around sample size may allow for further generalizability of findings to the greater music and performance population. Future Research Musicians, particularly college music students and early professionals, continue to be a prime population for sport psychology researchers to focus on, due to their levels of anxiety and perfectionism (Kenny et al., 2004; Kobori et al., 2011; Zakaria et al., 2013). Self-compassion persists as a potential mechanism to reduce perfectionistic concerns in music populations. Future research is warranted with a larger sample of musicians to determine the impact of self-compassion on perfectionism within this population. Researchers would benefit from meeting with all participants at a set time, to allow for greater discussion and depth in the intervention. If scheduling issues persist, future researchers may benefit from creating an application based intervention that will allow musicians to participate. The applicationbased intervention may allow participants to more easily review material during the week, if questions arise. Conclusion The current study examined the impact of a self-compassion intervention on facets of perfectionism among college music students. While the present study did not provide support for self-compassion, multiple explanations and limitations create a rationale to further explore the potential impact of self-compassion within this population. College music students continue to report high rates of anxiety and 28 perfectionism, which presents a need to find viable options to increase the enjoyment and decrease the negative outcomes experienced by musicians. APPENDIX A INTERVENTION PROTOCOLS Self-Compassion Intervention Pedagogy. All sessions will be taught using a PowerPoint presentation. The use of PowerPoint helps ensure that the same material is covered for all participants in each group. PowerPoint also provides a visual for participants to follow along during the sessions. Week 1. The first week will begin with a reminder of expectations for participants, and what they can expect from the researcher. This is followed by an introduction to selfcompassion, which includes information regarding what it is, what it isn’t, and benefits of increasing self-compassion. Finish the session with a program overview. • What it is. Self-compassion involves being touched by and open to one’s own suffering, generating the desire to alleviate one’s suffering, and treating oneself with understanding. o Consists of three main components § Self-kindness: responding with understanding and care toward the self-following mistakes § Common humanity: recognizing that others also make mistakes, you are not alone in your mistakes 30 § Mindfulness: being aware of negative experiences and emotions in a balanced, understanding way. • What it is not. Self-compassion is not self-esteem. While the two are correlated, differences exist, particularly when following a mistake. Self-esteem depends on comparisons to others, and can lead to negative emotions and actions following mistakes (i.e., depression, anxiety, bullying, and narcissism). Self-compassion cultivates a positive, caring self-attitude regardless of success or failure. As such, there are no negative associations following failure, while still holding to the positive associations following success. o It is not an excuse for passivity. A lack of self-compassion leads to more passivity than does having self-compassion. Self-compassion helps the individual have greater care and understanding following a poor performance, which allows them to then try again and seek to improve. A lack of self-compassion often relates to self-depreciative behaviors, which can prevent them from trying again (i.e., leads to passivity). • Benefits. Increasing self-compassion results in increased happiness, optimism, and life satisfaction. It also results in decreased anxiety, stress, and depression. • Provide musicians with opportunity to ask any questions about the study. • Thank them again for their time and participation. • Provide contact information and remind them to reach out whenever they have questions or concerns. • Applied Weekly Exercise. There is no exercise following week 1. The goal is to introduce participants to self-compassion, and explain why it can be beneficial to 31 them moving forward. Week 2. The second week will discuss foundational knowledge of mindfulness, and implement breathing meditations to increase mindfulness. • Mindfulness is having a present moment focus, with acceptance and without judgment. Mindfulness is an awareness of one’s thoughts and emotions, including an open, curious mindset around those feelings. o Individuals will be taught to foster a “beginners mindset” which is open, curious, accepting, and nonjudgmental. o Individuals will be taught an