Investigation of the phenomena of extrasensory perception using blind subjects

Hundreds of years of probing into the secrets of the universe have given science much knowledge concerning the universe and the laws which govern it. And foremost in this probing have been the control and manipulation of the various phenomena which seem to be a product of the operation of these laws. Science has also pentrated the depths of the human body and has revealed the secrets of its internal anatomic structure and the intricate functions of the various parts. Along with searching into the physiological side of man, there has been a good deal of searching into his psychological side-what makes man the superior member of the animal kingdom? What motivates him? What is his "mind," and what are its capabilities and its limitations? In attempting to answer these and countless other similar questions, science, having the results of much research to support it, has assumed that the mind is geared to the sense organs and is ultimately dependent upon a complex chain of principles understandable in terms of lawful and quantitative relationships. It has shied away from anything which would seem to suggest that the human mind can perceive what is going on in its environment through means other than the recognized channels of sight, sound, taste, smell, and the other receptors of the body.

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PHENOMENA OF EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION USING BLIND SUBJECTS by Charlain Drennen A thesis submitted to the faculty of the University of Utah partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Educational Psychology University of Utah June, 1957 AN INVESTIGATIO"N OF THE PHENOMENA OF EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION USING BLIND SUBJECTS by Charla in Drennen A thesis submitted to the faculty of the University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Educational Psychology University of Utah June, 1957 This Thesis for the Master of Science Degree by Char Lain Drennen I X-* L V VJ ->f (L^v» n JLa iocs*. Chairman, Supervisory Committee '<$lu<e<y^ Reader, Supervisory Committee Reader, Supervisory Committee d^(&^wN~ ead, Major Department This Thesis for the Master of Science Degree by Char 1.ain Drennen has been approved by 6 ·J~ ... L1D~_ upervisory Committee ~~~F~ __ er, Supervisory Commit tee Reader, Supervisory Committee a<h-'~4it/~'7f ~-Department ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For assistance and encouragement, deepest appreciation and sincere thanks are extended to Dr. Gerald H. Shure under whose supervision this study began; to Dr. Cecil 0. Samuelson who assumed the Chairmanship in Dr. Shure's absence; to the other members of the committee, Dr. Norman A. Wallen and Dean Don A. Orton; and to the staff members of the University of Utah Guidance Center and the Department of Educational Psychology. Gratitude is also extended to Don Perry and the Murray B. Allen Center for the Blind for their cooperation in making this study possible. Sincere appreciation is expressed to Mrs. Sharon Colson for helping to prepare and type the manuscript. Special thanks go to Professor J. A. Silvester of Ricks College, to the writer's parents, Hugh and Velma Drennen, and her fiance, Tom Bateman, for their support and encouragement. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For assistance and encouragement, deepest appreciation and sincere thanks are extended to Dr. Gerald H. Shure under whose supervision this study began; to Dr. Cecil O. Samuelson who assumed the Chairmanship in Dr. Shure's absence; to the other members of the committee, Dr. Norman A. Wallen and Dean Don A. Orton; and to the staff members of the University of Utah Guidance Center and the Department of Educational Psychology. Gratitude is also extended to Don Perry and the Murray B. Allen Center for the Blind for their cooperation in making this study possible. Sincere appreciation is expressed to Mrs. Sharon Colson for helping to prepare and type the manuscript. Special thanks go to Professor J. A. Silvester of Ricks College, to the writer's parents, Hugh and Velma Drennen, and her fiance, Tom Bateman, for their support and encouragement. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1 Purpose Statement of the Problem Justification 5 Delimitations Definition of Terms . . . Symbols and Abbreviations ..... 8 SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE Positive . Negative 23 Symposium 29 Opinion Surveys 34 Summary . 35 METHODOLOGY 37 Subjects 37 Apparatus 37 Experimental Procedure 37 Statistical Treatment 39 FINDINGS 43 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 55 Statement of Problem 55 Method 55 Summary of Findings 56 Conclusions 56 Recommendations 57 APPENDIX . . . . . 59 BIBLIOGRAPHY 63 IV TABlE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND. Purpose • Statement of the Problem Justification • Delimitations Definition of Terms Symbols and Abbreviations SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE Positive. Negative •• Symposium Opinion Surveys SUlllIIIary METHODOIDGY. Subjects Apparatus Experimental Procedure. Statistical Treatment FINDINGS • • • • SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Statement of Problem. Method. Swmnary of Findings Conclusions • • • • Recommendat ions APPENDIX . BIBLIOGRAPHY • iv Page 1 4 4 5 6 6 • 9 10 23 29 34 35 37 37 • 37 • 37 39 43 55 55 55 56 • 56 57 59 63 LIST OF TABLES Table I Page The Required Number of Hits Per Score Type at the 5 Per Cent and the One Per Cent Levels of Confidence II The Means and Number of Hits for Subject I . Ill The Means and Number of Hits for Subject II. IV The Means and Number of Hits for Subject III V The Means and Number of Hits for Subject IV. VI The Means and Number of Hits for Subject V VII The Means and Number of Hits for Subject VI. VIII The Means and Number of Hits for Subject VII The Means and Number of Hits for Subject VIII. X Some of the t Values for the Differences Between Means XI A Summary of the Significant Means, Hits and Values of t for all Subjects „ 53 XII Total Yeses, No's, and Undecided for Each Subject on Each Item of the Questionnaire 54 Table I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX x LIST OF TABLES The Required Number of Hits Per Score Type at the 5 Per Cent and the One Per Cent Levels of Confidence . The Means and Number of Hits for Subject I The Means and Number of Hits for Subject II. The Means and Number of Hits for Subject III The Means and Number of Hits for Subject IV . The Means and Number of Hits for Subject V . • The Means and Number of Hits for Subject VI. The Means and Number of Hits for Subject VII The Means and Number of Hits for Subject VIII. Some of the t Values for the Differences Between Means Page 40 44 / 45 47 47 48 48 49 50 52 XI A Summary of the Significant Means, Hits and Values of t for all Subjects . • . . . . • • • . . . • • . • • 53 XII Total Yeses, Nols, and Undecided for Each Subject on Each Item of the Questionnaire. • • • . • . • ••..• 54 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Hundreds of years of probing into the secrets of the universe have given science much knowledge concerning the universe and the Along with searching into the physiological side of man, there has been a good deal of searching into his psychological side-what makes man the superior member of the animal kingdom? What motivates him? What is his "mind," and what are its capabilities and its limitations? In attempting to answer these and countless other similar questions, science, having the results of much research to support it, has assumed that the mind is geared to the sense organs CHAPrER I INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Hundreds of years of probing into the secrets of the universe have given science much knowledge concerning the universe and the laws which govern it. And foremost in this probing have been the control and manipulation of the various phenomena which seem to be a product of the operation of these laws. Science has also pen-trated the depths of the human body and has revealed the secrets of its internal anatomic structure and the intricate functions of the various parts. Along with searching into the physiological side of man, there has been a good deal of searching into his psychological side--what makes man the superior member of the animal kingdom? What motivates h:·u n?. What is his "mind," and what are its capabilities and its limitations? In attempting to answer these and countless other similar questions, science, having the results of much research to support it, has assumed that the mind is geared to the sense organs and is ultimately dependent upon a complex chain of principles understandable in terms of lawful and quantitative relationships. It has shied away from anything which would seem to suggest that the human mind can perceive what is going on in its environment through means other than the recognized channels of sight, sound, taste, smell, and the other receptors of the body. 2. Other explorers of the mind, less scientific in their outlook, have questioned whether the mind is so fixed and so dependent on the sense organs. They have puzzled over the possibilities of other modes for experiencing reality. They have asked themselves: Is there some means of direct communication between minds? For several years Rhine and his associates have been attempting to explore these phenomena, some examples of which are described in the following paragraphs. A woman dreams that there is a train wreck in which her husband is killed. A few hours later she receives a call that her husband has been killed in a train wreck. What caused her to dream the dream? A subject, some miles distant from an experimenter, consistently calls ten cards correct out of packs of 25 where chance allows him only five correct. How is he accomplishing this? You suddenly think of a friend you haven't thought about for years and the next day you receive a telephone call from him. What caused you to think of him suddenly? What causes people to have premonitions about future events which seem to come to pass as the premonition dictated? What causes two people to say the same thing simultaneously when neither were consciously aware of what the other was thinking? ESP researchers, as a result of their findings, claim that these phenomena can be attributed to extrasensory perception (ESP), that some people can foretell the future (precognition), do have the ability to transmit and receive thoughts (telepathy), and can 2. Other explorers of the mind, less scientific in their outlook, have questioned whether the mind is so fixed and so dependent on the sense organs. They have puzzled over the possibilities of other modes for experiencing reality. They have asked themselves: Is there some means of direct communication between minds? For several years Rhine and his associates have been attempting to explore these phenomena, some examples of which are described in the following paragraphs. A woman dreams that there is a train wreck in which her husband is killed. A few hours later she receives a call that her husband has been killed in a train wreck. What caused her to dream the dream? A subject, some miles distant from an experimenter, consistently calls ten cards correct out of packs of 25 where chance allows him only five correct. How is he accomplishing this? You suddenly think of a friend you haven't thought about for years and the next day you receive a telephone call from him. What caused you to think of him suddenly? What causes people to have premonitions about future events which seem to come to pass as the premonition dictated? What causes two people to say the same thing simultaneously when neither were consciously aware of what the other was thinking? ESP researchers, as a result of their findings, claim that these phenomena can be attributed to extrasensory perception (ESP), that some people can foretell the future (precognition), do have the ability to transmit and receive thoughts (telepathy), and can 3. perceive an event or an object (clairvoyance), all through some means other than the recognized channels of sense. But because of the connection between various types of ESP with fraud, credulity and technical difficulties of investigation, science has severely questioned studies in this area. One may certainly question the existence of these phenomena that have been labeled precognition, telepathy, and clairvoyance. But if one grants the possibility of their occurance one may ask: Are these phenomena really caused by extrasensory perception, or are they the by-products of subliminal sensations as yet unknown? Is it extrasensory perception, or is it subliminal sensory perception? There are several theories which attempt, although somewhat inadequately, to explain the phenomena attributed to ESP. For instance, many psychologists explain it as the unconscious recognition of cues such as gestures, expressions, voice inflections, and other subtle movements which lead one person to believe that another person is thinking a particular thought (SSP theory). Yet this theory fails if distance is involved, that is, if the indi­viduals concerned are far enough apart to definitely eliminate any cues which may be picked up by the sense organs. Some advance the theory that as we think, the muscles of the speech organs move as if the individual were actually saying what he thinks, and that our sensory receptors are capable of picking up and translating correctly these minute movements. Again this theory fails if distance is 3. perceive an event or an object (clairvoyance), all through some means other than the recognized channels of sense. But because of the connection between various types of ESP with fraud, credulity and technical difficulties of investigation, science has severely questioned studies in this area. One may certainly question the existence of these phenomena that have been labeled precognition, telepathy, and clairvoyance. But if one grants the possibility of their occurance one may ask: Are these phenomena really caused by extrasensory perception, or are they the by-products of subliminal sensations as yet unknown? Is it extrasensory perception, or is it subliminal sensory perception? There are several theories which attempt, although somewhat inadequately, to explain the phenomena attributed to ESP. For instance, many psychologists explain it as the unconscious recognition of cues such as gestures, expressions, voice inflections, and other subtle movements which lead one person to believe that another person is thinking a particular thought (SSP theory). Yet this theory fails if distance is involved, that is, if the indi­viduals concerned are far enough apart to definitely eliminate any cues which may be picked up by the sense organs . Some advance the theory that as we think, the muscles of the speech organs move as if the individual were actually saying what he thinks, and that our sensory receptors are capable of picking up and translating correctly these minute movements. Again this theory fails if distance is involved. 