Great Salt Lake, Utah's Inland Sea: Legends and fiction based on the lake; Prehistoric man in the Lake Bonneville region and Indians in association with the Great Salt Lake

Typescript (85 pages) of part of the manuscript for an unpublished book on the Great Salt Lake by William H. Behle. The first of these two chapters discusses legends about the Great Salt Lake and the use of the lake as a setting in literature, while the other chapter is an anthropological study of the Great Salt Lake region.

I Legend and Fiction Based o the Lake ( Introduction I 1 nds inhabited ~Ya race of g1ants Subterranean outl , 1th ntrance m rke 4 by a whirlpool Lake Monat r Whale Le 1n Great Salt Lak nd r h me of the Azt cs of Mex eo Mo e:rn isbeli fs borderi Th ( lake as a tti on th l ndar:, for adventur tories and fiction Liter ture cited Introduction Str :nge, un ritical, idea often arise about remot and unknown area ake was d o xc pt on. n t early days the Great Salt There wa an air of 7 tery the lak , and numerous myths and tra 001 ted with the unu ual ph nomen nor thi salts a h1ah oc an as at first thought to b an Even hen th1 bout was di prove vat inland rm oft e . ild e eoul tion out nti C ( ople ro u te r 1ng the 1 1 nd. p cul tion w s by Jim r1 er ho rior to iou er f11 ht r ire to-ni ht 1 r th t shoul rn 1 e er for bri i ( , fi tat ti 1 point i in our b d sh e of id tion when he every on ei ot I lan. t on bb ry, t r 1 h other unter' . dmit d: d "round our t to- orro f nci d 1 tangled n wit ion afforde • nor Indi n ha teri liz n y oonject r of the larg bori hite n t hich In ian n ecul tion n or hi ere the whirlpool un xplor d la a of tr ich t e foo n 1 11v remont I l nd commente ion, to thi the 1 o to for otten, a tribu e or1 t iac 1 nt tell r of tall t 1 s. the thought he voya "eith r, in our by or kept a notoriou latl nd wh rlpool ibly much of thi o ither or1 in te r mont (1845:1 2), my t an outlets e of every d never v1o ated.u c lled the 1 l Co c rn1 ener l t pie he or a f le en (1947:17) ( ens a C f llo s: X an I t ts h to rr 1 ht 1 t r n t Oe t b pee. 0 ( th1 f · op e 1 t prese r 1 xi v por o b r s h 1 fro ri 1 1 kl urface rs :r r. l t it it, a ove a t La i ag h 11 s at I it was f cur n 1t l b r it bter"anean oa t 1 C , 1 0 rt, 0 one ' i t it re ·. its ie Gig n ic is a po . it C the t 1 . r rs ha or y ell l h 1c Pac br , I e b i h 1 en ec A n s hav l • h rr b biz rr 1 1 t n i l l C r r1 ing rvasi e myst r 'Te r UC n in re tin b en s c apter. 1 to t ( uxton ( 849 : 110) erick r 11 to this arly refer nc 89 Regiment . ~aje ty ' t by on Gore i n hr nt a L. ute ho ied in St . Lou sin 1848 H e rly a e ,o 28 but in his brief c reer h t in lac r to th ran :ventu of th xp trappl•ng a t o u 1 n r s o 1 hty in br Bi r outl t . roe undr and o t con i nomenon of ccor in ~ rrin u v , ke , G t t cov r 11 in len th , by r 1 str a ed by th o ty hi their y p s ed ne r th l t . iv r 1 the c riou kno 11 , t 0 e , o cco p ni d by n it · on , n onte o In the cour rote: country t n ho a to ter r Int lli or . ur tr ppr , one L of nions , co rtiel in boo p bli h ch di m n that ic zine . o ear t of wet rn k tc re in r ( ace o G1 I lan s Inh b1ted By t b dy o tote tr per , h ch th , of rabl , th t p 1 t r ts 1th ut any l , rom hich r eh in ot loft mountain ,re r 1 divide ( the northwe ern portion of th ithin tw 1 mil oft lake, hilt rn hore, ris nort r et from the level ot the ter. co land w t nio t t th 1 rger be 1nhab1t d by ad shor s of the lak b ax s of xtr ordinary h ve kno w tea rod th t uch p opl th ms lve, on el ph nts, to Ji alt nd but for th of logs of g1gant1o tr s, orld would never exist d. Thy nd l v d upon corn Bridger that it w ru1t I nd an Markt by ter of th Whirlpool t d 1n1t1 1 y ugg oce n. hen hoed th t there w s no such outlet, to the fore, that ther with the oo an pro id d by ntry to th1 d er, moreov r, to." plor tion ventuall th u l C iz, the n ture of the l k • noth r notion ca eel rd to hi known by the Indians Subterrane n Outlet With E tr no The six hundred of giant, with whom no eommun1c t1on r b n h ld by ortal an; V wafting to th c r c Rube smaller one, ubterranean ri indio ted o th surfac a conneot1on r nd th t , • oft e 1 ke whirlpool. ( Fremont n his r terenoe to this d cad d the id a pr 1 ted ccording to n account in th • for 10 June 1870 1n th t year so ad rty (1845:152) m ke en m king re 1 r run ors v ral Salt Lak or Herald boatmen f:r-om Corinn ho o the laker port d a hole to the north of Antelope I land, near remont Island• into Which the lake whi enrout into it ( rushing nd that the stea er. !.,L comior fro Corinn to L ke Poi t th ub quent account 1n th a at felt but th l k' Tribune or 25 June 1970 eontinu d r1 hirlpool and 1 vel and concern . The hop ubt rr n n outlet would be uff ci ntly xten ive to k ep the 1 ke fro as n peoul tion on whether a ob tructions might fe ling o qu intly exp e th remov d to enhanc t m ed 1n th of is for speoul tion in h1 hp riod in the lak • xpr s ed that th Ther almo t drawn The 11t11 report w s certain yin the natur hoax 1 tit furnish Thi a bout th1 Tribun po rtiol further r1 ing. ooumul t d th ,outw rd tlow. b111ty are a follo • 1. "An 1mmeno ( mount of injury h s a re dy' be n don to meadow and other land by the ri e of water of the lake, but if n outl t oe.n b d1 oovered, e1ng t 1 e do not d1spa1r of' vil r medled. Lake Monter Great Salt Lake ha not Aooord1ng to Mill r (194?:3)) seap -d n sea monster legend. ocount 1n the Herald for 14 Jul11877 notes th t ey witne e s lt Lake report d the exist nee or a lake monst r 1n th northwest arm of ( the lake. J. H. McNeil and companion were camped on th shore near the north point of the lake on the evening of 8 Jul1 when they suddenly a "a huge mas rapidly approaching nd when within a r or hid and tin w yards ot the shore it raised its enormous head and uttered. a terrible bellow." The next morning tracks and overturned rook sho ed where it had be non shore. organ (1947:379-)80) turned up additional items about the lake monster which h pre ented 1n the following account dripping 1th irony. "Th hum111at1ng fact about the ( onst r is that S lt Lake nu bered amo in 1877 the itizen or the flour! hi l ke, lton, on the north hor o th of m tropoli xo pt for J. H. MoN 111, who • 1 noe mi ht have remained ignorant of its v ry x1stenc, for it w only after M. cNe 11 uppl1 d the olue th t rath r wonderful collection or fact 11 into a pattern. 'Since hi tory is an x ct nd just proces of record, -nd tion u t b given one Brother 0 1 ridg r the o on communit, who at som tie in 1847-1848 first n the ey on tr. Brother inbridg s ey aid 1 ht was not of the best, ho e er,. for he con 1d red th t it olphin s a he sa; in point off ct. had 1t not b en for the observation or r. McNeill, history could ev n h v not rely lnbr dge' lt ery tal that had go into Brother ey. t tor turn to Mr. • oN 111: for publication in the Corinne · swor to ondered wh ther it o e o before at th n affid v1t trans 1tted I Hc2C11 of July 11• 18?7, he t unn rv1ng ex r1 no d rgon north rn 1 ke shor n ar Monumen a oi t. or q ( oh m de alt ork nd Com t Barnes ploye Several hon t citize s tartled to hear ff1 avit had been an altogether frightful bellow. up, they saw Glano1 out in the l ke a hue and fearso e ~reatur havi res horse. the. en employed at the saltwork w re men of n uperior in• an knew exactly o1reums ano . They at to do in such ta peded up the ·ad hid the selves securely mid th remaining th re throughout the ni ht~ sun ro had one sc1nat1on lt Even s thy st rd in horrified o e charging 1n upo a body mbling that of head r nd that of a crocodile bli ny's ext mor 1ng, tt but it bustne nd re all 1n th d 7 1 s work, the labor or extract! uA day or sa e and scrub oak. By the time the ooourrenoe ince uo en ret rned to their u ual salt from the lake brines. o l ter, chancing to be in Corinne, Mr. Mc e111 bethou ht him that the occurrence wa out ot the or 1 ountai ev d nt tha the mon ter ee , 1 e or he r7, nd he strolle ro littl d to the ne paper I ( ive the mon t r uch 1mmort lity as the office to rror s. pr s nd w s picked up by the ne in Salt Lake C ty. paper oience must always mak n it way, ho ever, a ug est th t to salt ( no h on t r should find th ving to ch ng added t t the from daily to rt1 er. nd organ then notes the ne hug, reptilian" omething dlscu s the many-ti other co ment of th t the 1 si ultaneo s si hting o a in Utah Lak - ighte Ber Lak a onater. onst r, the Ut h L k on t r w re of the sa to proc ed One (op. o1t .. J85} is germane• "A t Lak City nd the Ber Lak e iweekly publication, u th ve sw llow d ·mo t of the onst r ub er b r altworks; that th R oord got ou hen the ne lak plenty nybod •s ithout applyi~ for mor at nd a little later, r displ yed tow r hocking le ity rather 1n t and popu ttitude the absurd i ela tioity of congeal d pre udices, Corinn tory fr th nic a e It ub ic um1 n t r pecie, if not /U // • ( s po b a se ay up an d wn the canyons by hich Ber t to o l rge a creatur. h Jordan N rr w -no m n et for ter o Gr or it has pre 0 ( t e Wh l ~ o1nt d out th t Great n lr n a be lt Lake n 1ronm nt tom st 11 ing org n1 1l 1ng intro uc d i to the hale un a th 111 r (1847:34-35) b d on a a spaper rt1 le in the Ut h nterpr e, Proo, Utah for 24 Jun 1890 ti 111er ha 1 o pre nt d th tory in I '/5 t I, m •I' S lt Lak In Ore t Another) ooount of lak f ct of high import nc, e k t Sat t through, if n t f lourish in• the to pas abl t wa 1m1larly, • and up and down. R1 er nos to Gre t Salt Tat ble t w 1ty, for of eon id rable r t ih l follo I t 111g t ne h 1n ugur ton irt . of the Tribune for 22 July the Salt Lak H e Section of T l •. ory quot d h . pa r r n years d r go v not y r orgott n J me Wiokh h 1 1ndu try in the Or at S lt Lak. G. A on id rabl ( 1 e wa p riment the it h ubject out of th a rgest th nm 1. d liv They h v been kno or. in oth r word ffioult in th a iek of ir. to o ta1 1s d r l uo d a t e le its young. 