ancient Chinese saying that highlights the benefits of self-compassion and mindfulness: “One disease, long life; no disease, short life.” § If one is unaware of any challenges, then they are unable to make the appropriate changes. • Mechanisms of Action. mindfulness is beneficial through the following mechanisms. o Sustained attention on the present moment. o Improved attentional switching. o Fostering an approach orientation. o Improves physiological relaxation. • Benefits. Increasing mindfulness has shown to increase one’s emotion regulation (i.e., less rumination and suppression), improve interpersonal relationships (more empathy and compassion), and to decrease stress, anxiety, and depression. • Applied Exercise (in-session). Anxious breathing vs. relaxed/mindful breathing 32 activity. o Anxious breathing. Ask participants to get in a comfortable seated position, then take a large chest (high) breath, and hold it. Then take in more breath and hold it. Repeat, one more large (high) inhale and hold it. Then ask them to do quick, short, repeated in breaths (between 5-10). o Mindful breathing. Ask participants to again get in a comfortable position. This time have them use diaphragmatic breathing, breathing deeply into their body. Have them breathe in through their nose, and out through their mouth. As they breathe, ask them to pay attention to the sensations of the breath. Ask them to recognize thoughts as they arise, then without judgment return to their breath. § Debrief the breathing activity by asking them to compare and contrast both experiences. What differences did they experience physically/mentally? • Applied Weekly Exercise. Listen to and practice a guided mindful breathing practice. Provide participants with a short (5-minute) guided meditation and ask them to practice the meditation daily. Week 3. The third week will begin with a brief review of the components of self- compassion, followed by a discussion of different structures and functions within the brain, specifically the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala/limbic system. • The prefrontal cortex (pfc) is responsible for executive functioning. Musicians learn music and perform through an activated pfc. o The left hemisphere of the pfc is used in logical, linear, and plan creating 33 processes. Musicians rely more on the left hemisphere when learning new pieces. o The right hemisphere of the pfc is associated with creative processes and is considered more intuitive. Musicians use the right hemisphere more as they have learned a piece (i.e., when performing). • The amygdala is involved in the fear/stress response. Individuals with an overactive amygdala are more anxious and stressful. o When the amygdala is activated, it overrides the impacts of the pfc. o The stress response begins when stimuli are sensed and sent to the brain. The amygdala interprets the stimuli as a threat, or not. If it is a threat, the amygdala sends signals throughout the body to activate the fight or flight response. This activation occurs until the threat is removed from the situation. o Many musicians experience stress and anxiety, or the stress response, when they think about performing. The increased activity in the amygdala interferes with the prefrontal cortex, which may inhibit one’s ability to perform to the highest level. • Mindfulness meditation increases the activity within the pfc while decreasing activity within the amygdala. Through extended practiced meditation, musicians may decrease anxiety and stress, and experience increased focus, compassion, and happiness. • Applied Weekly Exercise. Listen to and practice a guided ‘Loving Kindness Meditation.” Provide participants with a brief (7-minute) guided meditation and 34 ask them to practice the meditation daily. Week 4. The fourth week will focus on developing a compassionate inner voice through teaching self-talk. Participants will learn how to change their self-talk to be more compassionate. • Self-talk is the inner dialogue that everyone experiences. Too often, individuals are their harshest critics and the voice inside their head is solely sharing negative thoughts. o Self-talk can occur in one’s head, or it can be spoken aloud. o As an individual uses negative self-talk, they “feed” their amygdala/limbic system. As they use positive self-talk, they “feed” their pfc. o Negative self-talk can decrease one’s ability to focus and interfere with one’s performance. o Positive self-talk may increase self-compassion, as well as focus. • Applied Exercise (in session). Individually, ask participants to think of a moment where they made a mistake while performing, and to think of what they said to themselves. After they have thought about their internal dialogue, ask them to share what they were thinking with the researcher (as though