Negro slavery in Utah

That Negro slavery did in fact exist in Utah from 1847 until the end of the Civil War, is a painful realization to many Mormons. It is painful because it seems to be in direct opposition to long held religious convictions. Some Utahns today are amazed at such a claim for two reasons: first, they have been led to believe that slavery could not have existed anywhere but in the South; and second, a people as concerned about moral and religious values as Mormons would not have allowed it to exist among them. The first contention usually erupts from a shaky foundation of American History; slavery seems to be automatically connected with the South and only the South in the untrained mind. The possibility of any spread of the institution is usually not considered. And the second is based on a lack of acquaintance with Mormon History specifically, and especially of Mormon attitudes. Since both of these arguments are founded on ignorance, the study of slavery in Utah becomes an intriguing one.

NEGRO SLo\V£R.Y SLAVERY IN UTAH by Dennis Leo Lythgoe A thesis tb.-.1 • submitted .w.1tted to the faculty of the University Uni,..n1ty Utah in partial fulfilment of the ~t. requirements of Ut.h part1e1 fuUu..».t tor the degree degr_ of for ' ,.. Master of Arts Department of History Oepart:Mnt R1.t:ory .....,..1... University Un1:Nl:nty of Utah Ut.h August 1966 This Thesi s for the Master of Arts Degree by Denn!s Leo Lythgoe has been approved July 1966 ------ . Reader, Supervisory Committee 4 a..ft?i'nent H ad, Major Dep (' Dean, �,:\. -\" ,. l ', . ��:.:f :. ·t GraCiUo/ School Ace M.a444'&1 TABLE OP OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS INTROIXJCTION INTRODUCTION ... . ........ .. ....... Chapter I. BACKGROOND OF SLAVERY IN THE UNITED I. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND STATES. • • • • • • • • • • • STATES. II. III. III. IV. IV. v. V. VI. iv 1 1 44 .... 25 MORMON Nl'TITUDES ATTITUDES TOMARD TOWARD NEGRO SLAVERY • • 45 SLAVERY AND THE HcmroN MORMON PRIESTHOOD 64 NA'l"URE .N&GRO SLAVERY IN UTAH •. NATURE OF OP NEGRO OBSERVERS OF SLAVERY IN UTAH. UTAH. . .. ..... ....... SUMMARY SUKHARY AND CONCWSIONS CONCLUSIONS • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . •• . . • . . . .. .. . . . . .. . .. . ... . BIBLIOGRAPHY • VITA. VITA • • • .. 75 82 82 87 92 92 .It.... '\-. tii iii l •• , TCfffRSnY OF UTAH UBRARIB ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer would like the following who have aided like to to thank the to study: to make this this aa rewarding study: Dr. Committee, Dr. Phillip Sturges, Sturges, Chairman of the the Supervisory Committee, has been generous generous with his his time and training in giving the study has direction. Beyond expected criticism and encouragement, encouragement, the direction. has provided through his excellence as a inspiration he has a teacher has been of special worth. and researcher of history has worth. Drs. Drs. A. A. R. R. Mortenson and J. J. L. L. Clayton, Clayton, members of the committee from the the History Department, Department, have been cooperative Valuable suggestions for for the the improvement and have have contributed valuable the work through their reading of the manuscript. of the manuscript. A. A. William Lund, Lund, Assistant L.D.S. L.D.S. Church Historian, Historian, and the staff of the the L.D.S. L.D.S. Church Historian's Historian*s Office have been the the writer to to use use valuable source cooperative in permitting the were absolutely necessary to the completion of materials which were to the the work. the work. Bankhead, Great granddaughter of aa Negro Lucille Perkins Bankhead, slave in Utah, utah, has has given willingly of her time, time, knowledge, knowledge, and v. special research of the subject; talking with her has given the special research of the subject; talking with her has given the task pleasure, while examining her materials has added validity. task pleasure, while examining her materials has added validity. Her warm personality and keen observations were a special treat Her warm personality and keen observations were a special treat iv to writer. to the writer. Dr. Restoration, Dr. T. T. Edgar Lyon, Lyon, Research Historian for for Nauvoo Restoration, Inc., Inc., has has been exceptional b<:>th both as as aa friend and advisor. advisor. Dr. Dr. Lyon unselfish with his his time has been especially ~selfish time and knowledge, knowledge, and has as well well as as on the given invaluable suggestions on source materials as itself, which he read thoroughly. thoroughly. To To him go special thanks. manuscript itself, thanks. Dr. Lowell L. L. Bennion, Bennion, Sociologist at at the University, Dr. University, has also the manuscript and given extremely valuable criticisms. criticisms. His read the the subject has insight into the has been of great worth. worth. Mary Lythgoe Bradford, to the writer, gained her M.A. Bradford, Ii a sister to the writer, M.A. in English; has given perhaps the most profound criticisms of all. all. English; she she has the writer and his intentions, intentions, her insight has As one who is close to to the been invaluable. invaluable. Finally, the writer's wife, Finally, wife, Marti Sorensen Lythgoe, Lythgoe, has provided much more than the usual usual dedication expected of aa wife; wife; her educational background and intellectual insights have given the task aa certain glow of excitement. excitement. Her criticisms and encouragement have given the writer the confidence necessary to to make the the study an especially rewarding one. one. Certainly, in spite of helpful suggestions from outstanding Certainly, individuals, the full responsibility for for the individuals, the writer must bear full product. The idea for for the study, study, the the method of considering the product. evidence, and the are to to be traced only to to the evidence, the conclusions drawn are writer. writer. vv INTROOOCTION INTRODUCTION That Negro slavery did in fact fact exist in Utah from 1847 1847 until until the War, is aa painful realization to to many Mormons. end of the Civil War, MormonS. It is seems to to long held reli­ painful because it seems to be in direct opposition to religious convictions. convictions. Some Utahns today are amazed at such aa claim for for two g10us reasons: fkst, first, they have been led to reasons: to believe that slavery could not have existed anywhere but in the the South; South; and second, second, aa people as con­ concerned about ~ra1 moral and religious values as Mormons would not have allow­ values as allowed it to to exist among them. first contention usually erupts erupts from aa them. The first shaky foundation of American History; History; slavery seems seems to to be automatic­ autoroatic- , ally connected with the the South and only the South in the untrained mind. mind. The possibility of any spread of the institution is usually not consid­ considered. And And the the second second is is based based on on aa lack lack of of acquaintance acquaintance with Mormon ered. with Mormon History specifically, specifically, and and especially especially of of Mormon Mormon attitudes. attitudes. Since Since both History both of these arguments a+e are founded founded on on ignorance, ignorance, the the st~y study of of slavery slavery in of these arguments in Utah becomes an intriguing intriguing one. one. controversial Controversial or or little-known little-known facts utah becomes an facts always lend lend themselves themselves well to historical examination. In In order order to always well to historical examination. to make make any kind of contribution contribution to to this topic, it it will will be be necessary any kind of this topic, necessary to to draw draw some conclusions. conclusions. A A philosopher of history, W. H. H. Walsh Walsh makes makes aa timely some philosopher of history, W. timely comment: comment: It has been said that whilst it is eertainly certainly not the busibusi­ ness of historians to future, it is very much their ness to predict the future, business to "retrodiet" "retrodict" the the past: establish, on the basis of past: to to establish, 22 present evidence, like. l evidence, what what the the past must have have been like.^" Since. Since little is generally known about about slavery in Utah, Utah, it will be the design of this like. this work to to establish what it must have been like* Lack of written material, material, as as well well as as evidence that that is is both scant and scattered, scattered, are contributing factors factors to to the present lack of understanding of the topic. topic. It is to to be regretted that such an interesting practice in the history of Utah has been so so plainly neglected. neglected. This lack of time consuming. consuming. information has made research both difficult and time Nevertheless, Nevertheless, aa dearth of information only increases the the need of the study as it. as well as as interest in it. A consideration of slavery as as it it was was practiced in the South will A be necessary at the outset, outset, to to provide groundwork for for its practice in Utah. An An understanding of the the origin of the institution in the Utah. the United the way in which it became aa tradition seems important States and of the before considering its its effect in Utah. Utah. But the the central question of wQy why it spread to to Utah, Utah, and why it was able to endure, endure, is the important one. this reason, reason, aa group of unconnected facts facts would be useless For this in this this historical examination. examination. While this this work cannot be an exact past, it can make an an analysis analysis of the the research reproduction of the past, materials examined. consideration: examined. Walsh's comments are are worth consideration: The historian is not content to hapto tell tell us us merely what hap­ pened; he wishes wishes to to make make us us see see why it it happened too. too. In other pened ; he 1 W. H. York: ^W. Hi Walsh, Walsh, Philosoehy Philosophy of HistofY: History: An Introduction (New York: Row. 1960), 41. Harper and Row t 1960), 41. 33 words, he aims aims.•.at reconstruction of the words, ••• at aa recons~uction the past which is both intelligent and intelligible. intelligible. A A study of Negro slavery in utah Utah would be worthless without some attempt to to explain why it existed. existed. An examination of the motives behind its practice is even more significant than slavery itself. itself. For without aa study of motives, motives, those who doubt its existence would remain ! unsatisfied and unconvinced. unconvinced. And such an examination must include a consideration of Mormon doctrine, leaders; doctrine, as as well as as opinions of Mormon leaders; for for religious teaching played aa vital role in developing motives Utahns* It will also be necessary to consider those brief comments among Utahns. available from non-Mormon observers of Utah in relation to slavery; slavery; this hoped, then, then, that the this will provide aa more balanced view. view. It is hoped, evidene'e evidence and explanation here presented will will both establish what Negro slavery must have been like, like, as well as as to to explain why it existed, existed, so that this intelthis episode from the past will appear "both intelligent and intel­ Jt lig1ble. ligible." - 2Ibid. 32. Ibid • 32. 2 f " 'I· ,'i' i " CHAPTERS: HISTORICAL BACKGRaJND BACKGROUND OF OP SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES Controversial as wel.l well as as interesting, interesting, the institution of slavery 1h nJlmerOUs studies of various ixk the the United States has been the the object of numerous kinds Obviously, the nature and conclusions of these kinds over the the years. years. Obviously, studies involved. studies have varied depending on the individual student involved, Charles A. Beard, widely-lcnown nNew A. Beard, widely-known historian and proponent of the "New History" together with James History" James Harvey Robinson, Robinson, enunciates this this point when reviewing his relations with Robinson: Robinson: During our last hours together we discussed Theodore Lessing»s devastating book: book: History Writing as the Noble Art of Lessing'. Meaningless. Robinson was Putting Your Own Meaning into the Keaninqless. the book. delighted with the book. It confirmed him in his long matured that the idea of a conviction that a purely objective history of compli­ corapllevents as cated events as they actually had been was an illusion il.lusion of the century. The historian simply cannot know the history nineteenth century. period or of aa country as was. He cannot repro­ of aa ~iocI as it actually was. reproduce in relations, relations, proportions, proportions, and perspective the multitudinous events as they were in the actuality of the eventf and possibilities as past. past. Here Beard explains his own view that no PO historical work can be written from aa completely objective point of view. View. History of its very nature must be subjective; subjective; in other words, words, the the historian cannot know history as as it actually was kIlO" was because his personal convictions and color his viewpoint. viewpoint. Therefore, prejudices col~ Therefore, the facts facts he organizes and interpretation. As Beard says, says, "Facts "Pacts do not presents must have some interpretation. POt 1 Charles A. A. Beard, Robj,nson,n Journal of Adult Beard, nJames "James Harvey Robinson," Education, 248. 1936), 248. Education, VIII VIII (June 1936). 5 5 ask or answer any questions ••• what is questions.•.what is to to be dqne done about the facts facts will I .. depend upon sources sources of conviction, conviction, prejudice, prejudice, and opinion which lies lies in 22 part, if not wholly, outside the facts that are excavated." What is part, if not wholly, outside the facts that are excavated." What is more, some selection of the facts is necessary. Beard professed that more, some selection of the facts is necessary. Beard professed that no historian can present all of the facts about a given event or process no historian can present all of the facts about a given event or process no matter how complete his analysis may be. Of necessity he must select no matter how complete his analysis may be. Of necessity he must select only a few of the many facts, and "any selection, except one made by only a few of the many facts, and "any selection, except one made by lot, is an interpretation, no matter how vehemently the historian prolot, is an interpretation, no matter how vehemently the historian pro3 tests his innocence of ideas." 3 His stress of the subjectivity of historical work was prevalent in hisHis later philosophy. In his earlier days tests his innocence of ideas." stress of the subjectivity of his­ he had thought objectivity possible and had written many works with days this torical work was prevalent in his later philosophy. In his earlier view inthought mind, such as An Economic Interpretation of many the Constitution$ he had objectivity possible and had written works with this With themind, dawn of theas1930's, his views evolved into It was view in such An Economic Interpretation of relativism. the Constitution. a later wrote to a his friend concerning Interpretation: With theBeard dawn who of the 1930's, views evolved Economic into relativism. It was "Why history just a cat its tail to places Interpretation: it rarely wants a later Beardiswho wrote to dragged a friendbyconcerning Economic to go.history Another different social view, could have used wants the "Why is man, just with a cata dragged by its tail to places it rarely tl4 samego. materials written volume with the opposite effects. to Anotherand man, with aa different social view, could have used the 4 It is with this realization that the writer will consider the same materials and written a volume with the opposite effects." background of slavery in the United States, as groundwork for considerIt is with this realization that the writer will consider the ation of slavery in Utah. Certainly slavery as a historical topic has background of slavery in the United States, as groundwork for consider­ 2 Charles A. in Beard, New Republic, XCVI ation of slavery Utah."Anti-Trust Certainly Racket," slavery as a historical topic has (~ept. 21, 1918), :S2. 2 Charles A. Beard, "Anti-Trust Racket," New Republic, XCVI A. Beard, "Time, Technology, and the Creative Spirit in (Sept.3Charles 21, 1938), 103. Political Science," American Political Science Review, XXI (Feb. 1927), 3 127. Charles A. Beard, "Time, Technology, and the Creative Spirit in Political Science," American Political Science Review, XXI (Feb. 1927), 4 127. Eric F. Goldman, IlThe Origins of Beard f s Economic Interpretation of the4 Constitution," Journal of the History of Ideas, XIII (1952), 246, 247. Eric F. Goldman, "The Origins of Beard's Economic Interpretation of the Constitution," Journal of the History of Ideas, XIII (1952), 246, 247. 66 been "dragged by its tail tail to wants to to places it rarely wants to go." go." And it has the case that aa historian with aa "different social view" been too often the view" has "used the same same materials and written aa volume with the opposite has effects." effects." Consider, Consider, for for instance, instance, the differing conclusions of two noted scholars on the topic of slavery, slavery, Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, Phillips, and his well-known work on slavery sums Kenneth Stampp. Stampp. Phillips, Phillips, in his suras up the institution as follows: as follows: slaves was for the The government of slaves was for the ninety and nine by men, and only for injustice, for the hundredth by laws. laws. There were injustice, oppression, brutality and heartburning in the the regime—but oppression, reqime---but where in the struggling wnrld world are are these absent? absent? There were also gentle­ the st~lggling gentleness, kind-hearted friendship and mutual loyalty to to aa degree hard ness, Jd.n(j-hE!6rted an.d for him to to believe who regards the the system with aa theorist's theorists eye for and aa partisan squint. For him on the other hand who has has known ~~t. the the considerate and cordial, cordial, courteous and charming man and woman, woman, white and black, its best phases black, which that picturesque life in its produced, it it is is impossible impossible to to agree agree that that its its basis basis and and its its opera­ produced, operation were wholly^evil, the law and the prophets to the contrary tion were whollYsevil, the law and the prophets to the contrary notwithstanding• notwithstanding. A A competent historian,Phillips historian, Phillips nevertheless represents one social view, view, that of aa Southern observer. observer. Kenneth Stampp, Stampp, aa Northern-born historian, view: historian, expresses aa differing view: Slaveholders asked for for pity from no one, one, least of all all from abolitionists. abolitionists. Yet, Yet, who could withhold it? it? Who could help but . feel feel compassion for for men who found nothing more inspiring than the sterile rhetoric and special pleading of the pro-slavery argument to justify the institution upon which they lived? The the life of every master lay in the fact that slavery pathos in the the fact name—that i6 i£ had had no philosophical defense worthy of the name---that to posterity, nothing to to commend it to posterity, except that it paid. paid. Imperative to to obtain at the the outset is an awareness of the contro5Ulrich Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, Phillips, American Negro Slavery (New York and S14. London: London: D. 0. Appleton Co., Co., 1915) 1918),, 514. 6 Kenneth Stampp, Kenneth Stampp, The The Peculiar Institution (New (New York: York: Alfred A. A. Knopf, 422. Knopf, 1956), 1956), 422. 6 r 77 versial nature of the the topic. topic. Various Various studies though based clearly on facts, interpretations. facts, have produced widely differing conclusions and interpretations. It is this this aspect, aspect, however, however, which makes makes the the study of slavery in the United States even more fascinating; fascinating; its very divergency creates room for for deeper thought and analysis. analysis. Stanley Elkins makes aa significant observation: observation: Despite the vast amount Of of writing on American Negro slavery and the great variety of temperaments and talents talents that have been brought to to the work, the very spiritual agony work, the inherent in the subject itself imposes on the result aa certain simplicity of organization and aa kind of persistent rhythm. rhythm. The primary categories of organization for for over aa century have con­ continued to be those those of right and wrong. day, the wrong. To the present day, rhythm of "right" "right" and "wrong" "wrong" w'aich which characterized ante-bellum discourses on the subject of slavery has retained much of its original simplicity and vigor. vigor. Certain inhibitions, inhibitions, moreover, moreover, have stood guard throughout. There is a painful touchiness in all throughout. a painful. discourse, contains contains almost almost too too much much aspects of the subject; subject; the discourse. immediacy, it makes too many connections with present problems. immediacy, it makes too many connections with present problems. How aa person thinks about about Negro slavery historically historically makes makes a How person thinks Negro slaverv a great deal of difference here and now. great <leal of difference here and now. The historical background of slavery in America reaches back to the early slave trade of Europe, England, and New England. introduc~ Europe, England, England. The introduc­ tion of slavery into America came as as part of the process of discovery and colonization. colonization. Extensive efforts were made shortly after 1500 to import Negro slaves into the the SpaniSh Spanish West Indies. Indies. EngliSh English sea captains oht$ed obtained great profits through supplying SpaniSh-American Spanish-American settlements with slaves. slaves. After the establ1sllment establishment of England's England*s own colonies in 83 North America, these slave trading efforts L"lcreased. North America, these slave trading efforts increased. Greater Greater activity activity 7 Stanley M. M. Elkins, A Problem in American Institutional Elkins, ::ilavery, Slavery, A alld Press, 1959), 1959), 1. 1. and Intellectual Life (Chicago: (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 88 J.G. Randall and David Donald, J.G. and David (Boston: D. Randall C. Heath and Co., Donald, 1961), (Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1961), The Civil War and Reconstruction The 52. Civil War and Reconstruction 52. I, 8 the American colonial in English slave trading interests was aa mark of the period* W. W. E. E. B. B. Du Bois estimates that that in period. "in the the heyday heyday of of the the slave slave M trade, from 40,000 to to 100,000 100.000 Negroes were taken out of Africa each trade, y~ar.1I9 year." Apparently, Apparently, the the slave trade trade was aa brutal activity. activity. The slave traders would bring the the Negroes in slave caravans through hundreds of of jungle, ships, where miles ~f jungle, and then herd them into unsanitary slave ships, was adequate, adequate, and food and water neither the space nor the ventilation was scarce. An witness described "400 "400 wretched beings beings.•.crammed scarce. An, eye witness ••• crammed into 12 yards yards in in length---and length-^-and only only 3~ 3% feet feet in in height height...the suffocat­ aa hold 12 ••• the suffocating heat of the hold, the smoke smoke of their torment, torment, and the fifty-four the holq t the ·l, 10 crushed and mangled corpses lifted up from the slave deck next day."*^ day." In 40 40 days days 175 175 slaves slaves died in passage while many others died after landing* Slaves in passage were branded with aa hot iron like cattle. landing. cattle. They were held in in chains, chains, and and discipline discipline was was administ~ed administered by They wer~ \'leld by beatings beatings and murder. m u r d e rll S e aSeasickness, s i c k n e s s , scurvy, scurvy, dysentery, dysentery, small small pox, and ophthal­ and pox, and ophthalmia (disease (disease of of the the eye) eye) caused caused misery misery which which 'was was indescribable indescribable when mia when added to to the the then then customary customary dangers dangers anq and hardships hardships of of the sea. Phillips Phillips added the sea. estimates the the mortality onth~ on the average ship from available data at 12 eight or ten per cel'lt,.12 eight or ten per cent. Finally, Finally, by an act passed in 1794, 1794, Congress prohibited the slave 99 " W. Trade (New (New W. E. E. B. B* Du Du Bois, Bois, Suppression Suppression of of the the African African Slave Slave Trade York: Social Science Press, 1954), 5. York: Social Science Press, 1954), 5* 10 10Randall apd Donald, 53. Randall and Donald, 53. - llIbid. •^Ibid* 12philliPS, 37. 12 Phillips, 37. 99 trade from the United States to any foreign country; 2, 1806, 1806, country; on March 2, the United States was the importation of slaves into the was prohibited from and after January 1, 1, 1808. 1808. In 1820, 1820, the slave trade was classed as piracy. piracy and made punishable by death. death. Even though most Northerners supported them, them, these laws laws were ineffective; ineffective; importation of slaves continued as as an illicit traffic, traffic, the illegal trade being even worse and more brutal than before. 13 and more brutal than before. In the meantime, the institution of slavery became firmly estabIn the meantime, the institution of slavery became firmly estab­ lished in America. Through a gradual evolutionary process, the codes lished in America. Through a gradual evolutionary process, the codes and practices which made the institution familiar, developed. In ana- and practices which made the institution familiar, developed. In ana­ lyzing the South, Oscar and Mary Handlin attribute these developments lyzing the South, Oscar and Mary Handlin attribute these developments to social practice: to social practice: After a period of experimentation and uncertain control, period of experimentation and uncertain control, during After which atime the Negroes were usually called "servants," during which time the Negroes were usually called "servants," the legal institution of slavery gra~~ally took shape, the laws the legal institution of slavery gradually took shape, the laws being the result of social practice. being the result of social practice. Social practice or codes Social practice or custom, custom, then, then, evolved evolved into into law; law; slave slave codes were these were established established as as aa means means of of legally legally controlling controlling slaves. slaves. Soon Soon these codes were accepted binding: codes were accepted as as binding: . At the the heart of every code was was'the the requirement that slaves submit to all white men... slaves to their masters and respect all men ••• acts, said aa North Carolina judge, Any number of acts, judge, may consti­ consti"insolence" it may be merely "a look, th.e the pointing of tute "insolence"-it Ita look, aa finger, finger, aa refusal refusal or or neglect neglect to to step step out out of of the the way way when when aa white person is seen to to approach. approach. But each of such acts acts violates the rules of propriety, propriety, and if tolerated, desjgoy that tolerated, would des!Soy subordination, upon which our social system rests." subordination, rests." 13 Randall &ld Donald, 55. Randall and Donald, 55. 14 .. 14Oscar and Mary F. Handlin, "Origins of the Southern Labor andand. Mary F. Quarterly, Handlin, "Origins of the Southern System," Oscar William Mary VII (April 1950), 199. Labor System." William and! Mary Quarterly, VII (April 1950), 199. 15 ' Stampp, 208. Stampp, 207, 207, 208. 10 the need Of major interest here is this this judge*s judge's description of the for Negro, and especially his characterization of for subordination of the the Negro, slavery as a "social system" system" rather than an economic one. as a one. Slaves were denied standing in court and their testimonies were not accepted against those of white witnesses. witnesses. In some cases, cases, crimes crimes committed by slaves were given a a heavier penalty than if committed by whites. whites. Slaves were masters' premises except by special permission. not to to leave the the masters' permission. drums, blow horns, horns, or possess guns; guns; and Slaves were forbidden to beat drums, their cabins were to be searched regularly for weapons. They were not for weapons. to to administer drugs to to whites or practice medicine. medicine. A slave could not have liquor in his possession, or purchase it without aa written order his possession, 16 from his his owner. owner. 