1 ted by thi or It is a Th project fact, for the o It wa h l eg only n c ssary to begin the propag tion o e t1eat1on. outhern or u tr lian whal t t to grow to 100 the obta1ni 1 lo e of 400 years. t once appar nt. a pair of · of the ani •Th gr atl that would d p or n probably th feet in length and 11 e to th the b public m1nd but t din th whale fi hery. Th Wh le 1 ( o-pme t of the by no mens be n r rgott n by natur 11 t cap1t lists inter 11 equ1red for the dev uit d to the Ore t Salt wa ke. el cted a The r t 1t part "' oft o year r oooup1 off the oo st of Au tralia by av ssel s nt e p o11ly for the purpo e n continued ffort to aptur the young hale ithout njury. Th r ( t lat aoo feat, ho ve~. wa bout 35 f eao t 1011g at, pli hed, and the ancisc o in were shipped to San 1873 in tank built expre sly for th m. ifty tank or sea water aocompl1 hed th 1r overlan d shipm nt to 1n re plenti ful supplie or the natura l ele ent •. "r. lickham came from London 1n person to superl nt nd the •planti ng• of th bay ne r th wt r bf leviath an pets,. He elected a small outh or Bear River c nn eted with the main sh llow trait alf a ile wide. Aero the strait he built a wire f nee. and 1ns1de the pen o formed turned t e wha es loose. h fter inacti vity they dispor ted them elve poutin g w ter a in mid ocean, but few minute [or] 1n a lively manner, s 1f tak1n in by instin ct or 1nt ntion the cramped oharac ter of their new hoe they u d nly ade a e11ne for de p w ter nd shot through the wire fence as 1f it had been made of thre ds. j in twenty minu e ~ they were out of 1ght ••.. t e n rp i 1 r ( 1 t 1 ook 0 w y k b r b a lo the 1 r re ixt l r •C r. d ff b e oov D in 1 t. t ent t t in u r ol te y be V n ho fl r. • th T b riv fo h a, ring t t th original out by 1 ngt 1 fro rpr1 lng an e t lt L k G cal ckh r port d ry rn • y h nd fo 1 t ch T ick nt thi tt r a t e 11 t . on it the oung, al C pr y r. e t h h 0 ntative o me o r f 1 in pect o n f t y e t • t ni a from th nt s , r pr n rty. ro ickham t t yi k t o 1 1 C co C r. t oh r 11 nd reotion to t r 1 nt it i p ft r om t k , SO ti ( 0 ty h ault , h 1 ft ub fu t r ont "S X cour 0 nl • normou th nk nd ro C lu t of nkin. o 1ng t 0 f th nw rem mb r ng that a co pl te ingle ndu try hale pro uc ( ha t enty ton b en unable to find of pur n ry Ho gen t Salt ho or the Azt c of H di cu se xico n n cav surround th th ir d to t e 'whit atch 1 k t rhi do n lt mes ar u in k lak bury, Terr c t. the b conceivably • e th ad Ho ny sland OU t 1n. port boun db pierce the hart of th from the mt lt fl ts quit ztl n all th xten 1v l k. at rfo 1 s 1 nd tr, whit Gunnison I l nd ev n o heron. ounta1n n rth• and the of the V 11 yo l n • of the ancient cod c re t Salt Lake. on t ztec (1967). me by br1 01 e 1ng 1ng ztlan. Promon ory fo ntain o a , Aztlan. round the 0 l rge pp lati Te be n ranee n t bric tion. in w th th ancestr l k far to the no the t, up ort d it th r.t no stral h d school of M xioo ano1 nt lege d of th tat the region ma a co pl t by mountains with an isl nd m r hl n olai xico h that he to the alle s of oou of the Aztec ttempt tote Gr t 111 r co oth r ref renc d tat the tal, of wale, oil. t, th lak fro p mountain dding further oon the p r tion t to s l h Laker 1on a of m~ny ztlan re th pre enc ( cav in the rou ro o tory fi r n d o nd in the r t p for 1n th ( ibl. ki 1 of e d c el s aoeompll h d y their y o e gain, atl tl v n th1 k S lt L ke hu ted t urroundin the Gr by th 1th of b ence or gr o n k t tro p of rrio~s of Cort z. v1d no It is im os1 s rt1ng t rock slide wh oh art V qua e egm nt of zt a 1ff oulty 1 re o ed, 1f nd. r ng hoo s al 100. tl tls u rt1ng nne th t to o 1 ion in Great S lt Lake hip o Aztl n is th But ado er of th A e rtioularly those oarv1ngs of hu n nd animal again t th armor d Z po who other areas CV be h rb1 t V1 cave, ere inh bit d by early pu blo oi t, a kt a er eopl and 0 Some of the e. g n . con 1d r th t buffalo o t n ake th g ound h ke in r . I f ct, Ant b ffalo on it a ope I l n the G at late as 1870 when Kit Carso r .n Re r 1 f' h it r the le en nd hi th ory l1 ( error of omi mak m wat Mo ment alo 1. f on th est ar he or arthquak e .a.ks no o th, nor th tote nt1on of th Oqu rh mount 1 xt n iv act. ion n n their of th 1 k id th Wasatch f ult oou d ccount aking it unneee ary to fal , ck on the fanciful explanation of thun ering b ·ffalo herd I 1 n. Ant lop Dem lt 1s1ted Antelope A to the error, Fr mont I l nd in 184.5, • t 1870 nd h then not buffalo. ntelop a in th Gr at furth r po tulated that from th cave Lak drainag r gion h are ab t pp d t r Sn Juan r1 zt os trekked tot t 1325 A.D., on c aco Canyon m ny y ar, moved to Casa Grande 1n Ch1hu hua, M x1oo, cont1nu d south wh nth y topp d t enty ye r , th nto 1 x1co, 11 1 iting sev ral other ites enrout which he notes. odern Belief ordering o o t oft e in the distant pat, and Great th Leg nd ry at Lak h their root entually wer . for otten, but s me beliefs ave persi ted up to mo rn ti es. Some of (8 re 1th ( ee t ese ar noted The buo7ancy o Rely a, 1941). ( br1n 1 th per on c not r wn. Actuall 1 probl m tic 1. The great fl ating on ones ok for ,any people have p r1 hed f the leg c n be k pt - rect positi n. own an l t th t 1 per ods 1 u taine Th This is all vtated eek re ion. reet the body c n a sum Th s c. A , in his early ece sary y on the la e experime t d 1th u1t ble weights t po 1t1on. ect an u ri t elyea (op eit.:15) make fer nee to thi':> st ting that Dr. Ada out 150 p unds woul 1 hi pound e gt Anoth r w ter oft e ert. A found that a p rson held upr1 ht t r e en it unc nscious, it he head o t of ttac ed to the 1th t problem 1 c nneotio produe s muscul r fatigue in the or belief that aters but wheth r from drown1 g or strangul t1on e lak 1.n th t t ere 1 o e 1 kno 1th th ad fift en- o er part of his body. 1 b 11 f is th t nothing on 1 e in th la wi 1 . Actually or brine 1 s e fr both pl nt and n1mal h ve f Chapter 000 pt d the s lv from an quatio ny form of life, to living 1 ri h ct ri, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 in hri p 0 no fre z . 1 k fr y t ic G V ' 1 r 1 f 1 t e h k ,r' I 1 n l C 1 r 1 C t t 1 k n ly 1 true. ar 1 r u r n 1 C pi a 0 1 t l 1 ur e e r ke 0 t ts r r. 1 t rue i b n 1 t 0 0 0 If ic Cit 1 UC lid r 0 n . r t S l lt in• C ·o t 1 th r, t ' tt C fo OU t 1 ay beco t C U 1 r C ano C 0 • r e t ri _ ri e n t h • r he 0 p b ( r L e ( a ty to the ocea. Act C s lt i k Squar. emp i cross lat, d Another mi belie ordina y tabl is th 1 ke is o 1 r r 0 t due t th t o he lak b old 0 ake lo of tre s alt ly t t sulphate, m gn 1 et n ve r r Cl) ( 1t1on otu lly 1 a chlori e t 1 lt C chlor odiu Chapt r 000, (p ge 000) t a ea 0 ke rt or n h re t rr 1 t e wa er of th to the of dge tuat d a rt pl in lei t ce e Lak Bonneville. t e terra1 t r uthe a pproac he r Atlantic we t of the cit. ort of Sal a1 well-kno n r of lly t e 18 1 bout 1oh1 a Chicago to Lak pacial r .1 t1onsh1 r in ho lt, 1 n uc lit ium s · t and r h L k On th as ub ct orks of fict on av Beli 1 1 al for Adve ure St rie ake , .2£ onism Unv l e. C d • w Or 111 s. nt •• ran ( 94?:422) co used t d Fiction (Ph 1 lphi, ( 18.SS} an a c tr 1 for . of the 0 on V 1, h an 1 er ible n C 1 l n 1bl or 0 or n incredi Villainy 1 k • ( f 1r be uty e cap oil a 1 1 1943), ic St er' fin no C ha n e the juv nile C h xp rience. uch 00 d d C _.M E.!_g f been o ls of h undi av tur Ci yo 1 n at the 1 1 ter 0 1 tie tin v nture, _ _t _ arti t of S t in and an unde 1abl lat tori hint r. Hu k w York, 1923) ( lter Ht by roun ch ichol. of stori lt Lak , n exhibit a rr n chool pr1nc1p 1 1 L. W y ook who form ny ye r , 1 t t d. We ke City. h d lot tr ck o. beca a n 1 tin alt t ~ 1ter ur, th lt L ke an arly 1920' • ust be putt o or, 1925) ed ' 111ar1ty 1th the 1 k. to th coor 1 r 1 bout th ritten se two nov 1 ...............u_,r...;..e gt. _ Boy ( ho York, ( t the Sa tair oft oene i ht ot er xtreme t th ~ C 1 iv too, fortun tely ; t e 1 k r or alter S 1th, chole n B rn rdino. e a a 1 y h th rowning, h him elf ho ny of the v nt r ( t, b C an, ta f Gr t 'o. f act. n t al t 8 y ui d i p or he 1 r, , o n ci 5. pro t , u 11 1 Ynd ? 7. 1 ' z t 2- 4, 2 . I J. c. 1845. n t t er, . ic 1 ., ' n. hi • , xi+ to J l 4.3- 4 r tr p p 1 I ry octo t e 21 . k . Gre a - 432 p 2J r - 8 p . t 0 0 Gl hi 1-2 947 r 93 4 iti X Ge por nee. L. y r ct.: ( 0) x lori t t orni , , o. C r 947 • e o o 1 r pot o y I A rt)J r oc i ( th 0 • u r L 11 1 C 11 n Co., n ' U1 • rrill ( col • H Co •• York. 8 R ly a, 1925. ag., 4(11) Sept.:l)-15. 1849. Li in th Bl ck ood nd Son, London. St gner, . 1943. Ne York. ( a.o illan Salt Lak - here fish sw1m on their De ert Ruxton, G. F. a boy ea ur 1 + l 270 PP- . , 1941. ck. Lh ~ far et. illiam xvi+ 1-312. e big rock c ndy m untain. Prehistoric Man In the Lake Bonneville Region and Indians In Association with Great Salt Lake Introduction Prehistoric record Non-cave sites Fremont Island Gunnison Island Antelope Island Bear River sites Indian Caves ( Promontory Caves Deadman Cave Black Rock Caves Stansbury Island Caves Wendover Caves - Danger Cave Hogup Cave Correlations of cultures The Desert Culture Historical references to Indians and the Great Salt Lake LI terature c It d Introduction ( The lake and Its Islands are relatively unimportant In terms of Indians during historical times. Just a few casual references In the / literature note the infrequent occurrence of natives on certain Islands or In areas adjacent to the lake. This Is not surprising in light of the general harshness of the region and the rather poorly developed modern Indian culture In western Utah. In contrast, some ancient sea t caves that exist on Stansbury Island on the southeastern side of Promontory, and at several sites on the periphery of Lake Bonneville, especially on the south and west sides, have yielded signfflcant archaeological finds bearing on prehistoric man in th region. These early people, in order to survive, had to exploit their arid environment with Its extremes of temperature. They did not depend upon cultivation of plants, but rather developed a semi-nomadic existence, foraging for whatever type of food might be seasonally available, such as seeds, roots, Insects and small animals including lizards, birds and rodents. Artl- facts Indicative of their life style consist of metates and manos, pottery sherds, bone fragments and instruments, arrowhead~ and rock chippings, pottlons of nets, snares, sandals, rope, mats and rarely 2 l (( pieces of basketry. An Item of particular Importance Is that many of the sites are situated at elevations below the Bonneville level of Lake Bonneville and so did not become habitable until the ancient lake receded. Thus the history of the human cultures Is correlated to some extent with th~ fluctuations of the lake. This In turn affords a means of dating, in a very general way, the antiquity of the human occupation of the caves. Radiocarbon datings of cultural materials from some of the caves helps establish not only the age of the lndlan habitations but also the ages of certain levels of Lake Bonneville. · Excavations and analysis of the artifacts has revealed the presence in the Great Salt Lake and Great Basin region of a northern variation of the Fremont culture of ancient man In North America. l Indications are that man existed In the QA- lu,-v+· reglonJ as -;;;=-ly as 10,000 years before the present ( I kt, ,t a ( ~ { ·-'- - ~ k~_r,r.,,.,.,,..~ i j~ )Pt. ( ~ i ~ ~ ,,1,1e /4 ' /~m-?