4. The fact that scientists are beginning to theorize in this area indicates the growing pressure to explain phenomena of an ESP nature. Reluctantly, the scientist is peeking over his shoulder at some of these phenomena and beginning to wonder if he possibly has overlooked a vital area of investigation. PURPOSE This study will be concerned with exploring certain of these phenomena which have been attributed by some to ESP, in an attempt to determine whether they are a result of ESP or of SSP, and if the latter, at what stages such cues might become operative. Blind subjects have been selected for this study because, according to Chevigny and Braverman in their book Adjustment of the Blind, people deprived of the use of one or more of their sense organs tend to utilize their other senses much more than the individual not so deprived. They tend to have a greater degree of conscious awareness in terms of their other senses. If this is the if STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The present study is an attempt to explore certain aspects of the phenomena attributed to ESP. It is hypothesized that ^Chevigny, Hector and Braverman, Sydell. Adjustment of the Blind, Yale University Press, 1950. The fact that scientists are beginning to theorize in this area indicates the growing pressure to explain phenomena of an ESP nature. Reluctantly, the scientist is peeking over his shoulder at some of these phenomena and beginning to wonder if he possibly has overlooked a vital area of investigation. PURPOSE This study will be concerned with exploring certain of these phenomena which have been attributed by some to ESP, in an attempt to determine whether they are a result of ESP or of SSP, and if the latter, at what stages such cues might become operative. Blind subjects have been selected for this study because, according to Chevigny and Braverman in their book Adjustment of the Blind,l people deprived of the use of one or more of their sense organs tend to utilize their other senses much more than the individual not 50 deprived. They tend to have a greater degree of 4. conscious awareness in terms of their other senses. If this is the case, if the phenomena attributed to ESP are really SSP, and assuming that senses other than vision also contribute so SSP, then the blind should do considerably better when SSP is allowed to operate than they would only ESP were operating. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The present study is an attempt to explore certain aspects of the phenomena attributed to ESP. It is hypothesized that lChevigny, Hector and Braverman, Sydell. Adjustment of the Blind, Yale University Press, 1950. 5. these phenomena exist in the blind and that they can be accounted for in terms of SSP. Hypothesis I: These phenomena which have been attributed to ESP will be found to occur with the blind. Hypothesis II: Phenomena which have been attributed to ESP will vary with changes in possible sensory cues. JUSTIFICATION It is believed that the present research will contribute additional information on the phenomena attributed to ESP, and to a possible increased clarification of the operation of these phenomena. If ESP is the cause of these phenomena, then we must discover how it operates. We must seek to discover its influence in teaching and learning, and how we can utilize its power not only in the area of education, but also in other aspects of communication, and possibly in "planning for the ftfturp. To the psychologist, this could be a valuable aid in therapy if properly applied. It has been demonstrated that subliminal cues do produce results that cannot be attributed to ESP. However, if they can also be said to be the cause of all apparent clairvoyance, precog­nition, and telepathy; then we must seek to discover how subliminal cues produce these phenomena, and how we can best utilize them in the areas of education, communication, and perhaps psychoanalysis and therapy. these phenomena exist in the blind and that they can be accounted for in terms of SSP. Hypothesis I: These phenomena which have been attributed to ESP will be found to occur with the blind. Hypothesis II: Phenomena which have been attributed to ESP will vary with changes in possible sensory cues. JUSTIFICATION It is believed that the present research will contribute additional information on the phenomena attributed to ESP, and to a possible increased clarification of the operation of these Phenomena. If ESP is the cause of these phenomena, then we must discover 5. how it operates. We must seek to discover its influence in teaching and learning, and how we can utilize its power not only in the area of education, but also in ,other aspects of communication, and possibly in[:\~~~;-g for ~he; }i~", . To the P~fchologist, this could be a valuable aid in therapy if properly applied. It has been demonstrated that subliminal cues do produce results that cannot be attributed to ESP . However, if they can also be said to be the cause of all appa~nt clairvoyance, precog-nition, and telepathy; then we must seek to discover how subliminal cues produce these phenomena, and how we can best utilize them in the areas of education, communication, and perhaps psychoanalysis and therapy. DELIMITATIONS This study is not concerned with: 1. Any relationship of psychokinesis to ESP. 2. The effects of fatigue, pressure or tension, hypnosis, or various types of drugs, etc. on ESP or SSP performance. 3. Theories about how ESP or SSP may operate. 4. Identification of any personality factors as such that may be associated with ESP or SSP performance. 5. Establishing the frequency of ESP among individuals or in a group. 6. Outlining any uses to which either SSP or ESP may be put. 7. The use of any measurement other than the one to be described. 8. The use of any population other than the blind. DEFINITION OF TERMS A discussion of terminology is meaningful only in terms of experimental procedure. Therefore, a sample ESP experiment will be briefly outlined: E and S are in separate rooms. E shuffles a pack of ESP cards and places them face down on a table. He then picks up the top card, records it, and signals S to call the card. This procedure is followed for N runs. Each run consists of twenty-five trials. If S calls the target card correctly E records it on the record sheet as. a hit. DELIMITATIONS This study is not concerned with: 1. Any relationship of psychokinesis to ESP. 2. The effects of fatigue, pressure or tension, hypnosis, or various types of drugs, etc. on ESP or SSP performance. 3. Theories about how ESP or SSP may operate. 4. Identification of any personality factors as such that may be associated with ESP or SSP performance. 5. Establishing the frequency of ESP among individuals or in a group. 6. Outlining any uses to which either SSP or ESP may be put. 7. The use of any measurement other than the one to be described. 8. The use of any population other than the blind. DEFINITION OF TERMS A discussion of terminology is meaningful only in terms of experimental procedure. Therefore, a sample ESP experiment will be briefly outlined: E and S are in separate rooms. E shuffles a pack of ESP cards and places them face down on a table. He then picks up the top card, records it, and signals S to call the card. This procedure is followed for N runs. Each run consists of twenty­five trials. If S calls the target card correctly E records it on the record sheet as. a hit. 6. 7. 1. CALL: The symbol selected by the subject in his attempt 2 to identify the target card. 2. CLAIRVOYANCE: Perception of an event or an object through some means other than the recognized channels of sense. 3. ESP CARDS: A pack of twenty-five 3|» x 2£" cards consisting of five groups of five cards each, numbered from one to five. 4. EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION: A response to an external event not presented to any known sense. 5. HIT: The correct call of a card. 6. POSTCOGNITION: Perception of an extrasensory nature of something that is past. 7. PRECOGNITION: Berception of an extrasensory nature of something yet to come. 8. PRECOGNITIVE CLAIRVOYANCE: Perception of an extrasensory nature of a future event or object. 9. RUN: A group of trials; the successive calling of a pack of twenty-five five-symbol cards. 10. SCORE TYPE: Referring to the (+2), (+1), (0), (-1), (-2) scores counted on each run. 11. SENSITIVES: Individuals who are believed to demonstrate the phenomena. 12. SUBLIMINAL SENSORY PERCEPTION: Perception through subliminal cues. 2 As defined by Soal, S. G. and Bateman, F. Modern Experiments Telepathy, Yale University Press, 1954. ^As defined in the Journal of Parapsychology. Duke University Press. 1. CALL: The symbol selected by the subject in his attempt to identify the target card.7. 2. CLAIRVOYANCE: Perception of an event or an object through some means other than the recognized channels of sense. 3. ESP CARDS: A pack of twenty-five 3!" x 2~" cards consisting of five groups of five cards each, numbered from one to five. 4. EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION: A response to an external event not presented to any known sense.3 5. HIT: The correct call of a card. 6. POSTCOGNITION: Perception of an extrasensory nature of something that is past. 7. PRECOGNITION: Berception of an extrasensory nature of something yet to come. 8. PRECOGNITIVE CLAIRVOYANCE: Perception of an extrasensory nature of a future event or object. 9. RUN: A group of trials; the successive calling of a pack of twenty-five five-symbol cards. 10. SCORE TYPE: Referring to the (+2), (+1), (0), (-1), (-2) scores counted on each run. 11. SENSITIVES: Individuals who are believed to demonstrate the phenomena. 12. SUBLIMINAL SENSORY PERCEPTION: Perception through subliminal cues. 2As defined by Soal, S. G. and Bateman, F. Modern Exper iments in Te,epathy, Yale University Press, 1954. - As defined in the Journal of Parapsychology, Duke University Press. 13. TARGET CARD: The symbol which is intended to be the stimulus object which the subject is trying to identify. 14. TELEPATHY: The ability to transmit and receive thoughts through some means other than the recognized channels of sense. 15. TRIAL: Each single guess at a card or stimulus object. 16. ZENER CARDS: Cards used in ESP experiments which bear one of five symbols: circle, plus sign, rectangle, star, and wavy lines. The cards are made into packs of twenty-five, each pack containing five cards of each symbol. SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS 1. ESP: Extrasensory perception. 2. SSP: Subliminal sensory perception. 3. *: Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. 4. **: Significant at the one per cent level of confidence. 5. (+2): card two cards behind the target card. 6. (+1): card one card behind the target card. 7. (0): A direct hit on the target card. (-1): hit on a card one card before the target card. (-2): on a card two cards before the target card. 11. S: Subject. 12. H: Hit. 13. M: Mean. 8. 13. TARGET CARD: The symbol which is intended to be the stimulus object which the subject is trying to identify. 14. TELEPATHY: The ability to transmit and receive thoughts through some means other than the recognized channels of sense. 15. TRIAL: Each single guess at a card or stimulus object. 16. ZENER CARDS: Cards used in ESP experiments which bear one of five symbols: circle, plus sign, rectangle, star, and wavy lines. The cards are made into packs of twenty-five, each pack containing five cards of each symbol. SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS 1. ESP: Extrasensory perception. 2. SSP: Subliminal sensory perception. 3. *: Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. 4. **: Significant at the one per cent level of confidence. 5. (+2) : A hit on a card two cards behind the target card. 6. (+1) : A hit on a card one card behind the target card. 7. (0): A direct hit on the target card. 8. (-1): A hit on a card one card before the target card. 9. (-2): A hit on a card two cards before the target card. 10. E: Experimenter. 11. S: Subject. 12. H: Hit . 13. M: Mean. CHAPTER •• '. J SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE The area of ESP is a relatively new field of scientific investigation. Because of its too frequent association with fraud and mysticism, and as with all young sciences, very few have bothered to write about it except those who believed in it, or were open-minded enough to attempt an investigation of the phenomena. For a long time only those who "practiced" it, those who believed in it, and those who were entranced by the mystery enshrouding it, were at all concerned with it. As scientific investigation slowly began to impose itself on the subject, the scientific world became concerned with these phenomena which, at times, seemed able to support themselves with­out a shroud of mystery or a fraudulent crutch. Criticisms have been levied at the method of experimentation, the statistical treatment, the interpretations of the findings, even at the basic assumptions, but as investigators probed, significant results turned up, and the rest of science was forced to examine the findings. These phenomena have been treated in both professional and popular articles; therefore, samplings of both will be presented under the following headings: CHAPI'ER II ) SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE The area of ESP is a relatively new field of scientific investigation. Because of its too frequent association with fraud and mysticism, and as with all young sciences, very few have bothered to write about it except those who believed in it, or were open-minded enough to attempt an investigation of the phenomena. For a long time only those who "practiced" it, those who believed in it, and those who were entranced by the mystery enshrouding it, were at all concerned with it. As scientific investigation slowly began to impose itself on the subject, the scientific world became concerned with these phenomena which, at times, seemed able to support themselves with-out a shroud of mystery or a fraudulent crutch. Criticisms have been levied at the method of experimentation, the statistical treatment, the interpretations of the findings, even at the basic assumptions, but as investigators probed, significant results · turned up, and the rest of science was forced to examine the findings. These phenomena have been treated in both professional and popular articles; therefore, samplings of both will be presented under the following headings: 10. Positive Results Negative Results and Criticisms A Symposium of the Ciba Foundation Opinion Surveys Summary POSITIVE RESULTS NEW FRONTIERS OF THE MIND4 J. B. Rhine, well known as a researcher in ESP, began his work at Duke University in 1930. He and Dr. Karl E. Zener devised the Zener cards with which most of the ESP research was conducted. The cards were made into a pack of twenty-five with five each of five symbols: circle, plus sign, rectangle, star, and wavy lines. For the most part Rhine's experiments were carried out in the following manner: E and S sat opposite one another at a table. The cards were shuffled and cut; neither E nor S knew the order- S called the top card which was face down. Sometimes he could stare at the back of the card, sit with his eyes closed, or sometimes, but not often, he was allowed to touch the card. He could take as long as he wanted to call the number-usually not longer than a few seconds. The cards were checked against the calls after each run was completed. For some of the experiments, E looked at the cards. In others E and S were in separate rooms-occasionally even in separate buildings. ^Rhine, J. B. New Frontiers of the Mind, Farrar and Rinehart, 1937. Positive Results Negative Results and Criticisms A Symposium of the eiba Foundation Opinion Surveys Sumnary POSITIVE RESULTS NEW FRONTIERS OF THE MIND4 10. J. B. Rhine, well known as a researcher in ESP, began his work at Duke University in 1930. He and Dr. Karl E. Zener devised the Zener cards with which most of the ESP research was conducted. The cards were made into a pack of twenty-five with five each of five symbols : Circle, plus sign, rectangle, star, and wavy lines. For the most part Rhine's experiments were carried out in the following manner: E and S sat opposite one another at a table. The cards were shuffled and cut; neither E nor S knew the order. S called the top card which was face down. Sometimes he could stare at the back of the card, sit with his eyes closed, or sometimes, but not often, he was allowed to touch the card. He could take as long as he wanted to call the number--usually not longer than a few seconds. The cards were checked against the calls after each run was completed. For some of the experiments, E looked at the cards. In others E and S were in separate rooms--occasionally even in separate buildings. 