16 Slaves could not form secret societies, societies, and must step off the pass. It was was aa forbidden the sidewalk when whites wished to to pass. practice to teach slaves to read or write. write* slaves to Since slaves were the masters, they were not perm! permitted to own pro­ actual property of their masters, tted to property themselves themselves unless the master party ma.ster agreed to it* it. If aa slave were Christianity, his freedom was not given as converted to to Christianity, as aa result of such conversion. Negroes in general were assumed to be slaves unless conversion. Negroes they could prove otherwise. otherwise* Possession by aa master ma.ster was regarded as 17 "pre_ptive evidence of legal ownership.,,17 "presumptive evidence of legal ownership." CoII\aIent1ng on the rigicUty of these codes, Randall and Donald Commenting on the rigidity of these codes, Randall and Donald report: report: There was, however, such a vast difference between the There was, however, such a vast difference between the laws on paper and the system that existed in reality that it laws on paper and the system that existed in reality that it would be unhistorical to judge the slave regime in the South would be unhistorical to judge the slave regime in the South 16 Ibid. Ibid • 16 17 Phillips, 499. 499. Phillips, 17 11 11 by this this or that severe luw Wllich might be found by digging up law which old codes. drastic, codes. The laws, laws, especially where they were most drastic, were were, in fact, were not strictly applied. applied. Slaves were, fact, taught to read and write; write; eley they did go go abroad in aa manner forbidden by statute; statute; they did congregate despite laws laws forbidding their assembling. assembling. Members Members of the legislature satisfied their sense of social social duty by passing severe laws; laws; and the peoplePat§ people paj^ as much or as laws as fit. as little attention to to the laws as they saw fit. a s Southern historian Francis Butler Simkins supports this conthis con­ elusion clusion by commenting that "in actual practice restrictions upon the Negroes were not so severe as the laws provided." 19 It is clear at Negroes were not so severe as the laws provided." It is clear at least that there was room. for flexibility in the treatment of slaves, least that there was room for flexibility in the treatment of slaves, providing the owner wished to take advantage of it. Whether or not providing the owner wished to take advantage of it. Whether or not such flexibility was acted upon was a matter left to the individual such flexibility was acted upon was a matter left to the individual slave owner. slave owner. ~ the issue of slave brutality, Simkins notes that "the master On the issue of slave brutality, Simkins notes that "the master of this establishment was neither the tyrant pictured in the aboliof this establishment was neither the tyrant pictured in the aboli­ tionist fiction nor the ~rov1.dent and sacrificial gentleman of tionist fiction nor the improvident and sacrificial gentleman of 20 romance." A1lowing for variations in human personalities, there was 20 obviously a difference in the manner various slave owners believed romance." Allowing for variations in human personalities, there was slaves should be treated. "It is a pity," said one North Carolina obviously a difference in the manner various slave owners believed planter, "that agreeable to the nature of things slavery and tyranny slaves should be treated. "It is a pity," said one North Carolina must go together and that there is no such thing as having an obedient planter, "that agreeable to the nature of things slavery and tyranny and useful slave, without the painful exercise of undue and tyrannical must go together and that there is no such thing as having an obedient 21 authority." Evidently, somepainful planters were sure that this the and useful slave, without the exercise of undue and was tyrannical 21 18Randal1 and Donald, 59. authority." Evidently, some planters were sure that this was the 19 Francis Butler Simld.ns, A History of the South (New York: Alfred13 A. Knopf, 1963), 125. and Donald. 59. 20Randall Ibid • 134. l.:· I m 19 21 21Francis Butler Simkins, A History of the South (New York: stampp, 141. Stampp, Alfred A* Knopf,141. 1963), 125. 20 Ibid. 134. 12 12 nature of things; things; they believed that brutality was was actually an an inherent part of the the institution. institution. otherwise. otherwise. But there were definitely many who believed Stampp, Stampp, in concurring with Simkins, Simkins, says says that "masters were not all all alike. alike. Some governed their slaves slaves with great skill skill and induced them to to submit with aa minimum of force. force. Others, Others, lacking the personal 22 22 qualities needed to accomplish this, governed inefficiently." qualities needed to accomplish this, governed inefficiently." An American slave himself, Frederick Douglass gives a convincing An American slave himself, Frederick Douglass gives a convincing and emotional account for the prevalent brutality of slavery. He reand emotional account for the prevalent brutality of slavery. He re­ lates his experience of learning to run a team of oxen on order from a lates his experience of learning to run a team of oxen on order from a new master. He tells of being lost in the woods, thrown from the wagon new master. He tells of being lost in the woods, thrown from the wagon violently, and several times losing control of the oxen. Almost killed violently, and several times losing control of the oxen. Almost killed in the encounter, he tells of his master's lack of sympathy and subsein the encounter, he tells of his master's lack of sympathy and subse­ quent execution of punishment: quent execution of punishment: On my ret'.'rn, I told l·ir. Covey what had happened, and how On my retv.rn, I told Mr. Covey what had happened, and how it happened. He ordered me to return to the woods again immedit happened. He ordered me to return to the woods again immed­ iately. I did so, and he followed on after me. Just as I got iately. I did so, and he followed on after me. Just as I got into woods, he told me me to to stop that into the the woods, he came came up up al'1d and told stop my my cart, cart, and and that he would teach me how to trifle away my time, and break gates. he would teach me how to trifle away my time, and break gates. He tree, and with his his axe axe cut three He then then went went to to aa large large gum gum tree, and with cut three large switches, and after trimming them up neatly with his pocketlarge switches, and after trimming them up neatly with his pocket knife, he ordered me to take off my clothes. I made him no knife, he ordered me to take off my clothes. I made him no answer, but stood my clothes on. He repeated his his order. order. answer, but stood with with my clothes on. He repeated II still made him no answer, nor did I move to strip myself. still made him no answer, nor did I move to strip myself. Upon this he me with a tiger, tore Upon this he ruslled rushed at at me with the the fierceness fierceness of of a tiger, tore off my clothes, and lashed me till he had worn out his switches, off ray clothes, and lashed me till he had worn out his switches, cutting me so to leave long cutting me so savagely savagely as as to leave the the marks marks visible visible for for aa long time after. This whipping wa~3 the first of a number just like time after. This whipping was^the first of a number just like it, offences. it, and and for for similar similar offences. Douglass Douglass relates relates countless whippings he endured, endured, as as well well as as many others brutal. According to others he witnessed, witnessed, all all of which were extremely brutal. 22Ibid. 142. Ibid • 142. 22 23 23 Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, of the Life of Frederick Douglass,Frederick An American Slave, Narrative ed. by Benjamin Quarles <Cambridge, Mass: Douglass, An American Slave, ed. by Benjamin Quarles Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1960> t 90. (Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1960), 90. 13 13 his then, slavery was brutal, and should be his account then, was nothing but brutal, characterized as as such. such. Convinced of the unhappy state of slaves in general, corrunents: general, Douglass further further comments: II have have often often been been utterly utterly astonished, astonished, since since II came came to to the the North, the singing, North, to to find persons who could speak of the singing, among slaves, as as evidence of their contentment and happiness. happiness. It is slaves, impossible to to conceive of aa greater mistake. mistake. Slaves sing most songs of the slave represent when they are most unhappy. unhappy. The songs the sorrows sorrows of his his heart; heart; and he is relieved by them* the them, only as as an is relieved by its tears. tears. At least, least, such is my aching heart is experience. II have often sung to drown my sorrow, sorrow, but seldom experience. to express my happiness. happiness. Crying for for joy and singing for for joy, to joy, slavery. The were alike uncommon to me while in the jaws of slavery. singing of aa man cast away upon a a desolate island might be as appropriately considered considered as as evidence evidence of of contentment contentment and and happi­ appropriately happiness, as the singing of a slave; the songs cjj ^ a* ** ness, as the singing of a slave; the songs the one and °^ of the other other are are prompted by the the same same emotion. the prompted by emotion. 2' e o n e 1 The experience of Douglass, Douglass, at least, least, was one of brutality and misery. And of course his writings as as well as as his speaking tours misery. tours were as a crusade. It is certain that such conditions were common executed as a crusade. to the the institution and were widely practiced; affirms that "the to practiced; Stampp affirlDs records of the plantation regime clearly indicate that siaYas slaves were more records frequently overworked by calloused tyrants than overindulged by mellow25 25 patriarchs. II A prominent slaveholder from. South Carol.1na, howed patriarchs." A prominent slaveholder from South Carolina, how­ James Henry RcIImond uses ever, differs on the degree of brutality. ever, differs on the degree of brutality. James Henry Hammond uses the arguDleJlt that bad treatment was not a wise practice for the slave, the argument that bad treatment was not a wise practice for the slaveholder. "A bad master,ft he says, "loses the esteem and respect of his holder. "A bad master," he says, "loses the esteem and respect of his fellow-ci tizens to as great an extent as he would for the violation of fellow-citizens to as great an extent as he would for the violation of any of social and most of his moral obligations." Hanaond firmly proany of social and most of his moral obligations." Hammond firmly pro­ pounds the idea that slaveholders were Eor the most part IfJd.nd masters, pounds the idea that slaveholders were for the most part "kind masters, as men usually are kind busbands, parents and friends-as a ~a1 as men usually are kind husbands, parents and friends as a general eel 2~1d. 38. - 25Stampp, 80. 25 Stampp, 80. I.. ~.:' (i F r·' ~i 14 14 26 rule, rule, kinder." kinder." 26 It is a slave was was after all is certainly aa plausible argument that a to the the success of the the planter's work; work; aa sick or badly beaten important to slave was was of very little value in producing crops. slave crops. A A slave owner was as horses and concerned about the health of his productive animals such as cattle. As As property and as as an an investment, investment, they needed proper care. cattle. care. Likewise aa thoughtful slaveowner would realize the importance of main­ mainthe health of aa slave to to insure his his productive capacity: taining the capacity: Slavery was was above above all all aa labor system. system. Wherever in the South the owned, it was the master lived, lived, however many slaves he owned, his his bondsmen's productive capacity that he generally valued most. most. And to to the the problem of organizing and exploiting their labor with labor ,ith maximum efficiency he devoted much of his atten­ atten2 tion. tion. 2 Simkins supports the need of supports Stampp's argument, argument, affirming the giving proper care to property: to important property: Slavery had another side. side. Abolitionist assertions that clothed, that the the bondsmen were frequently inadequately clothed, underfed, unreasonable. underfed, and driven to to death are are economically unreasonable. Masters wished to to preserve the the health and life of their slaves because aa s2§K sjgk Negro was aa liability and aa dead Negro slaves Negro was nothing. was was worth nothing. And there is to realize is some some indication that the the slave learned to his Nevins comments his worth. worth. Nevins comments that lias "as the the advancing slave learned to know his his own worth, worth, he refused to to accept the doctrine of an immutable 29 29 The old belief that almost all slaves were contented slave system." The old belief that almost all slaves were contented slave system." (t! z:~. ~.':/.,. . ~' 26 r i.. l:;\ James James Henry Hammond, Hammond, "Letters on Slavery," Slavery," quoted in Slavery South, ed. ed. by Harvey Wish (New York: York: Farrar, Straus, and Co., in the South, Farrar, Straus. Co., 1964), 264. 1964), 264. ::::::,3::,. 27 Stampp, 34. °Simkins, 127. 29 29 Allan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union (New York: Chas. Scribner's Allan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union (New York: Chas. Scribner's SOns, 1947), I, 543. Sons, 1947), I, 543. 15 15 with their life is open to to question. question. Negro-White relations developed aa great great amount amount of of tension tension in in the the 1850's. 1850*s. Allan Allan Nevins Nevins further further ' ~ ~.!. I'. . ... '.' comments: comments: Some sought to to break down the insurrection. the system by insurrection. The list of plots, plots, sporadic outbreaks, outbreaks, and revolts revolts during the decade is perhaps significant that that the elec­ elecis long, long, and it it is is perhaps tion years years of 1856 and 1860, excitement, 1860, with their pervasive excitement, brought reports of widely-ramified conspiracies. conspiracies. other Other slaves resisted servitude by flight, away. flight, many thousands running away. Still others resorted to to economic weapons Their supposed lazi­ laziness was frequently aa type type of passive resistance, ness was resistance, while direct sabotage through the the destruction of property or maiming of livestock was unknown. Slaves was far far from unknown. Slaves who were hard-pressed their personalities by impudent by brutal masters might asser^ asser~otheir language or physical assault. assault. Q Obviously, Obviously, aa slave who was was continually whipped would soon sink low in productive capacity, capacity, and any profit ordinarily gained through this, danger of insurrections eliminated. Besides this, his efforts would be eliminated. seems safe to would increase sharply with continued whippings. whippings. It seems this fact, fact, and assume that most slaveholders were at least aware of this that it governed their treatment of slaves slaves to further that to aa great extent. extent. was to to profit from his ownership of slave property, If aa slaveholder was property, he knew he would have to to give them proper care. care. as to The question as to what degree slavery was was aa profitable insti­ instidebated. A A noted historian of the South, South, Charles tution has long been debated. Sydnor, makes Sydnor, makes some interesting observations about the the early period of slavery: slavery: In the the early 1830's 1830* s many many persons persons in in the the South South Atlantic Atlantic states were despondent over the economic condition of their region. A marker of the region. A m~ilier the Virginia legislature of 1831-32 com­ compared the original fertility of the the land with the present commonwealth—"condition of the slaveholding portion of this this commonwealthbarren, desolate, desolate, and seared as as it were by the avenging hand barren, 30 ibid. 16 of heaven." the fact heaven." Another bemoaned the fact that that "our towns towns are stationary, villages almost everywhere declining.it A stationary, our villages declining." A third asserted that "if you will will go the credit stores go into the stores and pop-shops,(with is thronged) thronged) you pop-shops, (with which the the whole country is will find that, exceptions, the the slaveholder has will that, with very few exceptions, there become very deeply ~ltangled---the entangled the embarrassment mainly incurred to his slaves. to clothe and feed his slaves. The slave slave is is clothed and fed, fed, that he may labor for for victuals and clothes---a clothes—-a beautiful operation! Thus sir, the master of the the slave absolutely be­ operation! Thus sir, belongs to to labor--and labor- and labor ~~rd-j^ard longs to the the merchant, merchant, and has has to for their benefit. is literally their bondsman." for benefit. He is bondsman. tf Most modern stUdents the slave problem believe that it was students of the 32 32 not profitable. In the thirty or forty years that a slave might be not profitable. In the thirty or forty years that a slave might be expected to do effective work, there were a number of expenses a slaveexpected to do effective work, there were a number of expenses a slave­ holder had to meet. These expenses could encroach dangerously on his holder had to meet. These expenses could encroach dangerously on his margin of profit. The cost of buying or rearing the slave, amortizamargin of profit. The cost of buying or rearing the slave, amortiza­ tion of the capital investment, and insurance against running away tion of the capital investment, and insurance against running away were some of the more important ones. In the event of premature death were some of the more important ones. In the event of premature death or disability during illness or old age, the slaveholder was left or disability during illness or old age, the slaveholder was left 33 without profit. 33 Stampp, however, provides an answer for this cogent argument:profit. without Stampp, however, provides an answer for this cogent Moreover, it must be remembered that the typical master argument: of the upper South had inherited his slaves and had not purit must be remembered that the typical master chasedMoreover, them at the high prices of the late ante-bellum period. of the upper South had inherited his slaves and had not pur­ When his profit is figured on the basis of the original cash chased them at the high prices of the late ante-bellum period. investment, rather than at current slave pric3~' it was subWhen his profit is figured on the basis of the original cash stantially higher ill1d usually quite adequate. investment, rather than at current slave pricey, it was sub­ stantially higher and usually quite adequate. 3lcharles Charles S. S. Sydnor, Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819-1848, A History of the the South (Louisiana State University Press: Press: 1819-1848, A Littlefield Fund for the University of Texas, for Southern History of the Texas, 1953), 1953), V. 249. V. 249. 32 32 ' Simkl.ns, 129. Simkins, 129. 33 33 Ibid • Ibid. 34 34 Stampp, 411. Stampp, 411. 17 further argues argues that that since slavery showed no sign of Stampp further decay, decay, it was was probably justifying itself economically. economically. And "during the l850·s vigor1850*s slavery did in fact fact give give much evidence of continued vigor­ ous growth. growth. Slave prices were higher than ever before, ous before, and everywhere 35 35 in the South the demand for Negro labor exceeded the supply." in the South the demand for Negro labor exceeded the supply." He He stresses his contention that the institution was at least much more stresses his contention that the institution was at least much more "In the final analyprofitable than most historians usually admit. "In the final analy­ profitable than most historians usually admit. sis, the high valuation of Negro labor during the l850's was the best sis, the high valuation of Negro labor during the 1850*s was the best 36 and most direct evidence of the continued profitability of slavery." and most direct evidence of the continued profitability of slavery." 36 He also notes that slave labor had several competitive advantages He also notes that slave labor had several competitive advantages over free white labor; it was paid less; that is, the average wage over free white labor; it was paid less; that is, the average wage of a free laborer was much higher than the general maintenance costs of a free laborer was much higher than the general maintenance costs of a slave. And second, masters exploited women and children more of a slave. And second, masters exploited women and children more completely than did the employers of free labor. The slave also completely than did the employers of free labor. The 37 slave also worked longer hours under a more rigid discipline. 37 worked longer hours under a more rigid discipline. Hugging the middle of the road t Alfred H. Conrad and John R. Hugging the middle of the road, Alfred H. Conrad and John R. Meyer argue that slavery was profitable to a limited extent. The role Meyer argue that slavery was profitable to a limited extent. The role of the lower South was the production of staples, chiefly cotton; of the lower South was the production of staples, chiefly cotton; that of the upper South was the production of slaves, exporting them that of the upper South was the production of slaves, exporting them to the staple-crop areas when there was an increase. Conrad and to the staple-crop areas when there was an increase. Conrad and r1eyer argue that if these two regions of the South are considered Meyer argue that if these two regions of the South are considered as an economic unit, "slavery was profitable to the whole South, the as an economic unit, "slavery was profitable to the whole South, the 35 Ibid • 388. Ibid. 388. 35 - 36Ibid • 414. Ibid. 414. 36 - 37Ibid • 400. Ibid. 400. 37 18 continuing demand for for labor in the the Cotton Belt insuring returns to the the breeding operation on the less less productive land in the seaboard 38 and border states." and border states." 38 Further they comment: Further they comment: In sum, was forced by sum, it seems seems doubtful that that the the South was a system bad statesmanship into an an unnecessary war to to protect a which must soon have disappeared because it was was economically unsound. This is is ~9romantic |^roraantic hypothesis which will not stand unsound. the facts. against the facts. In summing up the the problem of profitability, profitability, they point out the following: following: Although profitability cannot be offered as aa sufficient the continuity of Southern slavery, slavery, the converse guaranty of the that slavery must have destroyed itself can no argument that no longer rest upon allegation of unprofitability or upon assumptions about the imggssibility of maintaining and allocating a about the im~8ssibility a slave labor force. force. It is clear from the profitthe evidence examined that slavery was profit­ to at at least aa limited extent; extent; certainly the extent that this this was able to true would not satisfy every student's student's concept of profit. true profit. But as affirm, it is is no longer plausible to assume that the Conrad and Meyer affirm, institution was was dying out at at the time of the the Civil War because of lack profit. The fact fact that slavery held its own as as an economic of sufficient profit. recognized. Whether this economic institution must of necessity be recognized. influence was was overshadowed by the social social implications is another matter of conjecture. conjecture. James James Ford Rhodes, Rhodes, aa Southern scholar, scholar, makes these observations: observations: 38 Alfred H. H. Conrad and John R. R. Meyer, Meyer, tiThe "The Economics of Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South,U the Ante-Bellura South," Journal of Political Economy, Economy, LXVI LXVT (April 1958), 121. 1958), 121. 39Ibid. Ibid • 39 40 40 • 122. 122. Ibid Ibid. 19 From being regarded as as an evil, evil, slavery began to be looked upon as as the the only possible condition of the existence of the the two races side by side and by 1850 the feeling had grown to be that races side side 1850 the to slavery was was "no evi1 evil^no scourge, but a great religious, social a religious, o scourge, 41n and moral blessing," blessing." Certainly slavery had become ingrained into the life of the Southern people; people; besides aa way of life, life, it was was aa protective social measure. And it was was no no evil, evil, but aa "great religious, religious, social and moral measure. u blessing. Negroes, they believed, to be slaves for blessing." Negroes, believed, were were destined to for life by the nature of things. inferior, the very nature things. Since Negroes Negroes were innately inferior, was the the only humane course to follow. follow. In keeping them in bondage was bondage they were were happier and more useful useful to to society. society. Randall and Donald note: note: But to believe But by the the 1830's 1830*s the the Southern states had come to that slavery was was the the necessary basis basis of their section's economy that and, what is is even more important, important, that that it was the only way in and, was the ajjegedly inferior Negro Race Race could be kept in sub­ which the a!~egedly subordination. ordination. Stampp shares the problem: problem: shares this this view in his his own evaluation of the The proslavery writer's surwriter*s favorite favorite explanation for for the sur­ vival vival of an allegedly unprofitable labor system was that Negroes for freedom. freedom. Slavery existed because of the "race were unfit for problemu---because Negroes would problem" because the the presence of aa horde of free free Negroes an immense social social danger and threaten southern civiliza­ pose an civilization. Slavery was, all, aa method of regulating race tion. was, above all, relations, an instrument of social social control. control. The master kept relations, his slaves slaves from aa sense of duty to society and possession of his to his "people." "people." To destroy the the system, system, according to^the to t~3the proargument, would be aa tragedy for for both races. slavery argument, races. Southern historian Simkins argument: Simkins concurs with the argument: 41 James Slavery as Cause," Lectures ~ctures on the James Ford Rhodes, Rhodes, tI"Slavery as aa Single Cause," 3. American Civil Civil War (New York: York: Macmillan Co., Co., 1930), 1930), 3. 42 ' 42Randall and Donald, 21. Randall and Donald, 21. 43 Stampp, 387. Stampp, 387. 20 20 It It must be remembered that that an an agricultural system is often more than aa mere economic pursuit, pursuit, to to be abandoned as as soon as losses become obvious. obvious. It may be aa way of life, life, aa social system so much tradition that that it it would not be abandoned surrounded by so the face face of aa superior outside force. force. This was except in the was emphat­ emphatically true true of the the agricultural system of the the South before 1865. 1865. Slavery was was close close to to the the peculiar social practices the heart of the of the the Old South South....The who had no direct mater­ •••• The many Southerners who material interest in its continuation and the few Southerners who, ial its and the few who, like Robert Robert E. E. Lee, Lee, continued to to disapprove of it, it, dared offer no alternative, for slavery was believed tc-^be social neces­ no alternative, for slavery was believed t~4be aa social necesrI sity for keeping the Negro "in his place." sity for keeping the Negro "in his place. Avery Craven sees sees the the same attitude as as he analyzes the position of the that the the South on the the Negro. Negro. He suggests suggests that the the South believed that Negro was "helpless" "helpless" without the the benevolent institution of slavery to 45 45 guide him. He would not work unless he was forced to do so. Furguide him. He would not work unless he was forced to do so. Fur­ ther Notes: ther Craven Notes: Indolence benumbed his ••• and inflamed his nfeeble "feeble intellect intellect...and his his vile passions" passions" and drove him "into the the extremes of savage barbarism." want, barbarism." Without slavery he he ~uld would sink into poverty and want, into death. into vice and plunder, plunder, into into disease and death. Slavery thus thus made him into into aa useful useful member of society Christianity. and rewarded him with aa bit of civilization Christianity. twice as as many Negro Negro church members members in the South as There were twice to Christ by all all "other missionary efforts" had begg be~g won to effortstf com­ combined. bined. And Finally, comments: Finally, Allan r~evins Nevins makes makes the the following comments: And most fortifyL1g fortifying of all all to to the the Southern spirit, spirit, they could consciously or unconsciously take take the the view that the Negro fit for for any position but that that of bondsman, had never been fit bondsman, and be. This This became aa traditional conviction bulwarked never would be. indolence, timidity, timidity, and the the desire for for security. by habit, habit, indolence, security. that the the Negro was was an inferior creation, The assertion that creation, a 44 Simkins, 132. Simkins, 132. 