the researcher were themselves). Ask them to say it with the same words, tone, volume, etc. that they used on the self. o Debrief: Was it difficult to speak your thoughts out loud to someone else? What made it difficult, or not, to share? What makes it alright to speak that way to ourselves, when it isn’t alright to speak that way to others? • In order to change one’s self-talk, they must first have an awareness of their 35 thoughts. After recognizing the negative thoughts, participants will be taught to take a deep, relaxing breath. Following the breath, participants will be instructed to ask themselves “how would I like to respond?” and “how would someone I admire respond?” • Applied Weekly Exercise. journal about your internal dialogue at the end of each day. Recognize, with acceptance and compassion, how you spoke to yourself throughout the day. Write down at least four thoughts experienced throughout the day. If you had a self-critical thought, take a deep breath, then reframe the thought through the lens of self-compassion. Write out your new, kind self-talk. Week 5. The fifth week will focus on increasing common humanity through the use of a compassionate writing activity. • Common humanity is recognizing that you are not alone in making mistakes, and that making mistakes is a part of the human experience. Participants will increase their common humanity as they write about a negative experience of a high level performer. • We will discuss that often we increase our sense of being unique following mistakes, and the self-focus typically occurs critically. • Common humanity teaches that suffering, mistakes, and failures are part of the human experience, that participants are not alone in their poor experiences. o Even individuals whom we admire make mistakes. Participants will be asked to reflect upon their professors and think of any possible mistakes that they have made. Do these performance mistakes diminish the value of the professors? 36 o Mistakes occur, they do not diminish our value. They allow us opportunities to continue to improve. • Applied Weekly Exercise. Similar to compassion through writing exercise on self-compassion.org. o Write about an imperfect performance, one in which you were a harsh critic of yourself, and experienced negative emotions. Remember the emotions, as you experienced them, and write about them. What thoughts did you have, what did you feel mentally, what did you feel physically? The more detail you include, the more impactful the experience can be for you. o Think of an imaginary (or true) friend who is kind, caring, accepting, and compassionate. This friend knows all of your strengths and weaknesses, including what you just wrote about describing the imperfect performance. Imagine the love and care this friend feels towards you, and the understanding they have of your life. This friend is understanding of the limits of human nature, and is kind and forgiving towards you. o Write a letter to yourself from the perspective of this friend. What would this friend say about this “flaw” or imperfect performance through their lens of unlimited compassion? How would they express their compassion and understanding towards you, especially when you are such a harsh selfcritic? What would this friend write to remind you of your strengths and weaknesses? 37 Week 6. The final week will discuss the use of imagery and include a review of the program. Participants will learn how to use imagery to respond more compassionately following a mistake. • Imagery is defined as the use of one’s senses to create or recreate an experience in the mind. o Imagery allows individuals to practice a skill mentally, when they are unable to practice physically, or in addition to their physical practice. § It can be beneficial to use imagery prior to a performance, after a mistake (during personal rehearsal), and when one is too ill to perform. o Imagery is most impactful when it is controllable and vivid. § Controllable indicates that an individual is able to visualize what they intend to, as well as the ability to manipulate aspects of the image to fit the desired outcome. § Vivid means the individual has a clear and detailed image. While most often thought of as a visual sense, vividness includes as many senses as possible (i.e., auditory, olfactory, tactile, kinesthetic). • Applied Exercise (in session). Participants will experience an activity called the “Circle of Excellence.” Participants will begin with deep, relaxing breaths. o Once participants have become connected to the breath, ask them to visualize two circles on the floor (one green, one red). Ask participants to step into the circle that appears brighter to them. Have them think about a time that they were able to respond to themselves with compassion 38 following a mistake (in