4ahine, J. B. New Frontiers of the Mind, Farrar and Rinehart, 1937. 11. As the experiments went on more and more care was exercised to prevent any sensory leakage or subliminal cues. The highest score ever made in one of Rhine's experiments was a perfect twenty-five hits in succession with twenty-five cards, made by Hubert Pearce. Pearce went into Rhine's laboratory one day and Rhine asked him to call a few cards. Pearce was standing and Rhine peeked at each card, one at a time. He held the pack in his hands. Pearce did not look at the deck nor had he had any contact with them. Of course, there is the possibility that subliminal cues could account for the high score, but it is a phenomenal score even for subliminal cues. Rhine stated that he did not see how there could have been any sensory leakage. Pearce continued to score significantly under more rigid conditions but never again five. Rhine discovered that his high-scoring subjects, as with most other high scorers, lose their ESP ability in the experimental setting after about two years of experimental work. Rhine conducted another interesting experiment to determine the effect of narcotics on ESP performance. It had already been demonstrated that pressure and fatigue tended to lower a subject's ability. Sodium amytal was selected because of its safety and 5-0, involved to some degree in ESP. As the experiments went on more and more care was exercised to prevent any sensory leakage or subliminal cues. ll. The highest score ever made in one of Rhine's experiments was a perfect twenty-five hits in succession with twenty-five cards, made by Hubert Pearce. Pearce went into Rhine's laboratory one day and Rhine asked him to call a few cards. Pearce was standing and Rhine peeked at each card, one at a time. He held the pack in his hands. Pearce did not look at the deck nor had he had any contact with them. Of course, there is the possibility that subliminal cues could account for the high score, but it is a phenomenal score even for subliminal cues. Rhine stated that he did not see how there could have been any sensory leakage. Pearce continued to score significantly under more rigid conditions but never again approached a perfect twenty-five. Rhine discovered that his high-scoring subjects, as with most other high scorers, lose their ESP ability in the experimental setting after about two years of experimental work. Rhine conducted another interesting experiment to determine the effect of narcotics on ESP performance. It had already been demonstrated that pressure and fatigue tended to lower a subject's ability. Sodium amytal was selected because of its safety and three doses were given to a man named Linzmayer. Prior to taking the drug his scores had averaged 6.8. When the drug took effect, his scoring dropped to an even 5.0, just what chance would produce. When the drug wore off his scores returned to their previous level. This experiment seems to indicate that the nervous system is 12. Rhine also attempted to test for pure telepathy, pure clair­voyance, and precognition. He discovered that in order to test for Summary of Rhine's Conclusions. Some of Rhine's conclusions can be summarized as follows: 1. ESP does exist; it can be broken down to a degree into telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and combinations of these three; and it can be tested under laboratory conditions. 2. High scorers tend to lose their ESP ability after about 3. The nervous system is involved to some degree in ESP. a. Pressure and fatigue tend to lower a subject's ESP ability. b. Certain drugs cause the subject to lose ESP ability. TEST OF ESP AMONG A.S.P.R. Fifteen members of the American Society for Psychical Research volunteered to participate in clairvoyance and telepathy tests. These tests were given at the New York offices of the A.S.P.R. 1938 1940. W-phy, and Taves, E. "Tests of ESP Among A.S.P.R. Members," Proceedings of the American Society for Psychical Research, June, 1940. 12. Rhine also attempted to test for pure telepathy, pure clair-voyance, and precognition. He discovered that in order to test for pure telepathy nothing must be written either before or after the target is called; clairvoyance can be tested by having S call a pack of cards down through; that is, E does not remove the cards as S calls them; precognition can be tested by having S call the cards as they will be after they are shuffled a given number of times. Swnmary of Rhine's Conclusions. Some of Rhine's conclusions can be summarized as follows: 1. ESP does exist; it can be broken down to a degree into telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and combinations of these three; and it can be tested under laboratory conditions. 2. High scorers tend to lose their ESP ability after about two years of experimental work. 3. The nervous system is involved to some degree in ESP. a. Pressure and fatigue tend to lower a subject's ESP ability. b. Certain drugs cause the subject to lose ESP ability. TEST OF ESP AMONG A.S.P.R. MEMBERS 5 Fifteen members of the American Society for Psychical Research volunteered to participate in clairvoyance and telepathy tests. These tests were given at the New York offices of the A.S.P.R. between November, 1938 and March, 1940. ~urphy, G. and Taves, E. "Tests of ESP Among A.S.P.R. Members," Proceedings of the American Society for Psychical Research, June, 1940. 13. The experimenters decided to use material which could be evaluated strictly in terms of the theory of probability, and that the material must be categorically out of the range of the known senses. The subjects were seated around a table. E tried to make the atmosphere as informal and relaxed as possible. In all tests of pure clairvoyance, the material was concealed in cardboard boxes or other opaque containers. The material consisted of decks of cards of various sorts, carefully shuffled. Several of the decks were made up of red and black cards, red and yellow cards, black and white, red and white, and other combinations. This gave each guess an even chance of being correct. Rook cards were also used. 1-14 The subjects recorded their calls in duplicate (carbon copies) and handed one copy in to E after each set of calls. They were allowed to check their own results after handing in the copy. All of the experiments, with the exception of the data from the Rook and the red-white cards, produced only chance results. The data from the Rook cards can be summarized as follows: No. of = With the red-white cards there was a very consistent tendency summarized ~. The experimenters decided to use material which could be evaluated strictly in terms of the theory of probability, and that the material must be categorically out of the range of the known senses. The subjects were seated around a table. E tried to make the atmosphere as informal and relaxed as possible. In all tests of pure clairvoyance, the material was concealed in cardboard boxes or other opaque containers. The material consisted of decks of cards of various sorts, carefully shuffled. Several of the decks were made up of red and black cards, red and yellow cards, black and white, red and white, and other combinations. This gave each guess an even chance of being correct. Rook cards were also used. A deck consists of 56 cards numbered from 1-14 in four suits. The subjects called the top fourteen and the bottom fourteen of this deck. The subjects recorded their calls in duplicate (carbon copies ) and handed one copy in to E after each set of calls. They were allowed to check their own results after handing in the copy. All of the experiments, with the exception of the data from the Rook and the red-white cards, produced only chance results. The data from the Rook cards can be summari~ed as follows: No. of calls, 14,826; correct calls, 1,143; chance expectation, 1,059, deviation from chance, +84; P = .004 (there are only four chances in 1,000 of getting such high scores through chance alone). With the red-white cards there was a very consistent tendency for the subjects to go below chance. These results summari~ed show: 14. No. of calls, 2,650; correct calls, 1,230; chance expectation 1,325; deviation from chance -95; p - .0002 (there are only two chances in ten thousand that chance would produce such low scores). THE TRUTH ABOUT In a popular article, Gardner Murphy presents his point of view concerning clairvoyance. He states that the field of parapsychology has more than its share of fakes and frauds. Trained researchers have wasted endless hours in an attempt to find people supposedly gifted with ESP only to discover that they were frauds. Despite this, there is today, much thoroughly documented evidence to support ESP. Much of this comes from laboratory experiences; still more comes from case histories of personal experiences with ESP reported by ordinary people and checked thoroughly by trained researchers. One of the questions which arises What is the clairvoyant type? It has just been recently that the answer to this question could even be attempted. Results of new research show that there is little doubt that personality, physical environment, and emotional condition strongly influence extrasensory ability. Then, too, there are four factors, also recently discovered, which may l) Tiurphy, G. "The Truth About Clairvoyance," This Week, February 24, 1957. 14. No. of calls, 2,650; correct calls, 1,230; chance expectation 1,325; deviation from chance -95; p = .0002 (there are only two chances in ten thousand that chance would produce such low scores). THE TRUTH ABOUT CLAIRVOYANCE6 In a popular article, Gardner Murphy presents his point of view concerning clairvoyance. He states that the field of parapsychology has more than its share of fakes and frauds. Trained researchers have wasted endless hours in an attempt to find people supposedly gifted with ESP only to discover that they were frauds. Despite this, there is today, much thoroughly documented evidence to support ESP. Much of this comes from laboratory experiences; still more comes from case histories of personal experiences with ESP reported by ordinary people and checked thoroughly by trained researchers. One of the questions which arises is: What is the clairvoyant type? It has just been recently that the answer to this question could even be attempted. Results of new research show that there is little doubt that personality, physical environment, and emotional condition strongly influence extrasensory ability. Then, too, there are four factors, also recently discovered, which may help to explain why some people are sensitive, some not: (1) People who believe in the possibility of ESP score better in tests than those who do not. (2) Emotionally well-adjusted people who are favorable to parapsychology do best of all. (3) Small quantities of caffein, alcohol, benzedrine, and other stimulants seem to bMurphy, G. "The Truth About Clairvoyance," February 24, 1957. -Thi-s W-eek, 15. improve ESP ability. (4) Hypnotized subjects often turn in superior scores. He concludes by stating that much research is being done and the day will soon come when full-fledged clairvoyant experiences will be produced in the laboratory. MODERN EXPERIMENTS IN TELEPATHY This book was written primarily to report the experiments done with two very gifted sensitives, Basil Shackleton and Gloria Stewart. Shackleton was a photographer who claimed to have extrasensory ability. In February, 1936, he presented himself to Soal to "demonstrate telepathy." Soal experimented with him several times, but he produced only chance results. Mrs. Stewart was another who believed herself to be the possessor of ESP. Tests made with her also produced chance scores. In November, 1939, Whately Carington called to the attention of Soal the striking results of his picture guessing tests. He had been having his subjects draw pictures at a given time which his wife had sketched and hung, one at a time for ten consecutive days in a locked room. The main finding was that telepathy is in no S. G. and Bateman, F. Modern Experiments Telepathy. Yale University Press, 1954. 15. improve ESP ability. (4) Hypnotized subjects often turn in superior scores, He concludes by stating that much research is being done and the day will soon come when full-fledged clairvoyant experiences will be produced in the laboratory. MODERN EXPERIMENTS IN TELEPATHy7 This book was written primarily to report the experiments done with two very gifted sensitives, Basil Shackleton and Gloria Stewart. Shackleton was a photographer who claimed to have extrasensory ability. In February, 1936, he presented himself to Soal to "demonstrate telepathy." Soal experimented with him several times, but he produced only chance results. Mrs. Stewart was another who believed herself to be the possessor of ESP. Tests made with her also produced chance scores. In November, 1939, Whately Carington called to the attention of Soal the striking results of his picture guessing tests. He had been having his subjects draw pictures at a given time which his wife had sketched and hung, one at a time for ten consecutive days in a locked room. The main finding was that telepathy is in no sense a now or never process. It is not focused very sharply with regard to time. The subjects did not appear to receive their impressions always during the period when the original picture was sketched and hung in the room. As a result of this, Carington 7Soal, S. G. and Bateman, F. Modern Experiments in Telepathy, Yale University Press, 1954. 16. suggested that Soal re-examine his experimental data. The faculty ., of ESP might not function in such a way that the subject would later in the sequence. Soal first re-examined Mrs. Stewart's guesses. On the 2,000 trials made there were 457 precognitive (+1) hits, an actual deviation of +73, SD of 17.53, and a CR of 4.16. Shackleton's 800 trials produced a precognitive (+1) score of 194 hits as compared with an expectation of 153.6. These gave positive deviations equivalent to 3.6 standard deviations. For both of these sets of trials, Zener cards were used. There were usually three or four persons present-the subject, an agent, the experimenter, and sometimes an observer. The agent looked at the card, the subject called his guess, the experimenter recorded and the observer watched for sensory leakage. After finding such significant results in the (+1) trials Soal contacted Shackleton for more experiments. This time five cards bearing pictures of animals were used: elephant (E), G), P), Z). P), EA), EP). A) the cards out of sight of (EA) and (EP). (P) was in an adjoining room. (EA) signalled when (P) was to call a card. (EA) was the 16. suggested that Soal re-examine his experimental data. The faculty., of ESP might not function in such a way that the subject would always hit the target he was aiming at. He might, all unwittingly, be guessing correctly a card which was one or two places earlier or later in the sequence. Soal first re-examined Mrs. Stewart's guesses. On the 2,000 trials made there were 457 precognitive (+1) hits, an actual deviation of +73, SO of 17.53, and a CR of 4.16. Shackleton's 800 trials produced a precognitive (+1) score of 194 hits as compared with an expectation of 153.6. These gave positive deviations equivalent to 3.6 standard deviations. For both of these sets of trials, Zener cards were used. There were usually three or four persons present--the subject, an agent, the experimenter, and sometimes an observer. The agent looked at the card, the subject called his guess, the experimenter recorded and the observer watched for sensory leakage. After finding such significant results in the (+1) trials Soal contacted Shackleton for more experiments. This time five cards bearing pictures of animals were used: elephant (E), giraffe (G), lion (L), pelican (p), zebra (Z). Four persons took part in the experiments: The subject or percipient (p), the agent (A), the experimenter controlling the agent (EA), and the experimenter controlling the percipient (EP). At the beginning of each experiment (A) and sometimes an observer (0) shuffled EA) EP). p) EA) p) EA) 17. only person who spoke. (A) and sometimes (0) were the only ones who knew the order of the five cards. (P) recorded his guess on a record sheet. After the cards had been shuffled they were placed in a row face down. A screen with a small aperture in the center was placed in the center of a table separating (A) and (EA). (A), upon seeing a number from 1-5 at the aperture, glanced at the card of the same number counting from left to right and (EA) signalled (P) to record his guess. Out of the 3,789 (+1) trials, Shackleton made 1,101 hits. This exceeds the chance level by 13.2 standard deviations and amounts to odds greater than 10^5 to 1. In 1945, more work was done with Gloria Stewart. The experi­ments approximated as closely as possible those of the Shackleton series. The symbols on the cards were changed to the following letters: C-camel, F-fox, H-horse, K-kangaroo, T-tiger. During the experiments (P) expected (EP) to amuse her and talk with her. Since the experimenters felt that the Shackleton series had convincingly established the reality of ESP, and had put beyond question the soundness of the techniques, it was decided that the when conditions were varied. The first half hour of each sitting was usually devoted to only person who spoke. 