45 45 Avery O. Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848Avery 0. Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 18481861, A History of the South (Louisiana State University Press: 1861, A History Of the South (Louisiana State University Press: Littlefield Fund for Southern History of the University of Texas, Littlefield Fund259. for Southern History of the University of Texas, 1953), VI, 258, 1953), VI, 258, 259. °46Ibid • - 21 21 being of natural incapacity, to aa thought-pattern incapacity, lent it~71f itself to all change in slavery. which opposed all slavery. Slavery was was aa cultural adaptation and the people liked it. it. The fact fact that there was not scientific, scientific, reasonable basis for for such aa belief in the the inferiority of the the Negro did not interfere with the Southern social social concept. concept. It had simply become their way of life. life. Obviously it is impossible to to make valid generalizations about any race with respect to traits. It would be ridiculous to to inferior or superior traits. as any more fitted or destined to spend their lives lives as regard Negroes Negroes as slaves raceQ Since the white race has has been obliged to slaves than the the white race* submit to to various forms forms of bondage over the centuries, centuries, it would seem ridiculous to automatically place the Negro race in aa niche of servitude forever. 49 48 forever. be~icient Nevertheless, Southerners became fervent defenders of a Nevertheless, Southerners became fervent defenders of a system justified on historical, biblical, scientific, econo- bensficient system justified on historical, biblical, scientific, econo­ mic, and sociological grounds. Supposedly learned men set out to prove mic, and sociological grounds. Supposedly learned men set out to prove the innate inferiority of the Negro race. Dr. Josiah Nott, of Mobile, the innate inferiority of the Negro race. Dr. Josiah Nott, of Mobile, Alabama tried to show that the Negro belonged to a different species Alabama tried to show that the Negro belonged to a different species from the whiteman. Dr. J. H. Van Evrie demonstrated the application from the white man. Dr. J. H. Van Evrie demonstrated the application of the principle in his book Negroes and Negro "Slavery" i The First an of the principle in his book Negroes and Negro "Slavery"; The First an Inferior Race: The Latter its Normal Condition. Albert Gallatin Brown, Inferior Race: The Latter its Normal Condition. Albert Gallatin Brown, of Mississippi, did not hesitate to inform the United States Senate l. " of Mississippi, did not hesitate to inform the United States Senate that nslavery is a great moral, social, and political blessing---a n that slavery is a great moral, social, and political 49 blessing a blessing to the slave, and a blessing to the master." 49 Stanley 47 to the slave, and a blessing to the master." blessing Nevins, 534. 48 47Stampp, 10. 49 49Nevins, 534. Randall and Donald, 48. 48Randall and Donald, 48. Stampp, 10. Stanley 22 22 Elkins sununation: Elkins makes aa tinlely timely summation: The man of reason and good will will in the the Jeffersonian and immediate post Jeffersonian South tried again and again to two conflicting sets sets of feelings feelings about balance within himself two slavery. slavery. On the the one hand was was the the sentiment, sentiment, widely shared at the the end of the the eighteenth century, century, that the the institution was uneconomic, morally dubious, dubious, and aa burden on both the slave­ uneconomic, slavethe community. community. That the the Negro, Negro, on the the other holder and the hand, lacked the the capacity to to care for for himself as as aa free hand, was aa conviction that slavery's strongest opponents, American was o~EPnents, Jefferson, could seldom escape. not excluding Thomas Jefferson, escape. Used often as as an argument for for the the beneficient nature of the system was was the the one that Negroes Negroes were were actually happier in slavery. slavery. Thoughts of freedom were only placed in their minds abominds by Northern abo­ litionists and troublemakers, facts troublemakers, it was was believed. believed. Actually, Actually, the facts indicate otherwise. to place otherwise. The custom among many slaveholders was was to aa clause condiclause in in their their wills wills freeing freeing their their slaves slaves under under prescribed condi­ tions. following: tions. stampp's Stampp's study of the the practice reveals reveals the the following: With rare exceptions slaves slaves eagerly accepted offers of emancipation regardless of the them. the conditions imposed on them. In some some cases cases ~~ey they were required to to leave leave not merely the state freestate but the the country. country. One One Virginia master offered free­ dom to to his his fourteen slaves slaves if they would agree agree to to move to at the the expense of the the American Colonization Society. Liberia at Society. thus forced to to part with friends friends and Though they were thus to settle in aa strange land, land, only one one of them relatives and to the terms. terms. All All of the the one hundred and twenty-three rejected the Ross, of Mississippi, Mississippi, elected the the option of slaves of Isaac Ross, slaves being transpgfted transported to to Africa to to obtain the the freedom provided his will. in his will. It is aa little known fact fact that many Negroes Negroes really wanted their freedom and would go go to to such great expense and sacrifice to obtain it. it. This This in itself seems seems aa profound contradiction to to the argument that Negroes were destined to Negroes were to be slaves. slaves. It It seems seems strange 50 Elkins, 207. Elkins, 207. 51 Stampp, 94. Stampp, 94. 23 23 to remain that aa race of people who were perfectly adapted and destined to in bonds would fight Accordfight it with such fortitude fortitude and determination. determination. Accord­ ing to to Sydnor, Sydnor, the the slaveholder did not give the abolitionist aa fair hearing: hearing: His traditions, his way of traditions, his economic interests, interests, and his life all his considering slavery in aa detached, detached, all fought fought against his objective fashion; fashion; and his dealings with the North for for some years years past had destroyed any faith faith h^ may have had in Northern disinterestedness and fair dealing. fair dealing. g2 Regardless of the the arguments used to to justify the the system, system, the motivation to to retain it was was clearly was strong. strong. And that motivation was social in nature. nature. Southerners used historical, scientific, historical, biblical, biblical, scientific, economic, and sociological grounds grounds to try to to prove that slavery was economic, good, and that it was necessary. necessary. They used every method of reasoning good, available, but the factor was was the fear fear that the Negro available, the real real motivating factor might become socially equal. equal. And whether they sincerely believed that he was innately inferior or not seems seems relatively unimportant; unimportant; what is important is that the Southerners were determined he would subordination. Tradition ruled the South and had establish­ remain in subordination. establish- ed an entrenched institution. institution. The plasticity which may have once gone. They were accustomed to characterized the Southern mind had gone. fight for for it if necessary. their way of life and were determined to to fight necessary. fears and traditions dominated their thinking at a Clearly social fears a sums up the the problem: crucial time. time. Stampp cogently sums problem: By the the eighteenth century color had become not only the evidence of slavery but also aa badge of degradation. degradation. Thus the class, for slavery, the 53 master class, for its own purposes, purposes, wrote chattel slavery, system, and color prejudice into American custom and law. caste system, law. 5 3 52 52 Sydnor, Sydnor, 241. 241. 53 Stampp, 23. 23. Stampp, 53 ~ 24 24 Slavery was was aa way of life life to to the the South; South; it was was aa method of . keeping the Negro in subordination to to the the slaveholder. slaveholder. To the Negro r, I t !i it was was believed to to be aa moral moral and spiritual spiritual blessing. blessing. It is is signifi­ significant that that these these same same attitudes attitudes governing slavery played aa role in the Institution as as it existed further further West in Utah. Utah. Those who migrated to institution i~ t; Utah and settled there there came with mixed backgrounds and ideas on the utah problem of slavery. slavery. The The degree degree to to which it it became aa part of their lives is aa matter well well worth consideration. is consideration. ,, ,- f CHAPTER II IJATURE NATURE OF NEGRO 3LAVERY SLAVERY IN UTAH Clearly written wt-1-tten upon the the bronze tablet on the north side of the Brigham Young Monument at at the the intersection of Main and South Temple Streets in Salt Lake City are are these names: streets names: "Green Flake, Flake, Hark Lay, Lay, Crosby, Colored Servants." Servants." An unknown fact fact to many Utahns, and Oscar Crosby, Utahns, this plaque honoring the the original pioneers of 1847 1847 alsc also pays this pays tribute three Negro group. The most famous to three Negro slaves who were were included in the group. famous the Utah slaves, slaves, these were the the first first to enter the the Utah Territory. of the Territory. enough, Utah in 1850 was was the only Western territory in which Oddly enough, 1 Negroes were held as as slaves. Negroes slaves. 1 Andrew Jensen, the L.D.S. L.D.S. Jensen, formerly Assistant Historian for for the Church, information: Church, records records the following information: Green Flake was was born January 1825, 1825, as as aa slave in Anson County, M. Flake's County, North Carolina, Carolina, 011 on the the plantation of James M. father, father, and spent all all of his his early life in that family; family; he went with the Nauvoo, Illinois, the Flake f&n11y family to to Nauvoo, Illinois, and thence thence West during the the "Mormon" "Mormon" exodus exodus of 1846. 1846. Green Flake's Flake*s permanent home was Union, Salt Lake utah; but he lived temporarily in Salt Union, Lake County, County, Utah; Lake City after the fall fall of 1893; 1893; 1ate later he moved to to Idaho and 2 died at Falls, October 20, 1903. at Idaho Falls, 20, 1903. Green Flake was was one of many slaves on aa large plantation in North Carolina belonging belongL,g to to Jordon Flake; Flake; when Flake passed away he 1 / James B. Christensen, "A Social Survey of the James B. Christensen, the Negro Population of Salt Lake City, City, Utah," (Unpublished Master*s Thesis, Utah," Master's Thesis, University of Utah, 11. Utah, 1948), 1948), 11. 2.-/ 2 Andrew Jensen, L.D.S. LaI<e City, City, Andrew Jensen, L.D.S. Biographical Biographical Encyclopedia Encyclopedia (Salt (Salt Lake Utah: Arrow Press, 1920), IV, 703 • Utah: Arrow Press, 1920), IV, 703. 26 26 as is stated in his divided up his property among his family as his will: will: I, the State of North Carolina and County I, Jordon Flake of the Anson, being weak in body though sound of mind and memory, of Anson, memory, thanks be be to for the the same same and calling to thanks to God for to mind the mortality of my body and for all all men once to rold knowing that that it is appointed for die, therefore, I do make this ray last will and testament in the die, therefore, I do this my will following manner and form: form: First: I give and bequeath to son John M. M. Flake the the three First: I give to my son boys that that he possession, namely, namely, Ned, Negro boys he has has in possession, Ned, Daniel, Daniel, and two hundred dollars dollars...Fourth: Isham and two ••• Fourth: II give to to ray my son James^ James 3 M. Flake, Lyse and three M. Flake, two Negroes Green and Lyse three hundred dollars. dollars. James M. M. Flake was baptized into the James the Mormon Church in the the winter of 1843-44 to Nauvoo, Nauvoo, Illinois in the 1843-44 in Mississippi. Mississippi. Following aa trip to 1844, the spring of 1844, the family decided they wanted to to live with the "Saints." With three other families families and three three Negro slaves, slaves, the "Saints." the Flakes 4 4 made the move. made the move. O. D. Flake, a grandson of James M. Flake, continues 0. D. Flake, a grandson of James M. Flake, continues # the account: the account: When Brigham Young commenced fitting out aa train to take the the pioneers across the Great Plains, the first first of the across the Plains, he needed the had. James M. Flake, very best teams teams and outfits to to be had. James M. Flake, who had his all all upon the altar, sent sent his slave, Green with the put his the altar, his slave, the mules carriage, to the company to and mountain carriage, to help the to their destination. destination. He told Green to to send the He the outfit back by some of the the brethren, brethren, who would be returning, and for him to stay and build them a who returning, for to a house. Like £he old slaves, he faithfully carried out his house. Like She slaves, instructions• instructions. The fact fact that he was aa Negro slave did not prevent Green Flake from being baptized into the the Church. Church. The The Southern pioneer John Brown tells of this this in his diary when he says says that "I "I also also baptized two tells 3 Will of Jordon Flake, Wills, Anson Will Flake, From film of North Carolina Wills, County, No. F NC 2c(4575)Part 3, 3, County, North Carolina, Carolina, 1751-1942, 1751-1942, Call No. p. 164. p. 164. 41/ 4 ^ o. D. Flake, William J. Flake, Pioneer-Colonizer (Salt Lake 0. D. City, Utah: City, Utah: 5Ibid. Ibid • 5 Flake, Flake, by the William author, J. 1948), 3. Pioneer-Colonizer (Salt Lake by the author, 1948), 3. 9. 9. 27 27 6 Green, belonging to Flake." black men, men, Allen and Green, to Brother Flake." 6 Brown's record is aa distinct indication that slaves slaves were in many cases members of the Church. the Mormon Church. Traveling with the the Amasa M. Companies, M. Lyman and Willard Richards Companies, James M. M. Flake and his family came West in 1848. 1848. Flake was was appointed captain of 100 wagons, familiesc wagons, most of these being made up of Southern families, The company consisted of the following: following: 502 502 24 24 169 169 50 50 20 20 515 515 426 426 369 369 white people Negroes Negroes wagons wagons horses horses mules mules oxen oxen loose loose cattle cattle sheep sheep 63 63 55 44 44 170 170 44 55 33 pigs cats cats dogs dogs chickens chickens turkeys turkeys doves doves^ 7 goats goats Since no mention is made in the the above listing of the the specific condition of the twenty-four Negroes included, to de­ deincluded, it is is impossible to termine whether they were slave or free. free. But it is highly probable that they were of slave status. status. William J. M. Flake, his father J. Flake? Flake, son son of James James M. Flake, tells tells of his being killed in an accident with aa mule after leaving for for California 1849. In 1854, 1854, his mother and family went with C. C. C. C. Rich and in 1849. A. M. M. Lyman to Bernardino. Before leaving leaving, she gave gave her "Negro A. to San Bernardino. t she as tithing. tithing. He then worked two slave Green Flake to to the Church as two years for President Young and Heber C. C. Kimball, Kimball, and then got got his for his liberty and ~ 6 7 John Brown, and and and and ; Autobiography of John Brown! arranged 1 John Brown, Autobiography of John Brown, 1820-1896 1820-1896, arranged published by John Zimmerman Brown (Salt Lake City, Utah: published by John Zimmerman Brown (Salt Lake City, Utah: Stevens Stevens Wallis 46. 1941), 46. Wallis Press, Press, 1941), 7 7 Flake, 10, 11. Flake, 10, 11. 28 28 settled near Union." union.,,88 settled near Years later, later, in in 1897, The Deseret Deseret News News Years 1897, The reported: reported: Two pioneers called at at the News News office today; today; one was a colored man named Green Flake, Flake, who claims to to have been in the first wagon through Canyon, and moved to ^daho first t,'rougb Emigration Canyon, ~daho after living in Utah 49 years. years. He is now 70 70 years of age. age. Acting as Flake, as as well well as as the other as another witness of Green Flake, two pioneers, Amasa M. M. Lyman Jr. Jr. himself a a son of one two original Negro pioneers, of the piqneers, issued the the following statement in 1936: 1936: the original pioneers, II b1ew knew all all three three of of those those Negro Negro servants servants who who were were members members of President Brigham Young's Pioneer Company of 1847. 1847. Hark Lay belonged to William Lay. Lay. Hark was always hard to manage. manage. also went to California He died in California. California. William Crosby also him, where the and took his his servant Oscar Crosby crosby along with him, slaveswjge latter died. died. After the slaves wIDe freed, freed, Green Flake lived at Union Fort, Fort, Salt Lake County. at County. to Mr. According to Mr. Lyman, Lyman, some of the Utah slaveholders and ll their respective Negro slaves were those listed here:^ here: SLAVE OWNERS: OWNERS: Daniel M. Thomas Daniel M. William Matthews William Matthews William William Lay Lay William William Crosby Crosby James Flake James M. M. Flake William Smith SLAVES: NEGRO SLAVES: Toby Uncle Phil Phil Uncle Hark, Henderson, and Knelt Knelt Hark, Henderson, and Oscar and Grief Oscar and Grief Green and and his his wife wife "Liz" "Liz" Green (later known as Mrs. Martha (later known as Mrs. Martha Green Flake) Green Flake) Aunt " It n, Hanna, Hanna, and and Aunt - - -", Lawrence 8 william J. J. Flake, L. D. D. S. Historian, William Flake, Letter to L. S. Church Historian, M.S. in Church Archives, Archives, Flake File in Salt Lake City. City. Feb. 14, 14, 1894. 1894. M.S. Feb. 99 Deseret News, July 19, 1897. Deseret News, July 19, 1897. 10 3rown, 73. ^°3rown, 73. 11 Interview with Amasa M. Lyman, Jr., quoted in Jack Beller, with Amasa Lyman, Jr., quoted ,I:L{'October.1929.1, in Jack Beller, "Negro ^Interview Slaves in Utah," Utah M. Historical Quarterly, "Negro Slaves in Utah," Utah Historical Quarterly, a£ L£0ctoher..1929.1, 123, 124. 123, 124. 29 29 ~ " John H. H. Bankhead John Brown Jasper N. N. Perkins Reuben Perkins Monroe Perkins Heber C. C. Kimball Mr. Mr. Sprouse Charles C. C. Rich Mrs. ~trs. ^ Sina Bankhead 12 Crosby^rown Flewellen Betsy CrosbYl~rown Mary Perkins Frank, Frank, wife Esther, Esther, Ben and other children Ben Martha (later married to to Green Flake) Flake) Daniel 33 pair pair of of slaves slaves It was the slaves to assume the was aa customary practice for for the slaves to the surname of their masters. masters. Therefore, Therefore, where aa surname is not found, found, it is is the same name as the master. master. as that of the Obviously, the West in 1847 included Obviously, the the Mormon exodus exodus to to the Southerners who had been accustomed to to slavery from aa cultural standpoint. Tennessee, standpoint. One One of these was John Brown, Brown, aa native of Tennessee, who was to the Mormon Church and sent on aa mission to was converted to to the Southern states States in 1843. 1843. Brown recorded in his his journal that in April 1846, 1846, he assisted in organizing aa company of fourteen families April families for the the Rocky Mountains. Mountains. Upon learn­ in Mississippi and then headed for learnstill at Winter Quarters, Quarters, Brown returned ing that Brigham Young was still to Mississippi for for his his family. family. His His journal, his son, to journal, arranged by his son, Brown, yields John Zimmerman Brown, yields considerable light on the existence the company: of slavery in the company: After aa few days to wind up our days rest, rest, we commenced to for Council business and prepare to to leave in the the spring for Bluffs, go out with wie1 the unexpectedly, in Bluffs, to to go the Church, Church, when unexpectedly, came two the Bluffs, 31uffs, viz: viz: Bryant Nowlin cume two elders right from the Crimson, with an an epistle from the Council of and Charles Crimson, the Twelve, us t~ to, remain remain another another year, year, to to fit fit the Twelve, instructing us 12 12 Brown, 146. Brown, 146. 13 Frank Esshom, utah (Salt Esshora, Pioneers and Prominent Men of Utah (Salt Lake City, Utah: Utah Pioneers Book Publishing Co., 958. City, Utah: Co., 1913), 1913), 958. 30 30 out and send all the men we could, pioneers. We call­ callall the could, to to go go as as pioneers. to consider the the matter. matter. We concluded to ed aa council to to send some pioneers, oae one of whom was to to take take charge of the whole, being six pioneers, the whole, servants. It fell fell to to my lot to mostly black servants. to go go and superintend the affair, affair, William Crosby to send one hand, hand, John Bankhead one, the one, one, and John Powell one, his brother David; David; and I William Lay one, Powell one, I was to take one besides myself. We had to travel to the Bluffs myself. to tt~vel to was to take in the winter in order to to get there in time. time. Brown then tells the trip tells of the the tremendous hardship which the entailed and the company: the effects it had upon the company: f' I( "<' { ". r ~. We purchased our wagons and teams, Louis. teams, etc. etc. at St. St. Louis. A few days' travel from this point, Brothers James Stratton A few days* travel this point, Brothers James and Nowlin overtook us, Ivory. Brother us, also Brother Matthew Ivory. Stratton had his his family along. along. They had one wagon. wagon. The days. We mud was so bad we were obliged to to lay by several several days. nud was so now had six wagons. wagons. It finally turned cold and we had a a it. TIle The Negroes suffered most. most. My very severe time of it. boy, whose name was was Henry, Henry, took cold and finally the boy, Winter Fever(Lobar Pneumonia) Pneumonia) set set in which caused his death on the the road. I buried him in Andrew County, at the road. I County, at lower end of the round prairies eight miles north of lower end of the rowld prairies eight miles north of Savannah, Missouri. this neighborhood, neighborhood, we purchased some Savannah, Missouri. In this more cattle. more cattle. We reached the the pioneers the Bluffs aa few days days before the started and while II was was lying there, there, Bankhead's Negro died the Winter Fever. Fever. It was the severest trip II had with the undertaken. II left one wagon and load with Brother undertaken. to bring out with the the families. families. I Crismon to I took the other two wagons, two black boys that survived the two wagons, the the two the trip Lay), David |gwell and Matthew (Oscar Crosby and Hark (Oscar Lay), ~gwell Ivory, and joined the pioneer camp. Ivory, the campa The effects of the hard winter apparently took heavy toll upon the the Negro members of the Lay, the group. group. Oscar Crosby and Hark Lay, however, survived to to become, first Negro however, become, with Green Flake, Flake, the the first pioneers in the the Salt Lake Valley. this journal, journal, it is Valley. From this is evident that many of the the Southern members of the the Church were slaveholders that because of their cultural background, background, and that that these slaveholding 14 Brown, 71• 71. Brown, 15 Ibid • 72. 72. Ibid. 31 31 privileges were in no way endangered by their membership in the Church. Church. In enumerating the the specific make-up of the Mississippi Company, John Brown makes the the following interesting entry Company, entry: 16 Saturday, I made aa report of the Saturday, May 27, 27, 1848, 1848, I Mississippi Company as follows: as follows: Heads of Families White Persons John Powell Moses Powell Robert M. M. Smith John Lockhart George Bankhead John H. H. Bankhead John De D. Holladay Francis McKnown William H. H.. Lay Elizabeth Crosby John Brown William Crosby Ekles Ekles Truly 10 66 1 1 22 33 1 1 Totals: Totals: 56~ 56 Colored Persons 66 4 4 99 77 10 (j 6 11 11 1 1 2 2 22 33 1 1 5 5 34" 34 In 1848 seven of the the thirteen Southern members members of the the Church were active slaveholders, persons to slaveholders, and the the proportion of colored persons white persons was the slaves was comparatively great. great. One One of the slaves included this group was Betsy Crosby Brown Flewellen, Flewellen, the the colored servant in this of Elizabeth Crosby Brown. Brown. As As aa little girl girl she she was was brought from the Mrs. the Crosby plantation in Monroe County, County, Mississippi to to Utah by Mrs. Brown in 1848e was aa servant or a a slave in the the Brown home from 1848. She was 1848 the Civil War. 1848 until until the the slaves slaves were freed after the War. She She later married 17 a colored man, a barber named Flewellen, in Salt Lake City.17 other a colored man, a barber named Flewellen, in Salt Lake City. 16Ibid • 96. 16 17Ibid • 145. Ibid. 96. 17 Ibid. 145. Other 32 32 records the existence of Southern masters records also also support the masters with their Negro slaves; the Journal slaves; the Journal History of the the L.D.S. L.D.S. Church contains this brief entry: Quarters~ entry: "The last company of emigrants to to leave Winter Quarters, (July 15, attendants~1t18 15, 1848), 1848), had some some Southerners with their colored attendants."* In connection with some to the some later Mississippi converts converts to Church, Church, an Iowa historian tells tells of an interesting event., event. Although Tabor, Iowa, Iowa, disapproved of theft and violence as as a the people of Tabor, slaves their freedom9 freedom the the town was means of giving slaves was nevertheless 9 as an Underground Railroad Station. Station. Many events events demon­ widely known as demon- strating their desire to the history to free free slaves slaves have been recorded in the Iowa. At At least one of these episodes had direct connection with of Iowa. some Mormon pioneers: some pioneers: On the the evening of July 4 1854, aa Mormon elder with his On 4~ 1854, slaves camped overnight overnight, in Tabor on their way family and six slaves Salt Lake City. Two of the the Negroes from Mississippi to to ~alt City~ Two Negroes got well,'I near which the first first hotel water from aa well w:lich the hotel was was in the erection. The carpenters learned that that five five of process of erection. the six colored people, father, mother, two children, children, and the people, aa father, mother 9 two another man, anxious to ~~other milll, were anxious to escape bondage. bondage. The other slave woman did not wish to to leave her master so so was slave was not the night S. S. H. H. Adams, Adams, John Hallam informed of their plans. plans. In the and James K. Gaston took the the five five Negroes ,:md James K. Negroes east of town across ~9ross the Nishnabotna River and concealed them in the the bushes. the bushes., y Discovering the unperthe next morning that the the camp duties duties were unper­ formed, prepared, the slave~ formed, the the teams teams uncared for, for, and no no breakfast prepared, the slave­ owner soon discovered that that his his slaves slaves had disappeared. disappeared. He promptly enlisted help from some some pro-slavery sympathizers aa few miles miles south of Tabor9 Tabor, and executed aa man hunt into the the groves groves and thickets along 18/ 18Journal History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Journal of the Church of Jesus Christ Saints, July 15, History 1848 (From Church Historian's Office of in Latter-Day Salt Lake Saints, July 15, 1848 (From Church Historian's Office in Salt Lake City, Utah). City, Utah). 