~ft 1-~7 1 1/wi • This chapter sum- marizes what Is known of both the prehistory of man In t~~e~: -Salt Lake region and the historical relations of lndlans with the lake. ( I 3 Prehistor ic Record ( Non-cave Sites Fremont Island Baxter Hur rayand his father, the late Dr. Frank Hurray, found a few lndlan relics on the south shore of Fremont Island at the time they ran sheep there (see page 000). Included was a metate and mano. This was a purely accidenta l find and they made no explorati on of the island for other remains. The Stoddards did, however, make search for lndlan artifacts at a later period which led ultimatel y to a study of a site by Rudy and Stoddard (1954). The materials reported at the time were In the possessio n of the Junior author, Earl Stoddard of Ogden. The site Is located near the southern tip of Fremont Island on the slope of a hill that rises g adua11y to a height of approxim ately 300 feet above the former lake level. lnwnedlately to the east ts an escarp- ment which drops off to a narrow beach. Several brackish seep-spri ngs are located along the base of the escarpmen t. The site Is approxim ately 1000 feet long and 150 feet wide and extends down the slope of the hill from Its crest and along the edge of the escarpmen t. Most of the ( artifacts had been exposed by wind erosion but a few were found In uneroded areas suggesting that the site may cover a much larger area than that exposed. The circumstance that Stoddard, JU( the Hurrays, found manos as well as several projectile points elsewhere on the Island suggests that other sites exist. Found at the sfte studied were stone bowls and bowl fragments; numerous objects made from slate, such a blades, needles and hookst ~ cl rcular discs, some of which were large~ perforated,' ,I rregt:11a,1ys-1-aed obj eek; g.rooved and ung rooved e 1ongate c I rcu 1a r stones; th In, tabular sub-rectangular stones, many of which were used as manos; and metates. No controlled excavations had been made at the site at the time of this writing but a study was planned (see note under Antelope Island). Stoddard made several test holes that revealed thin bands of charcoal below the present site surface. found that were slab-lined. uncovered. Two pit structures were Skeletal remains of two Individuals were The remains were In a poor state of preservation with only fragments of the cranla, the mandibles, and a few ribs being recovered. Tooth development suggest that the burials were those of a child six years of age and an adolescent approxltpately 18 years old. 5 The artifacts recovered, particularly the stone bowls, did not ( seem to bear any close relationship to cultural materials from other sites In northern Utah. feature of the site. The stone bowls constituted the most unusual No pottery was found. This, together with the slmllarltles of two point types to possible preceramlc horizons and the general lack of resemblance of the specimens to artifacts assoclated with pottery, suggest that the site was occupied primarily during preceramlc periods of Utah. Since al) the materials were taken from the surface, there was no way to determine whether the artifacts represented one occupation or several. The wide fluctuations In the level of Great Salt Lake In historic times have made the "Island" accessible by land and evidently this was true In prehistoric times as well. Gunnison Island The late Alfred Lambourne spent many long and lonely months on Gunnison Island (see page 000), during which time he probably poled Into virtually every corner of the Island. human skull (1909: 119). He reports the findings of a Ironically, he did not find It himself. Rather It was turned up by one of the guano sackers whom he referred to as The Drudge. The skull was found on the south slope of the 6 northern cliff under a ledge. ( Digging a short distance from the spot where the skull was found more bones were exhumed--a broken scapula, a clavicle, parts of a humerus, fragments of a spinal column. Whereas the skull was well preserved being "as hard as Ivory, and as softly- J. browned tonf" the other bones were In "an advanced stage of decay." Below the bone fragments a slab was found that covered a tomb. Concern- Ing the contents Lambourne (op. cit.: 125) wrote: "There, as It had reposed through the ages, was a skeleton c011plete. For an Infinite time It must have lain In that narrow home. round battle ax--lay by his side. v A weapon of stone--a huge, Also there were many arrow heads-- of agate and Jagged obsldlan--also there were many round agates, which supposed to be beads. Once the owner was a man of note." Continuing to remark on the discovery he says: "There was, I think, at one time, an entire skeleton, also, In the earth above the tomb. If so, It must have occupied an oblique position, feet-downward toward the slab. What caused the lower parts to crumble? they disintegrate so much more rapidly than did the upper? And why did Why did we not find either ulna or radius; a rib bone, nor anything of the skeleton as low as the pelvis? And why was thls--the skull removed 7 so far from the rest of the bones? But most of all, what relation- ( ship of events, If any, existed b£.tween the two sets ·of remains? Just now I am likely to receive no answer." One should remember that this Is the artist, the literary man, expressing himself, not a scientist. While there Is a ring of authenticity, the entire chapter of his book devoted to the cairn, with excursions and references to finds elsewhere throughout the region, causes one to wonder whether the discovery was actually made on the Island or whether the author may not have been using Invention." 11 poetlc The situation Is slml lar to that of his reporting the occurrence of a rattlesnake on the Island, an admitted possibility but one so unlikely as to be highly questionable. So there are more questions about the connection of :Indians with Gunnison Island than those posed by Lambourne himself. Antelope Island One might expect that Antelope Island, being the largest Island located not far from the eastern shore and the one that Is most attractive in terms of game, would be more likely to have been utilized than Fremont Island or Stansbury, yet the record thus far 8 ts sparse. John Dooly stated that he had no knowledge of any Indian ( artifacts having been found on Antelope Island. That aborigines~, did Rudy and Stoddard occur on the Island Is suggested by the statement of ) (1954: 285) that archaeological materials had been reported from Antelope Island but that as yet no survey had been made of the Island to determine the extent or significance of reported materials. However, an announcement In the Utah Historical Society Newsletter (24 (2) 1974) Indicated that the State Antiquities section planned to begin fieldwork soon on Antelope and Fremont Islands as part of a program to work out the relationship between cultural change and fluctuations In lake level during the past 10,000 years. Bear River Sites A large number of sites of the Fremont culture have been excavated In Utah (see Fig. I, In Aikens, 1967: X for the locations). Two that are especially close to the lake are Bear River sites I and 2 located Just south of the Bear River approximately 5 and 6 mlJas west of Brigham City. Results of studies on site No. 1 were given by Alken (1966) and for site No. 2 also by Alken (1967). The two sites were virtually Identical In their artifact assemblage. The pottery was 9 attributed to the Fremont culture but Promontory pottery was also ( present. This led Aikens (1966) t o hypothesize that the Fremont and Promontory manifestations In northern Utah do not represent distinct cu l tures, but rather are related and represent a distinctive northern Utah variant of the Fremont culture. sites probably represented temporary occupied. He state ...~·that the camps that were repeatedly Animal remains indicated a subsistence economy based on utilization of bison, other mammals of lesser importance, numerous species of birds, especially waterfowl, certain fish from the nearby Bear River, and fresh-water mussels from the same source. no evidence of any maize-beans-squash horticulture. There was Ecological conditions may have been lnlmtcable to growing these plants. lndlan Caves Promontony Caves Several caves of varying sizes and archaeological Importance occur In the southeastern portion of Promontory Point. by Steward (1937) In 1930 and 1931. These were studied He Itemizes 12 caves and made extensive test excavations In the two largest which he designated as Cave I and Cave 2. rnrker (Salt Lake Tribune, December 4, 1960) has 10 ( lately called attention to these caves as a point of Interest. Cave No. l· - This is located on the west side of Promontory about 10 miles north of the railroad tracks and 2 miles beyond the old Sheehan's ranch. ft faces a little east of south and lies at the base of a limestone cliff. It was 262 feet above the level of Great Salt Lake In August, 1931. This puts it slightly below the Stansbury terrace of Lake Bonneville. The mouth of the cave is 75 feet wide. The Interior Is 155 feet wide and 125 feet deep. The ceiling Is about 50 feet high In the center and the sides slope up to a ( 11 peak. 11 A large rock fall In the center of the floor divides It Into two habitable parts, one between the rocks and the western wall just Inside the mouth, the other to the east behind the fill. The latter being damper and darker showed less indication of human occupation. In other words, most of the dwelling occurred In the o•ter portion. Large boulders are strewn over the cave floor. eastern walls are pictographs. On the rear and Steward hoped to encounter older cultures below the comparatively recent one represented near the surface, but only slight traces of human occupation were found below a depth of 2 feet. Furthermore, stratigraphy was poor, so the duration of occupation could not be determined. There were lndlca- tlons that the cave had been occupied Intermittently, probably seasonally, rather than continuously. That the occupants were hunters is Indicated both by the abundance of animal remains, particularly buffalo, and the absence of horticultural debris. There was an absence of twined basketry, a feature of modern Shoshoni seed gatherers. The abundance of artifacts of all baste types showed enough distinctions, Steward felt, to be considered a separate culture which he called the Promontory culture. ( No artifacts of Basket Maker culture were represented here or elsewhere In the Promontory Caves although the pictographs In Cave No. 1 seemed to be Basket Maker. Cave~. 