17. (A) and sometimes (0) were the only ones who knew the order of the five cards. (p) recorded his guess on a record sheet. After the cards had been shuffled they were placed in a row face down. A screen with a small aperture in the center was placed in the center of a table separating (A) and (EA). (A), upon seeing a number from 1-5 at the aperture, glanced at the card of the same number counting from left to right and (EA) signalled (p) to record his guess. Out of the 3,789 (+1) trials, Shackleton made 1,101 hits. This exceeds the chance level by 13.2 standard deviations and amounts to odds greater than 1035 to 1. In 1945, more work was done with Gloria Stewart. The experi­ments approximated as closely as possible those of the Shackleton series. The symbols on the cards were changed to the following letters: C-camel, F-fox, H-horse, K-kangaroo, T-tiger. During the experiments (p) expected (EP) to amuse her and talk with her. This conversation had no effect on her scoring. She did equally well whether someone was conversing with her or there was complete silence. Since the experimenters felt that the Shackleton series had convincingly established the reality of ESP, and had put beyond question the soundness of the techniques, it was decided that the primary object of the Stewart experiments should be in finding out something about ESP. The chief aim was to observe the effects The first half hour of each sitting was usually devoted to conversation of a general nature. This seemed to relieve undue 18. tension and helped everyone feel relaxed. (P) had eight scoring five which the animals' initials were printed. served as reminder P) and (were the being ajar. shuffled his five cards and placed them in a row face upwards. A timekeeper (TK) started his stopwatch immediately and (A) looked at the cards without trying consciously to remember them. At the end of thirty seconds (A) turned the cards downward without disturbing their order. (P) was then told who (A) was. The remainder of the experiment was the same as the one described for the Shackleton series except that (A) did not look at each card but merely touched the back of it. Most of the experiments followed this same general pattern. Changes were made in agents, number of agents, clairvoyant or telepathy runs, and speed of calling. It may be of interest to note that when the speed of calling was doubled, the significant scoring on the target (0) card disappeared, and in its place, a highly significant score on the postcognitive (-1) card appeared. In nine-hundred-sixty (-1) trials at rapid speed there were 273 hits, giving a deviation of +81 above the expected 192. The CR was 6.54, the odds being over a hundred million to one that chance would produce such a score. Over a period of four years there resulted a remarkably constant average of nearly 7 hits per 25. A series of 2,500 telepathy trials yielded a total of 707 hits on the target card­an excess of 187 above chance, CR of 91.7 with odds of 1()19 to 1 against chance. 18. tension and helped everyone feel relaxed. (p) had eight scoring sheets and five cards on which the animals' initials were printed. The cards served as a reminder of the choices. (p) and (EP) were in an adjoining room, the door being slightly ajar. (A) shuffled his five cards and placed them in a row face upwards. A timekeeper (TK) started his stopwatch immediately and (A) looked at the cards without trying consciously to remember them. At the end of thirty seconds (A) turned the cards downward without disturbing their order. (p) was then told who (A) was. The remainder of the experiment was the same as the one described for the Shackleton series except that (A) did not look at each card but merely touched the back of it. Most of the experiments followed this same general pattern. Changes were made in agents, number of agents, clairvoyant or telepathY runs, and speed of calling. It may be of interest to note that when the speed of calling was doubled, the significant scoring on the target (0) card disappeared, and in its place, a highly significant score on the postcognitive (-1) card appeared. In nine-hundred-sixty (-1) trials at rapid speed there were 273 hits, giving a deviation of +81 above the expected 192. The CR was 6.54, the odds being over a hundred million to one that chance would produce such a score. Over a period of four years there resulted a remarkably constant average of nearly 7 hits per 25. A series of 2,500 telepathy trials yielded a total of 707 hits on the target card-­an excess of 187 above chance, CR of 91.7 with odds of 1019 to 1 against chance. 19. In the experiments where two agents were used (P) had to piece together information from both agents in order to obtain the correct card. It seemed that in order for her to succeed it had to be made known to her that there were two agents. She produced only chance scores when she was not told. In 3,200 trials in which she knew, she scored 759 (0) hits, an excess over chance of 119. This is equivalent to 5.2 standard deviations, with corresponding odds against chance of over two million to one. Dr. Gertrude Schmeidler's Experiments. Dr. Gertrude Schmeidler attempted to test the theory that belief or disbelief in ESP affects performance ESP. She divided her subjects into two groups-the "sheep" who were believers, and the "goats" who were the unbelievers. The sheep made 97,725 trials and the goats made 88,000 trials. The average score for the sheep was 5.15, and that of the goats, 4.92. These averages appear to be slight, but owing to the enormous number of trials, the score of the sheep is so far above chance that it would be expected to occur only once in 400,000 such experiments. The goats' score is very little below chance, the odds being about 50 to 1. The difference between the scores of the sheep and goats is so marked that it could be expected to happen only once in a million and a half such From this then, Schmeidler concludes, it would seem that belief or disbelief in ESP does effect ESP performance. 19. In the experiments where two agents were used (p) had to piece together information from both agents in order to obtain the correct card. It seemed that in order for her to succeed it had to be made known to her that there were two agents. She produced only chance scores when she was not told. In 3,200 trials in which she knew, she scored 759 (0) hits, an excess over chance of 119. This is equivalent to 5.2 standard deviations, with corresponding odds against chance of over two million to one. Dr. Gertrude Schmeidler' s Experiments. Dr. Gertrude Schmeidler attempted to test the theory that belief or disbelief in ESP affects performance in ESP. She divided her subjects into two groups--the "sheep" who were believers, and the "goats" who were the unbelievers. The sheep made 97,725 trials and the goats made 88,000 trials. The average score for the sheep was 5.15, and that of the goats, 4.92. These averages appear to be slight, but owing to the enormous number of trials, the score of the sheep is so far above chance that it would be expected to occur only once in 400,000 such experiments. The goats' score is very little below chance, the odds being about 50 to 1. The difference between the scores of the sheep and goats is so marked that it could be expected to happen only once in a million and a half such experiments. From this then, Schmeidler concludes, it would seem that belief or disbelief in ESP does effect ESP performance. 20. A Case of Pseudo-ESP. In 1934, Soal ran an extensive series of experiments with the vaudeville telepathist, Frederick Marion (Josef Kraus). Marion had been creating quite a bit of excitement in scientific circles with his remarkable feats in pseudo-telepathy. One of his gifts was his ability to recognize a new playing card which he had previously Soal then, in total darkness, handed Marion a new card. Upon receiving it back, he shuffled it in with five other cards and placed them all face down on the table. The light was switched on and Marion selected the right card. It was discovered that he slightly flexed the card given him and when Soal slightly flexed all six cards in the dark, Marion consistently failed. Other experiments were conducted in which several people were present. They attempted to "will" Marion in the right direction to find a hidden object. It was shown that as long as Marion could see any part of anyone who knew where the object was hidden, he could find it. But as soon as the people were completely hidden from his view, he failed to find the object. These experiments show that no experiments in telepathy can be considered satisfactory as demonstrating ESP if the guesser is agent's 20. A Case of Pseudo-ESP. In 1934, Soal ran an extensive series of experiments with the vaudeville telepathist, Frederick Marion (Josef Kraus). Marion had been creating quite a bit of excitement in scientific circles with his remarkable feats in pseudo-telepathy. One of his gifts was his ability to recognize a new playing card which he had previously handled when it had been mixed with several other cards of identical make and design. Experimentation showed that Marion used tactual discrimination in picking out the correct card. Soal then, in total darkness, handed Marion a new card. Upon receiving it back, he shuffled it in with five other cards and placed them all face down on the table. The light was switched on and Marion selected the right card. It was discovered that he slightly flexed the card given him and when Soal slightly flexed all six cards in the dark, Marion consistently failed. Other experiments were conducted in which several people were present. They attempted to "will" Marion in the right direction to find a hidden object. It was shown that as long as Marion could see any part of anyone who knew where the object was hidden, he could find it. But as soon as the people were completely hidden from his view, he failed to find the object. These experiments show that no experiments in telepathy can be considered satisfactory as demonstrating ESP if the guesser is able to see any part of the agent·s body. 21. CAN TELEPATHY PENETRATE THE IRON CURTAIN?8 In 1952 the author was asked to discuss with U.S. army officials at the Pentagon, the possibility of utilizing ESP for collecting intelligence. clear­ance, l) 3) as a Faraday Cage. This cage is a copper enclosure whose walls prevent electromagnetic waves and electrostatic effects from passing to the inside. A radio placed inside the cage will not play. Also if an electric charge is placed on the walls of the Cage, a person inside will not feel the charge. The method used for testing for ESP was a matching problem test in which the chance score was 6 out of 50. The test consisted g Puharich, Henry K. "Can Telepathy Penetrate the Iron Curtain?" Tomorrow, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1957. CAN TELEPATHY PENETRATE THE IRON CURTAIN?B In 1952 the author was asked to discuss with U. S. army officials at the Pentagon,the possibility of utilizing ESP for 21. collecting intelligence. The question asked was: "It is feasible and can it be a practical adjunct to the intelligence-collecting and evaluating apparatus?" In the author's opinion, the answer was yes. The problems to be solved are concerned with security clear-ance, finding people to conduct the necessary research, and finding some way of stabilizing ESP. The latter can be achieved in a number of ways: (1) Psychological stability must be nurtured in the sensitives. (2) Chemicals can be used to stabilize the neural mass to favor the continuity of ESP in humans. (3) Miscellaneous techniques and devices can be used to stabilize the appearance of ESP. Among these devices is the utilization of special electrical environmental conditions that both stabilize and increase the acuity of ESP. An example of the latter is a cubical metal enclosure known The method used for testing for ESP was a matching problem test in which the chance score was 6 out of 50. The test consisted BPuharich, Henry K. Tomorrow, Vol. 5, No.2, "Can Telepathy Penetrate the Iron Curtain?" 1957. 22. of ten different pictures, each set being placed in a row. Both rows were shuffled and the matching of ten pictures was called a run. The pictures were placed under an opaque screen so that S could handle them but could not see them. S was also blindfolded so he S placed his left hand on one of the pictures in the row closest to him. He then passed his right hand over the other row of pictures and attempted to find the mate. E knew the picture that S was seeking and tried by telepathy to influence S to pick up the correct picture. When S made his choice he picked up the plastic box and placed it opposite the one under his left hand. A complete experi­ment consisted of fifty trial matches, or five runs. The score significant for the telepathic ESP is 11/50 (odds of once in 100 telepathic These same teams were placed in Faraday Cages which were grounded to the earth. The average score jumped to 25/50 hits. 10 , conditions. 