19 Catherine Grace Barbour Farquhar, College,11 Farquhar, "Tabor and Tabor College," Iowa Journal of History and Politics (October 1943), 3580 1943), 358* 33 the River: the Nishnabotna River: But But one one of the the searchers searchers, at heart heart aa friend of the 9 at refugees, was careful to refugees, was to do do the the searching in the area he knew they were were concealed and just as as careful where he find thern~ theiru In aa day or two two Cephas Case and not to to find W. L. L. Clark conducted the the fugitives fugitives to to aa Quacker w. Des f<1oines Moines, which} QPI ace they they settlement near Des ~ from wl1ic~cflace to Canada. eventually found their way to Canadas These slaves slaves were were held against against their will will and were considered to BrownQ s accounts, account9 to be servants servants in bondage. bondage. When considered with John Brown"s this Iowa incident suggests that that slavery among these these Mormons at at least this was slavery in the true sense sense of the the word. was the true word. It will will be the as many the concern of this this chapter to to consider as of the the individual slaves slaves and slaveholders as as are are known. known. John Bankhead and family brought aa number of slaves slaves with them from the South, and these these slaves slaves remained with the the family after their emanci­ South, emanci~ as free free persons of color until until Mr® Mr Bankhead died in 1884* pation as 1884~ e John Bankhead lived in Draper Draper, Utahu John ~ Utah., One of the the well-kno\\m well-known slaves One to Draper was was Nathan Bankhead.. Bankhead. Mrs. Mrs. Sina Bankhead he brought with him to of Salt Lake County says that her father-in-law was Nathan Bankhead$ of Salt Lake County says that her father-in-law was Nathan Bankhead• Included in the eleven Bankhead Negro slaves who came into the Included in the eleven Bankhead Negro slaves who came into the valley in 1848, were Nathan, his wife' Susan~ Dan, Georges Alex, valley in 1848, were Nathan, his wife Susan, Dan, George Alex, Sam, Lewis, Ike, John~ Nancy, and Rose~ When the slaves were freed Sam, Lewis, Ike, John Nancy, and Rose. When the slaves were freed at the conclusion of the Civil War 9 Bankhead encouraged each of them at the conclusion of the Civil War, Bankhead encouraged each of them to be self-sufficient. He had originally owned his slaves on his to be self-sufficient.. He had originally owned his slaves on his plantation in Tennessee arld brought them to Utah when converted to plantation in Tennessee and brought them to Utah when converted to the Mormon Church. Bankhead apparently exercised a considerable the Mormon Church. Bankhead apparently exercised a considerable 20Ibid • 20 9 9 21 Ibid. Be11er 21 j 124 .. Beller, 124, 21 21 34 34 kindness to to his his slaves© slaves~ amount amount of of kindness 22 22 Vilate Crosby, Negro slave and mother-in-law to Flake, Crosby, aa Negro to Green Flake, came to Utah Utah from from Mississippi Mississippi with with the the Crosbys in came to Crosbys in in September September 1848 1848 in the the the Heber Heber C. C. Kimball Kimball Company. Company. She She had had two two daughters daughters and and was was also also the mother 1847@ mother of of Hark Hark Lay, Lay, one one of of the the original original Negro Negro pioneers pioneers of of 1847„ Martha, her daughters, Flake~ Martha, one of her daughters, became the wife of Green Flake» The The other daughter daughter, Rose, the wife of Miles Litzford and the 9 Rose 9 became the the first first free free born Negro in Utah, mother of Dan Freeman, Freeman, who was was the Utah~ 23 23 in 1850. in 1850. From Jasper N.. Perkins of Salt Lake City? ?- nephew of From Jasper N. Perkins of Salt Lake City, a nephew of Monroe Perkins, and Mrs~ Esther Jane Leggroan (colored) of Salt Monroe Perkins, and Mrs* Esther Jane Leggroan (colored) of Salt Lake County, daughter of Mary Perkins» one of the Perkins slaves, Lake County, daughter of Mary Perkins, one of the Perkins slaves, the following information is derived: Reuben Perkins came to Utah the following information is derived: Reuben Perkins came to Utah October 18~ 1848 with the Andrew Perkins Company, from North CaroOctober 18, 1848 with the Andrew Perkins Company, from North Caro­ lina and settled in Bountiful, Utah. He brought several Negro lina and settled in Bountiful, Utah. He brought several Negro slaves with him~ Monroe Perkins owned another slave named Ben, slaves with him. Monroe Perkins owned another slave named Ben, whom he sold to a man named Sprouses a Southerner~ Whilereturning whom he sold to a man named Sprousej, a Southerner. While returning to the South with Sprouse 9 Ben escaped into the mountains near to the South with Sprouse, Ben 24escaped into the mountains near Denver 9 and returned to Utah. 24 Through an interview with Samuel Chambers and his 50n 9 Denver, and returned to Utah. Peter C!1ambers, of whom cameSamuel to Utah in 1870, Beller Through anboth interview with Chambers andJack his son, learned the following: 'I W:10 later became the wife of Green Peter Chambers, both ofMartha whom came to Utah in 1370, Jack Seller learned22the following: Martha, who later became the wife of Green 22Interview with Lucille Perkins Bankhead'l Great Granddaughter with Lucille Bankhead, Great Granddaughter of Green Interview Flake, Salt Lake City, Perkins Utah, Feb .. 25 1966. of Green Flake, Salt Lake City, Utah, Feb. 259 1966. 23Ibid • 23 Ibid. 24 24 Beller, 125. 125. Beller, 9 (.1 <f 35 Flake, Kimball in 1848. Flake, was brought to to Utah by Heber C. C. Kimball 1848. Daniel Sprouse, was brought to Sprouse, aa Negro slave, slave, was to Utah by his master Sprouse 25 from Texas in the 1850,s.25 from Texas in the 1850's. There were evidently some Negro slaves among the group who There were evidently some Negro slaves among the group who settled in Spanish r"ork j utah: settled in Spanish Fork, Utah: John J. Redd, a pioneer of Spanish Fork, Utah, in 1850 J. Redd, a pioneer of Spanish Fork, Utah, in 1850 locatedJohn there and being the owner of some Negro slaves, which located there and being the owner of some Negro slaves, which he had brought with him from hi~6home in North Carolina, used he had brought with him from higghome in North Carolina, used them in his farming operations. them in his farming operations. Very more is except Very little little more is known known of of the the Spanish Spanish ,Fork Fork slaves, slaves, except that they existed. Benjamin Rich said that they existed. Attorney Attorney Benjamin Rich of of Salt Salt Lake Lake City, City, said that pair of were that Grandfather Grandfather Charles Charles C. C. Rich Rich owned owned three three pair of slaves slaves who who were liberated when Rich went there C. liberated in in California California when Rich went there in in 1851. 1851. Charles Charles C. was aa native of Kentucky and arrived in Salt Lake City on Rich was 27 27 October 3 t 1847. In support of Benjamin Rich's claim, the October 3, 1847. 9 In support of Benjamin Rich s claim, the following is taken from Charles C. Rich 0 s journal, which recorded following is taken from Charles C. Rich's journal, which recorded a journey from Great Salt Lake City to San Bernardino, on Thursday, a journey from Great Salt Lake City to San Bernardino, on Thursday, May 10, 1355: May 10, 1355: In compuny with Brother George Cannon and wife, Elders In company with Brother my George wife, Elders Jos. Bull, Matthew T. Wilkie, son Cannon Joseph, and David Fairbanks, Jos. Bull, Matthew T. Wilkie, my son Joseph, David Fairbanks, Henry Clark, Alfred Bennett, Robert Matthews, Charles Davis 9 Henry Clark, Alfred Bennett, Robert Matthews, Charles Davis, 3Ud my ~~egro "Dick" ~aarted for San Bernardino, and traveled and my Negro "Dick" smarted for San Bernardino, and traveled 80 miles that day ••• 80 miles that day... Although of limited scholarly value because of lack of documen25Ibid. Ibid • 25 26 26 Elisha Warner, History of Spanish Fork (Salt Lake City, Warner, History Utah: byElisha the author, 1930), 9. of Spanish Fork (Salt Lake City, Utah: by the author, 1930), 9. 273eller , 125. 27 Seller, 125. 28 28Charles C. Rich's Journal, Thursday, May 10, 1855. (From Charles C Riches Journal, Thursday, May 10, 1855. (From Office in Salt Lake City, Utah). Church Historian's Church Historian's Office in Salt Lake City, Utah). I ~ .. 36 9 s Negro Pioneer includes interesting snatches tation, B. Carter tation, Kate B. Carter's of information pertaining to to some some of the the slaves. slaves. One of these is taken from Mary Lee Bland Ewell's Ewell's personal history in which she tells of her appreciation for for aa Negro slave called Mammy Chloe. Chloe. Mammy Chloe seems seems to to have emerged from the the well well founded traditions of the Old South and belonged to County, to the the Bland family of Cumberland County, Kentucky. Kentucky. She became very attached to to the the daughter Mary Lee, Lee, and eventually left Kentucky to to follow Mary Lee when the young girl girl fell in love love with aa young Mormon named William Ewell. Ewell. Mary Lee wanted to husband to to utah, Utah, and Mammy Chloe aided her to escape from go with her huSband the home. Mammy Chloe became aa convert to the Bland home. to the Church and stood by the the family for for the the rest of her years. years. Mary Lee comments in her history about her slave: slave: Even after the Lincoln, the slaves slaves were were freed freed by President Lincoln, freedom. No No one ever knew her grief she did not desire her freedom. son Sammy, Sammy, but being slaves, slaves, both learned never leaving her son to complain at at separation. separation. II am sure sure II can never know what to to "Miss. "Miss. Mary Lee," Lee," as as she always called her great devotion to me, cO~9 cosf|jj her her and andhow how she she soft~led softenedmy myhardships hardshipswhenever whenever she she me, could. could. This This account suggests suggests that the the "Negro Mammies" Mammies" left aa cultural the Utah scene reminiscent of the the Southern stereotype. imprint upon the stereotype. Reading like an episode from Gone Gone With The Wind, Wind, Mrs. Mrs. Ewellos Ewell's account strongly resembles the the romantic Southern tradition. tradition. Another personal history used by Mrs. Mrs. Carter is that of Williams Washington Camp, Camp, who who was was converted to to the the Mormon Church in Tennessee. Tennessee. The Camps Camps had aa slave slave called Charlotte who tended 7 29 * 29 Mary Lee Bland Ewell, Personal History, recorded in DUP files, Mary Ewell, Personal History, recorded in DUP files, quoted in KateLee B. Bland Carter, The Negro Pioneer (Salt Lake City, Utah: quoted in Kate B. Carter, The Negro Pioneer (Salt Lake City, Utah: Utah Printing Company for Daughters of Utah Pioneers, 1965), 36. Utah Printing Company for Daughters of Utah Pioneers, 1965), 36. ,~. 37 children and did housekeeping; housekeeping; they also had three other slaves slaves called Dan, .Ike, Dan, Ike, and Ben who were included in the the group who came with the family to I daughter Ellen married Thomas to Utah. Utah. In 1855, 1855, Williams Williams' Greer and they were later called on a a mission for the Church to for the Texas. Mr. Mr. Camp gave them two two Negro slaves, slaves, Ike and Caroline, Caroline, as Texas. gifts, gifts, and the the Greers apparently took the the Negroes with them to 30 Texas. The Jow:nal History of the L.D.S. Church includes a Texas. The Journal History of the L.D.S. Church includes a small to the the incident: incident: small item which may have related to June 16, 16, 1856, 1856, President Brigham Young returned to June Feramorz v s where he had an interview with Brothers Peramorz Little Little's Jesse Little and Robert ~£bert Burton about Brother Camp taking away his his Negroes. Negroes. William Taylor Dennis Dennis was was also also aa convert to the the Church from the to Utah in 1855. the South, South, and came to 1855. He settled in Salem'p Salem-, Utah with his family and the the following slaves: slaves: Nancy or Mammy Dennis, his Dennis, Jim Valentine, his Jim* Mr. Mr. Dennis his slaves Valentine, his wife, wife, and their son Jim.. Dennis freed his when he heard of the the Emancipation Proclamation, Proclamation, but Mammy Dennis 3;:: 32 refused her freedom. Evidently there refused her freedom. Evidently there verts to the Mormon Church migrating to verts to the Mormon Church migrating to slaves. slaves. In the diary of Hosea Stout there were were Utah Utah numerous cases of connumerous cases of con­ in company with their in company with their is verification that William In the diary of Hosea Stout there is verification that William H. Hooper, T. S. Williams, &ld J. H. Jollnson owned Negro slaves. H. Hooper, T. S. Williams, and J. H. Johnson owned Negro slaves. Williams was a merchant and lawyer and he employed William Hooper. Williams was a merchant and lawyer and he employed William Hooper. 30 \J'illiams Washington Camp, Personal History recorded in DUP Williams Camp, Personal files, quoted in Washington The Negro Pioneer, 39-41. History recorded in DUP files, quoted in The Negro Pioneer, 39-41. 31 31 Journal History ••• June 16, 1856. Journal History...June 16, 1856. 32 32From files of the Daughters of the Utah Pioneers, quoted in Prom files of The Negro Pioneer, 48. the Daughters of the Utah Pioneers, quoted in The Negro Pioneer,, 48. ..,#"': 38 38 Stout sheds slaves: sheds light on these slaves: Thursday, April lSS9. Esq.: Thursday, 21 21 April 1859, Suit before Jeter Clinton, Clinton, Esq.: C. vs. vs. Tom Coulbourn, Coulbourn, negro slave "The people and C. belonging to to J. J. II. H. Johnson on examination for for shooting to W. W. H. Shep negro slave belonging to H. Hooper." Hooper. tI The negroes had got into aa row about two wenches wenches belonging to S. to T. T. S. Williams and love ~~d and jealousy was was the main cause of the fuss. would, fuss. Like their masters under such circumstances would, probably do, do, they went to to shooting each other. other. Shep is Dist. Attorney badly wounded and his his life is precarious. precarious. Dist. defended*, Tom was was^ Wilson prosecuted and Blair and myself defendede 33 for $1000 $1000 to to appear at at the next Dist. Dist. Court* held to to bail for" Court .. Evidence that non-Mormons were slaveholders too too is is found in W. Drummond, Drummond, aa man of questionable character. reference to to Judge W. W. W. character. Records Records indicate that Judge Drummond probably owned at at least one slave: slave: Some little excitement prevails in town today. today. An affair took place between Judge Drummond and a a Jew trader here, the time, time, but may be here, which was was rather amusing at at the something more than fun the Judge before he gets fun for for the through with it. A grand jury is this evening, evening, it. A is meeting this the Judge and which will will bring in an indictment against the his negro, negro, Cato, Cato, for for assault and battery with intent to his murder; and he will will be arrested and brought before the murder; next, at at 99 oOclock, o'clock, just just at at the the probate court on raonday monday next answer to Court, which time he should ans~ar to his his name in Supreme Court, sits at that hour. sits hour. j Regarding the existence of slavery in Utah Utah, two officials of 9 two the L.D.S. L.D.S. Church made some some interesting observations. observations. John Taylor the Pelt went to to explain the and N. N. H. H. Felt to New York to to establish aa paper to doctrines of the to defend the the Church and to the Saints in Utah. Utah. While in Chicago, they were Chicago, were interviewed by aa Chicago paper and the the account was recorded in the rti.llennial Star: Star: the Millennial 33 Stout, Hosea Stout, Stout, On On the Mormon Frontier: Frontier: Diary of Hosea Stout, 1844-1861, Utah: University 1844-1861, ed. ed. by Juanita Brooks (Salt (Salt Lake City, City, Utah: of Utah utah Press, 695. Press, 1964), 1964), II, II, 695. 34 34 Millennia1 Star (Saturday, Jan. 5, Millennial (Saturday, Jan. 5, 1856). 1856). 39 As re~p'ects slavery in the tory, we were assured As respects the Terri Territory, there was but little of it there, yet it is was there, is there. there* Some slaves slaves had been liberated by their owners since they were taken to utah; others still to Utah; still remain slaves. slaves. But the most of those a little those who take take slaves there pass pass over with them in a while to California, to San Bernardino, Bernardino, aa Mormon settlement in California, some seven hundred or eight hundred miles miles from Salt Lake City. City. How many slaves slaves are, are now held there they could not say, A say, but the number relatively was was by no means small. small. A single person had taken between forty ~d |nd fifty, fifty, and many had gone in with smaller numbers. numbers. Evidently, Evidently, the the number suggested here is is somewhat exaggerated; exaggerated; Census, there were twenty-four free according to the United States Census p there 36 persons of color and twenty-six Negro slaves in Utah in 1850. persons of color and twenty-six Negro slaves in Utah in 1850. The slaves were reported to be en route to California, but it is The slaves were reported to be en route to California, but it is clear that many stayed in the valley. Because of insufficient records 9 clear that many stayed in the valley. Because of insufficient records, it is impossible to verify the number of colored persons in utah with it is impossible to verify the number of colored persons in Utah with the 1850 census. There is no way of finding the number of those who the 1850 census. There is no way of finding the number of those who merely passed through Utah on their way to California, or of those merely passed through Utah on their way to California, or of those who died on the way. A few of the slave owners went with Amasa M. who died on the way. A few of the slave owners went with Amasa M. Lyman to San Bernardino, California in 1851, to establish a Mormon Lyman to San Bernardino, California in 1851, to establish a Mormon colony. Charles C. Rich, William Matthews, Daru:1..e:l" M. Thomas, William colony. Charles C. Rich, William Matthews, Dan&ei" M. Thomas, William CroSby, and William Smith were included in this group. Since Califor- Crosby, and William Smith were included in this group. Since Califor­ nia was then free soil, their slaves were liberated upon arrival there. nia was then free soil, their slaves were liberated upon arrival there. Mr. Lyman, Jr. relates that when William Smith discovered that his Mr. Lyman, Jr. relates that when William Smith discovered that his slaves would become free in California, he tried to take them to Texas, slaves would become free in California, he tried to take them 37 to Texas, but his slaves slaves desi~d desired freedom and refused to to go go with him. 37 Regardless of any general attitude existing in Utah toward 35~. 63. Ibid. (Jan. (Jan. 25, 25, 1855), 1855), 63. 35 36 36 U.S., Bureau of the Census, Seventh Census of the United States: U.S., Bureau of the Census, Seventh Census of the United States 993. 1850, 993. ~, 37Beller, 126. Beller , 126. 37 40 40 slavery, will. Logically slavery, slaves slaves were nevertheless held against their will. speaking, slaves in utah Utah were desirous of freedom also also, but since Utah speaking, utah j was open to to slavery after 1850, 1850, they could be legally held and control­ was controlled. California was was aa fre~ free state, state, while utah Utah operated as as aa slave led. state under the 1850. Utah and Mew the provisions of the Compromise of 1850. New Mexico were left open to controversy under the the terms terms of to the the slavery c:ontroversy 38 that agreement. agreement.^ clear, however, all the the slaves brought into the It is clear, however, that all territory did not continue to to California. California. According to to the Census territorY :;, 1860, there were thirty free free colored persons and twent}'-nine twenty-nine of 1860, j'. slaves in Utah. Utah. Of this this number, number, eighteen were males and eleven slaves were females; Davis County and nineteen in Salt Lake females; ten resided in Davis 39 39 County. County. Of major interest in any consideration of Negro slavery are Of major interest in any consideration of Negro slavery are the laws governing its existence. In 1851, the utah Territorial the laws governing its existence. In 1851, the Utah Territorial Legislature passed a significant act regarding slavery: Legislature passed a significant act regarding slavery: Sec. 1. Be it enacted by the Governor and Legislative Sec. 1. of Be it by of theutah: Governor Assembly the enacted Territory Thatand anyLegislative person or Assembly of the Territory of Utah: That any person persons coming to this terri tory, and bringing withor persons coming to this territory, and bringing with them servants justly bound to them arising from special them servants justly bound them or arising from special contract or otherwise, said to person persons shall be contract or otherwise, said person or persons shall be entitled to such service or labor by the laws of this entitled such service or labor by the laws of this territoryto ••• 40 territory... 40 While slavery was accepted by law, the legislature apparently While slavery was accepted by law, the legislature apparently 38 II :1 ;,\ 38"Slavery in the United States," Encyclopedia Americana, "Slavery in the United States," Encyclopedia Americana, XXVII,39 396. 39U.S., Bureau of the Census, Eighth Census of the United States: lli.£, 135. U.S., Bureau of the Census, Eighth Census of the United States: 40 ' 1860, 135. 40"Act in Relation to Service," Acts, Resolutions, and Memorials of the Legislative Assembly the Territory of utah (Great Lake "Act in Relation to of Service," Acts, Resolutions, andSalt Memorials City, utah, 1855), 160. of the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of Utah (Great Salt Lake City, Utah, 1855), 160. XXVII, 396. 41 41 thought also that provisions for for humane treatment should be endorsed. endorsed. Desire to prevent inter-racial marriage may also have been aa motivat­ motivating factor. continues: factor. This This "Act in Relation to to Service" Service" continues: Sec. 4. raat Sec. 4. That if any master or mistress shall shall have sexual sexual or carnal intercourse with his or her servant or servants of the African race, race, he or she shall to said shall forfeit forfeit all all claim to servant or servants to to the the commonwealth; commonwealth; and if any white person shall shall be guilty of sexual intercourse with any of the subject, on conviction thereof African race, race, they shall be subject, to aa fine fine of not exceeding one thousand dollars, dollars, nor less to five hundred, hundred, to the. territory, than five to the the use of the terri tory, and imprison­ imprisonment, not exceeding three years. ment, years. Sec. mistresses, to Sec. 5. 5. It shall be the duty of masters or mistresses, for his, his, her, hab1.taprovide for her, or their servants comfortable habita­ tions, recreation. tions, clothing, clothing, bedding, bedding, sufficient food, food, and recreation. the duty of the servant in return therefor, therefor, And it shall be the all reasonable hours, hours, and do such service to labor faithfully all with fidelity as as may be required by his, his, or her master or mistress. mistress. Sec. the master to to correct and Sec. 6. 6. It shall shall be the duty of the punish his servant in a reasonable manner when it may be his a necessary, being guided by prudence and humanity; humanity; and if necessary, he shall be guilty of cruelty or abuse, abuse, or neglect to feed, clothe, clothe, or shelter his servants in aa proper manner, feed, manner 9 the the Probate Court may declare the contract between master void, according and servant or servants void, acco~ying to the provisions of this act. act. ©f the fourth fourth section of this This This interesting piece of legislation clearly demonstrates that the institution of slavery was accepted as as the normal way of life. obey, life. Laws Laws were clearly defined for for both master and slave to obey, somewhat resembling the the system of the South. South. And if any slave were to to obey such laws, laws, the the territory would force force him to do to decide not to so system. 'l'h~ The right of aa slave owner to so under the court system. to hold his as legal legal property was was upheld in the Probate Court, Court, according slave as to the account of Hosea Stout: Stout: 41 Ibid. 161. Ibid • 161. 42 42 Wednesday 18 examina18 June 1856. 1856. Law suit before probate on an examina­ tion People vs. vs. William Camp CMap eta et. ale al. for for kidnapping aa Negro Dan. The case commenced Monday evening and lasted yesterday Dan. & today today till till noon. noon. & It appears appears that that Camp was the the owner of Dan who had ran C. had went with three others to away and C. to bring him back. back. Genl* for for the Atty. Genl$ The court acquitted them Carrington Atty. people and Mr. T. S. S. Williams & & self for for deftso deftso There was Mr. T. was great excitement on the the occasion The question naturally less the involving more or less the slavery question and II was sur­ surfeelings aroused in our i|Jdst prised to to see those those latent feelings !~dst which are making so much disturbance in the wb.ich the states. states. Not only did the the court acquit the the owner, owner, but evidently there were "latent feelings" feelings" about the the slavery issue aroused among the people. to the feelings, Stout does does not elaborate, people. As to the nature of the feelings, elaborate~ but it would seem that the the people were were upset about the the interference occurred. An An incident of this with property which had occurred. this kind is the cultural tie the South. comparable to the tie slavery had to to the South. the value of aa Negro slave is An indication of the is given in John Brown's journal. Girl" was apparently of consid­ BrownVs journal. An "African Slave Girl" consid- 43 worth: erable worth: 43 On the the 8th of January 1857 1857, I On I consecrated and deeded to the Church the tlle following: following: to the j o. Property and Improvements Impr~vements of real ••• ~ •• estate......o. real estate Cattle, Wagon and Pigs •••••••••••••••••••••••••• Cattle, Pigs Farming Tools ••••••••••••••••••••••• G. •••••<,. Tools and Ri£le Rifle.... ••••••••••••••• etc....... Household Furniture, Furniture, Bedding, Bedding, etc Twelve Sheep and two pistols.... pistols~ ••••••••••••••••••• and Cooking Stove Stove....•••••• Silver Watch &ld •••• ~ •••• ~ •••••••• Sixty Bushels Wheat ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .. Corn, Corn, Vegetables, Vegetables, etc ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• $775.00 $541.00 $105.00 $150 $150 00 $ 72.00 72.00 $$ 55*00 55$00 $120.00 $145.00 0o S1.lll.drles ClIJ~,. $$ 75.00 75.00 Sundries••••••·•• e • • • • • • AfriC&l Servant Girl ••••••••••••••••••••• ~ •••••• $lOOO.OO African Girl.....................*..«>...$1000.00 $3,038.00 «l • • • • • • • • • • • • • • &.\5C1 • • A more interesting indication of the the worth of slaves. A slaves~ 42 43 Stout, I . 597. 597. Stout, III. Brown, 144. 144. Brown, ~.. ~' 43 43 however, however, is related in the sales transactions that were carried on in the valley. was recorded in the valley. One such bill of sale was the County of Great 44 Salt Lake in 1859: 1859: 44 presents. That I, Know all all men by these presents. I, Thomas S. S. Williams of Great Salt Lake City in the Utah, for the Territory of Utah, and in consideration of the the sum of eight hundred dollars, dollars, to to me in hand, hand, paid at and before the the ensealing and delivery of these presents, aforepresents, by William H. H. Hooper of the city and territory afore­ said, said, the receipt whereof is is hereby acknowledged, acknowledged, have bargained sell and and sold and by these presents, presents, do grant bargain and sell H« Hooper, his heirs, executors, admin­ convey unto the said Wm. Wm. H. Hooper, his heirs, executors, adminassigns, one negro boy "Dan"; "Dan"; the istrators and assigns, the said negro boy is twenty-six years age, the property and slave of is years of age 9 was born the 1833, in the the town Williams Camp on the 15th day of October A.D. A.D. 1833, County, State of Tennessee; Tennessee; and by the the said of Dresden, Dresden, Weakley County, to me in the year 1858, 1858, aa bill of sale Williams Camp was sold to been executed executed to to me me by by the the said said Williams Williams Camp Camp for for the the said having been tl "Dan", to have and to to hold the the said negro boy "Dan" Negro boy tlDan , to "Dann unto the the said Wm. Wm. H. H. Hooper, executors, administrators and Hooper, his his executors, assigns, against all all and every person and persons whomsoever. assigns, whomsoever. Attest— Attest--- A. R. Jackman A« R. Charles Evans Great Salt Lake City Sept .. 7th, Sept. 7th, 1859 T. T. S. S. Wiiliams Williams Recorded September 8th, 8th~ 1859 F. B. Woolley, Recorder P. B. Woolley, Recorder This interesting document, which is on file in the Salt Lake This interesting document, which is on file in the Salt Lake County Recorder's Office, certainly bears out the existence of the County Recorder's Office, certainly bears out the existence of the slave trade in the valley. This also serves as another witness of slave trade in the valley. This also serves as another witness of Williams Camp's ownership of the slave "Dan". The Salt Lake Tribune 9 Williams Carap»s ownership of the slave "Dan". The Salt Lake Tribune, in reporting the discovery of this document? made the following obserin reporting the discovery of this document, made the following obser­ vations: vations: Although the ~'le slave trade never was legal legal in utah, Utah, the fact fact that dealing in human bondage took place in the past has been discovered in time-worn documents in the County Recorder's Recorder*s Office. Patrick J. J. Sullivan, Sullivan, an employee of aa Salt Lake Abstract Office. firm, the records for real estate information, information, firm, while searching the for real 4~.S. the Salt Lake County Recorder Recorder's Office. M.S. on file file in the s Office. :4 9 I'I 44 44 came across across the copy of aa bill of sale for for aa Negro boy named Dan for the the year 1859. 