2. - This second cave Is located In the same vicinity, indeed, the same limestone cliff, as the preceding, but lower down and hence closer to the Great Salt Lake. above the level of the water. In August, 1931, it was 66 feet The cave's entrance Is about 18 feet wide and low, no admitting much light to the extensive Interior which Is approximately 100 feet wide and 90 feet long at Its greatest depth. ( The celling Is low with a maximum height of 15 feet. In extensive 12 areas, especially the rear, the clearance Is so low that one must stoop. f The cave Is divided into two portions by a center rise. portion yielded little evidence of human occupation. The eastern The deposits were unstratified and shallow, bedrock b~tng encountered at 18 inches. The main area of occupancy by humans was the front portfr~ just Inside the entrance. The floor here slopes Inward, dropping about 6 feet. Test tr:enches revealed five main strata which are described In Steward's report along with the artifacts found In them. That the cave was Inhabited relatively soon after being exposed by the receding Bonneville Lake waters Is Indicated by the finding of charcoal and bones split for marrow, resting directly upon the rounded bedded gravels. Indications were that the culture was relatively static, changing little during the period of occupancy whi ch was presumed by Steward to be about 3000 years. Even so, there were Indications of different periods of occupancy by different peoples. 106) Interprets the history of the cave as follows: Steward (op. cit.: "Cave No. 2 was first occupied at least 3,000 years ago by human beings who built fires upon the lacustrlne gravels, but whose few artifacts include nothing by which to distinguish them. After some time had elapsed, during 13 which the cave was Intermittently used, there came a ,eople whose only distinguishing artifacts were the swallowtail points and slate blades, but who left other bone and chipped stone artifacts of types found widely elsewhere. The depth of their refuse, stratum 3, sug- gests that they used the cave during a long period. There followed an Interval during which the cave was not used, after which came a people who made at first broad, corner-notched polits, and later smaller, side-notched points which are definitely for arrows. They were the makers of pottery; their culture Is more fully represented In Cave No. 1. 11 There were some indications that the culture repre- sented In Cave No. 1 was older than in the higher Cave No. 2. There were no traces yielded of the puebloan people who left pit lodges and other remains in the vicinity of the lake which Steward (1933 and 1936) had earlier reported on (see also Rudy, 1953). A different fnterpreta- tlon of the Promontory Cave artifacts based on subsequent discoveries elsewhere is given by Jenntngs (see page 000). Deadman Cave This ts a large cave located at the south end of the lake about ~ three mllesje'ast of Black Rock and ten miles west of the southern part 14 ( of Salt Lake City. It was Just within the northeastern city limits of +"' . : i-r:: '- ~~~ passed close by it as the former town of Garfield and the ft proceeded northerly down a hill and made an abrupt turn westward. With the discontinuance of the company town, the relocation of the highway and the fencing off of the area by Kennecott Copper Company, the site has become sequestered. 4t the rear. The cave Is Sit feet wide at its mouth and 2Zt It measures 59 feet in length or depth. At Its highest point the ceiling ts nearly 13 feet from the floor level. faces northeast. ( Its opening At the base of the bluff where the cave is located, around to the west, there is a sma l l spr ing of brackish but drinkable water which feeds a restricted marsh area. From the mouth of the cave one formerly had a vista across the "salt flats" toward Salt Lake Cfty and the Wasatch Front but the deposition of tailings from the copper mills over several decades has changed the terrain vastly. The cave was probably a site where early explorers camped or stopped as did west-bound emigrants In the pre and post-Mormon periods. The Mormons encountered ft on their first trek to the lake, for Clayton ,#h. (1925: 325), In reporting In his Journal/the return of Brigham Young and his party from the Jake on July 28, 1847, wrote: "There is a cave fn 15 the mountain west of the camp which Is sixty feet from the entrance to ( the far end. The Indians appear to have frequently visited ft and there - ------~-"'-"-~ are yet remains of their fires." mall and ,L}I,,>.::::.:_ ~ £;.L<,rVJ;.,g,..; It was on the route of the overland tage route and my have been a regular stopping place. since the company stations were spaced ten to fifteen miles apart according to Bowles (1866: 135). Smith (1941: 9) found evidence of the post-Caucasian uses of the cave In the nature of the foundations of wooden mangers, cedar posts. pine pl nks. old vintage square-headed nails. leather straps from harnesses, and a number of empty cartridges. According to Smith (op. cit.: 8) the cave got Its current name from the finding on one of the small shelves along the east side of the cave of the body of a man who had convnttte d suicide. When this tragedy occurred Is not Indicated. original name of the cave according to ¥ •, A';,..,,1"( • u I t a..,.~.,.11~. /J.A,,,1 t _. IA,. The (1952: 2) was Toronto Cave. Nt.c\r'"'j'\""" I I )1 C ' The cave Is situated 63 feet above the In 1868. !: r• . »wt ,,, Archaeological studies of the cave detritus were first started by Julian H. St ward in 1932 who dug along the west wall, but he did not conduct a complete trench excavation according to Smith (op. cit.: 9). In 1938 a number of students from the University of Utah, working week- 16 ends under the direction of Smith started four test trenches 12 feet by ( 6 feet on the west side of the cave. These excavations revealed proooun·ced stratification and numerous artifacts, so the work was continued during the spring seasons of 1939, 1940 and 1941. In his report on the archae- ology of Deadman Cave, Smith (1941) presented the stratigraphic details and dlscus~ed the archaeological materials in the nature of pottery, projectile points, stone drills, scrapers, knives, shaft smoot hers, sinkers, metates and manos as well as numerous objects of bone and horn. were reported. ( Seven burials The distribution of the artifacts made It nearly Impossible to designate any one culture as representing any particular level, but it was suggested that at least four pre-Caucasian cultures were represented. Modern lndlan remains were not found. Material found at levels 2, 3 and 4 were related to the "Black Rock Culture," but demonstrated at least two and perhaps three new types of projectile points as well as types of scrapers, metates, manos, sinkers and awls not previously described. In light of the geological knowledge of the time Smith estimated the date for the earliest culture In Deadman Cave at 4000 to 5000 years. In a revision of his original report, In light of more recent studies In the Great Basin and elsewhere of early man and additional climatological studies, Smith (1952: 7) reexamined the dates given for Deadman Cave's earliest hablta- 17 tlon and the time limit for the earliest use was placed at abpu t 7,000 ( years. However, most of the upper cultural material did not go back much farther than 2,500 to 3,000 years. At the time of his revision, Smith (1952: 38} referred to a then new hypothesls--that a generalized culture had long existed In the Great Basin, termed at that time the Bonneville or Desert Culture, with numerous local variations of which the Oeadman was one. In a subsequent study, Buettner - Janusch (1954} evaluated the human skeletal material from Deadman Cave. ( He noted that the circumstances of the original excavation resulted tn uncertainty about the association of many of the rema ?ns, so that precise documentation of each skeletal fragment could not be made. While Smith (1941 and 1952} had reported seven burials, several of which yielded the bones of more than one Individual, Buettner - Janusch felt It necessary to revise this estimate, and concluded that only five were deliberate lnhumattons. In several of these. Associated grave goods occurred The rest of the human remains were found scattered at random In the midden. The random distribution of some of the skeletal material was attributed in part to depredations by pot and trophy hunters but mostly It was attributed to the activities of abol' iginal occupants. 18 The skeletal collection was estimated to represent at least 26 Individuals ( of several age categorles--tnfants, very young children, and adults of middle or advanced middle age. The adult molar teeth all show heavy, diagonal wear and in most teeth the pulp cavities were exposed suggesting harsh, abrasive diet. Carles are present In a few teeth. · ~he bones showed no evidence of major pathology or fractures, suggesting a healthy population if the Individuals survfved infancy. particularly the long bones and th The bones were massive, three skulls showed large areas for muscle attachments, thus giving the impression of ruggedness. faces were broad but not short. Buettner - Janusch suggests that the well developed brow ridges gave them a .. beetle-browed visage." remarks (op. cit.: 6): The He further "One of the skulls ts decidedly vaulted and the other two show slgn1 ~of a slight sagtttal crest and some vaulting. In one case this may be the result of the deformation, deliberate or natural, of the occlput. 11 An additional point of interest pertilns to the slgnlffcance of the scattered human remains, even in areas undisturbed by modern pothunter and not churned up by the aboriginal fnhabitants of the cave. Buettner - Janusch suggests several possibilities to explain a possible 19 ( deliberate scattering. This m~y have been due to the burial practices of these primitive people. There may have been a custom of dismembering . the bodies of certain of their dead and tossing the pieces on the midden. Two different groups of people may have Inhabited the cave at different intervals fn prehistoric times, the latter scattering the bones of the first. There may have been some kind of social distinction among the fnhabitants which resulted in differential treatment of their bodies after death. He notes that two pendants of human bone came from Deadman Cave which might be evidence of the use of the bones of certain tndividuals as raw material for artisans. Black Rock Caves Three caves located at the south end of Great Salt Lake on the north slope of the Oqutrrh Mountains, south and west of Black Rock Beach are ref.erred to as the Black Rock Caves. All three have revealed archaeo- logical artifacts In greater or lesser degree and have come to be referred to in this connection as Black Rock 1, 2 and 3 caves. Black Rock 1 was the first to be excavated in 1931 by Steward (1937: 106). It is located slightly above the Stansbury Level of Lake Bonneville about on-half mile west of Black Rock and about one-fourth of a mile south of (upslope from) 20 the shoreline. Another large ave nearby known as Black Rock 2 Is ( located at a higher elevation about 50 feet above the Provo