22. of ten different pictures, each set being placed in a row. Both rows were shuffled and the matching of ten pictures was called a run . The pictures were placed under an opaque screen so that S could handle them but could not see them. S was also blindfolded so he could see neither the pictures nor E. The pictures were placed in clear plastic boxes so that S could not touch the surface of the picture, but E could see each one olearly. S placed his left hand on one of ,the 'pictures in the row closest to him. He then passed his right hand over the other row of pictures and attempted to find the mate. E knew the picture that S was seeking and tried by telepathy to influence S to pick up the correct picture. When S made his choice he picked up the plastic box and placed it opposite the one under his left hand. A complete experi­ment consisted of fifty trial matches, or five runs. The score significant for the telepathic ESP is 11/50 (odds of once in 100 experiments). A number of different telepathiC teams averaged 12/50 hits under normal room conditions (odds of 8 out of every 1000 experiments). These same teams were placed in Faraday Cages which were grounded to the earth. The average score jumped to 25/ 50 hits. This represents a statistical probability of 1.29341 times 10-10, or odds that chance could produce such a score once in ten billion experiments. When the wire connection between the cage and earth was broken, the scoring dropped to the level found for normal room condit ions. It is of importance to note that, while S was correctly 23. matching the pictures, he did not consciously know what the pictures were. This means that no intelligence was gained from this kind of telepathic process. The correct matching was carried out at an unconscious level. The Cage was then charged with 20,000 volts direct current negative on the outer walls. The scores jumped to an average of = 10" 6 ) . to When E and S were in normal room conditions, the scoring was 6/50 or chance. However, when S was placed in an electrically charged Cage the scoring rose to 14/50. When both E and S were in Such stabilization of ESP has made possible public demonstra­tions under rigid test conditions. It may be concluded that significant scores under these rigid conditions are possible on NEGATIVE RESULTS AND CRITICISMS EXPERIMENTS IN PSYCHICAL In January, 1912, a grant was given to Stanford University by ^Coover, John E.Experiments Psychical Research, Stanford - 23. matching the pictures, he did not consciously know what the pictures were. This means that no intelligence was gained from this kind of telepathic process. The correct matching was carried out at an unconscious level. The Cage was then charged with 20,000 volts direct current negative on the outer walls. The scores jumped to an average of 43/50 hits (p 10-26). And suddenly the two subjects were able to transmit and receive symbolic intelligence between them. They could not only match the pictures correctly but could describe them in detail. This ability was retained even when the two were placed in separate cages 0.3 mile apart. When E and S were in normal room conditions, the scoring was 6/50 or chance. However, when S was placed in an electrically charged Cage the scoring rose to 14/50. When both E and S were in separate cages, electrically charged, 0.3 mile apart their scoring rose to 36/50 hits. Such stabilization of ESP has made possible public demonstra-tions under rigid test conditions. It may be concluded that significant scores under these rigid conditions are possible on demand, so far, only when one or both subjects are in an electrically charged Faraday Cage. NEGATIVE RESULTS AND CRITICISMS EXPERIMENTS IN PSYCHICAL RESEARCH9 In January, 1912, a grant was given to Stanford University by 9Coover, John E. Experiments in PSychical Research, Stanford University Press, 1917. 24. Thomas Welton Stanford for the purpose of conducting experiments in psychical research. The research was carried on for approximately four years under the direction of John E. Coover, a member of the Psychology Department at Stanford. The following is a summary of the relevant parts of the research: The first division of the experimentation was the guessing of lotto-block numbers. The object was to get a norm for normal persons with which to compare results from sensitives. The experi­menters hoped to establish an inductive probability with which to compare the results as well as with the theoretical probability. Method: The lotto-blocks were of light hard wood 15 mm. in diameter, 8 mm. high, and the block Arabic numbers were printed heavily shaded Roman type, 8 mm. high. Two-place numbers up to and including 90 were used. S sat an arm-leaf chair with his back to number- described mind, b) imagery, recurring), where to be A B C D in descending order. S was given twenty seconds to receive an impression of a number The 24. Thomas \velton Stanford for the purpose of conducting experiments in psychical research. The research was carried on for approximately four years under the direction of John E. Coover, a member of the Psychology Department at Stanford. The following is a summary of the relevant parts of the research: The first division of the experimentation was the guessing of lotto-block numbers. The object was to get a norm for normal persons with which to compare results from sensitives. The experi­menters hoped to establish an inductive probability with which to compare the results as well as with the theoretical probability. Method: The lotto-blocks were of light hard wood 15 mm. in diameter, 8 mm. high, and the block Arabic numbers were printed in heavily shaded Roman type, 8 mm. high. Two-place numbers up to and including 90 were used. S sat in an arm-leaf chair with his back to E, and after each experiment (each guess of a double number-­described more fully in the following paragraph) noted introspections in a tabulated form under the following headings: (a) Degree of receptivity of the mind. (b) Grade of certainty of judgment, or vividness of imagery. (c) Kind of impression (visual, auditory, or kinaesthetic). (d) Temporal course of the impression (sudden, slow in appearance, early in the period or late, persistent, recurring). (e) Spatial attributes (where apparently located). The grading was ABC S was given twenty seconds to receive an impression of a number from 10 to 90. (The time was later reduced to fifteen seconds.) He rested comfortably and sought a quiet, receptive state of mind. 25. E sat facing S's back, drew a lotto-block from a bag and if the numbered side came up, made ready to hold it in some kind of vivid imagery; he then shook the dice box, tapped with his pencil once to inform S that the period of impression had begun, then held or did not hold imagery of the number, and after fifteen seconds, tapped twice to close the period of impression. Imagery was held according to the face cast by the die. After S had recorded his guess and while he was writing his introspections, E recorded the block num­ber and the face of the die, and indicated whether the number was imaged. The number of experiments ranged from twenty to fifty per subject. The sittings took place in the first hour of the afternoon on alternate days, three times a week. The experiments numbered one thousand. The numerical results were tabulated under the headings of the "Number Not Imaged" and "Number Imaged" experiments. This enabled the averages of the "Number Imaged" experiments to be com­pared with those of an experimental probability as well as with the theoretical probability in order to determine whether any cause besides chance had been operative toward right cases (equal Although the condition toward the experimentation and the Chance results were also obtained in both of two series of E sat facing S's back, drew a lotto-block from a bag and if the numbered side carne up, made ready to hold it in some kind of vivid imagery; he then shook the dice box, tapped with his pencil once to inform S that the period of impression had begun, then held or did not hold imagery of the number, and after fifteen seconds, tapped twice to close the period of impression. Imagery was held according to the face cast by the die. After S had recorded his guess and while he was writing his introspections, E recorded the block num­ber and the face of the die, and indicated whether the number was imaged. The number of experiments ranged from twenty to fifty per subject. The sittings took place in the first hour of the afternoon on alternate days, three times a week. The experiments numbered one thousand. The numerical results were tabulated under the headings of the "Number Not Imaged" and "Number Imaged" experiments. This enabled the averages of the "Number Imaged" experiments to be com­pared with those of an experimental probability as well as with the theoretical probability in order to determine whether any cause besides chance had been operative toward right cases (equal to number of correct hits in this study). Although the condition toward the experimentation and the attitude and training of S seemed favorable for telepathy, the results of one thousand experiments yielded nothing significant. Chance results were also obtained in both of two series of experiments with playing cards in which the number, suit, and color 26. were called. The object of the experiment was to attempt to deter­mine whether transferred knowledge, any should be found, involved the use of visual imagery, as appeared to be the case in most of the (3) auditory accompaniment), (5) combined visual impression, kinaesthetic imagery, an(i auditory imagery. S called the cards and noted introspections for each experiment. The one-hundred five subjects were "normal" in that they were not considered sensitives, although some of them had had experiences of an extrasensory nature. The results may be taken to indicate that the normal person who has telepathic power is relatively rare, and that the telepathic experience, if it occurs at all, probably occurs only when the mind is in a "critical" state. In the second series the subjects were sensitives. The pro­cedure was the same as for the first series. The statistical analysis of the results of one thousand experiments with psychics reveals no advantage for the psychics over normal subjects with regard to telepathy or clairvoyance. Coover also reported research in the area of subliminal impressions. Experiments employing the use of tachistoscopes, "indistinguishable" weights, and minimal sounds have produced quite 26. were called. The object of the experiment was to attempt to deter­mine whether transferred knowledge, if any should be found, involved the use of visual imagery, as appeared to be the case in most of the English experiments, or of kinaesthetic imagery. The card drawn by E from a constantly reshuffled pack of forty, was held in his mind in three different forms of content, the form being determined for each experiment by the casting of an odd number of a die. The forms were: (1) Visual impression, (3) kinaesthetic imagery (stripped of auditory accompaniment), (5) combined visual impression, kinaesthetic imagery, and auditory imagery. S called the cards and noted introspections for each experiment. The one-hundred five subjects were "normal" in that they were not considered sensitives, although some of them had had experiences of an extrasensory nature. The results may be taken to indicate that the normal person who has telepathic power is relatively rare, and that the telepathic experience, if it occurs at all, probably occurs only when the mind is in a "critical" state. In the second series the subjects were sensitives. The pro­cedure was the same as for the first series. The statistical analysis of the results of one thousand experiments with psychics reveals no advantage for the psychics over normal subjects with regard to telepathy or clairvoyance. Coover also reported research in the area of subliminal impressions. Experiments employing the use of tachistoscopes, "indistinguishable" weights, and minimal soundshave produced quite 27. significant results indicating that subliminal impressions are received and emerge in the conscious mind. An example of this is an experiment carried out by Sidis, which he made on himself. His right eye was amblyopic. Things seen by it were misty. With the left eye closed he was unable to tell letter from figure. On each of twenty-five slips four characters were written-letters, figures, or both-in different combinations. The slips were then presented one at a time to Sidis' right eye and he had to guess which characters were letters and which were figures. Out of the four hundred experiments made, 286 correct guesses were made which gives a quite significant 71.5 per cent correct. The experimenters stated that the results of these experi­ments seem to indicate the ability of the mind to perceive things at a subconscious level and to allow these perceived things to reach the conscious level. In concluding, Dr. Coover and his associats report that in the subjects they tested telepathy was not present. However, other experimenters have re-examined Coover's work and report that he was mistaken in his interpretations of the findings, that he did have evidence in favor of telepathy. Soal and Bateman state that in the grand total of 10,000 Yale University Press, 1954. 27. significant results indicating that subliminal impressions are received and emerge in the conscious mind. An example of this is an experiment carried out by Sidis, which he made on himself. His right eye was amblyopic. Things seen by it were misty. With the left eye closed he was unable to tell letter from figure. On each of twenty-five slips four characters were written--letters, figures, or both--in different combinations. The slips were then presented one at a time to Sidis' right eye and he had to guess which characters were letters and which were figures. Out of the four hundred experiments made, 286 correct guesses were made which gives a quite significant 71.5 per cent correct. The experimenters stated that the results of these experi-ments seem to indicate the ability of the mind to perceive things at a subconscious level and to allow these perceived things to reach the conscious level. In concluding, Dr. Coover and his associate report that in the subjects they tested telepathy was not present. However, other experimenters have re-examined Coover's work and report that he was mistaken in his interpretations of the findings, that he did have evidence in favor of telepathy. 10 Soal and Bateman etate that in the grand total of 10,000 guesses which Coover's subjects made, there were no fewer than 294 correct hits as compared with an expected 250. Each pack contained 16 Soal, S. G. and Bateman, F. Modern Experiments in Telepathy, Yale University Press, 1954. 28. 40 cards numbered from 1 to 10 in four suits. Now, N = 10,000, p = 1/40, the SD is 15.61, and the CR is 44/15.61, i.e. 2.8, which the results to 200 to one. A CASE OF ESP: CRITIQUE OF "PERSONAL VALUES AND ESP SCORES" By Gertrude R. Schmeidler11 This is a critique by E. S. Burdock of a study made by Dr. Gertrude R. Schmeidler on Personal Values and ESP Scores. In the investigation the subjects were required to guess the order of items in concealed lists. The total per run was twenty-five with sub­jects The author attacks the investigator's use of t tests in determining the significance of the results. The author states a) b) c) llBurdock, E. S. "A Case of ESP: Critique of 'Personal Values and ESP Score' by Gertrude R. Schmeidler," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, April, 1954. 28. 40 cards numbered from 1 to 10 in four suits. Now, N = 10,000, P = 1/ 40, the SO is 15.61, and the CR is 44/15.61, i.e. 2.8, which gives odds against the results being due to chance of about 200 to one. A CASE OF ESP: CRITIQUE OF "PERSONAL VALUES AND ESP SCORES" By Gertrude R. SChmeidlerll This is a critique by E. S. Burdock of a study made by Dr. Gertrude R. Schmeidler on Personal Values and ESP Scores. In the investigation the subjects were required to guess the order of items in concealed lists. The total per run was twenty-five with five different symbols. This means that the chance score would be five. One-hundred twenty-two subjects were given a total of 959 runs, approximately eight runs per subject. In the statistical evaluation the investigator combined the results of various sub-jects into two groups, a group of cooperative subjects called "sheep" and a contrasting group of recalcitrant "goats." The author attacks the investigator's use of t tests in determining the significance of the results. The author states that the t test rests on the assumption that "(a) the trait whose measurement is being tested is normally distributed; (b) the variance of the samples is homogeneous; and (c) the samples are a random selection." With these in mind, the author, in terms of the assumptions made by the investigator, notes the following: llBurdock, E. S. "A Case of ESP: Critique of 'Personal Values and ESP Score I by Gertrude R. Schmeidler," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, April, 1954. 