Does choice moderate the effects of received social support on cardiovascular reactivity?

Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health. However, most studies examine this link with measures of perceived social support that are only modestly correlated with actual support received. Importantly, laboratory studies which manipulate received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. One theoretical model posited by Bolger and Amarel (2007) suggests that social support costs are dependent on whether or not the support is received prior to or after an individual decides support is wanted or needed. The current study examined the main and interaction effects of social support and choice for the support on reactivity to a lab speech stressor task using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice in receiving support during a speech task. One hundred eighteen participants were assigned to varying conditions of choice (induced choice, no induced choice, no reference to choice) and received support (received support during task, received no support during task). Participants completed measures of self-esteem, anxiety, threat, and control during the speech task. Cardiovascular functioning was measured via blood pressure and cardiac impedance. Results did not support choice as a moderator between support and reactivity. Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task (p's<.08). However, there were no differences in psychological reactivity. Implications are discussed.

DOES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OES CHOICE MODERATE THE EFFECTS OF RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT RECEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT ON CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? CARDIOVASCULAR REACTIVITY? by Kimberly S Kimberly S Kimberly S Kimberly S uzanne uzanne uzanne Bowen Bowen Bowen A thesis submitted to the faculty of A thesis submitted to the faculty of A thesis submitted to the faculty of A thesis submitted to the faculty of A thesis submitted to the faculty of A thesis submitted to the faculty of A thesis submitted to the faculty of A thesis submitted to the faculty of A thesis submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah The University of Utah The University of Utah The University of Utah The University of Utah The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree Master Master of Science of Science of Science of Science Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Department of Psychology The University of Utah The University of Utah The University of Utah The University of Utah The University of Utah The University of Utah December December December December December December 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 Copyright © Kimberly Suzanne Bowen 2013 All Rights Reserv All Rights Reserv All Rights Reserv All Rights Reserv All Rights Reserv All Rights Reserv edThe University of Utah Graduate SchoolThe University of Utah Graduate SchoolThe University of Utah Graduate SchoolThe University of Utah Graduate SchoolThe University of Utah Graduate SchoolThe University of Utah Graduate SchoolThe University of Utah Graduate SchoolThe University 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supervisory committee members: Bert UchinoBert UchinoBert UchinoBert Uchino Bert UchinoBert UchinoBert Uchino Bert Uchino , Chair , Chair , Chair 4/2013 4/2013 Date Approved Date Approved Date Approved Date Approved Date Approved David Sanbonmatsu David Sanbonmatsu David Sanbonmatsu David SanbonmatsuDavid Sanbonmatsu David SanbonmatsuDavid Sanbonmatsu , Member , Member 4/2013 4/2013 Date Approved Date Approved Date Approved Date Approved Date Approved Paul H. White Paul H. White Paul H. White Paul H. White Paul H. White , Member , Member 4/2013 4/2013 Date Approved Date Approved Date Approved Date Approved Date Approved and by and by and by Carol Sansone Carol Sansone Carol Sansone Carol Sansone Carol Sansone , Chair of , Chair of , Chair of the Department of the Department of the Department of the Department of the Department of the Department of Psychology PsychologyPsychology and by and by and by and by David B. Kieda, David B. Kieda, David B. Kieda, David B. Kieda, David B. Kieda, Dean of The Graduate School. Dean of The Graduate School. Dean of The Graduate School. Dean of The Graduate School. Dean of The Graduate School. Dean of The Graduate School. Dean of The Graduate School. Dean of The Graduate School. Dean of The Graduate School. Dean of The Graduate School. ABSTRACT ABSTRACT ABSTRACT Social support Social support Social support is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical is a reliable predictor of physical health. health. health. health. However, m However, m However, m However, m However, m ost studies ost studies ost studies examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social examine this link with measures of perceived social support that are support that are only only only modestly odestly odestly odestly correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. correlated with actual support received. Importantly, l Importantly, l Importantly, l Importantly, l Importantly, l Importantly, l aboratory studies which manipulate aboratory studies which manipulate aboratory studies which manipulate aboratory studies which manipulate aboratory studies which manipulate aboratory studies which manipulate aboratory studies which manipulate aboratory studies which manipulate aboratory studies which manipulate received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. received support often find that it results in greater distress and physiological reactivity. One One theoretical theoretical theoretical