level of Lake Bonneville. It has not been completely excavated and so far as the writer knows, no report on the casual finds there has been Issued. Black Rock 3 cave Is located at the top of a wash a few feet below the Stansbury terrace. It Is about one-fourth of a mile east and south of Black Rock 1. The archaeology of Black Rock 3 has been reported on by Enger (1950). All three caves are located about two and one-half miles west and south of Deadman Cave. Black lock l· - This cave Is about 100 yards long and is almost perfectly straight as It extends back into the mountain. It is 12 to 13 feet wide and has an average height of 15 feet above the lacustrtne floor gravels to the irregular ceiling. Steward (1937: 107) found that the floor of the outer part of the cave from the entrance back to about 105 feet contained stratified remains of human ocGupatlon. The detritus ts about I 6 feet deep at the entrance and thins out to the rear as the lake beach grave 1s beneath s lopeditupward. another long chamber. Beyond 105 feet a narrow passage 1eads to Her~~in the first 40 feet of deposits some mixed and scattered human skeletal remains were found along with animal bones, 21 rocks and artifacts. ( levels off. Beyond this the cave dips abruptly downward, then It grows narrower to the rear. Excessive moisture beyond a point 140 feet from the entrance apparently discouraged human occupation and no traces of primitive ma~ were found fn this rear portion. The depth of the ash and refuse showed that most of the bab ttatton was i~ the forward portion within 30 or 40 feet of the exterior . Three trenches were dug, each to beach level, with careful attention to stratigraph y. Some burials were found Including that of an infant. Artifaets found were fn the nature of pottery sherds, stone knives and scrapers, projectile points, objects of bone, horn and shell. Faunal remains in the nature of shells, mammals and birds were those of species found in the region today. Steward (op. clt'i : 119) concluded t ha t the cave was occupied soon after it became habitable through the recession of Lake Bonneville since, as In the Promontory caves, there was no accumulatio n of any kind intervening between the lacustrine gravels and culturalbearing strata that would indicate a time lapse between the recession of the lake and its first use by primitive people. Indeed charcoal, evidence of human occupation, was found mingled with the basal gravels. While the antiquity of the habitation could not be determined with certainty, based 22 ( on a rough e tlmate of Lake Bon,evtlle's history, It was thought to go back from 10,000 to 15,000 years B.P. Steward (op. cit.: 119) commented: "Even should the more conservative e~tlmate of the antiquity of the oldest cultu1. s be reduced by as much as several thousand years, there is no qu stion that they are, a~ American antiquities go, exceptionally old, and antedate by some thousands of years the earliest known Basket Maker period of the southwest.'' The early cultures represented could not be fully characterized, but Indications were tat three more or less distinct periods were represented. The earliest culture wfth which the infant burial was associated occurred In the lowest two feet of the refuse between the depths of 3 and 5 feet. An absence of quartzite dart points which are common at higher levels, and the use Instead of small projectile points was the only dfstlnctlve feature. The next deposits• tween 10 inches and 3 feet seemed to contain a single culture which Steward termed the Black Rock Culture. Its most conspicuous feature was a distinctive t projectile point of gray or reddish quartzite. represented In the layer of corner-notched The third, topmost culture, etween 4 and 10 Inches deep, contained abundant pottery representing the Promontory Culture. Post-Caucasian objects were not definitely associated with any of the artifacts. 23 Black Rock ( 1· - This cave faces southwest. wide at its mouth and Is 29 feet long. the roof has caved in at the rear. It measures 17 feet The cave was once larger but The floor has been partly washed away at the mouth by erosion in association with the nearby wash. The roof at Its highest point was only 3 feet 10 i n~hes above the top of the cultural fill at the highest point. The cave was excavated in 1939 by parties from the University of Utah working under the direction of the late Elmer R. Smith and Charles E. Dibble. In 1941-42 the artifacts and notes ~ere studi d and reported upon by Enger (1950). The cut t t~ materials consisted of the usual ltems--potsherds, projectile points, stone drills, scrapers, knives, arrow shaft smoothers, wo~ked stone and bone objects, articles of leather and hide, fiber work and some mtscellaneous wood objects, all of which are d escribed in the report. Enger's conclusions were that Shoshoni, Promontory and Pueblotd peoples all had inhabited the cave but that It was apparently used as an occasional campsite rather than being in continuous occupancy for long periods. The Puebloid peoples seemingly inhabited the cave for a longer period of time than the other two groups did. There were some indications of a pre- Puebloid Black Rock culture also present but the evidence for this was 24 Inconclusive. The study of the artifacts In relation to the stratigraphy ( revealed about a 4-Jnch overlap of Promontory and Pueblold cultural material suggesting that the two groups lived In the area at the same time near the close of the period of Puebloid domination. Stansbury Island Caves Two cave sttes have been excavated on the south end of Stansbury Island which are designated as Stansbury I and Stansbury II. These cave sites are located about 3-1/2 miles north of the extreme southern tip of the island or 11-1/2 miles from the Junction of the Stansbury Island road and the old U.S. Highway 40. Stansbury I Is situated on a steep north- facing slope at an elevation of 4476 feet above sea level. It is about 25 feet wide and 35-1/2 feet In length. Its greatest height is about 18 feet but its mouth is only 4 feet high. The left hand or east side slopes considerably. the mouth. The general level of the cav floor ts below the level of Differential dissolution of the lfrr~tone has resulted In an uneven floor with a stepped pattern of niches on the sides and numerous pot ho1es. Runoff water has deposited a fine silt on the ca~e floor. Stansbury II is located at 4310 feet elevation on the next spur . to the north of Stansbury I. It Is in a limestone outcrop on a north-facing slope. Its 25 mouth ts about 20-1/2 feet wide and 3-1/2 feet high. The cave extends ( back 52-1/2 feet at ground level. Its greatest width Is 21 feet. fe~t back from the entrance the cave tapers to a width of 18 feet. Eleven In the vicinity of Stansbury II~ but at higher elevations, are three other shallow caves with wide and deep mout hs but they have yielded no cultural materials. Indeed the floor eolian deposits are only 2 to 3 Inches deep. Stansbury.!.· - In his study of this cave, Jameson (1948 and 1958: 7) found evidence of two principal levels of human occupation, one fn the 0-12tnch level, the other extending from 24 to 30 inches. He states that although cultural material appeared in the 12 to 24-inch Interval and below 30 Inches, ft was meager and was associated with the alluvial wash that has been filling the cave. The stratigraphy showed a period of light human occupation situated between two levels of Intensive occupation, but both levels of intensive occupation were identified with one culture. The exca- vations were extended down to 83 inche~, but beyond 43 inches only an occasional fragment of a mano or a metate was found. The cultural materials, which comprised a single culture, he Identified as Black Rock. He found no pottery, projectile points or figurines that oould be associated with the Pueb1otd culture of the Bonneville Basin. Some materials such as worked 26 fiber and fire sticks found near the surface were Judged to be recent, ( perhaps of Shoshoni origin. Stansbury ..LL• - This cave yielded three principal divisions or strati- grpphic faces plus a fourth 1esser one. The oldest (deepest) cultural remains were tentatively placed with the Bonneville or Desert Culture. Identificati on could not be positive because dfatpostlc projectile points, The Bonneville materials knives, scrapers, manos and metates were lacking. extended from 74 inches to bedrock at 86 inches. trenches below 73 inches. ( They were found in two The artifacts were in the nature of chips and flakes of flint, chalcedony and obsidian; charcoal; and ash. The middle cultural level was difficult to Identify but was finally placed with the Deadman culture. It extended continuousl y from 15 to 73 inches. correlation s were based on projectile points. The The third culture was placed with Black Rock but there were Indications of considerabl e overlap between the Deadman and B1ack Rock cultures. It extended from the surface down to the 15-inch level and was characteriz ed by an abundance of pottery. Identificati on of this was also based in part on a burial which included a projectile point and on an unspecializ ed metate. Jameson reported no sterile level that would indicate Interruption of occupancy in Stansbury II cave, so the Inference is that If any isolation occurred, It was not 27 of sufficient duration to affect the stratigraphy. ( Materials that were the most recent tn tfme,which were identified and correlated with cultures They consisted of types of pottery, elsewhere, were placed with Puebloid. projectile points, metates, and manos as well as a triangular-bodied figurine. A single burial was located in association with this culture. PetrQglyphs outside tne cave were further indica ~ive of Puebloid affinities. Wendover Caves - Danger Cave The Wendover Caves are somewhat extrallmital but still are located in the general Great Salt Lake Desert region and the findings are correlated with those of the caves discussed for the Immediate area. Great Salt Lake Furthermore, the findings there have a bearing on Lake Bonneville History. Three caves have been studied near Wendover, Utah, near the Utah- Nevada border. Danger Cave ts the most important. A few test cuts were made there In 1937 by Robert F. Heizer as part of a widespread survey of the archaeology of the Great Basin. More ·intensive work was begun by Elmer R. Smith in 1939, 1940 and 191•1. In 1949 work was resumed on a large scale by Jesse D. Jennings and continued through 1953. After a preliminary rJ. report by Jennings (1953), the exhaustive flnf report on the results appeared, Jennings (1957). Included . The results of studies on three caves were 28 Raven Cave. - This cave s located 25 miles north of Wendover In ( Elko County, Nevada, at 4950 f et