29. 1. The universe postulated has a range of discrete values from 0 to 25 and a mean of 5. It is thus neither normal nor contin­uously distributed. "2. No test was made for homogeneity of variance. "3. The randomness of the sample is in doubt, since the 959 runs are not drawn at random from the postulated universe, but only from one-hundred twenty-two subjects." The author then suggests that a more appropriate device would be a nonparametric test such as the Chi square. In conclusion, the author states that the findings "are not due so much to telepathy as to numerology." SYMPOSIUM EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION12 In May, 1955, an international group of scientists met in London to discuss and evaluate experimental evidence relating to ESP. These scientists represented various fields-parapsychology, research groups, medicine, mathematics, biology, physics, psychiatry, psychology, and other related fields. Several papers relating to ESP were presented following which there were discussions. The first paper, presented by Dr. Robert A. McConnell, dealt guessing experiment and listed several factors upon which depends 12Parkes, A. S., Chairman. Ciba Foundation Symposium, Extra­sensory Perception, Little, Brown & Company, 1956. 29. "l. The universe postulated has a range of discrete values from 0 to 25 and a mean of 5. It is thus neither normal nor contin-uously distributed. "2. No test was made for homogeneity of variance. "3. The randomness of the sample is in doubt, since the 959 runs are not drawn at random from the postulated universe, but only from one-hundred twenty-two subjects." , The author then suggests that a more appropriate device would be a nonparametric test such as the Chi square. In conclusion, the author states that the findings "are not due so much to telepathy as to numerology." A SYMPOSIUM EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION12 In May, 1955, an international group of scientists met in London to discuss and evaluate experimental evidence relating to ESP. These scientists represented various fields--parapsychology, research groups, medicine, mathematics, biology, physics, psychiatry, psychology, and other related fields. Several papers relating to ESP were presented following which there were discussions. The first paper, presented by Dr. Robert A. McConnell, dealt with the laboratory evidence for ESP. He described a typical card guessing experiment and listed several factors upon which depends the scientific status of the results. One of the essential things 12parkes, A. S., Chairman. Ciba Foundation Symposium, Extra­sensory Perception, Little, Brown & Company, 1956. 30. he mentioned is concerned with statistical procedures in that any questioning of validity of these procedures must be confined to "that marginal region where their validity has never been adequately tested by experiment," and that "as far as ESP is concerned, the sole point at issue is whether such hypothetical defects standard statistical procedures can be large enough to be relevant." The second paper, by Dr. Donald West, was on the strength and weaknesses of ESP evidence. Dr. West stated that as far as he is concerned, the Shackleton experiments and others of like quality are proof of ESP. Yet, they don't measure up to the requirements for scientific conviction mainly because they are more in the nature of demonstrations than repeatable experiments. The crux of the problem is that these experiments cannot be repeated by anyone who wants to make the effort. J. Fraser Nicol, the third paper, discussed some scientific difficulties to ESP recognition. He noted four reasons why the majority of scientists still view the subject with doubt: (1) The seeming irrelevance of the subject to other sciences. (2) The He also reported briefly, results of some of the experiments conducted by various researchers, three of which are summarized briefly below.^ •^Soal, S. G. and Bateman, F. Modern Experiments Telepathy, Yale University Press, 1954. 30. he mentioned is concerned with statistical procedures in that any questioning of validity of these procedures must be confined to "that marginal region where their validity has never been adequately tested by experiment," and that "as far as ESP is concerned, the sole point at issue is whether such hypothetical defects in standard statistical procedures can be large enough to be relevant." The second paper, by Dr. Donald J. West, was on the strength and weaknesses of ESP evidence. Dr. West stated that as far as he is concerned, the Shackleton experiments and others of like quality are proof of ESP. Yet, they don't measure up to the requirements for scientific conviction mainly because they are more in the nature of demonstrations than repeatable experiments. The crux of the problem is that these experiments cannot be repeated by anyone who wants to make the effort. J. Fraser Nicol, in the third paper, discussed some scientific difficulties to ESP recognition. He noted four reasons why the majority of scientists still view the subject with doubt: (1) The seeming irrelevance of the subject to other sciences. (2) The lack of any repeatable experiment. (3) Disagreement among psychical researches as to the quality of much of the evidence. (4) Claims made that are unsupportable by the published evidence. He also reported briefly, results of some of the experiments conducted by various researchers, three of which are summarized briefly below.13 13Soal, S. G. and Bateman, F. Modern Experiments in Telepathy, Yale University Press, 1954. 31. Pearce, H. and Pratt, J. G. This clairvoyant investigation was carried out with E and S in separate buildings. The number of trials was 1850, the average score per run was 7.53 and the normal ' deviate was 10.87, which has an associated probability of 20. Murphy, G. and Taves, E. The number of trials was 175,000. significantly tasks. Riess, B. F. E and S were a quarter of a mile apart. Out of 74 runs the average score per run was 18.24. In one series of nine runs all the scores were more than 20. The normal deviate was 53.57, which is the largest on record for a single series. The probability is about 10"' against the null hypothesis. The next paper, by Dr. G. D. Wasserman, outlined a physical field theory which would account not only for what is known about the development of organic forms and about animal behavior, but which is capable of translating the associated energy field and thus the event is foreseen. Parapsychological data are open to three possible interpre­tations, according to G. Spencer Brown in the fifth paper: (1) ESP 31. Pearce, H. and Pratt, J. G. This clairvoyant investigation was carried out with E and S in separate buildings. The number of trials was 1850, the average score per run was 7.53 and the normal deviate was 10.87, which has an associated probability of 10-20• Murphy, G. and Taves, E. The number of trials was 175,000. The total scores were not Significantly above chance expectation, but significant correlations were found between certain of the ESP tasks. Riess, B. F. E and S were a quarter of a mile apart. Out of 74 runs the average score per run was 18.24. In one series of nine runs all the scores were more than 20. The normal deviate was 53.57, which is the largest on record for a single series. The probability is about 10-700 against the null hypothesis. The next paper, by Dr. G. D. Wasserman, outlined a physical field theory which would account not only for what is known about the development of organic forms and about animal behavior, but also for the facts of parapsychology. The theory, in essence, attempts to explain ESP in terms of a chain reaction among fields of energy. For example, precognition occurs when a given energy field, activated by an outside force, in turn activates another field. This chain reaction occasionally reaches a human mind Parapsychological data are open to three possible interpre­tatio~ according to G. Spencer Brown in the fifth paper: (1) ESP does occur (he does not consider this proven). (2) The assumptions 32. underlying the standard calculus of probability are to some extent faulty. (3) There is an occasional but accidental synchronicity between a series of random numbers and a given series of guesses. In the next paper, Dr. S. G. Soal presented some of his findings which are published in "Modern Experiments in Telepathy" by him and F. Bateman. Since that book is discussed elsewhere in this chapter, this paper will not be discussed here. M. Pobers presented the next paper which dealt with psychic phenomena among primitive peoples. He stressed that reports of them must not be accepted uncritically. He also stated that, with the rapidity with which technological progress is spreading over the earth, the time during which careful experimentation with primitive peoples is still possible is getting short. The next paper, presented by Langdon-Davies, described a series of runs testing for telepathy made with three native servant girls. Briefly the results were: When both subject and agent were 1. The principal subject, A, completed 575 guesses with an average of 10.7 correct guesses per run and a CR of 14. 2. Subjects E and M both exceeded this result by a small margin and had CR's of 14 and 15. 3. Three subjects, the only ones tested, made between them 1,900 guesses with correct guesses in 855 cases, an average of over 11 per pack. 4. The CR for such a result is over 27, giving astronomical 32. underlying the standard calculus of probability are to some extent faulty. (3) There is an occasional but accidental synchronicity between a series of random numbers and a given series of guesses. In the next paper, Dr. S. G. Soal presented some of his findings which are published in "Modern Experiments in Telepathy" by him and F. Bateman. Since that book is discussed elsewhere in this chapter, this paper will not be discussed here. M. Pobers presented the next paper which dealt with psychic phenomena among primitive peoples. He stressed that reports of them must not be accepted uncritically. He also stated that, with the rapidity with which technological progress is spreading over the earth, the time during which careful experimentation with primitive peoples is still possible is getting short. The next paper, presented by J. Langdon-Davies, described a series of runs testing for telepathy made with three native servant girls. Briefly the results were: When both subject and agent were Spanish: 1. The principal subject, A, completed 575 guesses with an average of 10.7 correct guesses per run and a CR of 14. 2. SUbjects E and M both exceeded this result by a small margin and had CR's of 14 and 15. 3. Three subjects, the only ones tested, made between them 1,900 guesses with correct guesses in 855 cases, an average of over 11 per pack. 4. The CR for such a result is over 27, giving astronomical odds against chance. 33. When Langdon-Davies or his wife acted as agent the results were quite different. Subject A in nine runs scored seven less than expectation. Subject E with 100 guesses averaged only six. Subject M with 525 guesses averaged 9.13, which was significant. Langdon-Davies also brought outt that the type of person most likely to exhibit ESP is the member of an unsophisticated social environment, the importance of the psychological relationship of the persons involved in the experiment, and the importance of changes of technique in inhibiting or releasing ESP-The next two papers dealt with pseudo-ESP. Dr. Soal and Dr. E. J. Dingwall cited instances in which phenomena, actually the product of subliminal cues, had been credited to ESP. This stresses the importance of eliminating the possibility of sensory leakage when testing for ESP, and also the importance of critically examining personal experiences of an ESP nature. In the succeeding paper, Dr. G. V. T. Matthews stated that the navigational ability of homing pigeons and other birds has a sensory basis and is not the result of ESP. However, Dr. J. G. Pratt described in the next paper, an experiment carried out by himself and his associates which tend to point to ESP as a factor. He emphasized in conclusion that to provide a decisive test is not an task, Robert Amadou next presented his paper on parapsychology in the modern approach to psychosomatic man. He first pointed out a unique feature of parapsychology-it has had not only to study its subject matter, ESP, but it first has had to establish its very 33. \'ihen Langdon-Davies or his wife acted as agent the results were quite different. Subject A in nine runs scored seven less than expectation. Subject E with 100 guesses averaged only six. Subject M with 525 guesses averaged 9.1~which was significant. Langdon-Davies also brought out, that the type of person most likely to exhibit ESP is the member of an unsophisticated social environment, the importance of the psychological relationship of the persons involved in the experiment, and the importance of changes of technique in inhibiting or releaSing ESP. The next two papers dealt with pseudo-ESP. Dr. Soal and Dr. E. J. Dingwall cited instances in which phenomena, actually the product of subliminal cues, had been credited to ESP. This stresses the importance of eliminating the possibility of sensory leakage when testing for ESP, and also the importance of critically examining personal experiences of an ESP nature. In the succeeding paper, Dr. G. V. T. Matthews stated that the navigational ability of homing pigeons and other birds has a sensory basis and is not the result of ESP. However, Dr. J. G. Pratt described in the next paper, an experiment carried out by himself and his associates which tend to point to ESP as a factor. He emphasized in conclusion that to provide a decisive test is not an easy task. Robert Amadou next presented his paper on parapsychology in the modern approach to psychosomatic man. He first pointed out a unique feature of parapsychology--it has had not only to study its subject matter, ESP, but it first has had to establish its very 34. existence. Now, if ESP is a fact, it must play a part in every physical activity. The right subject of study is the whole man and the whole situation in which ESP occurs. The main task now is to OPINION SURVEYS Two opinion surveys are reported, the first of which shows the feelings of APA members toward ESP investigations. The second one deals with the attitudes of neuropsychiatrists toward parapsychology. "A SECOND SURVEY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL OPINION ON ESP" By Lucien Warner1^ "Repeating a survey made in 1938, the author sent to 515 Fellows of the APA questionnaires concerning their attitudes toward ESP investigations. Of the 70 per cent who replied, over 80 per cent viewed ESP as either 'a remote possibility,' 'an impossibility,' or 'merely an unknown.' Eighty-nine per cent considered ESP investi­gation a legitimate scientific undertaking; 78 per cent thought it came within the province of academic psychology. Other questions dealt with the source of the respondents' opinions and with criticisms of research conduct and suggestions for improve­ment "The answers to the 1952 questionnaire were compared with those of the 1938 survey and little change was found to have occurred in the intervening 14 years." Humphrey, "'Second Survey of Psychological Opinion on ESP,1 by Lucian Warner," Psychological Abstracts, February, 1955- 34. existence. Now, if ESP is a fact, it must play a part in every physical activity. The right subject of study is the whole man and the whole situation in which ESP occurs. The main task now is to effect a synthesis of psychology and parapsychology. OPINION SURVEYS Two opinion surveys are reported, the first of which shows the feelings of APA members toward ESP investigations. The second one deals with the attitudes of neuropsychiatrists toward parapsychology. "A SECOND SURVEY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL OPINION ON ESP" By Lucien Warner14 "Repeating· a survey made in 1938, the author sent to 515 Fellows of the APA questionnaires concerning their attitudes toward ESP investigations. Of the 70 per cent who replied, over 80 per cent viewed ESP as either 'a remote possibility,' 'an impossibility,' or 'merely an unknown.' Eighty-nine per cent considered ESP investi-gat ion a legitimate scientific undertaking; 78 per cent thought it came within the province of academic psychology. Other questions dealt with the source of the respondents' opinions and with criticisms of research conduct and suggestions for improve-ment of methods. "The answers to the 1952 questionnaire were compared with those of the 1938 survey and little change was found to have occurred in the intervening 14 years." ~umphrey, B. M. '" A on ESP, r by Luc ian Warner," 1955. Second Survey of Psychological Opinion Psychological Abstracts, February, 35. "CURRENT ATTITUDES OF AMERICAN NEUROPSYCHIATRISTS TOWARD PARA­PSYCHOLOGY; A By G. MacRobert15 "In an effort to survey the attitude of neuropsychiatrists toward present-day parapsychology, a questionnaire was sent to specialists in psychiatry and neurology as listed in professional extra­sensory comments and research suggestions sent in by many psychiatrists." The following statements summarize the literature reported in this chapter: 1. The research evidence points very strongly to the existence of ESP, although this evidence is not conclusive at this point; however, some experiments have reported that nothing but chance was operating. The use of the t test technique has even been questioned as a valid statistical tool in some types of ESP research that have produced significant results. 