Westward via Nicaragua: the United States and the Nicaragua route 1826-1869

The great exodus to the west following the discovery of gold in 1848 has attracted the attention of numerous western historians. Much has been written about the overland journey, the voyage around Cape Horn, and travel by the Isthmus of Panama. Considerable attention has also been paid to the dispute with Great Britain over her position in Central America and to the activities of the filibuster William Walker. In all of this literature, notwithstanding the many references to the subject, the full story of the Nicaragua route has never been told. The purpose of this work is to attempt to show the part that the transit played in the westward movement of the United States. In doing this, attention will be focused on the growth of an isthmian policy and the capitalistic struggle for control of the route.

WESTWARD WESTWARD VIA NICARAGUA: NICARAGUA: THE AND THE THE UNITED UNITED STATES STATES AND THE NICARAGUA NICARAGUA ROUTE ROUTE 1826-1869 by David Izatt Folkman, Folkman, Jr. Jr. A A thesis submitted submitted to the faculty of the University of Utah Utah in partial fulfilment of the requirements requirements for the the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History Department University University of Utah June 1966 This Thesis for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree by David Izatt Folkman, Jr. has been approved May 1966 isory Co . / tI !bfr/u� Reader, Supervisory Committee �sory Reader, Committee Head, Major Department , Tl III ,1'" .... ... "'" _" ..... J • I • ..... ... I ..... , ,.. to PREFACE The great exodus to the west following the disdis­ attracted the attention of covery of gold in 1848 has attracted numerous western historians. historians. Much has been written about overland journey, the voyage around Cape Horn, Horn, and the overland Panama. travel by the Isthmus of Panama. Considerable attention has also been paid to the dispute with Great Britain over her position position in Central America America and to the activities of the filibuster William William Walker. Walker. In all of this literature, literature, notwithstanding the notwithstanding the many many references to to the the subject, the told. full story of the Nicaragua Nicaragua route route has never never been been told. The purpose purpose of of this this work is to to attempt attempt to show the part The work is to show the part that the the transit transit played in the the westward westward movement movement of of the the that played in United States. States. United In doing doing this, this, attention attention will focused In will be be focused on the the growth growth of of an an isthmian isthmian policy and the capitalistic on policy and the capitalistic struggle for for control control of of the the route. route. struggle The majority majority of the literature for this study was Cali­ found in the Bancroft Bancroft Library and the University University of Cali- fornia Library at Berkeley. The following institutions institutions particularly useful: useful: were also visited visited and were found particularly Henry E. E. Huntington Huntington Library Library at San Marino, Marino, California; California; iii Library of Congress and Hispanic Foundation, Washington, D.C.; D.C California State Library at Sacramento; Hopkins TransportaTransporta­ tion Collection in the the Stanford University Library, Palo Stanford University Alto, California; Sutro Library at San Francisco, Francisco, California; California Middle University, New Middle American American Research Research Library Library at at Tulane Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana; Brigham Young University University Library, Provo, Brigham Young Provo, Utah; Documents Department Utah; Law Library and the Government Documents Department of the main library at the University University of Utah. Utah. Appreciation Appreciation is extended to these institutions and their personnel for rendered the use of their facilities and the kind assistance rendered. II would also like to express my gratitude for the the materials and information supplied supplied by the following instiinsti­ tutions: tutions: Public Record Office, Public Office, London, England; National Archives and Record Record Service, Washington, D.C.; D . C ; State of New York Court of Appeals Appeals Library New York York State Library and New Library Albany; New New York York Public Library at at Albany; Public