1859. The slave in aa book containing transactions for was Thomas S. S. Williams of iSeat geat Salt Lake City to was sold by Thomas to William H. Hooper, same $800. H. Hooper, same address, address, for for $800* As the slave trade, tar was As to to the legality of the trade, this this wri writer was sadly mismis­ informed. But Bat the the article demonstrates the serious lack of information informed. the practice of slavery in Utah on the the part of even journalists of on the the 1930' 1930's. s. The writer conveys sincere amazement at the existence of such transactions in Utah. utah. It is obvious then from the this chapter the evidence considered in this that slavery did exist in the the utah Ul fact a Utah territory; territory; that it was in fact a ©f the legal and accepted institution, institution, and that members of the Mormon Church owners. Fran From the were the chief slave owners. the standpoint of its legality and as an institution in Utah on aa basis binding nature, nature, it was accepted as to that of the South. Interestingly enough, enough, it is is also evident similar to the South. eviqent I was no attempt to to rid the the terri territory that there was tory of the practice practiCe of slavery. Those who owned slaves slaves thought their value to slavery. to be high enough South, and utilized in 'a a new home that they should be brought from the South, Mountains. Some were disappointed at the loss loss of their slaves in the the Mountains. along the the way way and and in in California. California. Others Others managed managed to to retain retain the services along the services of their slaves for for several several years years in in the the valley. valley. As of their slaves As aa rule, rule, however, however, the slaves slaves seemed seemed to to desire desire their freedom and and seized seized upon any opporthe their freedom upon any opporwere, the the few few who to remain with the the master tunity. And And there there werE; tunity. who preferred preferred to remain with master and the life to to which become ,.:acoustomed. accustomed. Most slave owners owners and the life which they they had had become Most slave were from from the South, and and most most were were also also members of the the Mormon were the South, members of Mormon Church. Church. 45 1939, 22 Tribune« May 31, 31 1939, Salt Lake Tribune, 22. 9 CHAPTER III !oIORMON MORMON ATTITUDES TOWARD NEGRO SLAVERY In 1851, 1851, Orson Hyde qualified the stand of the the Mormon Church in to the subject of slavery. slavery. It had become aa major issue all relation to over the country, to become country, and as the controversy grew aa stand seemed. seemed to necessary: necessary: vie to be our duty to to define our position in We feel feel it to to the subject of slavery. relation to slavery. There are are several men the Southern States in the valley of the Salt Lake from the who have slaves with them. them. There is no law in Utah to slavery, it. If the authorize slavery ~ neither any to to prohibit it. slave is disposed to leave his master, exists slaye master 9 no power exists there, legal or moral, will prevent him. there, either legal moral? that will him. But if the his master, the slave chooses to to remain with his master, are allowed. allowed to the master and none are to interfere between the the s.lave. slave. All All the slaves that are there appear to to be the the slaves that are perfectly contented and satisfied. perfectly contented and satisfied. When aa man in the Southern States embraces our faith, faith, and is the the owner of slaves, to him, him, if your slaves, the the Church says says to you, and to you, put slaves wish to remain with you, to go with you, away; but i.E if they choose to to leave you, them not away; you ~ or are for you to to sell not satisfied to to remain with you, you, it is for them, or to free, as as your own them, to let them go free, own conscience may direct. The laws laws of the slavery, direct. the land recognize slavery p and we do not wish to laws of the country. country. If to oppose the laws there is sin in selling aa slave slave, 7 let the the individual who sin, and not the the Church. Church. Wisdom sells him bear that sin, this position, we^trust and prudence dictate to us this position, and we trust understood.l that our position will will henceforth be understood. Firom the From the time the Church was organized in 1830 until until this declaration was made in 1851, 1851, there there had been no official stand by the the Church on the the issue of slavery. slavery. Hyde made it cleQr clear through 1\/ Orson Hyde, Star 9 Hyde, "Slavery Among the Saints," Saints," Millennial Star,, XIII (February 63. 1851), 63. XIII (February 15, 15, 1851), ~.. ! 46 this slavery, this article that the the Church had no particular quarrel with slavery, property. and would not interfere with any member who owned such property. His to aa lack of law on the matter is is interesting; interesting; the the "Act in reference to to Service" Service" passed by the Relation to the Territorial Legislature which was to in the chapter, was referred to the previous chapter, was enacted just seven months after his statement. It seems as though the legislature did not hesitate to investigate the lack of law on the issue. At any rate, the Church had indicated a stand* the a stand. enough, in Jackson Ironically enough, County, was believed to County, Missouri, Missouri, the Church was to be of an abolitionist temperament. to an advertisement of the the day to temperament. One One need only refer to the system of chattel slavery to understand the importance of the Missourians: Missourians: State of Missouri, Missouri, County of Pike, Pike, S.S. S.S. To whom it may concern: To concern: The undersigned will, will, on tuesday, tuesday, Sept. Sept. 29, 29, 1846, 1846, sell at public outcry on the premises where old Coon Creek crosses at Ridge, the the following chattels, chattels, to wit: Mission Ridge, wit: chains; three bedsteads Six yoke of oxen with yoke and chains; beds: three nigger wenches: four nigger bucks: with beds: wenches: four bucks: three four nigger girls: girls: two two prairie plows: nigger boys: boys: four plows: one barrel of pickled cabbage: cabbage: One one lot of nigger hoses: barrel hoses: one tobacco: one spinning wheel: loom: 23 . hogshead of tobacco: wheel: one loom: 23 fox hounds, all all well ,trained: trained: aa lot of coon, coon, mink and skunk hounds, hides: aa lot of other articles. hides: articles. Terms Terms of sale sale will be made on day of sale. sale. Am to California. California. going to Signed, John Montgomery Signed, Jim Lone, Lone, Crier cheese, apples and hard cider for for all. Free head of cheese'2apples all. Come and have aa good time. time. Slavery being of importance to the culture of Missouri, to the Missouri, the people feared any abolitionist sentiment. that, they sentiment. But more than that, 2Cecil McGavin, Nauvoo<, Nauvoo, The Beautiful (Salt Lake. City, Cecil McGavin, (Salt Lake. City, Utah: Utah: Stevens and Wallis, Wallis, Inc., 66. Inc., 1946), 1946), 66. r,. 47 feared anyone uprising. anyone or anything that would generate aa slave uprising. the rumor had circulated extensively that the And the the Mormons were trying U to "tarnper "tamper" with their slaves. slaves. Naturally, to Naturally 9 such aa rumor would cause as well as as hatred toward the Mormons. the heat controversy as Mormons. Feeling the controversy, the Mormons reacted through their publication of the controversy, Morning Star; The Evening and 110rning Star: To the churches To prevent any misunderstanding among the abroad, 9 who may think of abroad, respecting free free people of color color, coming to to the 9 as the western boundaries of Missouri Missouri, as members of the g we quote the the Church Church, the following clauses from the laws rUssouri: laws of Missouri: If any Negro or mulatto mUlatto come into the the state of Missouri, Missouri, without aa certificate from aa court of record in some some one of the the United states, States, evidencing that that he was was aa citizen of such state state, p on complaint before any the peace, peace p such Negro or mulatto mUlatto could be justice of the commanded by the the justice to to leave the the state; state; and if the the colored person so ordered did not leave the the state ••• commit him to the country... country .... ...commit to the the corrunon common jail of the and if it was was found tilat that the the Negro or mulatto had remained in the state contrary to to the the provision of this statute, statute, the the court was was authorized to to sentence ^ this 3 such person to back. to receive ten lashes lashes on his his or her bare back. Missouri law prevented free free Negroes Negroes from staying in the state because the people naturally feared what they would do to to incite the slaves slaves to to insurrection. insurrection. By passing laws laws against their entry? entry, such fears fears could at least be arrested. arrested. Commenting on such fears fears as as they existed in the South, Nevins says: says: South, Allan Nevins In reality, reality, Southern kindliness was Negroes was chiefly for for Negroes always engendered in in slavery and was was that tl1at type of amiability always groups by an inunutable immutable caste system. system. It seldom extended superior groups. to free free Negroes, to Negroes, who who were regarded with even greater hostility than in the North. North. Behind this this antagonism lay an apprehension dangers to to the the existing order that that lurked in the the very of the dangers freedmen. If they grew numerous, existence of any large body of freedmen. numerous g educated, unsure, they would the envious educated arouse the p and economically unsure ll 33i f "Free People of Color, It Evening and Morning Star (July l, 1833) 218. 218. 48 48 discontent of tile slaves 9 become aa rallying point against the the slaves, existing order to atoms. order, atoms. The 9 and ultimately reduce slavery to South therefore took precautions against their rise to to strength. strength. Most Spi~e Calderwood: Host slaveholders would have said with Spi^e Calderwood: "Don't want no free round U here." here." free niggers 'round 0 Q Such was the color, the attitude in Missouri toward free free people of color, and it was Mormons were also trying to was believed that the Mormons to encourage such people to this kind, kind~ to enter the the state. state. To clarify any rumor of this Star commented on Missouri law and what it might the editor of the ~ mean to the Church; Church: to me..wers members of the Slaves are real real estate in this this and other states, states, and wisdom would dictate great care among the the branches of the Church Christ on this as we have no special rule of Cbrist this subject* subject~ So long as to people of color, color, let prudence guide; guide; and in the Church as to as well as as we, we, are in the while they as the hands hagds of aa merciful God, God p say: shun every appearance of evil. we say: evil. For later reference, reference, it should be noted that there was was "no l1 as to color" this time. time. The special rule in the Church as to people of color at this evolved. In position of the the Church in regard to to the the Negro obviously evolved. "'. to make clear the the Church's desire spite of the the editor's sincere effort to to respect the slave laws, laws, it had no effect on Missourians. Perhaps to Missourians~ the explanation. previous prejudice precluded their acceptance of the explanatione fearful of losing their excuse for for persecution of Perhaps they were fearful Mormons. Making aa final final effort effort, the ~ Star published aa follow-up the Mormons. p the Mormon attitude toward slavery and the article in which aa distinct t·10rmon was crystallized: crystallized:6 Negro was ___ _ _ _____ ,— Nevins, 524. 5 5 ff nFree 219 .. "Free People People of of Color9 Color," 219, 6 It should be noted that editorials in the the early days days of the today. The Church were more indicative of Church policy than they are today_ smaller, more unified, Church was smaller, unified, and estranged from the rest of the 49 Our Our intention was was not only to to stop free free people of color from emigrating to to this this state state, to prevent them from being 9 but to admitted as as members the Church. Church. Great care should be taken adruitted mel.wers of the on tllls this point. point. The saints saints must shun shun every appearance of evilo dn evil", As to to slaves slaves we to say. say. In connection with the As we have nothing to wonderful events of this this age~ age, much is is doing toward abolishing wonderful slavery, and colonizing the the blacks blacks in Africa. slavery, Africa. We often lament the the situation of our sister states in lest, as as has has been the the cases case, the blacks the South, South, and we we fear~ fear lest~ the rise and spill spill innocent blood; blood; for for they are ignorant, should rise ignorant~ and lead them them to to disturb disturb the the peace peace of of society~ society. To To be be aa little'may lead short, we we are are opposed to to have have free free people of color admitted into short, the state; state; and ~~ to have free people of color admitted into the the have free church, for for we are are determined to to obey the the laws laws and constitution church, country, that we may have that that protection which the sons of our country, inherit from the the legacy of Washingto~9 Washington, through the of liberty irulerit favorable auspices auspices of aa Jefferson9 Jefferson, and Jackson. favorable Jackson~ 9 lt With this edition of the this tlExtra "Extra" the ~~ S_tar, aa suggestion of Mormon discrimination toward the the Negro was was enunciated. enunciated. A A statement in support to Africa in the the well well known colonization of sending the the Negro back to is suggestive of such aa feeling~ feeling. After aa recognition of the experiment is the fear fear of Missourians that the "blacks should rise and spill nature of the blood," the to the the Negro aa solemn warning that they innocent blood," the editor gave to "admitted into the the church.," churchUndoubtedly this extreme would not be Itadmitted Undoubtedly this was precipitated by the the antagonism of Missourians, Missourians, and a stand '>!as a desire the; Mormons to to retain aa status status quo quo in Missouri. Missouri. The Mormons at­ by thE at~ tempted to to make it clear that that they were not stirring up trouble among temptE::l slaves,, slave~" ly, ly~ to bloodshed. bloodshed. Obvious­ and had no intention of instigating them to Obvious- this last last statement did not not reduce reduce the the persecution given to even this the Hormons; Mormons; soon they,were they were driven from the the state. state. At least the charge the slaves was was aa good excuse for for driving them of tampering with slaves them from the the world; wa,s a world; as as aa result, result, an editorial in one of their newspapers was strong indication of Church policy and attitude* attitude~ 7 Evening Evenino; and Morning Star Star9 Extra Edition (July 16, 16, 1833)~ 1833). 9 50 50 state, state, much better perhaps than other more honest causes. causes. At any rate, the Negro and slavery, slavery, rate, the Mormons had indicated aa stand against the which could have planted aa seed growing into the the later Church policy with respect to to the Negro race. race. Actually, Actually, the Mormons could not have taken the risk of espousing the Negro cause even if they had wanted to stand. Their cultural and religious differences were making make such aa stand. for them, the heated life difficult enough for them, without the addition of the slavery issue. issue. Parley P. P. Pratt in 1839 ventured the estimate that from the time of the organization of the the Church in 1830, 1830, there had not been Church. In support more than one dozen Negroes or Mulattoes in the Church. of the Mormon attitude in rUssouri, statement: Missouri, he made this this statement: Concerning free free negroes and mulattoes~ mulattoes. Do Do not the the laws of Missouri provide abundantly for for the removal from the the state all free free negroes &ld and mulattoes (except certain privileged of all ones ^7? And Andalso alsofor for the thepunishme~lt punishmentof of those thosewho whointroduce introduceor or ones' them? The statement concerning our invitations to harbor them'? this state, state, and settle them to become Mormons, Mormons, and remove to to this fabrication, as as no such thing was ever among us, us, is aa wicked fabrication, the Star, Star, or any where else, published in the else~ by our people, people, or shadow of it; it; and we challenge the people of anything in the s'h:idOw County, or any other people, Jackson County? people, to to produce such a a us. In fact fact one dozen free free negroes or publication from us. mulattoes never have belonged our society society in in any any pagt mUlattoes never have belonged to to our Past first organization to to this this day. of the the world, world, from from its first day~ Pratt's firm defense of the Mormon attitude illustrates the very real real concern the Mormons felt the matter. felt for for the matter. They were determined that their; their, stand be understood clearly. clearly .. Of vital importance in the the consideration of Mormon attitudes Smith, the on the subject of slavery are are the statements of Joseph Smith, Mormon Prophet. Prophet. To avoid confusion, confusion, it should be realized that Smith 8 v< Parley P. P. Pratt, Pratt, History of the the Saints the Persecutions of the (New York: York: J. 27. J. W. W. Harrison, Harrison, 1840), 1840), 27. 1 j , " j 51 51 and his successor Brigham Young were both ambivalent on the subject of slavery. slavery. In 1836, 1836, Smith wrote some of his beliefs in an article for Advocate: for the Messenger and Advocate: II do do not not believe believe that that the the people people of of the the North North have have any any that the South shall more right to to say that shall not have slaves, slaves, than the South have to the North shall. the to say the shall. And further, to the further, what benefit will it ever be to slaves for for persons to to run over the free free states, states, and excite indignation against their masters in the minds of thousands tens of thousands who understand nothing relative to and tens their circumstances or conditions? II mean particularly the South, South, and who in all those who have never traveled in the their lives have scarcely seen a a negro. negro. How any community can ever be excited with the chatter of such persons, persons, boys others, who are too too indolent to and others, to obtain their living industry, and are incapable of pursuing any by honest industry, to me; occupation of aa professional nature, nature, is unaccountable to me; see persons free states, states, signing documents and when II see persons in the free slavery, it is is no less less in my mind, mind, than an army of against slavery, influence, and and aa declaration declaration of of hostilities against the influence, hostilities against the people^of South. What course can people 0f the the South. can sooner divide our our union?9 „.=.. . union? Certainly there is no hint of abolition sentiment in these statements; his major point is that chatter against slavery statements; in fact fact his can only cause more friction within the the union. union. Perhaps these paragraphs could be as to Abraham Lincoln as as easily attributed to as to Joseph Smith. Smith. Smith then clarified the attitude he thought the Church should adopt in relation to slaves: to slaves: All to repent; All men are to to be taught to repent; but we have no ,right right to to interfere with slaves, slaves, contrary to to the mind and will masters. In fact fact it would be much better and more of their masters. to preach at at all all to prudent not to to slaves until after their converted, and then teach the masters to to use masters are converted, kindness; remembering that are accountable them with kihctn:ess; that they are to God, God, and the are bound to to serve their masters to the servants are lO murmuring.^° with singleness of heart, heart, without murmuring. 99 Joseph Smith, Smith, Jr., Jr., Messenger and Advocate, Advocate, II II (April (April 1836), 1836), 289. 289. - IOIbid. Ibid. ::1 52 52 ~lave was accountThe slave was accountable to to the the master, master, and the master account­ able to serve" serve" able to to God. God, But the the slave Rh0\.l.ld should realize that that he was "pound "bound to his master. this belief was was the theory that the master. Seemingly the the root of this Negro is cursed in this (' explained the curse in these f" this life. life. The Prophet explain~ terms: terms: After having expressed myself so subject, so freely upon this subject, II do do not not doubt, doubt, but but thOse those who who have have been been forward forward in in raising raising their their voices unvoices against the the $outh, South, will will cry out against me as as being un­ cllari table, 1.,U1kind, charitable, unkind, and who:j.ly wholly unacquainted with the the Gospel of Christ. rt It is is my privilege then to to name name certain passages from Christ. the generation, the Bible, Bible, pronounced by aa man/who man'who was pe~fect perfect in his generation, God. And so so far far f~m from that that prediction being and walked with God. to the the mind of God, God, it remains remains as as aa lasting monument of averse to Jehovah, to to the the shame and confusion of all all who the decree of Jehovah, South, in consequence of their hold­ have cried out against the the South, holdthe sons sons of Ham in servitude. servitude, "And he said, said, Cursed be ing the Canaan; aa servant of servants shall shall he he be unto his brethren." Canaan; "Blessed be the the Lord God ~i of Shem; Shem; and CanaCill Canaan shall shall be his "Blesseq servant." (Gen. (Gen. 9:25, 9:25, 26) 26) servant." Since the institution of slavery seemed aa worthy outlet for for the curse upon the Negro race, at the race, no one should interfere with it at risk of being condemned himself. himself. Any interference with slavery could certainly br~ng bri-ng about such condemnation. condemnation. No No abolitionist, abolitionist, Joseph Smith commented in 1838 1838 that "we do do not bel~eve believe in setting the Negroes free." 12 12 free." Yet in 1843 he made the following comments on the potential Yet in 1843 he made the following comments on the potential of the Negro: of the Negro: Change their si tua.tion with the whites, and they would Change their situation with the whites, and they would be like them. They have souls, and are subjects of salvation. be like them. They have souls, and are subjects of salvation. Go into Cincinnati or any city, anc1 find an educated negro, Go into Cincinnati or any city, and find an educated negro, who rides in his carriage, and you will see a man who has risen who rides in his carriage, and you will see a man who has risen by the powers of his own mind to his exalted state of respect... by the powers of his own mind to his exalted state of respect­ ability. The slaves in Washington are more refined than many ability. The slaves in Washington are more refined than many in high places, and the black boys will ta)ce the shine off in high places, and the black boys will take the shine off - llIbid. Ibid. i:L 12 12 Joseph Smith, Jr., Elders' Journal (Far West, M.i.ssouri, July Joseph Smith, Jr., Elders' Journal (Far West, Missouri, July 1838), 4~. ) 1838), 42. 53 53 many of those they brush and wait on* on. Elder Hyde remarked, remarked, "Put them on the the level, level, and they will my equal, replied, if II raised you to be ray equal, will rise above me. me*1t II replied, and then attempted to to oppress you, you, would you not be indignant and try to to rise above me, Wl'dtmer, me, as as did Oliver Cowdery, Cowdery, Peter Whitmer, and many others, others, who said II was was aa fallen fallen Prophet, Prophet, and they were capable of leading the the people, people, although II never attempted to oppress I any­ anyoppress them, them, but had always always been lifting them up? up? Had I to do with the the Negro, Negro, II would confine them by strict Jaw thing to i,w to equalization. to their own lc:ind, kind, and put them on aa national equalization. 11 It is uncertain as as to to whether an evolution of thought occurred or whether Smith was Negro. Here was not sure sure himself of his his stand on the Negro. he talked of aa Itnational "national equalization" equalization" and espoused the the principle of segregation. segregation. Then in 1844, 1844, the the Prophet enunciated an abolitionist policy. policy* Perhaps such aa reversal was triggered by his announced cand­ cand- idacy for for the the Presidency of the the United States. States* Whether the new policy was was caused by social social or political reasons reasons is uncertain, uncertain, but the change is interesting: interesting: Petition, states, Petition, also, also, ye goodly inhabitants of the the slave states, your legislators legj,slators to abolish slavery by the now, and the year 1850, 1850, or now, save shame. save the abolitionists from reproach and ruin, ruin, infamy and shame* Pray Congress to for his to pay every man aa reasonable price for slaves the surplus slaves out of the surplus revenue arising from fro® the the sale of public lands lands and from the the deducUon deduction of pay from the members of Congress. Congress. Break off the the shackles from the the poor black man and hire his virtygus his labor like like other human beings; beings; for for 'an 'an hour of virtuous liberty on earth is worth aa whole eternity of bondage.' bondage.' He advocated the actual actual freeing of the the slaves. slaves. The position is aa complete complete reversal reversal of of Smith's Smith's personal personal stand stand as as well well as as the the apparent apparent position of the the Chur~. Church. WilliaRI William Mulder, Mulder, aa prominent student of Mo~n Mormon .~. 13 Joseph Smith, Smith, Jr., Jr., History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints <Salt News, 1902), 1902), (Salt Lake Lake City, City, utah: Utah: Deseret News, January 1843, 217. 1843, V, V, 217. 14*/ 14/ Joseph Smith, "Views of the Powers and Policy of the GovernJoseph Smith, "Views of the Powers and Policy of the Govern­ ment of the United States," Millennia! Star, XXII (Nov. 10, ],860 ... ment of the United States," Millennial Star. XXII (Nov. 10, 3,860... originally written Feb. 1844>, 743. originally written Feb. 1844), 743. 54 54 History, that "The Mormons Mormons were History, explains it effectively when he states states that not in fact fact abolitionists, abolitionists, but gradualists. gradualists. Joseph Smith in 1844 advanced the the progressive idea that the the National government should purchase the the slaves slaves from their owners owners with money from the the sale of public lands." lie lands . 