15Humphrey, B. M. '"Current Attitudes of American Neuron-psychiatrists A by Russell B. MacRobert," Psychological Abstracts, 1950. "CURRENT ATTITUDES OF AMERICAN NEUROPSYCHIATRISTS TOWARD PARA­PSYCHOLOGY; A SURVEY" By Russell G. MacRobert15 "In an effort to survey the attitude of neuropsychiatrists toward present-day parapsychology, a questionnaire was sent to 35. specialists in psychiatry and neurology as listed in professional directories. Of the questionnaires sent out 28 per cent, or 723, were returned. Only 31 per cent claimed familiarity with recent findings in parapsychology, but 38 per cent believed that bias or errors may account for the findings. Personally observed ESP experiences were reported by 23 per cent. The question whether psychiatrists and neurologists should sponsor research in extra-sensory perception was answered in the affirmative by 68 per cent. Various analyses of answers are reported along with excerpts of psychiatrists. 11 SUMMARY The following statements summarize the literature reported in this chapter: 1. The research evidence points very strongly to the existence of ESP, although this evidence is not conclusive at this point; however, some experiments have reported that nothing but chance was operating. The use of the t test technique has even been questioned as a valid statistical tool in some types of ESP research that have produced significant results. l5Humphrey, B. M. 11 'Current Attitudes of American Neuro~ psychiatrists Toward Parapsychology: A Survey' by Russell B. MacRo bert, " Psychological Abstracts, February, 1950. 36. 2. The results of still other experiments may be explained better on the basis of subliminal cues rather than on the basis of ESP. 3. The current attitude of the scientific world toward ESP seems t© acknowledge the existence of these phenomena and that they are worthy of further experimentation in an effort to determine more definitely their nature and the conditions under which they operate. 2. The results of still other experiments may be explained better on the basis of subliminal cues rather than on the basis of ESP. 36. 3. The current attitude of the scientific world toward ESP seems te acknowledge the existence of these phenomena and that they are worthy of further experimentation in an effort to determine more definitely their nature and the conditions under which they operate. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Subjects: Blind subjects were obtained from the Murray B. Allen Blind Center in Salt Lake City, Utah, with the exception of two from Idaho Falls, Idaho, and a Brigham Young University student. Trial certain of these phenomena. The subjects were also classified by means of a questionnaire had exper­iences differences Apparatus: The ESP cards used for these tests were a series of twenty-five 3j" x 2£" cards consisting of five groups of five cards 17 each, numbered from one to five with smooth ink printing. A sub­ject's response to each group of twenty-five cards is known as a run. An automatic shuffler was used to shuffle all cards before each run. Six runs were recorded on each record sheet. Procedure: The tests were carried out in four series each involving l6see Appendix A. 17see Appendix B. 18See Appendix C. CHAPl'ER III METHODOLOGY Subjects: Blind subjects were obtained from the Murray B. Allen Blind Center in Salt Lake City, Utah, with the exception of two from Idaho Falls, Idaho, and a Brigham Young University student. Trial runs were conducted to identify subjects who could demonstrate certain of these phenomena. The subjects were also classified by means of a short Questionnaire16 into: (a) those who claimed to have had experience of an ESP nature; and (b) those who felt that such exper-iences could be attributed to the recognized channels of sense, or to chance. It was of interest to note differ-ences in performance which may have existed between these two groups since claims have been made that belief or disbelief in ESP may affect performance. Apparatus: The ESP cards used for these tests were a series of twenty-five 3!" x 2~" cards consisting of five groups of five cards each, numbered from one to five with smooth ink printing. 17 A sub-ject's response to each group of twenty-five cards is known as a run. An automatic shuffler was used to shuffle all cards before each run. Six runs were recorded on each record sheet. 18 Procedure: The tests were carried out in four series each involving 16see Appendix A. 17See Appendix B. 18See Appendix C. 38. a progressive reduction of the cues available in the previous series. (A) The first series allowed for some auditory and tactual cues which were eliminated on succeeding series. The experimenter (E) and the subject (S) sat opposite one another at a table. A record sheet and a pack of ESP cards placed face down were on the table. E picked the card by tracing it with his finger or otherwise touching it. E then placed the card face down in a separate pile on the table. This procedure was followed down through the pack for twelve runs. (B) On the second series the tactual cues were eliminated. E and S sat opposite one another at a table. E picked up the top in this series. This procedure was followed for twelve runs. (C) The third series eliminated auditory or other cues which may have been produced by subliminal body movements of E. Again sitting opposite one another at a table, S called the entire deck called by S. This procedure was followed for twelve runs. (D) For the last series E and S were in two separate rooms. An 38. a progressive reduction of the cues available in the previous series. (A) The first series allowed for some auditory and tactual cues which were eliminated on succeeding series. The experimenter (E) and the sUbject (S) sat opposite one another at a table. A record sheet and a pack of ESP cards placed face down were on the table. E picked up the top card, looked at it, checked the number on a record sheet, and handed it to S to call, i.e., S told E the first number that came into his mind upon receiving the card. This was done without any effort on the part of the subject to determine the number on the card by tracing it with his finger or otherwise touching it. E then placed the card face down in a separate pile on the table. This procedure was followed down through the pack for twelve runs. The cards were thoroughly shuffled after each run. (B) On the second series the tactual cues were eliminated. E and S sat opposite one another at a table. E picked up the top card, looked at it, checked the number, placed the card in a separate pile, and S called it. The subject did not touch any of the cards in this series. This procedure was followed for twelve runs. (C) The third series eliminated auditory or other cues which may have been produced by subliminal body movements of E. Again sitting opposite one another at a table, S called the entire deck down through. E did not touch the cards but recorded each call made by S. After the entire pack was called in this manner E went through it and matched the numbers of the cards with the numbers (D) For the last series E and S were in two separate r ooms. An intercom, telephone, or buzzer was used to send a signal to S to 39. call a card. E picked up a card, looked at it, checked it on a record sheet, and signalled S by a tap or a buzz to call the card which E had just checked. A third person was in the same room with In none of these tests did S know his degree of success or failure until after the entire run was completed. STATISTICAL TREATMENT Standard statistical procedures as set up and used by recognized ESP researchers were used in analyzing the data. Five scores were obtained from each run of 25 trials, the first one being the number of direct hits (0), that is, the number of times S called the target correctly. Next, the precognitive (+1) cards were checked. This refers to the number of times S called the card just following the target card, that is, the top card on the pile which E had not yet used as a target card. This is known as a displacement and is sometimes referred to as precognitive clairvoyance because that particular card's "turn" had not yet come and E had no conscious idea of what the card was. The precognitive (+2) cards were also checked. These were the ones that were two cards away from the Going the other direction, the postcognitive (-1) cards were 39. call a card. E picked up a card, looked at it, checked it on a record sheet, and signalled S by a tap or a buzz to call the card which E had just checked. A third person was in the same room with S to record the calls and help with signalling. At the end of each run the two records were matched. This procedure was followed for twelve runs. In none of these tests did S know his degree of success or failure until after the entire run was completed. STATISTICAL TREATMENT Standard statistical procedures as set up and used by recognized ESP researchers were used in analyzing the data. Five scores were obtained from each run of 25 trials, the first one being the number of direct hits (0), that is', the number of times S called the target correctly. Next, the precognitive (+1) cards were checked. This refers to the number of times S called the card just following the target card, that is, the top card on the pile which E had not yet used as a target card. This is known as a displacement and is sometimes referred to as precognitive clairvoyance because that particular card's "turn" had not yet come and E had no conscious idea of what the card was. The precognitive (+2) cards were also checked. These were the ones that were two cards away from the target card. They were just beneath the top card on the pile and had yet to be used as target cards. Going the other direction, the postcognitive (-1) cards were counted. These were the cards that had just taken their turns as target cards. They had immediately preceded the target card when called by S. The postcognitive (-2) cards were two places away from the target card. They had also had their turns as target cards. The first statistical treatment was that of determining the significance of the deviation of the observed hits from the expected number of hits. This is a comparison of an individual's total he doing any better than chance, where the effect of chance is TABLE I THE REQUIRED NUMBER OF HITS PER SCORE TYPE AT THE 5 PER CENT AND THE ONE PER CENT LEVELS OF CONFIDENCE N = 300 TRIALS (+(+D (-D 55.2 57.6 60.0 66.2 68.8 73-2 the number of direct hits to be significant at the 5 per cent level 40. target cards. They had immediately preceded the target card when called by S. The postcognitive (-2) cards were two places away from the target card. They had also had their turns as target cards. The first statistical treatment was that of determining the significance of the deviation of the observed hits from the expected number of hits. This is a comparison of an individual's total performance in a particular experiment. The question asked is: Is he doing any better than chance, where the effect of chance is assessed through the theoretical distribution of errors based only on the probability of successful hits? Table I is a standard statistical table showing the required number of hits per score type at both the 5 per cent and one per cent levels of confidence. Type ( +2) (-2) ( +1) (-1) (0) TABLE I THE REQUIRED NUMBER OF HITS PER SCORE TYPE AT THE 5 PER CENT AND THE ONE PER CENT LEVELS OF CONFIDENCE N 300 TRIALS Expected Standard Deviation 5 Per Cent 1 Per Cent 6.65 70.5 6.79 73.2 6.93 71.4 75.9 For example, it will be seen from the table that in order for the number of direct hits to be significant at the 5 per cent level 41. of confidence, (+2) or (-2), there must be a total of more than 66 hits per set of 25 trials. To be significant at the one per cent level (+2) or (-2), the total number of hits must exceed 70. According 71 The the is the the The second approach answer the question: Is it likely that this individual's typical performance is better than chance? (0) hits the expected mean is 5.0. M = ^5_ E 5 where 25 equals the number of trials and 5 equals the number of different symbols used. The expected mean of the (+1) and (-1) hits is 4.8. M = 2 4 since tne last card ^ the deck cannot Sive E T rise to a precognitive hits is 4.6. \ E = 225L _ give 2) 41. of confidence, (+2) or (-2), there must be a total of more than 66 hits per set of 25 trials. To be significant at the one per cent level (+2) or (-2), the total number of hits must exceed 70. According to these figures then, any total in the (+2) or (-2) type of between 67 and 70 will be significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence; and any 71 or over will be significant at the one per cent level. (The numbers have been rounded because there cannot be a partial hit. It either is a hit or it isn't.) The second statistical procedure was that of determining the significance of the difference of the obtained mean from the expected mean. This concerned with the estimate of the likelihood that the individual's average performance would be better than chance where the estimate of chance variability is based not on the purely theoretical probability, but rather on the variability shown by the individual. The first approach answers the question: Did the individual perform better than chance for this series of trials? In terms of the (0) hits the expected mean is 5. 