elevation. Pilot Peak. Its mouth ls 16 feet wide. 11 feet Jn width at the rear. It is near the base of It extends back 28 feet and Is The height at the entrance is 6 feet, but due to a down slope of the cave floor to the rear and an increased roof height, the cave reaches 14 feet at the rear. The cave contained 10 to 12 feet of fill which yielded much cultural material. It was concluded that this cave was used Intermittently and Infrequently by itinerant prehistoric hunters for temporary overnight shelter. Juke Box Cave. - This cave is located about 2-1/2 miles northeast of Wendover In Tooele County, Utah, at an elevation of 4400 feet. about 125 feet below the Stansbury terrace of Lake Bonneville. It is It is a large, oval cave 125 by 50 feet in size with a domed, high-vaulted ceiling and smooth, almost vertical walls. Its opening faces southeast so that it overlooks the Great Salt Lake Desert. Exten ~tve diggings were made here in the nature of trenches and wells, one of the latter reaching 14 feet deep. This cave was a long used living site. Danger Cave. - This, the largest and most productive cave, ts located In the Desert Hills about one Wendover O .M-EJ-a-tto J f- 29 o-..erlooks the salt flats of the Great Salt Lake Desert. The elevation at ( the portal is 4325 feet. a length of 120 feet. The cavern has an average width of 60 feet and At the time of discovery the entrance was choked by a talus cone and so much cultural debris had accumulated inside the cave that ta point about 10 feet back from the lip of the overhang, the fill touched the roof of the cave. Thus the occupants toward the end of their tenure were forced out into the shallow shelter provided by the lip of the cave. All the cultural-loaded debris was · in the front two-fifths of the cave. The excavation was a massive effort Involving digging a deep outside entrance trench through the talus as well as intensive inside diggings. A tremendous number and range of artifacts were found, all described in the report. No large game was represented except modern species of mountain sheep, bison, deer and antelope. Two series of radio- carbon dates for materials taken in the cave were secured. In his report Jennings (1957: 85-98) discusses at length the problems of geological-archaeological correlations. He attempts to reconcile contradictory data and weighs various viewpoints of geologists and climatologists. Without attempting to recapitulate this complicated picture just his conclusions (op. cit.: 96-97) are given. The cave obviously could not have been used unill the final recession of 11 Lake 30 Bonneville" waters to less than 4310 feet elevation. There then was a ( limited Initial use of the cave by man. This was followed by a period of heavier occupancy and the artifacts of this period yielded evidence of a moister climate. He' accepts the Danger Cave Radiocarbon dates of 9000 - 8500 B.C. as accurate, thus Indicating the time of the initial occupancy of Danger Cave by man. For the upper, younger stratum known as D II he uses the figure 7000 B.C. No water entered the cave after deposftlon of the layer designated as Sand 1, which had the older date cited above. He feels that the effects of the Mankat o period of glacla- tion were feeble in the West and that the pluvial waters correlated by the Mankato Ice advance of "Lake Bonneville" did not rise sufficiently to submerge Danger Cave. advance. Thus Danger Cave was occupied before the Mankato The 9000 B.C. time of occupancy may have been correlated with the beginning of a brief drought In pre-Mankato times. Jennings' views, as he repeatedly points out, are at ~arlance with those of Antevs and others concerning the fluctuations of "Lake Bonnev111e." Antevs (1953) has reported the C-14 dates from Danger Cave as has Deevey (1965: 295) and Libby (1951). Subsequent to Jennings' study, In 1968 Harper and Alder (1972) resampled the biotic residue In Danger Cave by means of four profiles made through unworked deposits at the rear of the cave. The samples were radtometrlca11y dated and analyzed for clues concerning environ- mental conditions at the time of deposition. This permitted some paleocltmatfc Inferences concerning the Interval from 10,000 to 4,000 B.P. Quoting from their abstract: '~he evidence suggests that the uplands were arid and that the water table under the salt flats near the cave was relatively deep by 10,000 B.P. or soon thereafter. Beginning about 9,700 B.P. conditions on both uplands and flats became less arid. During this Interval, the water table beneath the flats appears to have risen C lckleweed tncrea es at the expense of greasewood), and uplands experienced less moisture stress (sage~rush Increases relative to shadscale and upland rodents Increase relative to marsh rodents). These conditions appear to persist in excess of one .mlllenlum before more arid conditions return. Subsequent to about 8,000 B.P. aridity progressively Intensifies until the record closes at about 4,000 B.P." rn 't I1 2 ~; o oo fn ,.,(t,A'~►M"'J'"at""1'-"'1--• ,~,~'jt<.jr¢f;w.~-:;;it.. I ()IJ I I . " ' ;(;f;,v1. /.,vl, . ~~'~7 /J,~,#.,,, ~ ;u'I,~ t-v; a ~ Hogup Cave Hogup Cave, located on the southwestern portion of Hogup Mountains In the Great Salt Lake Desert, about 75 miles airline northwest of Salt ( Lake City, and 10 miles west of Great Salt Lake on the edge of the barren ( 32 Bonneville Salt Flats which extend to the north and west, was studied In ( 1967 and 1968 by Aikens (1970) with the analysis of plant remains by Harper and Alder (1970). As for the other caves of the region the excava- tions provided data bearing on local culture history and changing patterns of cultural ecology over an· Interval of 8000 years. Based on sixteen discrete depositional strata four distinctive cultural units were found that succeeded one another. These were termed settlements or units. Each is characterized by a distinctive configuration of artifact types and frequencies and by an equally distinctive and correlated pattern of frequency dlstrib ' tlons of plant and animal species. (1970: 195) sumnary: Quoting from Aikens' "Unit I, 6400 to 1250 B.C., represents a settlement that probably served as a base camp, occupied seasonally for periods of several weeks while Its Inhabitants hunted and foraged for a wide range of plant and animal resources In the vicinity of the cave. During the Unit II period, 1250 B.C. to A.D. 400, the site was less frequently utilized, apparently serving as a short-term camp occasionally occupied In conjunction with big game hunting. Evidence indicates that smarl game hunting and seed gathering, Important In Unit I times, were much dlmtn· lshed in Unft II. Following this period of light occupation, the site became much more heavily occupied In Unit Ill times, A.O. 400 to 1350. 33 Hunting remained the major activity, but was much more productive than ( formerly, with a heavy emphasis on the exploitation of bison. hunting and seed gathering remained of slight impo_rtance. Small game The presence of pottery and maize in this unit suggests that the occupants were probably members of seasonal hunting parties sent out from horticultural settlements." . . . 11 Unit IV, A.O. 1350 to 1850, ts characterized by low intensity of occupation. major economic activities. Hunting of bison and antelope remained the Cultural debris of all kinds was scanty, Indicating probably Infrequent and short-term use of the site during this period. The Unit IV period 1s arbitrarily terminated at A.O. 1850, the time of significant European contact fn the region, though the cave may have been used oacaslona11y after that time." "Botanical and faunal data suggest that each of the four cultural units discovered at Hogup Cave existed under an environmental regime which, to a degree, was unique and that cultural and environmental changes through time were apparently correlated. The end of Unit I period, when broad-spectrum hunting and gathering was the basis of the economy, coincfdes with the final drying of the Bonneville Lake bed and the disappearance of ,.;irshland conditions over the vast salt flat west of the site. 34 Concomitantly there may have been further drying of the uplands Immediately above the lake bed. These two events seem to have markedly reduced the carrying capacity of the environment tn the vicinity of the cave. Unit II ts characterized by low Intensity of occupation: hunting parties, apparently, who ventured into the vicinity of the cave only Infrequently and did not stay long. During Unit Ill times there occurred a very marked Increase In occupational intensity, accompanied by evidence of increased moisture on the uplands. The resulting improvement of grass- land conditions In the vicinity of the site may be reflected in the marked increase of bison in the faunal assemblage. Unit IV is charac- terized by a marked drop In Intensity of occupation at the stte and by an apparently drier environment which Js comparable to that of the present day. Diminution of the entire faunal assemblage is probably a reflection of less favorable moisture conditions." Correlations of Cultures The studies at the several caves and other archaeological sites of the region have revealed a long cultural sequence in the Great Salt Lake region extending from near the end of the Pleistocene into historic times. The early studies of Stewart (1933, 1936 and 1937), especially at Promontory 35 and Black Rock caves and Smith (1941 and 1942} at Deadman Cave were ( without benefit of precise dating techniques but on the basis of geological evidence the s.lmple hunting-gathering cultures were thought to have followed closely the recession of the Stansbury stage of Lake B~nnevllle. The record in Black Rock and Deadman caves shows the early huntlng~gathering culture undergoing a transition to a maize-cultivating, pottery-making culture that was also found In open village sites In the area. This has been termed the Fremont culture and represents a peripheral extension of the Southwestern Pueblo culture. Stewart recog- ntzed from evidence fn Promontory Cave No. 1 another pottery-making but seemingly non-horticultural culture where bison hunting was the principal food source. This presumably was later than and unrelated to the Fremont culture, having come into the region from the north, being brought by migrating Athabaskans. They were subsequently replaced by the Shoshoni who were the historic occupants of the region. The latter conclusion was an Inference based on ethnographic evidence. The interrelations between Promontory, Black Rock and Deadman caves cultures were not clear until Jennings' {1957} work at Da~ger · cave. He makes extensive comparisons of the Wendover Cave culture materials with those found elsewhere, far and near. As pertains to the caves in the 36 tnvnedfate