15 15 ?l Perhaps Smith believed in moving with the times, and Perhaps Smith believed in moving with the times, and that the need for the removal of slavery had arrived. Nevertheless, that the need for the removal of slavery had arrived. Nevertheless, his proposal was not adopted; and the Mormons themselves practiced his proposal was not adopted; and the Mormons themselves practiced slavery for a number of years after the death of Joseph Smith. Ap- slavery for a number of years after the death of Joseph Smith. Ap­ parently, his later position was not a clear reversal to the Church. parently, his later position was not a clear reversal to the Church. At least they did not regard it as a mandate for a change in their At least they did not regard it as a mandate for a change in their attitude toward slavery. Since Smith's views were ambivalent, the attitude toward slavery. Since Smith's views were ambivalent, the Church was probably unclear as to his t.t;"Ue feelings. Smi th 's su,cces- Church was probably unclear as to his true feelings. Smith's succes­ sor as President of the Church, Brigham Young, supported Smith's sor as President of the Church, Brigham Young, supported Smith's original views on the issue. ~he stand taken by Young, of course, original views on the issue. The stand taken by Young, of course, is vividly colored by his oWl~ aggressive personality: is vividly colored by his own aggressive personality: The principle of slavery I understand, at least I have The principle of slavery I understand, at least I have self confidence enough in God to believe I do. I believe still self confidence enough in God to believe I do. I believe still further that a great many others understand it as I do. A further that a great many others understand it as I do. A great portion of this community have been instructed, and have great portion of this community have been instructed, and have applied their. minds to it, and as far as they have, they agree applied their minds to it, and as far as they have, they agree precisely the principles My remarks first precisely in in the principles of of slavery. slavery. My remarks in in the the first place will be'upon the cause of the introduction of slavery. place will be upon the cause of the introduction of slavery. Long Eve our Eve partook partook of Long ago ago Mama Mama Eve our good good old old Mother Mother Eve of forbidden forbidden fruit and this made a slave of her. Adam hated very much to to fruit and this made a slave of her. Adam hated very much have her taken ?ut of the garden of Eden, and now our old daddy have her taken out of the garden of Eden, and now our old daddy says will eat the fruit and become a slave too. says II believe believe II will eat of of the fruit and become a slave too. This was the first introduction of slavery upon this earth, and This was the first introduction of slavery upon this earth, and there has been not a son or daughter of Adam from that day to there has been not a son or daughter of Adam from that day to l5Wil1iam Mulder, "The Mormons in American History" William Mulder, History" (21st (21st Annual Reynolds utah: Extension Division of Reynolds Lecture, Lecture, Salt Lake City, City, Utah: XLVI, No. 11, January 14, 14, 1957. Utah) XLVI, University of Utah) No. 11, 1957. f; ,. 55 55 l6 this b~t what were wer~ slaves in the true the word. word. this but true sense of the This homel~ example is intended to This homely to universalize the the effects of yoke. He slavery by placing everyone since Adam and Eve under its yoke. continued by qualifying his his beliefs in relation to the the need of slavery, slavery, fate of the Negro to to remain in bondage, bondage, and the necessity for for hu­ the fate humane treatment in the management of slaves: muna slaves: am as as much much opposed opposed to to the the principle principle of of slavery slavery as as any any II am the the present acceptation or usage of the term. term, It is abused. II am opposed to to abusing that which God decreed, decreed, to to take abused. and make make aa curse curse of of it. it. It It is is aa great great blessing tp to the the aa blessing and S3ed of Adam to to have the seed of Cain for for servants, servants, but those saed all the heart and feeling, feeling, as they serve should use them with all compassion should should they would use their own children and their, their,compassion them, and treat them as as kindly, reach over them and round about them, kindly, that humane feeling necessary to to be shown to to mortal and with that species. Under these circumstances their beings of the human species. thjn those who blessings in life are greater in proportion thf9 who for them. have to provide the bread and dinner fo+ them. man L~ in ~~ to Young' Young's "blessing" to both According to s view, view, slavery was was aa "blessing" roles seriously. seriously. His attitude slave and master when both took their roles was colored with the paternalistic approach to to the Negro Neg+o held by many apologists. The belief that Southern slavery apologists. that Negroes are destined to for humane treatment, slavery provided there is provision for treatment, is reminis­ reminisview. The Negro belonged in slavery. cent of the traditional Southern view. slavery. Young concluded this this significant address before the legislature with the servants, setting aa tone even resounding reminder that Negroes Negroes must be servants, more closely allied to to the the Southern view: view: It is for to take aa course, to bind our feelings for you and II to course, to feelings together in an everlasting bond of union inasmuch as as we Love the • l6Brigham Feb. Brigham Young', Young, Speech in Joint Session of Legislature on Feb. 5, Office, 5, 1852, 1852, giving his views on slavery. slavery. M.S. M.S. Church Historian's Office, 1. 1. - 17Ibid • 5. 5. Ibid. ;.l :~ 56 Lord, we ought more than than ourselves. I Lord, which which we ought to to do do more ourselves. Consequently Consequently I will not not consent for a moment to have the the children children of Cain rule right. But, say some, some, is me nor nor my my brethren. No, No, it is not not right. is constitution of the U.S.? there anything of this kind in the constitution out, If you will allow me the privilege privilege of telling you right out, here.... it is none of their damned business what we do or say here .... "that every free It is written right out in the constitution, "that; white years.^ white male male inhabitant ~nhabitant above the age of twenty-one years.18 In spite of what what general feeling in the the country may dictate, dictate, Negroes remain in Negroes in in Utah Utah were were to to remain in servitude. servitude. his position on this topic his position on this topic was was immovable. immovable. He wanted it He wanted it known known that that This position perhaps This firm firm position perhaps stemmed not so much from stemmed not so much from a a desire desire for for slavery, slavery, but but rather rather a a desire desire to to keep Utah soverign and apart from the rest rest of the world. had caused him the world. world. him to want estrangement estrangement from the Persecution Persecution In a speech in 1856, he made a significant significant comment: comment: It It is is not not the the prerogative prerogative of of the the President President of of the the United United States meddle with with this matter, and not allowed, States to to meddle this matter, and Congress Congress is is not allowed, it. If Utah according to the Constitution, to legislate upon it. admitted into the Union as a sovereign state, 'and and we was admitted we chose here, it is not their business to meddle to introduce slavery here, oppressive with it; and even if we treated our slaves in an oppressive hot manner, it is still none of their business and they ought not i t .19 ^ to meddle with it. .! ' Even Young sounded a Even from from a a States States Rights Rights standpoint, standpoint, Young sounded like like a Southerner. Perhaps the most most famous statements Brigham Brigham Young ever Perhaps made on slavery slavery were those he uttered to Horace Greeley, the wellknown abolitionist New York Tribune, on July 13, abolitionist and editor of the New 1859. Mr. involved in an overland overland journey Mr. Greeley was involved journey from New York Summer of 1859. 1859. to San Francisco during the Summer While in Salt Lake City Mormons, Greeley had an interesting interesting interview interview for a brief stay with with Mormons,Greeley l8IIbid b i d .. 6. 6. 1 8 ^ J o u r n a l of f Discourses 19Journal Discourses (Salt (Salt Lake Lake City, City, Utah: Utah: Deseret Deseret News News Press, 1952), 39-40. 1 9 5 2 ) , IV, 39-40. Q 57 57 wi th Brighara Brigham Young, his candid with Young, at at which time the the latter expressed his views slavery: views on slavery: H.G. the position of your church with respect to H.G. What is the slavery? slavery'? B.Y. B.Y. We consider it of divine instituUon, institution, and not to be abolished until until the curse pronounced on Ham shall his descendants. have been removed from his descendants. H.G. H.G. Are any slaves slaves now held in this this territory? B.Y. are. B.Y. There are. H.G. H.G. Do your territorial laws laws uphold slavery? slavery? D.Y. yourself. B.Y. Those laws laws are printed--you printed-—you can read for for yourself. If slaves slaves are are brought here by those who owned them in states, we do do not favor favor their escape from the the states, service of their owners. owners. H.G. H.Q. Am II to to infer that Utah, Utah, if admitted as as aa member of the Federal Union, Union, will be aa slave state? B.Y. No; she B.Y. No; she will be aa free free state. state. Slavery here would prove useless and unprofitable. I regard it generally unprofitable. I as masters. II myself hire many as aa curse to to the masters. laborers and pay them fair wages; II could not afford fair wages; to to own them. them. II can do better than subject myself to families, to an obligation to feed and clothe their families, to to provide and care for for them in sickness and health. health. Utah is xnadapted to Slave Labor. 20 is notadapted to Slave Labor. Ambivalence also colors Young's attitude; he talked of slavery Ambivalence also colors Young's attitude; he talked of slavery as "of divine institution" and yet it was not practical in utah. He as "of divine institution" and yet it was not practical in Utah. He said in essence that God inspired its inception, and therefore no said in essence that God inspired its inception, and therefore no man should tamper with it. Tq1s view is identical with the early man should tamper with it. Tl^is view is identical with the early view of Joseph Smith. And yet Young deemed slavery unprofitable view of Joseph Smith. And yet Young deemed slavery unprofitable for Utah and therefore undesirable. However, this recognition of for Utah and therefore undesirable. However, this recognition of the lack of profit gained from slavery in utah was not a recommendathe lack of profit gained from slavery in Utah was not a recommenda­ tion for freeing of slaves anywhere • . tion for freeing of slaves anywhere. m Elaborating upon the curse upon the Negro race spoken of by Elaborating upon the curse upon the Negro race spoken of by JQseph Smith, Brigham Young made these comments: Joseph Smith, Brighara Young made these comments: 20 Horace Greeley, Greeley, Overland Journey From New York to to San Francisco in the Summer of 1859, York: 1859, ad. ed. by Charles T. T. Duncan (New York: Alfred A. A. Knopf, 180. 1964), 179, 179, 180. Knopf, 1964), 58 58 You S2e the human fwllily that are black, black, see SOfae some classes of the family that uncouth, uncolilcly, disagreeable and low in their habits, uncouth, uncomely, habits, wild all the blessings of the and seemingly deprived of nearly all intelligence that is generally bestowed upon mankind. mankind. The intelligen.ce first man that co~"itted committed the the odious crime of killing one of first his breLhren brethren will cursed the ;1is will be cl.lrsed the longest of any of the Adam. Cain slew his brother. Cain might have children of Adaiu. his brother. to that been killed, killed, and that would have put aa termination to human beings. beings. This was not to be, and the line of hur.,an to be, the Lord put upon him, him, which which is is the the flat flat nose nose and and black skin. skin. aa mark upon Trace lilankind mankind down after the flood, and and then another curse Trace down to to ufter the flood, then another curse is race---that is pronounced upon the the same race that they should be the ";:;erv.:mts "servants of servants"; servants"; and they will be until until that that curse is r~"oved; the Abolitionist cannot help it, removed; and the it, nor in the least alter the decree. that race race to decree. How long is that to endure C"UX'::;e that is the dreadf'Jl dreadful curse is upon them? them? That curse will reInain the Priesthood remain upon t~1enl, them, WAd and they never can hold the until all all other descendants of Adam have or share in it until the promises and enjoyed the the blessings of the received the Priesthood and the keys thereof. Until the the last ones of I'riest~100d the keys thereof. Until the residue Adam's to that the rl::sidu.e of .-i.dam' s children are brought up to favourable position, favourable position, the the children of Cain cannot receive the fi~st first ordinances of the Priesthood. Priesthood. They were the the first first that cursed, and they^^will the that were tiere cursed, th~Y2Fl~ be^ b~J the last from whom the curse will will be removed. removed. Besides declaring the abolitionists wrong in desiring freedom for the the Negro because of aa curse, curse, Young explained the now for n~w familiar Church with regard to Negro—that he position of the Mormon Ch~ch to the the Negro--that Church. The paternalistic, paternalistic, kindly cannot hold the Priesthood of the the Church. emerges as as aa close parallel attitude of the the Mormons toward the the Negro emerges to th~ the one held by the traditional South. South. Religious to ReligiOUS arguments were frequently by apologists for for the system. It used f:cequently the Southern slavery system. seem safe to would ,;eem to conclude that the Mormon attitude was compatible as "of divine institution." with that of the the South in defining slavery as institution. II ("'lOing the curse, Going even further in defining the curse, Young hit aa touchy subject, that said, "Shall II tell tell you the sU0ject, that of intermarriagewhen intermarriage,. wilen he sctid, 21 291. 291. V o f DiSCOurses Pi .<«-.Qy^.cu»s <Speech (Speech of October 1859), 1859), VII, VTI, 290, Journal of 290, 59 law of God in regard to race? to the African race? If the the white man who belongs to Cain, to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain, the penalty, penalty, under the law of God, the spot. God, is is death on the spot. This This will always be so." 22 22 This firm stand on intermarriage follows closely always be so." This firm stand on intermarriage follows closely the position of the South and emphasizes the seriousness of the the position of the South and emphasizes the seriousness of the curse. Then Young made an interesting reference to personal curse. Then Young made an interesting reference to personal experience: experience: I am neither an abolitionist nor a pro-slavery man. I am have neither abolitionist nor a pro-slavery man. If I could beenaninfluenced by private injury to choose If I could have been influenced by private injury to choose one side in preference to the other, I should certainly be one sidethe in pro-slavery preference to theof other, I should certainly against side the question, for it wasbe against the pro-slavery side of the question, for it was pro-slavery men that pointed the bayonet at me and my pro-slavery men that pointed the bayonet at me and my brethren in Missouri, and said, ItDamn you we will kill 23 brethren in Missouri, and said, "Damn you we will kill you. It I have not much love for them, only in the Gospel ••• you." I have not much love for them, only in the Gospel... 2 3 In comment, the ths Negro Negro In this this comment, the seriousness seriousness of of the the curse curse upon upon ths suddenly the background; background; and personal prejudice prejudice suddenly slipped slipped into into the and personal emerged emerged as as aa governing governing factor factor in in his his stand. stand. But it that But it is is clear clear that Young's with respect the way way in which Young's major major concern concern with respect to to slavery slavery was was the in which the were handled. the slaves slaves were handled. It not It seems seems as as though though slavery slavery itself itself was was not wrong to him, but the the inhumane manner in which many across wrong to him, but inhumane manner in which many slaves slaves across the country were treated gave him cause for disturbance: for disturbance: Will the present struggle free the slave? free the slave? No; No; but are now wasting away the they are the black race by thousands. thousands. are treated worse than we treat our Many of the the blacks are will be called to to judgment for for the dumb brutes; brutes; and men will negro, and they will will receive way they have treated the negro, condemnation of a conscience, by the just the conde.-nnation a guilty conscience, judge whose attributes are justice and truth. truth. Treat the slaves kindly and let them live, live, for Ham mustpjje must2~e the servant of servants until the curse is removed. removed. 22Ibid. X, 110. 110. 1863), X, lbid • (March 1863), 22 23Ibid. Ill. Ibid • 111. 23 24 J ^ 24Ibid • (October 1863), 250. Ibid. (October 1863), 250. - 60 60 With this this expression of the importance of humane treatment, treatment, there is also the key to to the Mormon attitude. attitude. Slavery itself was an acceptable practice, practice, but slaves must be treated with kindness. kindness. There is no indication that slaves were treated unkindly by their Mormon masters. masters. Apparently most of them practiced the the teachings of their leaders in reference to to this this point. point. "Aunt" James, "Aunt" Jane James, home, told of the colored servant in the Prophet Joseph Smith's home, method in which she was Prophet: was treated by the the Prophet: Yes, Joseph. Yes, indeed, indeed, II guess guess II did know the the Prophet Joseph. handJ He used to to put it out to me. me. Never That lovely hand! passed me without shaking hands with me wherever he was. was. Oh, he was finest man I earth. II did not Oh, was the finest I ever saw on earth. him. He'd always get much of aa chance to to talk with him. smile, always always just like he did to his children. children. He &~ile, to his child. 0 yes, yes, my I used to to be just like II was was his child. I Bible so so much and in the the Book of used to to read in the the Dible Mormon and Revelation, Revelation, and now II have to f.lormon to sit and read, and II think over them things, can't see to to read, things, and and tell you you II do do wake wake up up in in the the middle middle of of the the night, night, II tell and II just think about about Brother Brother Jo Joseph and Sister and just think 2SPh and Sister Emma to me. Emma and and how how good good they they was was to me. Her account represents an example of the Prophet Joseph to aa Negro. Negro. But this this quotation is Smith exhibiting kindness to interesting also because it is filled with the paternalistic attitude toward the Negro which seemed to to be common to the Mormon attitude. attitude. Smith treated Jane James James "just like II was child." Another possible example of kindness kindness in slavery his child." is found in the the case of Liz Liz Flake, Flake, aa slave belonging to to Agnes Agnes and is James M. Flake. She accompanied them to r~l. Flake. to the the Salt Lake Valley in Jar.les 1848. When James James Flake died, Agnes Liz went to 1848. Plake died, Agnes and her servant Liz 25"Aunt" "Aunt" Jane James, James, "Joseph Smith, Smith, The Prophet," Prophet," Young Women's Journal, 551. Journal, XVI XVI (December 1905), 1905), 551. i 61 61 San Bernardino with the the Amasa M. M. Lyman Company in 1850. 1850. Agnes soon became very ill women. ill and told Liz Liz to to go go and bring two neighbor women. When Liz Liz returned Agnes Agnes died. died. Liz Liz was was so so grief stricken that the women could not quiet her, until one of them finally said, her, until said, "You should be glad your mistres-sis gone, mistress^is gone, now she she can't whip you any more." more." Liz jumped to to her feet feet and angrily pushed the woman out of Liz the door. door. "You can't talk like that about ray mistress when when she she isn't isn't the my mistress able herself. She was that lived; able to to defend herself. was the best woman £hat lived; she was not mean to to me; me; she love her better than anyone in she never hit me; me; II love the world. house." The Negro slave Liz world. You can't stay in thi~ this house." never spoke to the woman again. 26 These are two indications that never spoke to the woman again. These are two indications that the kindness spoken of by Mormon leaders was in, , fact practiced the kindness spoken of by Mormon leaders was in, fact practiced toward their slaves. There certainly is no record of treatment toward their slaves. There certainly is no record of treatment rivaling the inhumane treatment practiced in many quarters of rivaling the inhumane treatment practiced in many quarters of the South. the South. An interesting aspect of the Mormon attitude toward Negro An interesting aspect of the Mormon attitude toward Negro slavery is its deep involvement in the issue of Indian slavery in slavery is its deep involvement in the issue of Indian slavery in the terri tory. Mqrmons often purchased Indian children who were the territory. Mormons often purchased Indian children who were sold into slavery in order to keep them from being mistreated or sold into slavery in order to keep them from being mistreated or 27 killed. 27 James Christensen, in a Master's Thesis on the social problems ofJames the Negro population Salt Lake City, on makes the killed. Christensen, in of a Master's Thesis the social following of cogent remark: problems the Negro population of Salt Lake City, makes the In 1850 utah was the only Western territory which had following cogent remark: Negro slaves. It was one of the few places in the u.S. In 1850 Utah was the only Western territory which had Negro slaves. It was one of the few places in the U.S. 26 26 Carter, 19. Carter, 19. 27 27Juanita Brooks, "Indian Relations on the Mormon Frontier," Juanita Quarterly, Brooks, "Indian Relations on the t Mormon Utah Historical XII (Jan.-April 1944) 6, 7. Frontier," Utah Historical Quarterly. XII (Jan.-April 1944), 6, 7. 62 62 where Negro and Indian slavery occurred in the the same locale in the the same period. Mormons Hormons countenanced Negro slavery same period. among the~ them while they abhored the the Indian slave traffic and legislated against it. it. They thought Indians In.dians to the same racial sjgain s2§ain to be the same racial as themselves, while Negroes Negroes were aa cursed people. people. as themselves, Slavery in utah was aa cultural carry-over from the the South. Utah was South. If it had not been carried to to Utah, Utah, perhaps Mormon attitudes would have developed differently. differently. Although Brigham Young talked of slavery as iif f it were divinely inspired, reasons- for inspired, there were other reasons^ for his favorable favorable attitude toward it. it. It is is certain that Mormons tended ~c' ~ l'" 29 to "carry inferences from dogma into secular life.,,29 It was to "carry inferences from dogma into secular life." " It was inevitable that Mormon attitudes toward slavery would become inevitable that Mormon attitudes toward slavery would become connected with their religion. Brigham Young expressed it in the connected with their religion. Brigham Young expressed it in the following terms: following terms: lJe cannot talk about spiritual things without connecting We cannot talk about spiritual things without connecting with the-II temporal things, neither can we talk about temporal with them temporal things, neither can we talk about temporal things Witilout connecting spiritual things with them. They things without connecting spiritual things with them. They are inseparably connected •••• vie , as Latter-day Saints, really are inseparably connected....We, as Latter-day Saints, really e~pect, look for ~ld we will not be satisfied with anything expect, look for and we will not be satisfied with anything short being governed word of the short of of being governed and and controlled controlled by by the the word of the Lord in all our acts, both spiritual and temporal. If we 30 Lord in all our acts, both spiritual and temporal. If we do not live for this, we do not live to be one with Christ. do not live for this, we do not live to be one with Christ. Slavery, therefore, became well as Slavery, therefore, became aa spiritual spiritual as as well as aa temporal temporal consideration slavery consideration for for the the Mormons. Mormons. Mormon Mormon attitudes attitudes supported supported slavery and intermarriage. Slavery religiously and segregation, segregation, and and condemned condemned intermarriage. Slavery was was religiously acceptable providing masters Humane treatment acceptable providing masters exercised exercised kindness. kindness. Humane treatment in real concern In in slavery slavery was was really.the really the only only real concern of of the the Mormons. Mormons. In 28 28 · t ensen, 11. Chr ~s Christensen, 11. 29 29Leonard J. Arrington, Great Basin Kingdom (Cambridge, Mass: Leonard J. Arrington, Great Harvard University Press, 1958), 5. Basin Kingdom (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1958), 5. 30 Journal of Discourses (Speech of June 22, X, 329. 329. Journal 22, 1864), 1864), X, 3Q / 63 general , their attitude toward l:o\.Iard the Negro was was one paternalism , general, one^ of paternalism, r1val.1ng of the South. This This attitude was fertile rivaling that of the South. fertile ground for the developl'llent development of the Negro and the Priesthood the Prie sthood doctrine. doctr1.ne. CHAPTER IV SLAVERY AND THE MORMON PRIESTHOOD Relative to to Negroes and the Mormon Priesthood, Jensen, Priesthood, Aridrew Andrew Jensen, formerly Assistant Historian for for the the L.D.S. L.D.S. Church, Church, records the following: following: Elij ah Abel, Abel, the Elijah the only colored man who is known to have been ordained to to the Pries~~ood, was born July 25, 1810, the Priesthood, 25, 1810, in Maryland. to "Mormonism" Maryland. 3ecoming Becoming aa convert to "Mormonism" he was September, 1832, 1832, by Ezekial Roberts, Roberts, and as baptized in SepteQber, appears was ordained an Elder March 3, appears from certificates, certificates, he was 3, 1836, and aa Seventy April 4, 4, 1841, 1841, an exception having been 1836, his case with regard to to the general rule of the made in his to colored people. Church in relation to people. At Nauvoo, Nauvoo, Illinois, Illinois, avocation~o_Lan where he resided, resided, he followed the the avocation ~-flll under­ undertaker. After his arrival in Salt Lake City he became aa taker. Ward, and together with his resident of the Tenth Ward, his wife, wife, the Farnham Hotel Hotel in Salt Lake City. City. In he managed the Nauvoo he was intimately acquainted with the Prophet Joseph. Smith Smith and and later later in in life life was was the the especial especial friend friend Joseph. W. Hancock. Hancock. In 1883, 1883, as as aa member of of the the late Levi W. the Third Quorum of Seventy, Seventy, he left Salt Lake City on the mission to to Canada, Canada, during during which which he he also also performed aa nllssion missionary labors labors in the States. Two Two weeks weeks after mission~ the United States. his return he died, died, Dec. Dec. 25, 25, 1884, 1884, of debility, debility, consequent his .upon exposure while laboring in the ministry ~stry in Ohio. Ohio • full faith of the the Gospel. . He died in full Gospel. Today it is aa well well known fact fact that the Mormon Church forbids forbids the Negro to to hold the Priesthood, Priesthood, which is the the authority given to to male members of the Church in good standing. standing. The above excerpt indicates that initially some Negroes were not denied the some Negroes Priesthood, but were admitted to to full full membership Priesthood, mellibership in the Church. Church. The Journal Journal History of the the Church records The records aa communication from 1 J Jensen, e n s e n , III, III, 577. 577. 65 65 Elder William Appleby, the Church in the the Eastern and Appleby, aa leader of the Middle 1847: Kiddle states, states, writing from Batavia, Batavia, New York on June 29 2, 1847: At this this place II found aa colored brother by the name of Lewis, Lewis, aa barber and an Elder in the the Church, Church, ordained by ~Jilliam has aa son William Smith. Smith. This This Lewis II am also also informed has who is is married to to aa white girl and both are are members members of the there. Now, Nowt dear Brother, to know if the Church there. Brother, II wish to this tolerated, to this is is the the order of God or tolerated, to ordain Negroes to the Priesthood and allow amalgamation. amalgamation. If2it 2^ to is, I it, as as II have yet to to learn it. desire to to know it, it. I f t 1 These are two documented cases are two cases of Negroes who held the Priesthood in the the early days the Church. days of the Church. The Church was organized in 1830, 1830, and yet Appleby wondered as as late as as 1847 1847 as to the correct Church policy. policy. to the the Evening and In an article for for the Morning star previously, the Star quoted previously, the editor spoke spoke for for the Church regarding slavery and free It so free people of color. color. He said that "so long as rule in the to people of color, color, as we have no special rule the Church as as to 33 let prudence guide." Apparently, the attitude of the Church toward let prudence guide." Apparently, the attitude of the Church toward the Negro was an evolutionary process. Originally at least the the Negro was an evolutionary process. Originally at least the problem of Negro membership in the Church did not cause consternaproblem of Negro membership in the Church did not cause consterna­ tion. Apostle and Church historian, George A. Smith gives an tion. Apostle and Church historian, George A. Smith gives an interesting account of a Negro member in Ohio in the early days interesting account of a Negro member in Ohio in the early days of the Church: of the Church: They meeting at was a a They ~ad had aa meeting at the the farm, farm, and and among among them them was negro known generally as Black Pete, who became a revelator negro known generally as Black Pete, who became a revelator •••• Finally on Black Pete of ....Finally on one one occasion, occasion, Black Pete got got sight sight of of one one of these revelations carried by a black angel; he started after these revelations carried by a black angel; he started after it, ran off wash bank bank twenty-five twenty-five feet high, it, and and ran off aa steep steep wash feet high, 2 Journal History ••• June 2, 2 t 1847. 