0. ME = 2~ where 25 equals the number of trials and 5 equals the number of different symbols used. The expected mean of the (+1) and (-1) hits is 4.8. M = 24 since the last card in the deck cannot give E -- precOgnftive (+1) hit and the first card cannot give rise to a postcognitive (-1) hit. The expected mean of the (+ 2) and (-2) ~ since, again, the last two cards cannot 5 give rise to a (+2) hit, nor can the first two give rise to a (-2 ) 42. hit. The method used for determining the significance of the obtained mean was that of t tests. The formula is: t . M 0 " ME N^ (N-l) confidence, and a t of 3.106 for significance at the one percent level. t h i r d sensory cues were eliminated. The method used was again, t t e s t s: t = M - M 1 M2 1 H*i4 V N + N - 2 1 1 2 . (1 + 1 ) N l N2 cent level. s t a t i s t i c a l) those who believe in ESP and those who do not. hit. The method used for determining the significance of the obtained mean was that of t tests . The formula is: t = MO - ME Vi. x 2 (~ x )2 N (N-l) N (N-l) 42. A t of 2.201 is needed for significance at the 5 per cent level of per- cent The third treatment was to test the differences between the means of each individual. This was mainly an attempt to determine the significance of decline in performance, if any, as possible tests: 1x~+!x~ Nl + N2 Again, a t of 2.201 was needed for significance at the 5 per cent level of confidence, and a t of 3.106 for significance at the one per An additional examination of the data was made (not statistical) in terms of any differences in performance that might exist between CHAPTER IV FINDINGS As was explained in Chapter III, page 39, five scores were obtained from each set of data: (1) Precognitive (+2), a hit two cards following the target card. (2) Precognitive (+1), a hit on the card immediately following the target card. (3) A direct hit (0), on the target card. (4) Postcognitive (-1), a hit on the card just preceding the target card. (5) Postcognitive (-2), a hit two cards ahead of the target card. Since the data were analyzed with three different statistical procedures, the subjects will be discussed one at a time in terms of the three procedures, viz., significance of the deviation of the observed hits from the expected number of hits; significance of the difference of the obtained mean from the expected mean; and significance of differences between means. (See Chapter III, page 40.) However, in arriving at the number of hits in each type of score (+2, +1, 0, -1, -2) in each set, some of the hits were CHAPTER IV FINDINGS As was explained in Chapter III, page 39, five scores were obtained from each set of data: (1) Precognitive (+2), a hit two cards following the target card. (2) Precognitive (+1), a hit on the card innnediately following the target card. (3) A direct hit (0), on the target card. (4) Postcognitive (-1) , a hit on the card just preceding the target card. (5) Postcognitive (-2), a hit two cards ahead of the target card. Since the data were analyzed with three different statistical procedures, the subjects will be discussed one at a time in terms of the three procedures, viz., significance of the deviation of the observed hits from the expected number of hits; significance of the difference of the obtained mean from the expected mean; and significance of differences between means. (See Chapter III, page 40.) However, in arriving at the number of hits in each type of score (+2, +1, 0, -1, -2) in each set, some of the hits were counted in more than one type. Therefore, in analyzing the results only one type per set of experiments was used, the type being 44. determined by the degree and consistency of significant scores. Briefly, Experiment A allowed for both auditory and tactual cues. Experiment B eliminated the tactual cues and Experiment C in two separate rooms thereby eliminating all sensory leakage whatsoever. As shown in Table II, Subject I produced one score significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. In Experiment B (+2) the mean was 3.5 with a value of t of 2.39. This may indicate that S was "dodging" the correct response. However, since this is a neg­ative score and since it is the only significant score obtained, and it is not significantly different from the other scores, is not significant systematically, that is, there is no consistency. There­fore, one must be very skeptical in attributing this to ESP. (Table I page 40, shows the total number of hits per score type required for significance at both the 5 per cent and one per cent levels of confidence.) TABLE II THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT I +2 +1 -1 -2 A 5.2 3.6 4.8 5.0 3.8 M C 4.6 D 4.8 4.6 4,8 A 62 58 60 46 C 70 52 D 56 57 58 66 ^confidence, 44. determined by the degree and consistency of significant scores. Briefly, Experiment A allowed for both auditory and tactual cues. Experiment B eliminated the tactual cues and Experiment C eliminated both auditory and tactual cues. Experiment D was con­ducted whatsoever. As shown in Table II, Subject I produced one SCore significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. In Experiment B (+2) the mean was 3.5 with a value of t of 2.39. This may indicate that S was "dodging" the correct response. However, since this is a neg­ative score and since it is the only significant score obtained, and it is not significantly different from the other scores, it is not significant systematically, that is, there is no consistency. There­fore, one must be very skeptical in attributing this to ESP. (Table I page 40, shows the total number of hits per score type required for significance at both the 5 per cent and one per cent levels of confidence.) TABLE II THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT I H Type B B +2 5.3 3.5* 5.4 4.7 64 42 65 +1 4.9 59 55 0 5.5 5.8 66 55 4.3 4.3 4.8 52 3.9 5.5 43 47 *Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. 45. Subject II, as shown in Table III, gave significant results with all three procedures. In terms of the mean (0) there were in the four sets,19 means of 6.1, 7.9, 5.3, and 8.3 respectively with corres­ponding values of t of 1.7, 3.05 (significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence), .48, and 8.05 (significant at the one per cent level). In terms of the deviation from chance the total hits for the four sets were 73 (5 per cent level), 95 (one per cent level), 63, and 99 (one per cent level). Experiment C was the "pure" clairvoyant set. TABLE III THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT II Type +2 +1 -2 M B 7.9* 4.2 D 3.9* 8.3* 3.3* I 95** I D 99*-# * at the 5 per cent level of confidence ** one per cent level of confidence however, fully convinced in the existence of telepathy. 19 Set and experiment are used interchangeably. 45. Subject II, as shown in Table III, gave significant results with all three procedures. In terms of the mean (0) there were in the four sets,19 means of 6.1, 7.9, 5.3, and 8.3 respectively with corres­ponding values of t of 1.7, 3.05 (significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence), .48, and 8.05 (significant at the one per cent level). In terms of the deviation from chance the total hits for the four sets were 73 (5 per cent level), 95 (one per cent level), 63, and 99 (one per cent level). Experiment C was the "pure" clairvoyant set. S did not believe in clairvoyance and thought this set a waste of TABLE III THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT II H Type A C A B C +2 5.1 3.9 5.0 4.3 61 47 60 52 +1 4.2 5.2 3.9* 50 62 50 47 0 6.1 7. ')"* 5.3 8.3* 73* 95""* 63 99>"* -1 4.3 4.1 5.5 3.3* 52 49 66 39 4.8 3.9 4.3 4.9 58 47 52 59 * Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence ** Significant at the one per cent level of confidence time. He was, however, fully convinced in the existence of telepathy. His disbelief in clairvoyance may account for his failure to score significantly in this set. This would tend to lend support to the theory that belief or disbelief in ESP affects ESP performance. 19Set and experiment are used interchangeably. 46. Significant differences between the means were found between sets C and level). The results of this subject seem to be quite conclusive in favor of ESP. The differences between C and D, and A and D seem to sub­stantiate the theory that belief or disbelief in ESP affects performance, at least, as far as this subject is concerned. It might be of interest to note the unique conditions present during the testing of this subject. During the first set, S tried to listen to a telephone conversation his wife was having. He felt that if he could concentrate on something other than numbers he could avoid presetting. As long as he could hear his wife he scored above chance, but as soon as it was quiet, his scoring dropped to chance level. As the experimenter was preparing the second score sheet for Experiment B, S suddenly declared that he was tired. He lay down on a bed and became very relaxed. His scoring jumped. The scores for the entire set are: 4, 2, 6, 7, 4, 6, 11, 10, 11, 11, 12, 10. For Experiment D he was again very relaxed, although not lying down. (Table X, page 52 shows some of the values of t for the differences between means for all subjects.) Subject III scored 68 (5 per cent level) and 69 (5 per cent level) hits in sets A and D (+2), as shown in Table IV. There were signifi­cant differences between A and C, and C and D, the values of t being 2.44 and 2.39, both significant at the 5 per cent level. These results See IV.) As shown in Table V, Subject IV produced no significant results whatever. (See page 47 for Table V.) 46. Significant differences between the means were found between sets C and D, t of 4.00 (one per cent level), and A and D, t of 2.27 (5 per cent level) • The results of this subject seem to be quite conclusive in favor of ESP. The differences between C and D, and A and D seem to sub­stantiate the theory that belief or disbelief in ESP affects performance, at least, as far as this subject is concerned. It might be of interest to note the unique conditions present during the testing of this subject. During the first set, S tried to listen to a telephone conversation his wife was having. He felt that if he could concentrate on something other than numbers he could avoid presetting. As long as he could hear his wife he scored above chance, but as soon as it was quiet, his scoring dropped to chance level. As the experimenter was preparing the second score sheet for Experiment B, S suddenly declared that he was tired. He lay down on a bed and became very relaxed. His scoring jumped. The scores for the entire set are : 4, 2, 6, 7, 4, 6, 11, 10, 11, 11, 12 , 10. For Experiment D he was again very relaxed, although not lying down. (Table X, page 52 shows some of the values of t for the differences between means for all subjects.) Subject III scored 68 (5 per cent level) and 69 (5 per cent l evel) hits in sets A and D (+2), as shown in Table IV. There were signifi­cant differences between A and C, and C and D, the values of t being 2.44 and 2.39, both significant at the 5 per cent level. These results may have been influenced by ESP. (See page 47 for Table IV. ) As shown in Table V, Subject IV produced no significant results whatever. (See page 47 for Table v.l TABLE IV THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT III 47. H Type B D B +2 5.7 4.8 3.6 5.8 +1 3.8 4.8 4.5 5.6 0 4.9 4.8 4.3 4.9 -1 5.0 4.4 5.7 4.3 -2 5.2 4.8 4.5 4.1 68* 58 43 69* 45 57 54 67 59 57 52 60 68 52 62 58 ^Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. TABLE V THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT IV Type +2 +1 0 1 2 A 4.4 5.1 5.1 4.9 B 4.9 4.3 5.7 4.1 M 5.4 4.5 D 4.5 62 54 54 D 54 58 57 Subject V produced one significant score, shown in Table VI. Set gave (5 and number of hits was 73 (one per cent). The difference between A and B TABLE IV 47. THE ·MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT III M H Type A B C D A B C D +2 5.7 4.8 3.6 5.8 68* 58 43 69* +1 3.8 4.8 4.5 5.6 45 57 54 67 0 4.9 4.8 4.3 4.9 59 57 52 59 -1 5.0 4.4 5.7 4.3 60 53 68 52 -2 5.2 4.8 4.5 4.1 62 58 54 49 *Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. TABLE V THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT IV H Type A B C A B C D +2 4.4 4.9 5.2 4.5 53 59 +1 5.1 4.3 4.4 4.8 61 51 53 0 5.1 5.7 5.4 4.8 61 68 65 -1 4.9 4.1 4.5 3.8 59 40 45 -2 5.0 3.8 4.5 4.3 60 45 51 Subject V produced one significant score, shown Table VI. Set A (-2) gave a mean of 6.1, t of 2.59 (5 per cent), and the total number of hits was 73 (one per cent). The difference between A and B TABLE VI THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT V Type +2 + 1 1 4.3 6.1* M D 5.3 D * Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence TABLE VII THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT VI Type +1 1 4.3 4.3 M D 4.3 5.1 H D 51 * the 5 per cent level of confidence (-2) gave a t value of 2.97 (5 per cent level). The significant results the (-2) area may be due to a "delayed reaction" of SSP, 48. TABLE VI THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT V H Type A B C A B C +2 4.3 4.5 5.2 3.7 52 54 62 44 +1 4.0 4.7 4.2 5.0 48 56 50 60 0 4.9 5.2 4.0 5.3 59 62 48 64 -1 4.9 4.5 4.8 4.9 59 54 58 59 -2 6.1* 3.9 4.6 4.4 73* 47 55 53 * Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence TABLE VII THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT VI Type A B C A B C +2 4.2 5.0 5.2 4.3 50 60 62 51 +1 4.3 4.6 5.0 4.9 51 55 60 59 0 6.0 4.3 5.2 4.3 72* 51 62 51 -1 5.0 4.5 3.8 5.1 60 54 45 61 -2 4.3 4.2 4.6 5.3 52 50 55 63 * Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence (-2) gave a t value of 2.97 (5 per cent level). The significant results in the (-2) area may be due to a "delayed reaction" of SSP, 49. since the card had already been handled by both S and E, and recorded. Table VII shows that Subject VI produced one significant score-a total of 72 hits (5 per cent level) in Set A (0). This may have been due to SSP since it the only significant score. As shown in Table VIII, Subject VII was the only one to produce two significant scores in two types in the same set. Set B (+2) gave a negative value of 2.5 (5 per cent level) and Set B (-2) gave a total of 70 hits. The result of one may have been dependent upon the result of the other. Again, the (-2) score may have resulted from a delayed reaction of SSP. TABLE VIII THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT VII +2 +1 A B M C D A B 70* H C D *Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence Table IX shows that Subject VIII gave one significant score of 70 hits (5 per cent level) in Set B (-1) which also could be accounted for in terms of SSP. See Table XI, page 53, for summary of significant results. 49. since the card had already been handled by both Sand E, and recorded. Table VII shows that Subject VI produced one significant score--a total of 72 hits (5 per cent level) in Set A (0). This may have been due to SSP since it is the only significant score. As shown in Table VIII, Subject VII was the only one to produce two significant scores in two types in the same set. Set B (+2) gave a negative value of 2.5 (5 per cent level) and Set B (-2) gave a total of 70 hits. The result of one may have been dependent upon the result of the other. Again, the (-2) score may have resulted from a delayed reaction of SSP. TABLE VIII THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT VII Type +2 4.7 3.6* 4.0 4.6 56 43 48 55 +1 3.9 4.2 4.9 4.6 47 50 59 55 0 5.4 4.8 5.4 4.5 65 58 65 54 -1 4.2 4.7 5.3 4.8 50 56 64 58 -2 4.7 5.8 5.0 4.3 56 7CP 60 52 *Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence Table IX shows that Subject VIII gave one significant score of 70 hits (5 per cent level) in Set B (-1) which also could be accounted for in terms of SSP. See Table XI, page 53, for summary of significant results. 50. Table XII, page 54, shows the results of the questionnaire given to each subject prior to experimentation. The purpose was to see there were any differences performance between those who believe in ESP and those who do not. TABLE IX THE MEANS AND NUMBER OF HITS FOR SUBJECT VIII Type +2