Great Salt Lake region, Danger Cave shared most traits with Deadman Cave and so were regarded as culturally very similar, although probably not coeval sine~ Deadman Cave lies at a lower elevation {4262 feet. The Stansbury caves appear to have contained material readily comparable to ·the Danger Cave as well as Deadman Cave collections. The principal discrepancies were between his Danger Cave materials and Steward 1 s from Promontory. reviews Discussing this Jennings (op. cit.: 270) Steward's conclusions pointing out that on the strength of afttifact frequencies Steward segregated three cultures for the Promontory Caves. The first was a complex resembling the Lovelock Cave - Gypsum - Pinto finds . .The second was his Black Rock culture. The third and latest was his Promontory culture which was characterized by pottery with Plains affiliations (see also Gunnerson, 1956). Jennings points out that although Promontory Cave No. 1 was stratified, no stratigraphic proveniences are noted in Steward's report. As a consequence his Promontory culture is characterized by an assemblage of artifacts and other traits which Jennings feels do not constitute components of the same culture . Jennings presumes that the many Promontory objects that are identical with Danger Cave pieces probably represent the same culture 37 and time sp n as comparable Danger Cave specimen s, but the other Items that constitute "pottery-tanged scrapers - moccasin - mitten - toothed flesher complex" are evl c'ence of Athabaskan speaking migrants that used the cave. These, Gunnerson (1956) has Identified as Apache. Jennings goes on to say that tf this Is true, the pottery - moccasin - toothed flesher material found in the Promontory Caves has a date of something like 1650 - 1700 A.O. tions by saying: 11 Jennings summarizes the whole picture of correla- ••• the reported cave excav tions in Utah have yielded essentially the sam materials fn about the sam In Danger Cave. 11 sequenc as seen In other words, the Promontory, Black Rock and Deadman caves complexes were parts of a continuous culture extending from about 7000 to 8000 B.C. to the beginning of the Christian era. Jennings' results for Danger Cave cuggested a relatively stable culture during that long span of time, a culture adapted to a stable desert environment. This concept of a lack of significant cultural change over thousands of years was not universally accepted (see Baumhoff and Hetzer, 1965 and Epstein, 1968) but a clarification was afforded by Aikens• (1970) results at Hogup Cave. He was able to correlate str ti- graphic units between Hogup and Danger caves by comparing relative frequencies of types in given strata of the two sites. Furthermore, ( radiocarbon dates from both sites corresponded fairly well and also with the correlations from comparison with artifacts. Aikens postulates that a sixth level existed at Danger Cave but was not discovered. Even though there may have been some intermixing of strata, it was less then Baumhoff and Helzer and Epstein Implied since only level DV was seemingly Involved and there was no intermixing ofstr.ata below DV. Furthermore, the Hogup Cave deposits provided a clear record of stylistic changes In projectile points which record Is closely paralleled at Danger Cave. ( Thus both sites r veal a long period of relative stability and persistence of projectlle point styles. At Hogup Cave the interval extends from 6400 to 1250 B.C. while at Danger Cave the record commences earlier, somewhere about 7000 or 8000 B.C. The Hogup data show a second, shorter period extending from 1250 B.C. to 1850 A.O. during which the early set of projectile points was essentially completely replaced by a different series. The cultural transition to Fremont and Shoshoni cultures which are post-Christian era changes is indicated In both Hogup and Danger caves. Aikens (1970: 198) states that the parallel records at the two sites demonstrate that very long periods of cultural stability in the Great Salt Lake region did 39 Indeed exist, but that change nevertheless occurred at Intervals as ( Indicated by the three cu1tural transitions noted. Aikens (1970: 198-202) reviews the problem of climate In relation to cultural change and concludes that the local environments of the Hogup and Danger caves sites were far more affected by the progressive final drying of Pleistocene Lake Bonnevt11e than they were by the minor temperature and moisture fluctuations of the anathermal, altlthermal and medtthermal phases that Antevs (1948 and 1953) postulated for the Great Basin. The Desert Culture From his extensive work with the Wendover caves materials and comparisons with artifacts from the other caves In the Great Salt Lake, Jennings (1964 and 1966) draws several Inferences as to the nature of the prehistoric culture of man In the region and his way of life (see also Marwltt, 1969). He concluded lnhlal!y that the artifacts represent a distinct Desert Culture that was completely adapted to a special harsh, artd, desert environment. He Inferred from the varve-like depo!..lts in Danger and Juke Box caves that there was a repetitive, short-time use of the caves as habitation sites. This In turn suggested that the Individuals -.v using the caves were wanderers, being dependent on the resources of a ( vast area which they endlessly exploited. The ecological evidence sug- gests that the climate; the landscape, the resources, indeed, the entire ecosystem throughout nearly the entire period of occupancy of the caves was essentially the same as at present. There were, however, some fluctua- tfons, notably In conditions of aridity, Just as there have been In lesser degree In modern, historical times. At the Wendover sites the heavy utilization of pickleweed seeds, as found In what . ennings regards as human excrement (which others have Identified as bear scats), Indicate that the caves were occupied during the late summer and early autumn months. The cultural picture, however, suggests th general utilization of whatever edible materials were available, Including many desert plants, their seeds and rhizomes as well as numerous species of animals. The latter prey species were snared, trapped or netted, as well as hunted by either at1atl dart or bow and arrow. The food hunt was probably contlnu- ous for these aborigines In the desert environment that shaped their lives. A nomadic existence such as they displayed would necessitate, as another characteristic of the material culture, a high degree of portability. C1othlng was seemingly held to a minimum. The milling stone 41 was a baste, readily portable utensil. It was usually a relatively ( thin slab of stone about an Inch in thickness, a foot In width and 18 Inches In length. Basket containers were used. Little Is known about cooking techniques but seeds collected were probably parched, milled and utilized In a gruel-like mixture. Meat preparation probably Involved bolling In pots, baskets or skin containers, as well as broiling on coals and roasting of entire carcasses. These primitive peoples were skilled In making textiles, baskets and flint objects. There was also skill manifest tn the working of skins. Sewing was accomplished by sinew, thread and thin buckskin strips. Pouch-like skin moccasins were used. Robes were constructed of the hides of rabbits and birds. The making of cordage from vegetable fibers was an accomplishment of long duration. Jennings notes that toward the end of the time-span covered by the Danger Cave record, a wider use of animal products was manifest. Horn was utilized for making spoons, for example. At the very end crude pottery was utilized. Styles of manufacturing flint tools changed from time to time, but at Danger eave nearly every type or style of flint point persisted throughout the full history of the site. The chief weapon was, seemingly, 42 the spear or dart and the dart thrower, until quite late In time. ( In the latest period there was an occasional modeling o • crude clay figurines but no great concern with art or decorative efforts of any sort is manifest. colors. green. The basketry, for Instance, did not show contrasting Arrow shafts were only occasionally decorated with red or Buckskin garments were not fringed. Some games were played but there was probably little leisure time for this or for developing esthettc qualities. The conditions of life, furthermore, were not con- ducive to development of a complex social organization. The social unit was essentially the close-knit family group. Further attributes that characterize the generalized Desert culture are given by Jennings (1957: 280} based on Wauchope's (1956: 70) sunwnary following a seminar on tbe subject. settlements. Three t.tems are noted concerning The population was sparse with small socio-political groups. Cave and overhang locations were favored. They used bark or grass beds. As to subsistence, the people were nonsedentary, seasonal gatherers. There was Intensive exploitation of the environment, nonspectallzed In the sense of there being no major reliance on one resource, but rather close adaptation to everything available, Including small animals such as 43 rodents. There was small-seed harvesting with special techniques of ( preparation and cooking (parching, extensive use of flour and mush). The artifact Inventory given Includes 28 Items. This Desert culture, as adapted to its distinctive environment, Is apparently of an antiquity equal to the PlaJns big-game culture. If the Desert culture developed from an earlier big-game hunting base, the time of divergence was earlier than 10,000 years. With a distinctive culture of long duration and ~overing a vast geographic a ~a it Is not surprising that regional variations or areal differentiations seem to exist. ( In discussing this aspect Jennings (1957: 282-283) points out the numerous differences of opinion and states his position as follows: "I would be inclined to postulate an essentially uniform Desert cultu e over the entire / Great Basin at about 7000 to 3000 B.C. Until that time, so far as our limited knowledge of the chronology goes, I see almost no significant trait differences, unless It be In the techniques of basketry construction. After that time, and still building upon the Desert base, we find the regional differentiation and variation mentioned above." This concept of a Desert culture was useful for a time In mobllt ■tng and Interpreting the data pertaining to western prehistory but soon was 44 criticized principally on the grounds that t t lmpl led a greate,· degree ( of cultural stability and homogeneity than actually existed. Many writers (see Aikens, 1970: 201) pointed out that there was much regional diversification within the Great Basin, a circumstance that Jennings was wel 1 aware of. first