1847. History...June 33 "Free People of Color, ft Evenins 1833, Color," Evening and Morning Star, Star. July 1, 1, 1833, 218. 218. .J 66 4 passed river beneath. beneath. passed through through aa tttee tree top top into into the the Chagrin Chagrin river Even cons~derable respect respect from from Even though though Black Black Pete Pete may may have have lost lost considerable have been been accepted a Church Church members members on on this this occasion, occasion, he he seems seems to to have accepted on on a comparatively on the the Negro Negro comparatively equal equal basis. basis. Any Any evidence evidence of of restrictions restrictions on member the member in the the early early days days of of the the Church Church is is non-existent. non-existent. Even Even the attitude that the the Negro Negro is some attitude by by some some Church Church members members and and leaders leaders that is in some way to have have evolved. erolved. way inferior inferior and and should should be be treated treated as as aa servant, servant, seems seems to Mormon discrimination may m~y have have Mormon Church Church history history is is incomplete incomplete on on how how such such discrimination developed. there is no evidence evidence developed. As As far far as as Elijah Elijah Abel Abel is is concerned, concerned, there is no of such discrimination; discrimination; there is is also nothing to indicate that Abel was L. John Nuttal, Nuttal, was ever under the the bonds of slavery. slavery. The diary of L. early Church leader, to the Priesthood leader, discusses discusses Abel Abel with reference to issue: issue: Saturday May 31st 1079 A.O. Smoot. Smoot. 1879 at at the the house of Prest A.O. Taylor, Provo City. City. utah Utah County, County, utah Utah -- 5 P.M. -- Prest John Taylor, Elders Brigham Young, Coltrin, and Young, A.O. A.O. Smoot, Smoot, Zebedee Coltrin, L. L. John Nutta1 Nuttal met, met, and the the subject of ordaining Negroes to was presented. to the the Priesthood was presented. Prest Taylor said. said. Some parties have said to to me that Zebedee Coltrin had talked to the the Prophet Joseph Smith on this this subject, subject, and they said that he (Coltrin) (Coltrin) thought it was was not right for for them to have the Priesthood •••• Brother Coltrin. Priesthood....Brother Coltrin. The spring that we Bro. we went up in Zion's camp in 1834 Bro. Bro. Joseph sent Bro. J.P. to gather gather up up means means to to assist assist J.P. Green and me out South to the Saints from Jackson County, County, Mo. in gathering out the Mo. On our return home we we got got in conversation about the Negro to the the Pr~esthood, Priesthood, and I having aa right to I took up the side right. Bro. Bro. Green argued that he had. he had no right. had. The so warm between us that that he said he would subject got so to Brother Joseph when we we got home for for preach­ report me to preachfalse doctrine, doctrine, which doctrine that I ing false I advocated was was that the Negro could not hold the the Priesthood. Priesthood. 'fAll "All right," the right," will." And when we got to sa£d I, I, "I "I hope you will." sq;i.d to Kirtland, Kirtland, to Brother Josephts Joseph's office together to to make we both went to returns, and Bro. Bro. Green was as as good as as his word and our returns, to Bro. Bro. Joseph that that II said that the Negro could reported to ( I., 44 Journal Journal of of Discourses, Discourses, XI, XI, 4. 4. 67 67 not hold the Priesthood. Bro. Joseph kind of dropped his Priesthood. Bro. his head and rested it on his his hand for a minute, said, for a minute, and then said, "Bro. Zebedee is right, right, for for the the Lord saith "Bro. the spirit of the the Negro has has no right nor cannot hold the the Priesthood the Priesthood. tI no reference to to scripture at at all, all, but such was He made no was his decision. II don't recollect ever having any conversation decision. this subject. subject. But II have heard him with him afterwards on this the least particle of say in public that no person having the Negro blood can hold the ~1e Priesthood. Priesthood. Brother Col trin further Coltrin further said: said: Brother Abel Abel was the Temple, ordained aa seventy sevm1ty because he had labored on the Temple, (it the Prophet (it must have been in the the 2nd Quorum) Quorum) and when the learned^of he_was^ dropped from from the Joseph learned of his lineage he was dr012Ped t~­ Quorum, anda:nother-was--put-rnhispiac~ ... -:-in the QuorumTj^and^anol^ was put in his place....In the washing Abel at Kirtland, Kirtland, II annointed and annointing of Brother Abel him and while II had my hands hands upon his head, head, I I never had feelings in ray life. And II said, said, "I "I never such unpleasant feelings my life. would again annoint another person who had Negro blogd in was commanded by the Prophet to him unless I I was to do so." so.t! There is no statement by Joseph Smith himself attesting to any such feelings to drop Abel feelings or action to Abel from the the Priesthood. Priesthood. How reliable Zebedee Coltrin's account may be is to determine, determine, is difficult to especially since since there is no other record to to bear it out. out. The fact that Coltrin related the incidents over forty years after they occurred, was in advanced years also occurred, and while he was also detracts from their creditability. creditability. It is strange that if Joseph Smith did make such aa stand with respect to to the the Negro this the Church's this early in the life, to the the Church. life, that he did not declare it publicly to Church. It is also strange that if Elij Elijah quorum" at also ah Abel was "dropped rtdropped from the quorum" the wish of the Prophet Joseph Smith in the the 1840' 1840's, the s, that he should mission representing his his Priesthood quorum in have been called on a a~ssion 1803, as as Church records attest. It is is evident that he remained a 1003, records attest. a member of the Priesthood quorum and that he exercised his his authority 5- L. John Nuttal Diary, Diary, May 1879, 290. Taken from Church L. 1879, 290. Historian's Office in Salt Lake City t Utah. utah. Citiy, / 68 68 as as aa missionary in Canada. Canada. The fact fact that he did represent the quorum would support the conclusion that he used the Priesthood. Priesthood. It is also was the the man who, who, as also interesting that John Taylor was President of the Church in 1883, his mission. mission. It 1883, called Abel on his was also John Taylor who reportedly conducted the the meeting in 1879 to the Priesthood was refuted. In a at which time Abel's right to was refuted. E. Berrett, the Church cogent letter to to William E. Berrett, present leader in the the book, school system and author of the book, The Church and the the Negroid People. Nola Wallace discusses discusses this People, this question: question: The real question seems to to be whether there was was in fact fact aa direct commandment dealing specifically with the yI Negro's right to to hold the the Priesthood. Priesthood. If there was, Negro's was, when / and where was to be no / was it given, given, and why does does there seem to direct, verifiable record of it available to direct, to us? Why does it not appear to be part of our Doctrine and Covenants, Covenants, along with other instructions concerning the Priesthood '1 Priesthood? ~by Why does does it not appear to have been available to the men who met in Provo in 18797 1879? Is Is it not strange that President Taylor should have had to learn Joseph that Smith's attitude on the the Negro question from Brothers ~mith's Coltrin Smoot, if there was a authoritative Col trin and Smoot, a more authori tati ve source available to to him?... him? •• That aa matter of utmost importance to to so many can for for so so long have rested on such flimsy historical too well to to the evidence attests too the depth of the prejudice which appears to have robbed Church policy makers of the will or gbility ability to to exercise critical faculties faculties in the this matter. this matter. I Mrs. views the origin of the the Church policy on the Mrs. Wallace views as aa matter steeped in prejudice. was preju­ Negro as prejudice. Whether there was preju- dice involved is not aa matter that is historis possible to to determine histor­ ically, but it is clear that that Church policy evolved, evolved, and that there ically, is uncertainty uS to how und ~uch a as to and why it evolved. evolved. Such a doctrine 6 Letter from Nola Wallace to to William E. 1962. E. Berrett, Berrett, June 24, 24, 1962. Los Angeles, Angeles, California. Taken from copy sent to to George T. T. Boyd of Los California. 69 69 certainly was was not aa part of the Church format beginning. format from its its beginning. John Nuttal also records records in his diary that A. A. o. 0. Smoot said some missionaries were laboring in the the Southern States in 1835 1835 and 1836, to make make aa decision regarding the Negro: 1836, and tlley they had to the Negro: There were Negroes who made application for baptism. for baptism. And the the question arose with them whether Negroes Negroes were to hold the the Priesthood. Priesthood. And by those brethren entitled to it was decided they would not confer the Priesthood until the Prophet Joseph~ Joseph, and subsequently they had consulted the decision, as as II under­ they communicated with him. him. His decision, underto the the Priesthood,nor Priesthood, nor stood was, was, they were not entitled to yet to be baptized without the the consent of their Masters. Masters. In after years years when II became acquainted with Joseph myself in Far West, the year 1838, I West, about the 1838, I received from Brother Joseph substantially the same instructions. was on ray my application to him, what instructions. It was to him, should be done with the the Negro in the South, South, as as II was preaching to them. them. He said II could baptize them by to. confer confer the the consent of their masters, mast;rs, but not to. Priesthood upon them. them. r Although this this is another indication that Joseph Smith had t " I' r ~ ~ ! . reservations about giving the Negro the d~d not the Priesthood, Priesthood, it dj/d come from him directly. directly. Other leaders of the the Church obviously had reservations about the matter. matter. But whether this this denial of the Priesthood to was aa natural outgrowth of the the slavery to the Negro was problem, problem, or whether slavery was favored by the Mormons because of their doctrine of Negroes being ineligible to the the Priesthood, Priesthood, determine. The latter argument seems seems to have the is difficult to to determine. greatest support. support. Again it is helpful to consider the words of 3righam Young; Brigham Young: The blacks should be used like servants, servants, and not like brutes, but they must serve. serve. It is their privilege to to 'live live brutes, so as as to enjoy many of the blessings which attend obedience so 7Nuttal Diary, 290. 290. Nuttal Diary, 70 70 to to the the first first principles of ~he the Gospel, Gospel, though they are are not entitled to the Priesthood. to the Priesthood. It seems was part of seems clear from Young's expression that it was serve, and therefore slavery was Church doctrine that Negroes Negroes must serve, will. It It is is logical logical to to conclude conclude that that natural outgrowth outgrowth of of God's God's will. aa natural Mormons deemed slavery because of their doctrine on the the Negro, Negro, the Mormons desirable institution. institution. aa desirable recently asserted that no no Negro At least one Church leader r~cently ever-exercised the Priesthood. ever exercised the Priesthood. Harold B. B. Lee, Lee, present Apostle in the t uses the Church Church, uses Zebedee Coltrin's Coltrin*s unsubstantiated account to contention. In answer to to the the question concerning support this this contention. colored people holding the Priesthood in the the early days days of the Church, the following argument: argument: Church, he uses uses the Now, Brethren, there Now, Brethren, there is is in Brother Andrew Jensen's Church Encyclopedia aa statement that one, one, Elijah Abel, Abel, was Young, such and such aa date. ordained aa seventy by Joseph Young, date. ----tell you that subsequent there to, But they don't tell to, when the Prophet Joseph Smith learned about it, it, he directed the the Priesthood which had been that his exercise of the exercised. And Elijah improperly given should never be exercised. Abel never served and exercised his Priesthood as as a Abel a seventy. And every president of the the Church during the seventy. that same same thing. lifetime of Elijah Abel followed exactly that thing. And now our enemies and some of our smart boys who have read the encyclopedia by by Andrew Andrew Jensen Jensen hold hold that that up read the encyclopedia up as as here's one one who who did did receive the Priesthood and and exercise exercise here's the Priesthood it. But But he he was was ordained ordained improperly. improperly. Keep Keep in in mind mind though, it. though, that in in the the infancy of the Church they didn't understand that infancy of the Church they didn't understand this clearly clearly, the pr§phet Prophet nullified exercise of this t but but the nullified his his exercise of the Priesthood Priesthood promptly. the promptly. As has been previously stated, there is only the account of stated, there Coltrin to this manner. manner. And to prove that Joseph Smith ever acted in this - 9Record Church, Record of Conference of French East Mission of L.D.S. L.D.S. Church, Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland, Switzerland, Oct. Oct. 30, 30, 1961. 1961. Taken from Church Historian'S Historian's Office. Office. 71 71 later events a events substantially point to to the the improbability of such a move. Nevertheless? Nevertheless, either as as an an expression of the absolute move. doctrine, or as as an attempt to to remove any causal nature of Mormon doctrine, denial of the the Priesthood, Priesthood, some relationship between slavery and denial leaders seem bent on proving that that Negroes Negroes have never been Mormon leaders eligible to to the the Priesthood. Priesthood. Henry D. D. Moyle, Moyle, former member of the L e e .IO First Presidency of the the Church, Church, shares shares the~\riews the Views of Elder Lee. 10 These are are indications indications of of strong strong Mormon Mormon feeling feeling on on the These the Negro Negro and and his rights. rights. Many would deem it aa blotch on the the reputation of the his the ^ Church if if it it were generally believed that Negroes Negroes ever ever held Church were generally believed that held the the Priesthood. Priesthood. is at at any rate clouded; clouded; the the exact time and reason The issue is the Negro stand had its its introduction into the the Church is not clear. the clear. A. Widtsoe said the the "cause of the black skin Previous Apostle John A. is not known," known," and that "it is is very probable that inof the Negro is in· some way, way, unknown to to us, us, the the distinction harks harks back to the presome lIll state." existent state. 11 The present Prophet and President of the Church, Church? 0. McKay, McKay, says says that that he knows knows of "no scriptural basis for David O. the Priesthood to to the the Negroes Negroes other than one verse in the denying the Book of Abraham(I:26). •• the real Abraham(l:26)• However, However, II believee believe...the real reason dated 12 back to our pre-existent state.,,12Purther, President McKay states: back to our pre-existent state." Further, President McKay states: This is aa perplexing perplexing question, question, particularly in the This the light of the present trend of civilization to to all to grant equality to 11John Jo:m A. 385. A. Widtsoe, Widtsoe, ImprOVClnc."1t Improvement Era (June (June 1944), 1944), XLVII, XLVTI, 385. 11 12Letter Nov~ 8? Letter From David O~ 0. McKay to to BYU student, student, Nov. 8, 1947, 1947, on file Office. file in Church Historian~s Historian's Office. 12 72 72 men, men, irrespective of race, race, creed, creed, or color. color. The answer, answer, as II have have thought thought it, it, cannot cannot be be found found in in abstract abstract reasoning, reasoning, for in this this case? case, reason to to the the soul soul is is as as dim as for as the rays of moon and stars stars to to lonely, lonely, weary, borrowed rays weary, travelers....This means that that the the true true answer wandering travelers •• ., • This means to your question (and it it is is the the only one one that has ever to satisfaction) has has its its foundation foundation in faith: given me satisfaction) faith: (1) justice, (2) exis~ence (1) faith faith in aa God of justice, (2) faith faith in existence etejnal plan of salvation for for all all of God's of an eter~al children. children. Representing uncertainty and even distress the Negro distress toward the question, Church. question, these these are are candid comments from the the President of the the Church. ) Whatever its its origin, origin, the the Church doctrine on the Negro has endured to to the the present day. day. And the the paternalistic attitude toward the the ~egro Negro common to to the the South is is strangely prevalent among Mormon leaders Church. Using leaders today, today, just as as it \liaS was in the the early days days of the Church. aa religious religious argument argument often often propounded in in the the South, South, Apostle Apostle of of the the Church Mark E. E. Petersen says says the the following: following: Now let's moments. let's talk segregation again for for aa few moments. Was segregation aa wrong principle? principle? When the Lord chose Was the nations nations to to which the the spirits spirits were to to come, come, determining the that some would be Chinese and some some Negroes Negroes and soma that Americans, act of segregation. segregation.: When AI-'lericans t He engaged in an act the banishment of Hagar and Ishmael again He permitted the He endulged in segregation. segregation. In the the case case of Jacob and He Esau, lIe lie engaged in segregation segregation....When Esau, •••• When he placed the mark upon Cain, Cain, He engaged in segregation segregation...when ••• when he cursed the the ddscendants descendants of Cain as as to to the the Priesthood, Priesthood, He engaged engaged in segregation.... He segregation •••• ~110 Who placed the the Negroes Negroes originally in darkest Africa? Africa? Was Was it some some man, man, or was was it God? God? And when He them there, there, .He He segregated them them....And placed ti,effi •••• And He the descendants of Cain when certainly segregated the the Negro as as to to the the Priesthood, Priesthood, and drew He cursed the line. The Negro was was cursed as as to to the an absolute line~ therefore, was was cursed as as to to the Priesthood II$ and therefore, the Priesthood. Priesthood. Certainly God made a blessings of the a l3Ibid. Ibid • 13 73 14 segregation there. there. Since only the Church, the Prophet is is authorized to to speak for for the Church, Petersen's views views cannot be considered Church doctrine or Church policy. policy. Nevertheless, his views represent many Mormon leaders leaders as as well well as Nevertheless, his views members. members. Petersen uses an argument often preached by Southern lead­ lead- ers of present vintage and of Civil War times. ers times. His His argument bears df former former Governor Ross an extremely close resemblance to to that that ejf Barnett Mississippi, who preaches segregation as a Bamett of Mississippi, who often preaches as a principle originating with God. 15 15 Since God authored such a principle originating with God. Since God authored such a principle, it is not man's prerogative to interfere with its funcprinciple, it is not man's prerogative to interfere with its func­ tion. Petersen's argument for segregation sounds much like Brigham tion. Petersen's argument for segregation sounds much like Brighara Young's argument for leaving slavery alone. It seems to say that man Young's argument for leaving slavery alone. It seems to say that man should not tamper with anything which has been divinely instituted. should not tamper with anything which has been divinely instituted. It would seem that anything denoting servitude or subordination of It would seem that anything denoting servitude or subordination of the Negro race is favored in Mormon circles. Yesterday slavery was the Negro race is favored in Mormon circles. Yesterday slavery was the vehicle, while today it is segregation. Both are cultural practhe vehicle, while today it is segregation. Both are cultural prac­ tices which were influenced by God, and therefore expressions of Negro tices which were influenced by God, and therefore expressions of Negro destiny. Mark E. Petersen's views on segregation could represent destiny. Mark E. Petersen's views on segregation could represent an evolution of Brigham Young on slavery. Commenting on what the an evolution of Brighara Young on slavery. Commenting on what the Negro may accomplish, Petersen continues: Negro may accomplish, Petersen continues: TIlink of the Negro, cursed as to the Priesthood. Are Think of the Negro, cursed as to the Priesthood. Are we prejudiced against him? Unjustly, sometimes we are accused we prejudiced against him? Unjustly, sometimes we are accused of having such a.prejudice. But what does the mercy of God of having such a. prejudice. But what does the mercy of God 14 l414ark E. Petersen, Address "Race Problems-As They Affect The E. Petersen, Addressof"Race Problems—As Theyon Affect The Church," Mark delivered at Convention Teachers of Religion the College Church," delivered at Convention of Teachers of Religion on the College Level at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah, August 27, 1957. 5, 6. LevelChurch at Brighara Young University in Provo, Utah, August 27, 1957. 5, 6. From Historian'S Office. From Church Historian's Office. 15 15Ross Barnett gave his views of segregation on the University Ross Barnett gave his of segregation theactivities. University of Utah Campus in February of views 1964 during Challengeon Week of Utah Campus in February of 1964 during Challenge Week activities. f \ 74 74 have for for him? him? This This negro who, who, in the the pre-existence lived the type of life which justified the the type the Lord in sending him to skin, and to tile the earth in the the lineage of Cain with aa black skin, possibly being born in darkest Africa---if Africa if that negro is willing when he hears to accept it, hears the the gospel gospel to it, he may have many of the the blessings of the the Gospel. Gospel. In spite of all willing, all he did in the the pre-existent life, life, the the Lord is willing, if the faith, the negro accepts accepts the the gospel gospel with real, real, sincere faith, and is is really converted, converted, to to give give him the the blessings of baptism and the the gift of the the Holy Ghost. Ghost. If that negro is faithful faithful all all his days, days, he can and will will enter the celestial kingdom. as aa servant t but he will will get kingdom. He will will go go ther therj^as servant, I6 aa celestial celestial resurrection. resurrection. after death, death, according to The Negro will remain in servitude even aftrr Petersen. Petersen. Since the the Negro Negro is is supposed to to have done something shameful in the pre-existence, the to be aa servant in the Celestial the pre-existence, the opportunity to blessing. The The remarkable resemblance Kingdom is considered aa genuine blessing. the Negro to the Southern view is inter­ of the the Mormon attitude toward the to the interesting; but any correlation between the the Mormon doctrine on the Negro esting; the Mormon position on slavery is is fascinating. fascinating. Just as and the as the the worth and potential of the the Negro has endured Southern view of the to the present, present, so so has has the the corresponding Mormon view. to view. Both Church members and leaders leaders differ on the the reasons for the adoption of the the Negro doctrine as as well as as to to its validity. validity. In spite evidence, many Mormons claim that no Negro of shaky historical evidence, the Priesthood. Priesthood. This This problem is is important because ever exercised the the festering of the the problem of slavery in the it corresponds with the States.|i Certainly because of Mormon doctrine it was easy for United States. Utah and in the United Mormons to to accept acc~pt and support slavery both in utah States. Through history the the paternalism of both Mormons and Southern­ States. Southern- ers serve. ers seems seems apparent; apparent; the Negro must be treated well, well, but he must serve. 16 Petersen Address, Address, 6. 6. " CHAPTER V V OBSERVERS OF NEGRO SLAVERY IN UTAH Information regarding what observers or travelers to to Utah utah dur­ during the the practice of slavery may have have thought thought of the the institution is definitely sparse. sparse. Even the the ;ew f;ew available accounts accounts of these visitors are are concerned mostly with doctrine of the the Mormon Church, Church, and more specifically with polygamy_ polygamy. As As aa result, result, any reflections they may have had on the the topic of slavery as as they witnessed it during their stays in the the valley is is overshadowed almost almost completely by the items stays to be more more important. important. After all, all, utah Utah was interesting they recognized to to the the traveler because of the the nature of the the religious group who had to across the the country to to settle there there and build their own traveled across city. Travelers were were curious to to find what what made them different from city. common to to the the United States. States. Since the prevalence other religions religion.s conunon was by no means means large in contrast to to the the institution as of slavery was the South, South, travelers travelers were not looking for for it; it existed in the it; and even if they found it they deemed it of little concern when compared with larger, perhaps more interesting matters matters pertaining to to the peculiar larger t perhaps Mormons. And And of of course, course, most most observers observers did did not not travel travel in Mormons. in the areas where most most Negroes were working. working. Hence, Hence, observers' observers views views and comments where Negroes w~e and comments 1 are scant scant on on Utah slavery as as it it existed existed among among the the Mormons. are utah slavery Mormons. Of Of special special interest, interest, however, however, among observers' observers* views are those of J. J. W. W. Gunnison, Gunnison, an engineer and Army officer who was those was killed 76 during his his stay in utah. Utah. Since Gunnison was was considered accomplished in his views are of value. value. his field and was was respected as as aa person, person, his his views Slavery attracted his the Mormons his eye, eye, even though other practices of the interested him more. more. His His brief comment relative to to slavery and the r·'lormon significcmt: Mormon Priesthood is is significant: Involuntary labor by negroes custom; negroes is is recognized by custom; those those holding slaves? slaves, keeping them as as part of their family ••• without any law on the ...without the subjecte subject. Negro caste springs their doctrine of blacks blacks being ineligible naturally from their to to the the priesthood. priesthood. In 9 s view, slavery was a natural result of Gunnison Gunnison's view, was a the Mormon doctrine of Negroes to the Priesthood. Priesthood. Negroes being cursed in relation to A A conclusion of this this kind from an an observer is is especially noteworthy. noteworthy. Another more enthusiastic observer of slavery and especially of Mormon attitudes, Greeley_ attitudes, was was the the famous famous abolitionist, abolitionist, Horace Greeley. has been cited previously in relation to to his interview with Greeley has to the the latter's views views on slavery. Brigham Young with regard to slavery. But that interview his his own views Greeley did not express during that views regard­ regardMormons and slavery. slavery. B. B. H. H. Roberts, Roberts, in his Comprehensive ing the the Mormons Church, relates relates an an interesting account of Greeley's History of the Church? GreeleyVs views at at aa normon Mormon banquet: expression of such views banquet: Mr. Greeley WdS was disappointed in the the lack of abolition Hr. sentiment in Salt Lake City, which he resented by saying at sm~timent :alt Lake City, a banquet in his honor: "I have not heard tonight, and II a banq-I.let in his hc~por: "I have not heard tonight, and think II never heard heard^rom the lips or journals of any of '{rom the lips your people, people, one word in repr6J.'1.ension reprehension of that national crime and scwndul, scandal, Al,leric.an American Chattel slavery. slavery. This This obstinate silence, this seeming indifference on your part, silence, this se~.dng part, reflects no credit on your faith and morals, and I trust they will no faith morals? I not ;be b© persisted in." in." This This harsh, not to say dictatorial harsh, to .. ~ IJ. Co., 1852), 1852), J. W. W. Gunnison, Gunnison, The Mormons (New York: York: John Lovell Co., 143. 