theoretical theoretical theoretical model posit model posit ed by Bolger and Amarel ed by Bolger and Amarel ed by Bolger and Amarel ed by Bolger and Amarel ed by Bolger and Amarel ed by Bolger and Amarel ed by Bolger and Amarel ed by Bolger and Amarel ed by Bolger and Amarel ed by Bolger and Amarel ed by Bolger and Amarel (2007) (2007) sugges sugges ts that social social social support costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the costs are dependent on whether or not the support is received prior to or after an support is received prior to or after an support is received prior to or after an support is received prior to or after an support is received prior to or after an support is received prior to or after an support is received prior to or after an support is received prior to or after an support is received prior to or after an support is received prior to or after an individual decides support is wanted or needed. individual decides support is wanted or needed. individual decides support is wanted or needed. individual decides support is wanted or needed. individual decides support is wanted or needed. individual decides support is wanted or needed. individual decides support is wanted or needed. individual decides support is wanted or needed. individual decides support is wanted or needed. individual decides support is wanted or needed. individual decides support is wanted or needed. The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and The current study examined the main and interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice interaction effects of social support and choice for the suppo for the suppo for the suppo rt on reactivity to a on reactivity to a on reactivity to a on reactivity to a on reactivity to a on reactivity to a on reactivity to a on reactivity to a lab speech stressor task speech stressor task speech stressor task speech stressor task speech stressor task speech stressor task speech stressor task speech stressor task using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice using an induced compliance paradigm to increase perceived choice in receiving s in receiving s in receiving s in receiving s in receiving s upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen upport during a speech task. One hundred eighteen participants were participants were participants were participants were participants were participants were participants were assigned to varying conditions of choice assigned to varying conditions of choice assigned to varying conditions of choice assigned to varying conditions of choice assigned to varying conditions of choice assigned to varying conditions of choice assigned to varying conditions of choice assigned to varying conditions of choice assigned to varying conditions of choice assigned to varying conditions of choice assigned to varying conditions of choice (induced choice, no (induced choice, no (induced choice, no (induced choice, no (induced choice, no (induced choice, no induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference induced choice, no reference to choice) to choice) to choice) and received support and received support and received support and received support and received support and received support and received support and received support (received support during task, no (received support during task, no (received support during task, no (received support during task, no (received support during task, no (received support during task, no (received support during task, no (received support during task, no (received support during task, no (received support during task, no (received support during task, no (received support during task, no (received support during task, no task) . Participants completed measures of self . Participants completed measures of self . Participants completed measures of self . Participants completed measures of self . Participants completed measures of self . Participants completed measures of self . Participants completed measures of self . Participants completed measures of self . Participants completed measures of self . Participants completed measures of self . Participants completed measures of self . Participants completed measures of self -esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control esteem, anxiety, threat, and control during the speech task the speech task the speech task the speech task . Cardiovascular functioning wa . Cardiovascular functioning wa . Cardiovascular functioning wa . Cardiovascular functioning wa . Cardiovascular functioning wa . Cardiovascular functioning wa . Cardiovascular functioning wa . Cardiovascular functioning wa s measured s measured s measured s measured s measured via blood pressure and cardiac via blood pressure and cardiac via blood pressure and cardiac via blood pressure and cardiac via blood pressure and cardiac via blood pressure and cardiac via blood pressure and cardiac via blood pressure and cardiac via blood pressure and cardiac via blood pressure and cardiac via blood pressure and cardiac impedance impedance impedance impedance impedance . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. . Results did not support choice as a moderator between and reactivity. Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task Received support predicted increased cardiovascular reactivity during the speech task (p's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe 's<.08). However, there were no diffe rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications rences in psychological reactivity. Implications are discussed. are discussed. are discussed. are discussed. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ABSTRACT ABSTRACT ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... iii LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................ ................................ ................................ . vi INTRODUCTIO INTRODUCTIO INTRODUCTIO INTRODUCTIO INTRODUCTIO INTRODUCTIO INTRODUCTIO N ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 1 METHOD METHOD ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................... 9 Participants Participants Participants Participants ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 9 Procedure Procedure Procedure Procedure ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 9 Measures Measures Measures Measures ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 15 RESULTS RESULTS RESULTS RESULTS RESULTS ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 19 Prelimina Prelimina Prelimina Prelimina Prelimina ry Analyses ry Analyses ry Analyses ry Analyses ry Analyses ry Analyses ry Analyses ry Analyses ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 19 Manipulation Checks Manipulation Checks Manipulation Checks Manipulation Checks Manipulation Checks Manipulation Checks Manipulation Checks Manipulation Checks ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 19 Do Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? Choice and Social Support Influence Psychological Reactions During Stress? ..... 21 Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo Do Choice and Social Support Influence Physiolo gical Responses During Stress? gical Responses During Stress? gical Responses During Stress? gical Responses During Stress? gical Responses During Stress? gical Responses During Stress? gical Responses During Stress? gical Responses During Stress? .... 23 Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Ancillary Analyses of Physiological and Psychological Changes During the Stress Task Task Task ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 26 DISCUSSION DISCUSSION DISCUSSION DISCUSSION DISCUSSION DISCUSSION DISCUSSION ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 29 REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 35 LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES Table Table Table Page Page Page 1. Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants Characteristics of Study Participants ................................ ................................ ......... 10 2. Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes Study Conditions and Sample Sizes ................................ ................................ .......... 10 3. Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro Least Squares Means and Standard Erro rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a rs for Psychological Reactions as a Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support ................................ ................................ ........................ 21 4. Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Function of Choice Function of Choice Function of Choice Function of Choice Function of Choice Function of Choice ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 22 5. Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar Least Squares Means and Standar d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a d Errors for Psychological Reactions as a Function of Social Support and Choice Function of Social Support and Choice Function of Social Support and Choice Function of Social Support and Choice Function of Social Support and Choice Function of Social Support and Choice Function of Social Support and Choice Function of Social Support and Choice Function of Social Support and Choice ................................ ................................ ..... 22 6. The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity .......................... 24 7. Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for C ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a ardiovascular Reactivity as a Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support Function of Social Support ................................ ................................ ........................ 25 8. The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity The Main Effects of Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity ................................ ....... 25 9. Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Function of Choice Function of Choice Function of Choice Function of Choice Function of Choice Function of Choice ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 26 10. Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity Interaction Effects of Social Support and Choice on Cardiovascular Reactivity ...... 27 11. Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Least Squares Means and Standard Errors for Cardiovascular Reactivity as a Function of Social Function of Social Function of Social Function of Social Function of Social Function of Social Function of Social Support and Choice Support and Choice Support and Choice ................................ ................................ ..... 