Library Library and and New New York York Historical New York Historical Society Society in in New York City. City. During years of research, many During the the years of doing doing research, many people people have have offered offered helpful helpful suggestions suggestions and and assistance. assistance. For For these to extend these services services II am am grateful grateful and and would would like like to extend recognition to: to: Robert H. H. Becker, Dr. Dr. John B. B. Tompkins Tompkins and the the staff of the Bancroft Library; Professor Professor John H. H. Heyl; Professor Frederick Frederick Merk; Professor Kemble; Erik Heyl; iv Wheaton J. J. Lane; Professor Ralph W. Hidy; Professor William Griffith; Professor Mario Rodr{guez; Professor Carlos Melendez of the University of Costa Rica; Professor Roger M. Haigh; Timothy A. Brown, Arthur M. Richardson and the staff of the Government Documents Department of the University of Utah Library. I would also like to express my thanks and appreci­ ation to my supervisory committee at the University of Utah: to Professor C. Gregory Crampton for his guidance as chai rma n of the committee, to Professor A. Mortensen and Professor Alfred A. manuscript, ,Philip C. Cave who also read the and to Professor David E. Sturges. Russell Miller and Professor Approval of the manuscrip t merely notes the beginning of the end. For their aid I sincerely express my gratitude to Marilyn M. Smolka for editing and to Mary Lynne Sargent for typing the final copy. Last and with humble gratefulness for her untiring support, taking complete care of our five children, the many drafts, and for reading I express my love for my wife, Folkman. v for Donna R. '$ I 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ... iii iii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS viii viii PREFACE . .. . Chapter I. I. ISTHMIAN POLICY, 1826GROWTH OF AN AMERICAN AMERICAN ISTHMIAN 1850 The Spanish and an Isthmian Passage to to India ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monroe Doctrine and Central America .. . . The .Monroe A Policy Policy for Isthmian Isthmian Communication Communication .. .. .. . . A Communica­ Increased Interest in Isthmian Communication t ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Treaty with with New New Granada Granada . . • . . . A Treaty British Encroachments and the Clay tonClaytonBu1wer . . . . . . . . . . . Bulwer Treaty II. II. 32 53 56 67 78 BIRTH OF THE NICARAGUA NICARAGUA ROUTE WESTWARD, 1851BIRTH 1852 The Nicaragua Nicaragua Contract . . . . . . . . . •• Opening the Route Route and Surveying Surveying for a Canal London .. .... Hopes for a Canal Abandoned Abandoned in London IV. IV. 18 27 EARLY TRAVEL ACROSS THE ISTHMUS, TRAVEL ACROSS ISTHMUS, 1848-1850 1848-1850 The Discovery Discovery of Gold . . . . Travel by by the Isthmus of Panama Panama . . . . . . Crossing the Isthmus at Nicaragua . . . . • The Isthmus of Tehuantepec . . . . . . . III. III. 1 9 13 83 91 113 THE NICARAGUA NICARAGUA ROUTE CHANGES HANDS, 1853-1855 1853-1855 Vanderbilt Sells Out . . . . . . . . . . Morgan and Garrison Gain Control of the Company Company . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . vi 119 123 ....-. Vanderbilt s "Independent "Independent Opposition Line" Vanderbilt's A Taste of Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 1 V. V. INTERPRETING THE CLAYTON-BULWER CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY, 1850INTERPRETING 1854 The Prometheus Affair . . • . . . • . . . . The Bay Bay Islands Colony . . . . . . . . . . • Bombardment of Grey Greytown The Bombardment town . . . . . . . . VI. VI. ........ CONCLUSION CONCLUSION . APPENDIXES APPENDIXES BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY 293 299 310 323 328 341 367 394 ................. .............. vii ~ 264 264 STRUGGLING STRUGGLING FOR SURVIVAL, 1857-1869 1857-1869 Preparations for War . . . . .... The Finale of Filibustering . . . . Filibustering The Cass-Irisarri Treaty and the Belly Fiasco . . . . . • The Central American American Transit Company Company .. . . . IV. IV. 200 212 233 238 242 254 UPHOLDING THE MONROE DOCTRINE, 1855-1860 1855-1860 The Monroe Doctrine Recalled Recalled . . . . Walker as a Diplomatic Diplomatic Pawn War Clouds Pass Pass . . . • • . . . . . VIII. VIII. 150 165 179 FILIBUSTER COMPLICATIONS, 1855-1857 FILIBUSTER 1855-1857 Walker Enters the Scene . . . . . • . . . . Annulment of the Transit Company's Charter. Charter . War with Costa Rica . . . . . . . Final Arrangements for the Route . . . . Recruiting and the the Neutrality Neutrality Laws Laws . . . . . Walker Becomes Becomes President •.