broadened In accommodating to the evaluation Jennings (1964: 152-153) Is concept from a widespread cultural tradition to one of an archaic culture stage and later (Jennings 1968: 135-163) presented It In the context of a continent-wide archaic sta .., e (fide Alken, 1970: 201). Aiken (1970: 202) In an attempt to cut through the we}ter of mlsunder( standing and confusion and restore the concept of a Desert culture to Its usefulness, proposed that the term he recognized as synonymous with the archaic stage, as this stage Is manifested within the arid west, to recognize specific regional culture-ecological adaptations, and to use the term diffusion sphere for referring to the sharing of stylistic or diagnostic or horizon-style cultural traits within a major region. Lastly he adv ·~ ted that the term culture be used where there ts congru ence between the distribution of certain stylistic or dfagnost,l c traits and sets of regional systems of cultural ecology. Despite the confusion and problems of terminology the concept of a ~esert culture for the aborigines of the Great Salt Lake region Is a useful one. It ~mph sizes the ecological Implications of primitive man existing In and having to adapt to a harsh, rigorous, restrictive environment. Additional fnforma- tfon on the prehistory of the region Is to be found In Smith (1942), Jennings and 1orbeck (1955), Jennings (1964) and Marwttt (1969). Clark (1975) has recently called attention to a stone-chipping site on Lake Bonneville's alpine beach. Historical References to Ind ns and the Great Salt Lake There are numerous references to Indians In Salt Lake Valley In the pre-pioneer period (see, for example, Bryant, 1848: 150-169) but our concern I ts only with those directly tied In with Great Salt Lake. 4- fM;:41-f Yn,A ~ . .,.1:.. ,A;yJ,-. ~n-ntA,. ;t ~µ i ' V ---------- ---------- --- I l Stansbury's References !2_ Indians. - ( In the fall of 1849 during his reconnaissance by land and whll Ing Promontory from the north 'f tansbury/ In the distance who made a "rapid ~~obtain parleY(ar,d 1r1- wanted to 11 U ". I 1: I I I I I I i I I ;,-------.---------- (1852: 99) , spfed some Indians nd precipitate flight." M•t ------ approach- Since he Information or,,perhaps guide service a n d ~ \ 48 the Indians were on foot, Stansbury dispatched the guide of his party at ( full gallop after them. mountains. The man overtook the Indians at the foot of the Several of them, finding their retreat about to be cut off, halted and advanced upon him with guns at readiness. They were restrained from firing by an old lndlan who seemed to be their chief. When they saw ~ne rest of the party advancing, the whole band, consisting of 6 or 8 men and half a dozen squaws, retreated up the mountain and disappeared. had abandoned their encampment In such haste that ( They verything was left as It was at the moment of their flight. A kettle was boiling over a fire and a good gun rested against a bush. Stansbury left everything untouched and did not even dismount, for he was desirous of convincing them of peaceful Intentions. There ts another reference by Stansbury to Indians on the west side of Promontory under the date of October 24, 1849. 103): 11 He wrote (op. cit.: Contlnutng our Journey up the lake-shore, we shortly came to a brackish wprln~, where there had been a camp of Indians the night before. We had thought last night that we saw their fires, but they had fled, alarmed probably by the report of some guns that had been discharged In our camp. A quantity of some species of seeds they had been beating out 49 lay in small heaps around, and I found an old water-bottle the/ had left ( in their haste. It was Ingeniously woven of a sort of sedge-.g rass, coated Inside with t:1e gum of the mountain pine, by which It was rende e perfectly water-tight. I afterward saw some slmtlarly shaped vessels, and made of the same material, that would hold nearly two s..illo s.u Some days later In the vicinity of Pflot Peak on the west side of the Great Salt Lake Desert, two lndlans stole a mule. In the spring of 1850 on the west side of Pr montory n~ar Spring Bay, Stansbury made closer contact with the natives. as follows (op. cit.: 174): He describes this "Here we met three Shoshonee Indians on horseback, who had been watching our motions for some time. They belonged to a smal 1 lodge encamped among the hf 11s .a few mi Jes to the northward. They seemed friendly and expressed much curiosity at the size of the ,. ) boat, and by signs Informed me that they would very much like to borrow •:,• pay a visit to the Islands in the Jake, some of which they gave me to understand they had never reached. placed a canoe upon the waters. Indeed, I doubt tf they h d ever We saw no sign of any thing of the kind, even upon Utah Lake, although Its waters abound with the finest fish. A hearty supper, which they devoured as ff they never expected to get another, sent them away delighted wfth their vtslt. 11 On June 12, 1 , some lndi ns \vere one aoain enc mtereJ at a ( point on the west side of the 1 ke a out r. miles sout Stansbury ( 1 :,2 = rowing alon ., \•le t:Spie an old lndi -n, papoose, runn i no dm· n the r ounta in to a i 1 us. him as to t of 1e prospect for \vat .. r inform ·ion on this subject. same old fella~ who h I s ·nob. ,e le , Jith ·is squm1 and e 1 nded, to inquire of s; but h could give us no Utah dia er, an s roved to be t,e come to us last autumn, in Sri a Valley, and !io had en.a ed to brine for the promi scd r •tar but he only louahe of Stron the incident as fo 11 ows: 2) des er i be tt e shor , 1 in - 'gi ne of and 1ould had Jou tless furnis~e hi re-out' mule which we ha blanket. I a 1estion chi, a out the mule, ive me no satiscaction. lod \Ji left oehind, The poor donkey th meat for the winter. He was an olcJ m n, ne rly sixty, qutte naked, except an old breec -cloth and a tattered pair of moccasjons. 7 minus t e his wife \AJas int e same condition precisely, occasi ns, \tith a small buckskin str p over her swulders in tie form of a loop, in , ich> with it 1 ittle arms c1asp .d around its mother I s ned', sat fen le child, four or five y ~rs old, wit out any clothing \-'Jhatevcr. he was a fine-lookin , inte11i ent little t~ing 1 and as plump as a partri Jge. T _ mot'1er seemed to evince nuc 1 aff ct ion n old for it, and was very much pl ascd ,hen I threJ ov r its s ,oulders ( piece of scarlet fl nn 1 1hic1 1 o bee st tions torn from o e oft I noticed, however, th.:Jt after they 1 ~ ft us, an I s'1e by t~ e wind. person, and the ba y \JaS from cloth was fluttcrin th ur thought 1ers lf out of s as d st i tutc ver. I nave t 1em er om to sor thin at, and, w • t I suspect \-.Jasmer_ welcome, ah . . rty draught of :'Jatcr. Te poor child was rrov,s, wit a f \ lmost fa ished. bow and The old m n as w ic~ hews hunt in fr gro nd-sq lirr ls. 1 One ]act reference to In ians is found in Stansbury's r~port (op. t th cit.: 20) :/ en he notes t upon the summit of C rrington's wander i vicinity. In ians. 11 -, sland had been torn down, doubtless by The remains of their firs were seen int e i ,ITT .di t y were probably attract-d by t,c cloth wit covered, and rius t hav fro~ the Mainland.' reac For Gas in the reader is referre ( 1 50) , r vi usly ... recte<l tri ngulation st tior 1 d it .. y wadi n, and swi, min " ich it to th to ibble (1 IJ]), lalou nd J nn in s et al . ( 1 .. ) . (1 5 ) , s is 1and discussion of pr sent-<lay Indians in th I -J alouf lreat t al. 52 Literature Cited ( Aikens, C.H. 1966. Fremont-Promontory-Plains relationships: Including a report of excavations at the lnjun Creek and Bear River No. sites, northern Utah. Univ. Utah Anthro. Papers No. 82: viii+ 1-102. Aikens, C.H. 1967. No. 2 site. Aikens, C.H. Excavations at Snake Rock Village and the Bear River Univ. Utah Anthro. Papers No. 87: x + 1-65. 1970. Hogup Cave. Univ. Utah Anthro. Papers No. 93: xiii+ 1-286. Antevs, E. 19~8. Climatic changes and pre-white man. with emphasis on glacial and post-glacial times. l!!. The Great Basin, Univ·. Utah Bull. 38 (20), Biol. Ser. 10 (7): 168-191). Antevs, E. 1953. Geochronology of the deglactal and neothermal ages. Jour. Geol. 61: 195-230. Baumhoff, H. A. and R. F. Helzer. 1965. Postglactal climate and archaeology In the desert west. l!!. The Quaternary of the United States, Part I: Geology. H. E. Wright, Jr. and D. G. Frey (Eds.). Princeton Univ. Press, pp. 697-707. 53 I I Bowles, S. Across the continent: 1886. a surrmer•s Journey to the Rocky ( Mountains, the Mormons, and the Pacific states, with speaker Hurd and Houghton, New York, xx+ 1-452. Colfax. Bryant, E. What I saw 'in Cal lfornia. 1848. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 455 pp. /'I J/• Buettner , - Janusch, Utah. Clark, L. L. 1954. Human skeletal material from Deadman Cave, Univ. Utah Anthro. Papers No. 19: Ii+ 1-9. A 40,000-year-old stone Industry on Lake Bonneville's 1975. Utah Acad. Sci., Arts and Lett. Proc. 52 {Pt. 1): Alpine beach. 44-49. Clayton, W. 1925. The life of William Clayton. Salt Lake City, The 0eseret News: 1-376. Journal). 0eevey, E. S. Jr. 1965. Paleocllrnatology and climate. J..!! Climatic ch~nge, evidence, causes and effects. Press, Cambridge! ·olbble, C. E. (William Clayton's 1947. Harlow Shapley, Ed. Harvard Univ . . 273-318. The Mormon mission to the Shoshoni Indians. Utah Humanities Rev. 1: 53-73. Enger, W. D. 1950. Archaeology of Black Rock 3 cave, Utah. Univ. Utah Anthro. Papers No. 7: 83-104 [Reprint of original paper oi same title, 1942, Archaeo1ogfca1 and Ethnology Papers No. 7, Hus. Anthro., Univ. Utah: 74-94]. An archaeological view of Uto-Aztekan time perspec- 1968. Epstein, J. F. ( tlve. J.!!. "Utaztekan Prehistory," E. H. Swanson, Jr. (Ed.). Occas. 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Archaeologi cal notes on Masters Thesis, Univ. Utah, vii+ 1-174. t ns ury Island, Utah. , '13 55 1958. Archaeological notes on Stansbury Island. Jameson, S. J. S. Univ. ( Utah Anthro. Papers No. 34: vi+ 1-46. Jennings, J. D. 1953. Danger Cave: a progress sunrnary. 1957. Danger Cave. El Palacio, 60: 179-213. Jennings, J. D. Univ. Utah Anthro. Papers No. 27: [Also published as Memoir 14, Soc. for Am. Archaeology, 1-328. Am. Antiquity, 23 The desert west . .!.n. Pre~lstorlc Man in the New 1964. Jennings, J. D. 'l2) pt. 2, 1957.] J. D. Jennings and E. Norbeck (Eds.). World. ~J-7 Press, pp. 149-174. je ~•;; .' j, C, /'J t t ' Univ. Chicago .._, €w1 IY\"A"'- dti ~ ~"', {vM iZin,"' 411-· , ""'- J' .: ~ 1966,t__ Early man tn the desert west. Jennings, J. D. <r I -F 1. l!!. Vol. 15. Quaternary studies (H. E. Wright, Jr. and F. C. Howell, editors). VII Congress lnternat'1. Union for Quaternary Research: 81-90. Jennings, J. D. and E. Norbeck. Am. Antiquity, 21 1955. 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