28 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to thank Bert N. Uchino, Frederick T. Rhodewalt, David M. Sanbonmatsu, Paul H. White, and McKenzie Carlisle for their contributions to this project. INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including Social support is a reliable predictor of physical health outcomes, including morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & morbidity and mortality (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, Cohen, 1988; House, Landis, & Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et Umberson, 1988; Uchino, 2004). In a review of large epidemiological studies, House et al. (1988 al. (1988 ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of ) found evidence that more socially isolated individuals are at increased risk of earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent earlier mortality, even after controlling for age and initial health status. More recent reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support reviews find that individuals who perceive higher levels of available social support are at are at are at are at reduced risk of mortality (Holt reduced risk of mortality (Holt reduced risk of mortality (Holt reduced risk of mortality (Holt reduced risk of mortality (Holt reduced risk of mortality (Holt reduced risk of mortality (Holt reduced risk of mortality (Holt reduced risk of mortality (Holt reduced risk of mortality (Holt -Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). These effects were consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall consistent across gender, age, initial health status, and cause of death. In fact, the overall effect size found by Holt effect size found by Holt effect size found by Holt effect size found by Holt effect size found by Holt effect size found by Holt effect size found by Holt effect size found by Holt effect size found by Holt effect size found by Holt effect size found by Holt effect size found by Holt -Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali Lunstad and colleagues in predicting mortali ty appeared ty appeared ty appeared ty appeared ty appeared ty appeared ty appeared ty appeared comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical comparable to standard risk factors like smoking, smoking cessation, and physical activity. activity. activity. activity. activity. activity. Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ Consistent with these epidemiological links, social support has been associ ated ated with a multitude of health with a multitude of health with a multitude of health with a multitude of health with a multitude of health with a multitude of health with a multitude of health relevant physiological outcomes ( relevant physiological outcomes ( relevant physiological outcomes ( relevant physiological outcomes ( relevant physiological outcomes ( relevant physiological outcomes ( relevant physiological outcomes ( relevant physiological outcomes ( relevant physiological outcomes ( Roy, St Roy, St Roy, St Roy, St Roy, St eptoe, & Kirschbaum, eptoe, & Kirschbaum, eptoe, & Kirschbaum, eptoe, & Kirschbaum, eptoe, & Kirschbaum, eptoe, & Kirschbaum, eptoe, & Kirschbaum, 1998; Uchino, 2006; 1998; Uchino, 2006; 1998; Uchino, 2006; Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt -Glaser, 1996). In one study of Glaser, 1996). In one study of Glaser, 1996). In one study of Glaser, 1996). In one study of Glaser, 1996). In one study of Glaser, 1996). In one study of Glaser, 1996). In one study of Glaser, 1996). In one study of Glaser, 1996). In one study of Glaser, 1996). In one study of Glaser, 1996). In one study of immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation immune functioning and social support, participants with higher levels of isolation not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but not only experienced greater levels of psychological stress, but also elevated levels of also elevated levels of also elevated levels of also elevated levels of also elevated levels of also elevated levels of also elevated levels of cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, cortisol and poorer antibody response to an influenza vaccine (Pressman, Cohen Cohen Cohen , Miller, , Miller, , Miller, Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005). Studies of social support and aging have also found that older adults with access to supportive social networks older adults with access to supportive social networks older adults with access to supportive social networks older adults with access to supportive social networks older adults with access to supportive social networks older adults with access to supportive social networks older adults with access to supportive social networks older adults with access to supportive social networks older adults with access to supportive social networks older adults with access to supportive social networks older adults with access to supportive social networks experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and experience better mental and 2 physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of physical health (Krause, 2001). For example, low social support in caregivers of Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age Alzheimer's disease patients was associated with age -related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate related increases in heart rate reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi reactivity, whereas those indi viduals with viduals with access to social access to social access to social access to social access to social access to social access to social support displayed age support displayed age support displayed age support displayed age support displayed age support displayed age -related related related related decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt decreases in heart rate reactivity (Uchino, Kiecolt -Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, Glacer, & Cacioppo, 1992). Finally, individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine individuals with greater access to supportive have lower neuroendocrine responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme responses to stress (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hilme rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well rt, & Lieberman, 2007), as well attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity attenuated cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) to laboratory stress tasks and lower to laboratory stress tasks and lower to laboratory stress tasks and lower to laboratory stress tasks and lower to laboratory stress tasks and lower to laboratory stress tasks and lower to laboratory stress tasks and lower to laboratory stress tasks and lower to laboratory stress tasks and lower to laboratory stress tasks and lower to laboratory stress tasks and lower to laboratory stress tasks and lower ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld ambulatory blood pressure in daily life (Christenfeld et al. et al. , 1997; Holt -Lunstad, Uchino, Lunstad, Uchino, Lunstad, Uchino, Lunstad, Uchino, Lunstad, Uchino, Smith, Cerny, & Nealey Smith, Cerny, & Nealey Smith, Cerny, & Nealey Smith, Cerny, & Nealey Smith, Cerny, & Nealey Smith, Cerny, & Nealey Smith, Cerny, & Nealey Smith, Cerny, & Nealey Smith, Cerny, & Nealey Smith, Cerny, & Nealey Smith, Cerny, & Nealey Smith, Cerny, & Nealey -Moore , 2003; O 'Donovan & Hug Donovan & Hug Donovan & Hug Donovan & Hug hes, 2008; Phillips, Gallagher, hes, 2008; Phillips, Gallagher, hes, 2008; Phillips, Gallagher, hes, 2008; Phillips, Gallagher, hes, 2008; Phillips, Gallagher, hes, 2008; Phillips, Gallagher, hes, 2008; Phillips, Gallagher, hes, 2008; Phillips, Gallagher, hes, 2008; Phillips, Gallagher, hes, 2008; Phillips, Gallagher, hes, 2008; Phillips, Gallagher, & Carroll, 2009 & Carroll, 2009 & Carroll, 2009 & Carroll, 2009 & Carroll, 2009 & Carroll, 2009 ; Piferi & Lawler, 2006 ; Piferi & Lawler, 2006 ; Piferi & Lawler, 2006 ; Piferi & Lawler, 2006 ; Piferi & Lawler, 2006 ; Piferi & Lawler, 2006 ; Piferi & Lawler, 2006 ; Piferi & Lawler, 2006 ; Piferi & Lawler, 2006 ). ). Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on Much of the research that documents a beneficial influence social support on health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she health has focused on perceived social support, or one's perception that he she access to a su access to a su access to a su access to a su access to a su access to a su access to a su pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received pportive social network if such assistance became necessary. Received support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, support, in contrast, is the actual receipt of support from others (e.g., instrumental, emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of emotional, informational) and has been found to be less consistently predictive of beneficial heal beneficial heal beneficial heal beneficial heal beneficial heal beneficial heal beneficial heal th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived th outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Uchino, 2004, 2009). In addition, perceived support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence support correlates weakly with actual that is received, providing evidence received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn received social support and perceived are two separate dimensions drawn from the from the from the from the greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & greater concept of social support and thus are not interchangeable (Kaul & Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 ; Sarason, & Pierce, 1990 a). Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a Importantly, in contrast to perceived support, several studies have shown a detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving detrimental influence of receiving support on health outcomes (Barrera, 2000; support on health outcomes (Barrera, 2000; support on health outcomes (Barrera, 2000; support on health outcomes (Barrera, 2000; support on health outcomes (Barrera, 2000; support on health outcomes (Barrera, 2000; support on health outcomes (Barrera, 2000; support on health outcomes (Barrera, 2000; support on health outcomes (Barrera, 2000; support on health outcomes (Barrera, 2000; Bolger, Bolger, Bolger, Zuckerman, & Kessler Zuckerman, & Kessler Zuckerman, & Kessler Zuckerman, & Kessler Zuckerman, & Kessler Zuckerman, & Kessler Zuckerman, & Kessler Zuckerman, & Kessler Zuckerman, & Kessler Zuckerman, & Kessler , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found , 2000; Wills & Shinar, 2000). Epidemiological studies have found 3 links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, links between the receipt of support and increased mortality (Uchino, 2004). For instance, Forster and Stoller (1992) Forster and Stoller (1992) Forster and Stoller (1992) Forster and Stoller (1992) Forster and Stoller (1992) Forster and Stoller (1992) Forster and Stoller (1992) Forster and Stoller (1992) Forster and Stoller (1992) found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was found that receiving greater instrumental assistance was associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan associated with lower survival rates in older women. This finding is similar to Kaplan , Cohen, Kauhanen, Wu, Cohen, Kauhanen, Wu, Cohen, Kauhanen, Wu, Cohen, Kauhanen, Wu, Cohen, Kauhanen, Wu, Cohen, Kauhanen, Wu, Cohen, Kauhanen, Wu, Cohen, Kauhanen, Wu, Cohen, Kauhanen, Wu, and and Salonen Salonen Salonen 's (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for (1993) work that showed greater risk of death for older adults who received older adults who received older adults who received older adults who received older adults who received older adults who received older adults who received older adults who received older adults who received support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times of need. Moreover, in a study social support during times