143. 77 language was Taylor-—master lunguage was softened somewhat by Elder John Taylor---master of ceremonies at at the the reception and banquet tendered Mr. Mr. Greeley-—saying: "The s"..lbject subject of slavery is one on which Greeley---saying: Mr. Greeley is known to to be enthusiastic, enthusiastic, as t~. as we are are on the subject of our religion. religion. We cannot help speaking of our at every opportunity as as he cannot help speaking religion at slavery. Those who do do not not^relish that topic, of slavery. relish this this or that topic, 2 must excuse its introduction. introduction. It is about the is true that that Greeley was was extremely enthusiastic about slavery, and as as he stated, stated, he was irritated that the topic of slavery, for something he consider­ Mormons expressed such aa lack of concern for consider- ed evil. was aa mystery to that a a people who had been perse­ perseevil. It was to him that who had dedicated themselves to religion, cuted and who themselves to religion, would be so unconcerned with abolishing an institution which functioned by persecuting aa race was the moral, race of people. people. To him abolitionism was the moral, religious doctrine of the day. Certainly Greeley was outspoken in the day. to reprimand the very people choosing aa banquet given in his honor to honor. Nevertheless, who were were doing him the the honor. Nevertheless, John Taylor's adroit handling of the delicate situation indicated the the truth of Mr. Mr. Greeley's assertion. Obviously, Obviously, the Mormons were not that interesteG-interested in assertion. inslavery, and did not deem it it as as aa means the Negro. slavery, means of persecuting the Negro. the Mormon stand was Probably Greeley's attitude toward the was exemplary general abolitionist sentiment toward it would be. of what the general be. Captain Richard F. F. Burton arrived in Salt Lake City on the 24& 2~ August, 1860. 1860. He stayed there and at Camp Floyd until day of August, September 2O\b 20t& of the saiae year. year. His book, book, called City of the Zepteulber the SdJ.e the Saints und to CalifoL-nia, and Across tlle the Rocky 110UiltainS Mountains to California, devotes eight of its 22 Christ Christ Press, Press, B. H. Roberts, Comprehensive History of the B. H. Roberts, Comprehensive History of the of Latter-day Saints (Salt Lake City, Utah: of Latter-day Saints (Salt Lake City, Utah: 1930), IV, 533. 1930), IV, 533. \ Church of Jesus Church of Jesus Deseret News Deseret News 78 thirteen chapters to to the the Mormonsc Mormons. Their life life and customs must have aroused great interest in him. him. Although his his observations are not always worth: always fQctudlly factually co.crect, correct, their tone tone gives gives them worth: Slavary Slavery has has been legalized in Utah, Utah, but solely for the purpose of inducing the the saints to to buy children children, the t who be ubandoned abandoned or destroyed by their otherwise would ba the city, city, II did starving parents. parents. During my stay in the then hulf-a-dozen half-a-dozen negroes; negroes; and climate, not see more e12n climate, disdaining man's man's interference interference, draws unerring which disdainin;; draws with 9 the true line between white hand the true and only compromise line labour, has irrevocably decided that that the and black labour, these latitudes is is valueless as as aa chattel, African in these chattel, his keap keep costs costs more than his his work returns. because his returns. Negro, howaver, however, is is not admitted to to the the communion The Negro, Saints-—-rather aa hard case for for the the Hamites Hamites, if it of 3aints--rather 9 true tllat that salvation is is nowhere to to be found beyond be true the pale pale of of the the Mormon Mormon Church---and Church—-and there there are are severe severe the penalties for for mixing mixing the the blood blood of of Shem Shem and and^Japheth penalties Japheth 3 with the the accursed accursed race race of of Cain Cain and and Canaan. with Canaan. Certainly the utah the only reason Slavery slavery was was legalized in Utah was not for for the the purpose of inducing the the members members of the Church to Negro/ and to buy Indian children. children. The Mormon doctrine on the the Negro // the factors the carry-over of the the Southern tradition were the the chie.f chief factors sustaining slavery in the the territory. territory. Evidently Burton's one month stay in the the city was was not enough to to give him adequate information on the however~ the subject. subject. It is is of interest, interest, however, that that Burton also mentions the the Mormon doctrine with respect to the also saw the the connection between slavery and to the Negro; Negro; he also the the Priesthood. Priesthood. But he was was especially observant of the seeming unprofitability of slavery in utah, Utah, largely due to the climate. 3Richard II The Richard F. F. Burton Burton, Rocky Mountains to California to 299. and Roberts Roberts, 1861), 298, 298, 299. ll 1861), City of the the Saints Saints and Across the (London: Longman, Longman, (London: Longman, Green, Green, Longman, '. 79 Jules t who wrote extensively concerning his journey to Jules Remy Reray, Great Salt Lake to the topic of Lake City, City, made only brief reference to slavery. slavery. He mentions an incident previously mentioned in this work, the Millennial Mi11ennia1 Star. work, and documented in the Star. He supports the reliability of this the same this incident by telling it in much the as did the~. the Star. Referring to to Judge Drummond, manner as Drummond, notorious non-Mormon judge in the territory, territory, he says says "after aa gambling quarrel, his negro Cato to to assault and ill-use a quarrel, he ordered his 44 Jew who had had turned turned Mormon." Jew named named Levi Levi Abrahams, Abrahams, who Mormon." describ~s sl~ve~y itself its~l[ describes slavery Later he he Later to law: law: mainly in reference to coming into the Territory with their masters Slaves cOming the TerritorY free will, will, continue to to be in all all respects of their own free slaves, but ~xue1ty cruelty and withholding of proper food, slaves, food, raiment, etc., etc., makes the ownership void. void. Every master raiment, r.lakes the has carnal relations with his or her or mistress who has forfeits his his or her right to negro slave forfeits to the slaves, slaves, the property of the who thereby tl~ereby becomes the the commonwealth. commonwealth. Every individual man or woman who has carnal/relations has carna~ relations with aa negro or aa negress who is not his his or/her o~her pro­ property, is is sentenced to imprisonment not ex6eeding exceeding perty, three y~s years, fine of from 500 to to 1000 t and to to aa fine dollars. dollars. These comments are are mostly synopses of the the laws laws he observed in utah these, Utah on slavery. slavery. Beyond essentially making aa summary of these, says nothing more profound. he says profound. Law apparently appealed to to Reray Remy more than cultural practice, practice, as as evidenced by the the remainder of his work. territory, work. But the actual actual practice of slavery in the the territory, the specific mdnner manner in wliich administered, seem to and tl1e which it was was administered, have mattered little to tv him. him. 4 w. W. Jules Remy, A (London: Jules Remy, A Journey To Great Salt Lake City (London: Jeffs, 15, Burlington Arcade, 1861), I, 469, 470. Jeffs, 15, Arcade, 1861), I, 469, 470. 5 5 Ibid. II, 237. 237 ~. II, 80 The editor of the Republican, the Springfield~ Springfield, Massachusetts Republican, Samuel Bowles, Bowles, made aa later trip to to the the valleys valley, when slavery had been removed from the the United States. States. Bowles Bowles made aa summer journey in 1865 the United States 1865 with Schyler Colfax, Colfax, the the Speaker of the House of Representatives. interRepresentatives. In the the process of the the trip, trip, he inter­ viewed Brigham Young and others, others, and made numerous observations on Utah and the th respect to comments: the r.1or',lons. Mormons. Hi With to slavery, slavery, Bowles comments: TIle The conversation II have alluded to to with Brigham Young and some some of his his elders elders, on this this subject of polygamy, polygamy, was 9 011 his inquiring of Mr" Mr. Colfax what the introduced by his the East East proposed to to do with government and people of the it and thgm, them, now that that they had got got rid of the the slavery it question. question. the United States as Using the the elimination of slavery in the an an example, example, they then talked with Young about the the possibility of the same same way. way. Obviously, eliminating the the practice of polygamy in the Obviously, this kind of approach with Brigham Young would errd-~n end-in failure, this failure, since he believed slavery to will. to have have been instituted by divine will. Bowles says further: says further: The conversation was was continued on the the subjects of punishing the abstract. the lea.uing leading rebels, rebels, and of slavery in the abstract. Mr. Young favored slavery per se se as as established by Divine ~k. Authority, but denounced ele the chattel chattel system of the Authority, the South; South; the hanging of any of the the rebel rebel chiefs as and he opposed the as an policy. Now that that peace is is established, established, unwise and aggravating policy. let all all be pardoned pardoned, he said; said; but early in or during the let 9 he war, he would h.:..ve have disposed of the the rebel rebel chiefs that fell war, fell 7 hands of the the government without mercy or hesitation. into the the hands hesitation. Any views utah with views expressed bi by visitors visitors as as they came came into Utah 6 Samuel Bowles, Mass: Bowles, Across Across Toe The Continent (Springfield, (Springfield, Mass: Samuel Ill. Samuel Bowles Bowles and Coo, C o , New York: York: Hurd and Houghton, Houghton, 1866), 1866), 111. 0 7Ibid. 113. Ibid • 113. 7 81 81 respect to to the the topic of slavery are few. few. Since these observers wrote about slavery only incidentally, incidentally~ there is is little known today on slavery as utah. The few observations as it existed in Utah. available, available, however, however, support the the existence of Negro slavery in utah, scale~ Utah, even though it was was on aa small small scale. Most visitors apparently also observed the connection between slavery and the Mormon Priesthood, Priesthood, and hinted at the the causal relationship existing between them. them. Of Of most value is the the affirmation by these observers of the definitely pro-slavery attitude held by Mormons. Mormons. This This could even have been the dominant aspect of the institution as as it was observed in Utah. Utah. CHAPTER VT VI .sUHI4ARY SUMMARY AND CONCW.'3ION.'3 CONCLUSIONS At At the the time time of the colonization of Utah, Utah, Negro slavery was was an integral part of the South. the social, social, cultural, cultural, and economic life life of the the South. part of American custom and The Negro Negro caste system had indeed become aa part·· law. The nature of the the institution differed according to to the the area law. . involved, but essentially slave slave owners owners agreed on one thing: and master involved, thing: inferior, and therefore slavery was was their natural means Negroes were inferior, survival. Determined to to retain the the system, system, Southerners were con­ of survival. consocial and economic worth. worth. Moreover, Moreover, they justified vinced of its social I I • grounds, ar~ng arguing thjat was favored and it on religious grounds, th~t servitude was I , the Bible, Bible, and that that Negroes were destined to to remain in taught in the Negroes were bondage. Generally speaking, speaking, slave owners owners treated their slaves bondage. at least least as as well as they they did did other other property; property; this this was was aa necessity necessity at well as if they they were were to to protect protect their their investments. investments. However, However, there there were if were numerous cases cases of of brutality, brutality, demonstrating demonstrating that that there there was was in in fact fact numerous another side side of of the the slave slave system. system. Much Much of of the the South South was was definitely definitely another converted to to the the slave slave system, system, as as well well as as being being adapted adapted to to it converted it socially and and economicall~. economically. What What is is more, more, they they justified it and socially justified it and governed it it through through paternalism. paternalism. governed was an accepted cultural practice, practice, it is is not Since it was the influence of slavery would spread to to the surprising that the Mountains. Wi With the arrival arrival of the the Mormon pioneers into Rocky Mountains. th the .. 83 the Salt Lake Valley in 1847 1847, arrived. Slaves 9 Negro slavery also arrived. were brought into the valley mostly by Southern Mormon converts. converts. Utah was was on aa much smaller scale Although the the slavery practiced in utah South, still there were some some similarities. similarities. Since there than in the South, was no law in Utah slavery, it was was utah prohibiting slavery, was practiced without concern. By virtue of the 1850, Utah was was left open concern. the Compromise of 18S0? to slavery, slavery, and was was the to the only Western territory in 1850 in which as slaves. slaves. The legislature passed laws laws governing Negroes were held as institution, in an attempt to to insure humane cpnsideration consideration for the institution, the Negro. slaves was carried on in Utah the Negro. The buying and selling of slaves utah to aa limited extent. extent. According to to existing records, to records, there were at l8~~ least twenty-six twenty-six slaves slaves in in Utah and twenty-nine in 1860. least Utah in 1850^ and twenty-nine in 1860. slaves brought continued Some slaves brought into the the territory territory by Southern masters continued' to California California and and there there received received their freedom. others Others remained to their freedom. remained in in bondage in in Utah the end end of of the Civil War. War. Descendants Descendants of bondage utah until until the the Civil of slaves in in Utah bear this this record out; notable notable among is Lucille slaves utah bear record out; among them them is Lucille Perkins Bankhead, Bankhead, great great granddaughter granddaughter of of Green Green Flake, Flake, who Perkins who has has been been careful about about preserving records of of her her slave slave ancestors. ancestors. Although careful preserving.records Although there is is little little evidence evidence of of either either kind or brutal there kind or brutal treatment treatment of of slaves sla~s in Utah, that which does exist exist supports supports the former. It in Utah, that which does the former. It would seem seem that that most most slaves slaves in in Utah were treated would Utah.were treated with with kindness, kindness, which was direct result result of of strong strong Mormon Mormon feeling. feeling. Mormon Mormon leaders which was aa direct leaders constantly preached preached that that the be treated treated with with kindness. constantly the Negro Negro must must be kindness. Although abolitionist sentiment was was building up all all around the country, Mormons gave such sentinlent sentiment little thought. country, thought. There was nothing in their religious creed which ~hich suggested that slavery was . 84 an evil practice; as practice; in fact, fact, Brigham Young assessed slavery as 11 "of divine institution. While in Missouri, Missouri, Mormons had been institution." accused of attempting to to instigate a insurrection, and at a slave insurrection, this time clear. There was was "no this time made their stand clear. tlno special rule" rule" in the Church with respect to to the Negro, said, but they did intend the Negro, they said, intend. to obey the the laws laws of the the land and permit slavery to to to exist untouched. untouched. Later, however, however, aa "special rule" did emerge, Later, ft special rule" emerge, and Negroes were denied full membership in the because they belonged to to aa cursed full the Church becaus~ I race. No said, could hold race. No Negro, Negro, they said, hO~d the Priesthood of the the Church; Church; for such a unclear, the doctrine although the the reasons for a denial were unclear, had an interesting and solid connection with slavery. slavery. Just as Negroes were ineligible to to the the Priesthood because of aa curse, curse, so Negroes were they also also destined to to aa life of servitude. servitude. Slavery was was a a natural expression of inferiority. inferiority. The .Mormon Mormon doctrine on the Negro, therefore, therefore, clarified the Mormon position on slavery. Negro, slavery. Clearly, Clearly, the Mormons were not abolitionists; abolitionists; actually, actually, their position on the the South. the Negro closely resembled that of the South. This was was not strange since Mormon slave owners had originally come the South. South. Both Mormons and Southerners preached the from the inferior status of the Negro, Negro, and both met the the problem through paternalism. The Mormon belief corresponded to to the Southern paternalism. that slavery was was ~deed indeed aa blessing to view that to the Negro. Negro. The religious argument in support of slavery was was common to both. both. Even today a striking resemblance between Southerners' Southerners* views on segregation and some Mormon leaders' leaders' views is apparent. apparent. Over the the years, years, Southerners and Mormons have have retained aa close resemblance in their attitudes ", 85 toward the the Negro. Negro. Certainly the institution of slavery was of greater importance to the the South because of its size. size. Since it had aa large. large, population population of of Negroes, Negroes,the the South South was was concerned concerned about about the the group. They feared that if the institution of control of such aa group. slavery was to be lost, lost, the control of the Negro race may also be lost. Brutality was a lost. a prevalent part of the slave system of the South. On these points then, South. then, Mormons did not belong with the , South; on general attitudeL South; attitude$, toward the Negro race and his potential, potential, argument. Size was an important element in creating there was no argument. the the difference. difference. Views on slavery given by visitors to Utah during the the time Views of its interesting, though sparse. Generally, observers its function function are interesting, sparse. Generally, of Utah were more interested in "strange" the Mormons "strange" doctrines of the as polygamy. such as polygamy. As a a result, result, reference to to the practice of slavery is scant in their accounts. is accounts. It is also true that most observers to get farther than the Salt Lake City area during their failed to visits; hence, visits; hence, they did not see the Negroes in outlying areas. areas. observations, however, Even these brief observations, however, indicate the existence of of· slaves and slave laws laws in the territory. slaves territory. Of special interest are observers' comments on the relationship between the Mormon these observers' doctrine on the Negro and the the Mormon position on slavery. slavery. Even brief visitors noted a direct relationship between the a.~irect the two; two; pro- slavery attitudes attitudes seemed to them a a natural result of Negroes' Negroes' to the Priesthood. ineligibility to Priesthood. Certainly the connection is significant in assessing Mormon thought. thought. Negro slavery not only existed in Utah, Utah, but it was upheld 86 by Utah law. law. It is safe to conclude that slavery was important safe to to culturally, to the Mormon settlers of Utah; Utah; both religiously and culturally, it institution, slavery it conformed to to their attitudes. attitudes. As an economic institution, had no no place; place; but as as an extension of well-established traditions from the the South, South, it did. did. Socially and culturally it fit fit into the Mormon society, society, and it found its strength to to endure from religious justification. Mormon attitudes recognized that the Negro "must justification. \ be treated with kindness, ~ut he must serve." serve." kindness, nut BIBLIOGRAPHY Public DoCUlIlel1.ts Documents "Act in Relation to to Service," Acts, Resolutions, Resolutions, and Memorials of the Service," Acts, Legislative !.sse>.tbly Ten.'itory of Utah* Utah. Great Salt Lake Assembly of the Territory City, 160. City, Utah, Utah, 1855, 1355, 160. u. 3. D,ll:eau C.:n::,~;i;. 3evenUl C~nsus States: U. S. Bureau of the the Cen_>a>. Seventh Census of the the United States: 1850. 1350. / U. the Census. the United States: 1860. U. S. S. Bureau of the Census. Eighth Census Census of the States: 1860. nooks Books :~rington, Arrington, Leonard J. J. Great Basin Kingdom. Kingdom. University Press, 1~~8. Press, 1953. Cambridge, Cambridge, Mass: Mass: Harvard Dowl.:s, Bowles, 3~uuel. Samuel. Across Across The The Contin61t. Continent. Springfield, Springfield, Mass: Mass: Samuel Dowles and Co., N~w York: York; Hurd and Houghton, Houghton, 1866. 1866. Bowles Co., New Brown, John. John. Autobiography of John Brown, Brown, 1820-1896. 1820-1896. Arranged and Brown, published John Zimmerman Brown. Set! Salt City, Utah: publisheu by J01Ul Zihlll\erulall Ik'OW11.. t Lake City, utah: Stevens & Wallis Press, 1941. 3te,,~s ~Jallis Fress, 1941. Burton, F. Burton, Richard F. The City of the the Saints and Across Across the Rocky to Lon.gman, Green, Longman, to Cdliforiua. California. London! 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History of ti,e the Persecutions Pratt, Pers"c~a'''ns of the the Saints. Saints. New York: York: J. J. W. W. Harrison, Harrison, 1840. 1840. Randall, J. J. G. David. The Civil Reconstruction. Randdll, G. and Donald, Donald, David. Civil War and Reconstruction. Boston: D. C. C. Heath and Co., Boston: D. Co., 1961. 1961. ' Remy, ReillY, Jules. Jules. A A Journey Juu+:ney To Great G;:eat Salt Lake City. City. London: London: W. W. Jeffs, Jeffs, 15, IS, Burlington 3urlington Arcade, Arcade, 1361. lOGl. Roberts, B. B. H. H. Comprehensive History of the Church of Jesus Christ Roberts, of Latter-day Saints. Saints. 6 Vols. Vols. Salt Lake City, City, Utah: Ut~l: Deseret News Press, Press, 1930. 1930. Simkins, S1..ki115, Francis Butler. Butler. A A History ;!iSLOl:y of or the South. South. New York: York: Alfred A. A. Knopf, ~lopf, 1963. lSGJ. Smith, LetterSmith, Joseph, Joseph, Jr. Jr. History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latterday Saints. Saints. 6 Vols. Vols. 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"The Origins of Beard's F;conomic Economic Interpretation of the the History of Ideas, Ideas, the Constilution," Constitution," Jou.l:nal Journal of the XIII (1952), 247. (1952), 246, 246, 247. XIII Hammond, James James Henry. Slavery," Slav!EY Slavery in the HaItQnond, Henry. "Letters on Slavery," the South. South. Edited by Harvey Wish. York: Farrar, Co., Wish. New York: Farrar, Straus, Straus, and Co., 1964, 264. 264. Handlin, F. "Origins of the the Southern Labor System," System," Handlin, Oscar and ~la;;;y Mary F. \iilliam and Mary Quarterly, 199. 1950), 199. William Quarterly, VII VII (April (April 1950), Hyde, Orson. Orson. "Slavery Among the the Saints," Saints," l'lillennial Millennial Star, Star, XIII Hyde, XIII (Pebruary 63. 1851), 63. (February 15, 15, 1851), James, James, ftAunt" "Aunt" Jane. Jane. "Joseph Sttdth, Smith, The Prophet,lt Prophet," Young Women's Journal, XVI (December 1905), 551. Journal, XVI 1905), 551. Millennial Star. Star. (Saturday, 1356). (Saturday, Jan. Jan. 5, 5, IB56). Rhodes, Ford. "Slavery uSlavery as Rhodes, James Ford. as aa Single Cause," Cause," Lectures Lectures on The American Civil War. War. New York: Co., 1930, 1930, 3. York: MacMillan Co., 3. Salt Lake Tribune. 22. Tribune. May 31, 31, 1939, 1939, 22. ItSlavery XXVIII, 396. 396. "Slavery in the United States," States," Encyclopedia Americana, Americana, XXVIII, Sruith, Smith, Joseph, Joseph, Jr. Jr. Elders' Elders' Journal (Far (Far West, West, P-1issouri, Missouri, July 1838), 1838), 42. 42. . Messenger Messenger and and Advocate, Advocate, II II (April (April 1836), 1836), 289. 289. •. "Views "Views of of the the Powers Powers and and Policy Policy of of the the Government Government of of the the ---.......United States," r·1illennial Star, XXII (Nov. ••• 1860... States," I-lillennial Star, XXII (Nov. 10, 10, 1860 originally ~itten 743. written Feb. Feb. 1844), 1844), 743. Widtsoe, A. Widtsoe, John A. Improvement Era, Era, XLVII 385. XLVII (June (June 1944), 1944), 385. Unpublished Material Bill of Sale recording aa slave transaction. M.S. M.S. on file slave transaction. file in the Salt Lake County Recorder's Office. Office. Christensen, James B. B. tfA Christensen, James "A Social Survey of the the Negro Population of Salt Lake utah." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Lake City, City, Utah." Thesis, University of Utah, 1948. Utah, 1948. 91 91 Jordon Flake. Wills, Flake. Will Will taken from film of North Carolina Wills, Anson County, No. F County, North Carolina, Carolina, l7Sl-l942, 1751-1942, Call No. NC 2c(4S75) 164. 2c(4575) Part Part 3, 3, 164. Flake, Feb. 14, 1894. Flake, William. William J. J. Letter to to L.D.S. L.D.S. Church Historian, Historian, Feb. 14, 1894. M.S. City. M.S. in Church Archives in Flake File in Salt Lake City. Journal IIistory Saints. History of 'Ele The Churcil Church of Jesus Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Church Iii storian, s Office in Salt Lake utah. Historian's Lake City, City, Utah. Lee, L.D.S. Lee, Harold B. B. Record of Conference of French East Mission of L.D.S. Church, Church, Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland, Switzerland, Oct. Oct. 30, 30, 1961. 1961. Taken from Church Historian's Office in Salt Lake utah. Lake City, City, Utah. f,lcKay, McKay, David O. 0. Letter to to BYU Student, Student, Nov. Nov. 8, 8, 1947. 1947. On file file in Church Historian r s Office in Salt Lake City, Historian's City, Utah Nuttal, Nuttal, L. L. John. John. Diary on file file in Church Historian's Office in Salt Lake City, utah. City, Utah. Petersen, Mark E. E. Address Address "Race Problems--As Problems-—As They Affect The Petersen, Church," Church," delivered at at Convention of Teachers of Religion Level at at Brigham Young University in on the College Level Provo, Utah, Utah, August 27, 27, 1957. 1957. On file file in Church Provo, Office in Salt Lake City, City, Utah. Historian's Office utah. Wallace, Nola. to William E. E. Berrett, Berrett, Administrator Wallace, Nola. Letter to of Church school a school system, system, June June 24, 24, 1962. 1962. Taken from a copy sent California. sent to to George George T. T. Boyd of Los Los Angeles, Angeles, California. Young, Young, Brigham. Brigham. Speech in Joint Session of Legislature on Feb. M.S. in Feb. 5, 5, 1852, 1852, giving his his views views on slavery. slavery. M.S. City, Utah. Church Historian's Office in Salt Lake City, utah. Interview Personal Interview with Lucille Perkins Perkins Bankhead, Bankhead, Great Granddaughter of G.t;'een utah, Green Flake, Flake, Salt Lake Lake City, City, Utah, Feb. 1966. Feb. 25, 25, 1966.