as much detail as possible. What it felt like, what they thought, visualizing their physical reaction to the self). Ask them to step out of the circle, then step into the other circle. In this circle have them visualize a time that they responded critically following a mistake (again in as much detail as possible). Ask them to step out of that circle, and back into the good circle. Again, recall and visualize their details of being compassionate and kind following a mistake/poor performance. Have them step out and into the other circle (repeat). Have them step out of the bad circle, into the good circle (repeat). Have them step out of the good circle, then back into the good circle (repeat). Again have them step out of the good circle, into the good circle (repeat). Have them bring hand to a place on the body where they feel compassion while in the good circle. As they step out of the good circle for the last time, keep hand on body to feel compassion. Step into the “bad” circle with hand feeling compassion, and face the mistake with love and compassion. Face the scenario of the bad circle with the compassion that they had in the “good” circle. When they step out of the “bad” circle, have them “pick up” the good circle, fold it and place it in their pocket. They can use the power of this experience and imagery during other situations of needed compassion. • Applied Weekly Exercise. Listen to a guided circle of excellence meditation daily. The meditation will begin by “unfolding” the good circle, and remembering the kindness and compassion they experienced in that moment. This meditation will then have the participants visualize kindness to themselves prior to a 39 performance, as well as following performances. Attention Control Group Intervention Week 1. The first week will begin with a reminder of expectations for participants, and what they can expect from the researcher. This will be followed by a program overview, and an introduction to performance psychology skills. • Sport and Performance Psychology is the study of people’s behavior in sport/performance and the application of that knowledge. It involves learning mental skills that are important for performance, such as confidence, self-talk, and imagery. o Participants will be asked what percentage of performance is physical, and what percentage is mental. Then ask participants what percentage of their training time is physical, and what percentage of training time is mental. o Participants will be asked what mental skills they are already using, to get a better sense of where they are in their understanding of mental skills. • Participants will be reminded that Sport and Performance Psychology is not a substitute for physical practice, an immediate remedy, or counseling/therapy. • Benefits of Sport and Performance Psychology o Increased confidence, concentration, and personal awareness. o Decreased stress and anxiety. Applied Weekly Exercise. There is no exercise following week 1. The goal is to introduce them to performance psychology, and discuss benefits that they may see moving forward. 40 Week 2. Week 2 will be focused on goal setting. • A goal is an objective or aim of action that is focused to attain a standard of proficiency on a task, usually within a specified time limit. o Benefits of goal setting § Increase motivation, effort, focus, persistence, and confidence. o Three types of goals exist: 1) outcome goals, 2) performance goals, and 3) process goals. (An example of each goal in music will be given). § Outcome goals focus on the result of a performance compared to others. § Performance goals focus on improvement of one’s own performance, regardless of others’ performance. § Process goals focus on the specific actions that must be executed during performance to perform well. § Participants will be encouraged to put more focus on performance goals than the other two. Outcome goals are not fully within the control of the individual, and therefore could be detrimental to performance. Process goals can direct too much attention to the internal processes of performance, and therefore can lead to “paralysis by analysis” which is a hindrance to performance. o The quality of good goals will be discussed as well to ensure that individuals know how to write goals that will be most effective for their performance and growth. The qualities that make up a good goal were presented as the following. 41 § Realistic, specific, challenging, in one’s control, within a time limit, flexible (recognizing that it is often necessary to adjust goals), and approach focused. • Applied Exercise (in session). Each participant will be given a 7-piece pie chart in order to do the performance profile. Individuals will write down 7 characteristics/attributes that they think are the characteristics that make up elite performers. They will be given time to share their characteristics. Participants will then rate themselves on a scale from 1-10 for their current level of each attribute. • Applied Weekly Exercise. During the week participants will select 2 of the attributes that they most want to improve. They will be asked to write down 1-2 goals for each attribute. For each of the goals/attributes, individuals will write out the real and perceived barriers that might be preventing them from improving. Next, they will write out what they can do to overcome those barriers. It is important for the individuals to write in as much detail as possible regarding how they will overcome the barriers, and what it will look like for them once they have achieved their goal. Week 3. The third week will discuss techniques to build confidence during music performance. • Confidence refers to an individual’s belief that they can do whatever it takes to be successful in their performance. It is important for individuals to increase confidence in their mental skills and their physical skills and training. o Participants will be asked to reflect on the difference between confidence and arrogance. 42 • Individuals will be taught Bandura’s sources of self-efficacy: 1) Past performance, 2) Verbal persuasion, 3) Vicarious experience, and 4) Physiological/emotional states. An emphasis will be placed on past performance, due to the nature of the weekly activity, and to keep a more narrow focus. • Applied Exercise (in session). “control the controllables” activity. Ask everyone to draw a stick figure in the middle of a piece of paper to represent him or herself. Then ask them to write factors that influence/impact their performance around the stick figure. Participants will draw arrows from the stick figure to the word, for factors that are within their control. They will draw arrows from the word to the stick figure for factors that are not within their control. • Remind participants that they can only give 100%. Always give 100%. If they are ever feeling 80% well, give 100% of their 80%. • Applied Weekly Exercise. Keep a daily journal of your performances, and training. Each day write out 3 things that you did well. Remember from the in session activity to pick factors that you have control over. It is less impactful to build confidence in aspects over which you have no control. Participants will be asked to review their journal prior to playing. This will likely occur in the practice room, due to a lack of time during rehearsals. Week 4. The fourth week will focus on self-talk, specifically cue words that help increase focus/concentration during performance. • Self-talk is the inner dialogue that everyone experiences. This self-talk can occur in one’s head or out loud. o Cue words are an aspect of self-talk that helps direct attention to 43 appropriate stimuli for performance. Cue words are 1-3 word phrases, such as “good posture” that performers can use when their minds begin to wander away from performance specific thoughts/stimuli. o Individuals will be reminded that performance is not the time to focus on technical instruction, but instead to “trust their training,” and allow their body to do what they have so greatly practiced. Cue words are used as reminders to help the body fulfill its training. o Individuals will also be taught the importance of phrasing their cue words in the positive, such as “good posture” instead of “don’t slouch,” which is negative. • Applied Exercise (in session). The following words will be on a PowerPoint 1) before piece, 2) start of piece, 3) middle of piece, 4) end of piece. Examples of cue words will be given for each section of a piece. Participants will also be asked what types of cue words come to mind for each section. We will discuss the importance of using short, specific statements to help improve focus. • Applied Weekly Exercise. Select at least 1 piece that you are working on, and break it into sections, similar to the in-session activity. In each of the sections of your piece, identify what you need to focus on to ensure better performance. Create cue words for your areas of focus. Write the cue words into your music where you can see them, and where you think they will have the best impact. Play the piece a minimum of 4 times during the week, using your cue words. Week 5. The fifth week will focus on the use of writing tasks in performance to develop awareness and focus. 44 • Writing tasks are used to increase one’s awareness of self and others. Through the use of a writing prompt, individuals will write about one of, if not the best performance they have had. • Writing tasks are used in sports to help build awareness, and build confidence in skills. Participants will be taught common uses of writing tasks in sport (e.g., journaling, training plans, and increasing technical understanding). • Applied Exercise (in session). Each participant will be asked to practice a writing skill together, in which they will describe a technical skill involved with their performance. They will explain the importance of the skill, and write about how one can improve the skill. • Applied Weekly Exercise. Write about a time in which you had a great performance. Write about your emotions, thoughts and actions before, during, and after the performance. Remember that the more details you are able to include the more beneficial this will be for your performance. o Also write about your ideal performance. How do you want to feel? What thoughts do you want to have leading into performance and during performance? What routine would you go through before a performance in order to achieve your optimal/greatest performance? How is your posture/body positioning? o Participants will then compare and contrast their prior great performance to their potential ideal performance. Week 6. The final week will discuss the use of imagery in performance and include a review of the program. 45 • Imagery is defined as the use of one’s senses to create or recreate an experience in the mind. • Imagery allows individuals to practice a skill mentally, when they are unable to practice physically, or in addition to their physical practice. Participants will learn to use imagery to mentally rehearse prior to a performance. • For imagery to be most effective, it needs to be vivid and controllable. o Vivid refers to how clear the image is, and how many senses are being used. The more senses an individual can use, the greater the effectiveness of imagery. o Controllability refers to the individual’s ability to see what they want to see and manipulate the image to fit the best performance. o Participants will be taught and reminded to use visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, and kinesthetic senses during their imagery. • Applied Exercise (in session). Participants will be led in a guided imagery for each of the senses listed above. They will begin with just visualizing, or seeing, their environment. Then they will proceed through each of the other senses until each sense has been explored through imagery. A discussion will follow regarding the difficulty level of each sense, and why some are easier than others. Practicing imagery for each sense, similar to physical practicing, improves the more that you do it. • Applied Weekly Exercise. Do a daily practice of imagery of your performance. If you stand while you perform, stand as you visualize, and vice versa. Place your body in the same posture that you would if you were performing. Visualize 46 yourself on stage, what do you see, hear, smell, taste, and feel? Then perform a piece, or part of a piece, using as many senses as possible. If you visualize a mistake, rewind your image and repeat the performance doing everything, as you would prefer it to be. Select one time each day that you will practice imagery. At your specified time, practice imagery for 3 minutes. APPENDIX B DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS EXPANDED Self-compassion group descriptive statistics Table 3 Mean (M), Standard deviation (SD), and Median (Mdn) for pretest and posttest scores on dependent variables in the self-compassion group. Self-compassion (n = 7) Pretest Posttest Self-compassion M = 3.08 M = 3.49 SD = 0.88 SD = 0.82 Mdn = 3.43 Mdn = 3.63 Personal standards M = 4.41 M = 3.63 SD = 0.45 SD = 1.21 Mdn = 4.29 Mdn = 3.71 Perfectionistic Strivings Perfectionistic aspirations M = 4.45 M = 4.09 SD = 1.38 SD = 1.39 Mdn = 4.38 Mdn = 4.25 Doubts about actions M = 2.69 M = 2.86 SD = 1.35 SD = 1.15 Mdn = 2.17 Mdn = 3.17 Concerns over mistakes M = 2.89 M = 2.13 Perfectionistic SD = 0.68 SD = 1.12 Concerns Mdn = 3.00 Mdn = 1.50 Negative reactions to imperfect M = 3.64 M = 3.16 performance SD = 1.51 SD = 1.01 Mdn = 4.13 Mdn = 3.00 Note: Perfectionistic aspirations and negative reactions to imperfect performance are measured on a 6-point scale. Self-compassion, personal standards, doubts about actions and concern over mistakes are measured on a 5-point scale. 48 Attention control group descriptive statistics Table 4 Mean (M), Standard deviation (SD), and Median (Mdn) for pretest and posttest scores on dependent variables in the attention control group. Attention control group (n = 5) Pretest Posttest Self-compassion M = 3.18 M = 3.76 SD = 0.88 SD = 0.73 Mdn = 3.44 Mdn = 3.53 Personal standards M = 4.11 M = 3.94 SD = 0.19 SD = 0.33 Mdn = 4.14 Mdn = 4.00 Perfectionistic Strivings Perfectionistic aspirations M = 5.10 M = 4.80 SD = 0.68 SD = 0.94 Mdn = 5.50 Mdn = 5.25 Doubts about actions M = 2.07 M = 1.67 SD = 0.65 SD = 0.61 Mdn = 2.17 Mdn = 1.67 Concerns over mistakes M = 3.23 M = 2.40 Perfectionistic SD = 0.97 SD = 0.69 Concerns Mdn = 3.38 Mdn = 2.38 Negative reactions to imperfect M = 3.65 M = 2.75 performance SD = 1.26 SD = 0.77 Mdn = 3.13 Mdn = 3.13 Note: Perfectionistic aspirations and negative reactions to imperfect performance are measured on a 6-point scale. Self-compassion, personal standards, doubts about actions and concern over mistakes are measured on a 5-point scale. REFERENCES Adams, C. E., & Leary, M. R. (2007). Promoting self–compassionate attitudes toward eating among restrictive and guilty eaters. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26(10), 1120-1144. doi:10.1521/jscp.2007.26.10.1120 Appleton, P. R., & Hill, A. P. (2012). Perfectionism and athlete burnout in junior elite athletes: The mediating role of motivation regulations. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 6(2), 129-145. Barcza-Renner, K., Eklund, R. C., Morin, A. J. S., Habeeb, C. M., & Morin, A. J. (2016). Controlling coaching behaviors and athlete burnout: Investigating the mediating roles of perfectionism and motivation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 38(1), 30-44. Brach, T. (2003). Radical acceptance: Awakening the love that heals fear and shame within us. New York, NY: Random House. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Cox, S. L., & Chen, J. (2015). Perfectionism: A contributor to social anxiety and its cognitive processes. Australian Journal of Psychology, 67(4), 231-240. doi:10.1111/ajpy.12079 Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24(4), 349-354. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0047358 Enns, M. W., Cox, B. J., & Clara, I. (2002). Adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism: Developmental origins and association with depression proneness. Personality and Individual Differences, 33(6), 921-935. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S01918869(01)00202-1 Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175-191. doi:10.3758/BF03193146 Frost, R. O., Heimberg, R. G., Holt, C. S., Mattia, J. I., & Neubauer, A. L. (1993). A comparison of two measures of perfectionism. Personality and Individual 50 Differences, 14(1), 119-126. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90181-2 Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14(5), 449-468. Gilbert, P., & Irons, C. (2004). A pilot exploration of the use of compassionate images in a group of self-critical people. Memory (Hove, England), 12(4), 507-516. Gotwals, J. K., & Dunn, J. G. H. (2009). A multi-method multi-analytic approach to establishing internal construct validity evidence: The sport multidimensional perfectionism scale 2. Measurement in Physical Education & Exercise Science, 13(2), 71-92. Gotwals, J. K., Dunn, J. G. H., Causgrove Dunn, J., & Gamache, V. (2010). Establishing validity evidence for the sport multidimensional perfectionism scale-2 in intercollegiate sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(6), 423-432. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.04.013 Gustafsson, H., Hill, A. P., Stenling, A., & Wagnsson, S. (2016). Profiles of perfectionism, parental climate, and burnout among competitive junior athletes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 26(10), 1256-1264. Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(3), 456-470. doi:10.1037/00223514.60.3.456 Hill, A. P. (2013). Perfectionism and burnout in junior soccer players: A test of the 2 × 2 model of dispositional perfectionism. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 35(1), 18-29. Hill, A. P., Witcher, C. S. G., Gotwals, J. K., & Leyland, A. F. (2015). A qualitative study of perfectionism among self-identified perfectionists in sport and the performing arts. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 4(4), 237-253. doi:10.1037/spy0000041 Horner, S., Rew, L., & Torres, R. (2006). Enhancing intervention fidelity: A means of strengthening study impact. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing : JSPN, 11(2), 80-89. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6155.2006.00050.x Kenny, D. T., Davis, P., & Oates, J. (2004). Music performance anxiety and occupational stress amongst opera chorus artists and their relationship with state and trait anxiety and perfectionism. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18(6), 757-777. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2003.09.004 Kobori, O., Yoshie, M., Kudo, K., & Ohtsuki, T. (2011). Traits and cognitions of perfectionism and their relation with coping style, effort, achievement, and performance anxiety in Japanese musicians. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(5), 51 674-679. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.03.001 Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Batts Allen, A., & Hancock, J. (2007). Selfcompassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(5), 887904. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887 Mohr, D. C., Ho, J., Duffecy, J., Baron, K. G., Lehman, K. A., Jin, L., & Reifler, D. (2010). Perceived barriers to psychological treatments and their relationship to depression. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 66(4), 394-409. doi:10.1002/jclp.20659 Mor, S., & Day, H. I. (1995). Perfectionism, control, and components of performance anxiety in professional artists. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 19(2), 207-225. Mosewich, A. D., Crocker, P. R. E., Kowalski, K. C., & DeLongis, A. (2013). Applying self-compassion in sport: An intervention with women athletes. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 35(5), 514-524. Mosewich, A. D., Kowalski, K. C., Sabiston, C. M., Sedgwick, W. A., & Tracy, J. L. (2011). Self-compassion: A potential resource for young women athletes. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33(1), 103-123. Neff, K. (2003a). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self & Identity, 2(2), 85. Neff, K. D. (2003b). The development and validation of a scale to measure selfcompassion. Self & Identity, 2(3), 223. Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. K. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(1), 28-44. doi:10.1002/jclp.21923 Neff, K. D., Kirkpatrick, K. L., & Rude, S. S. (2007). Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(1), 139-154. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.004 Neff, K. D., Ya-Ping, H., & Dejitterat, K. (2005). Self-compassion, achievement goals, and coping with academic failure. Self & Identity, 4(3), 263-287. doi:10.1080/13576500444000317 Nigg, C. R., Allegrante, J. P., & Ory, M. (2002). Theory-comparison and multiplebehavior research: Common themes advancing health behavior research. Health Education Research, 17(5), 670-679. Rubin, A. (1997). The family preservation evaluation from hell: Implications for program evaluation fidelity. Children and Youth Services Review, 19(1), 77-99. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-7409(97)00007-8 52 Salzberg, S. (1997). Lovingkindness: The revolutionary art of happiness. Boston, MA: Shambhala. Sellars, P. A., Evans, L., & Thomas, O. (2016). The effects of perfectionism in elite sport: Experiences of unhealthy perfectionists. Sport Psychologist, 30(3), 219230. Stoeber, J., Chesterman, D., & Tarn, T.-A. (2010). Perfectionism and task performance: Time on task mediates the perfectionistic strivings–performance relationship. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(4), 458-462. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.021 Stoeber, J., & Eismann, U. (2007). Perfectionism in young musicians: Relations with motivation, effort, achievement, and distress. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(8), 2182-2192. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.036 Stoeber, J., & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. Personality and Social Psychology Review: An Official Journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, 10(4), 295-319. Stoeber, J., Otto, K., & Stoll, O. (2006). MIPS: Multidimensional inventory of perfectionism in sport (English version, November 2006). School of Psychology: University of Kent. Stoeber, J., Schneider, N., Hussain, R., & Matthews, K. (2014). Perfectionism and negative affect after repeated failure: Anxiety, depression, and anger. Journal of Individual Differences, 35(2), 87-94. doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000130 Stoeber, J., Stoll, O., Pescheck, E., & Otto, K. (2008). Perfectionism and achievement goals in athletes: Relations with approach and avoidance orientations in mastery and performance goals. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(2), 102-121. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.02.002 Stoeber, J., Stoll, O., Salmi, O., & Tiikkaja, J. (2009). Perfectionism and achievement goals in young Finnish ice-hockey players aspiring to make the Under-16 national team. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(1), 85-94. Suddarth, B. H., & Slaney, R. B. (2001). An investigation of the dimensions of perfectionism in college students. Measurement & Evaluation in Counseling & Development, 34(3), 157. Zakaria, J. B., Musib, H. B., & Shariff, S. M. (2013). Overcoming performance anxiety among music undergraduates. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 90, 226-234. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.086 Öztuna, D., Atilla Halil, E., & Tüccar, E. (2006). Investigation of four different normality tests in terms of type 1 error rate and power under different distributions. Turkish Journal of Medical Sciences, 36(3), 171-176.