• ... Vanderbilt's Revenge and the Closing of the Route Route VII. VII. 134 142 415 415 433 433 .... ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Page Figure ... ix ix 1. 1. Map of Nicaragua . . 2. 2. Cornelius Vanderbilt . 3. 3. San Juan del Norte . . 101 4. 4. Steamer Independence .. . 125 5. 5. William William Walker . . • . 205 205 6. 6. Castillo Viejo and San Carlos 282 viii Vlll .... 82 t-·. .·. .--- • o • ~ T 0 A /. C A ~ I 0 N Oil I A T N 0 W K A 5 • \ • -'. S -'. -;. ". -- .. II-N. - ....- ----: INDIANS. ... ~ "'t' ~ ~ ~ ., "": ~ -. :..: ~ ~.J L ~ ... :::: , . ;,. - ,... ,I ,... 'I J I ./ L Hh"""in~ il .. OEI·.\nT~tEXT'\J. I J)I\'ISJ()."S IIIltl prnJ)US(·t.I HUll I,'" til" INTJ<'.UO('IL\Xl(' ('()~WXI('A'rIOX U,Y P. . G . S'J"iM' . , , 1810. - ., Fig. l.--Map l.--Map of of Nicaragua Nicaragua Fig. ~ - CHAPTER I CHAPTER I THE GROWTH OF AN AMERICAN AMERICAN ISTHMIAN ISTHMIAN POLICY, POLICY, 1826-1850 The Spanish and an Isthmian Passage to India India! Passage to India! Struggles of many a captain, tales of many many a sailor dead, Over my my mood stealing and spreading they come, come, Like clouds and cloudlets in the the unreach'd unreach'd sky. sky. .~ Along all history, down the slopes, slopes, As a rivulet running, sinking now, and now again to As the surface rising, rising, A ceaseless thought, thought, aa varied varied train train -- 10, soul, to to A ceaseless lo, soul, thee, thy sight, they rise thee, thy The plans, the voyages voyages again, the the expeditions; . plans, the .. . .1 r;:' . For long generations before before Columbus, the great wealth of the the Asiatic Asiatic trade flowed over the Eastern land routes to the the Mediterranean Mediterranean ports of Constantinople, Genoa and Venice. Venice. As each succeeding As succeeding generation saw the growth of wealth wealth and influence of these small cities and the growing ~. . lWalt Walt Whitman, Whitman, "Passage "Passage to to India," India," The The Complete. Complete. Poetry: and: and. Prose' Prose of WaTt Walt Whitman (New York: York: Pellegrini and Poetry: Wl,)itman (New Cudahy, 1948), I, 364. I, 364. 2 demand for Asiatic products increased increased the drain on precious commanding an all~water all-*water metals from the West, the dream of commanding monarchs. "passage to India" grew in the minds of the Western monarchs. By the fifteenth century the marvelous accounts given by travelers and missionaries on their return from the lands induce­ of the Grand Khan added to this interest, and great induce- ments were held out by powerful reigning families to ex-! ex·... : plorers and adventurers who would would brave the dangers of the unknown seas to discover a water "passage to India." For a long time after Columbus sailed in search of passage, the land of the Golden Chersonesus Chersonesus a Westward passage, cher­ proved to be a formidable obstacle lying across the cherroute. ished route. While countless explorers sailed to the south and north in search of a secret strait, these endeavors endeavors slowly gave gave way way to to a a dream dream of of establishing establishing navigable com­ slowly navigable communication across the narrow munication narrow isthmus dividing the the Atlantic oceans-^a dream that was given birth and Pacific oceans-~a birth in 1513 on the day Balboa Balboa first first looked looked out out upon the waters waters of of the the the day upon the Pacific Ocean. Ocean. tij. '." practicable expression by This dream was first given practicable Spanish engineers who, by the obstacles of trans­ transwho, prompted prompted by shipping the the new-found new-found riches across the isthmus at Panama, Panama, Nicaragua, and Nicaragua, and Tehuantepec, Tehuantepec, pointed pointed out out to to their their sovereigns sovereigns .... 3 that by cutting a waterway waterway through the isthmus they could not only obtain the treasures of Peru more easily, but they would be able to to open up up a water passage to to India. wou^d also be India. Actual exploration the Chagres River exploration was made along the Charles, and Philip II directed Batista during the reign of Charles, Antonelli to conduct a survey along the narrow strip of Pacific. land that cuts Lake Nicaragua off from the Pacific. These practical attempts were accompanied accompanied by theoretical discusdiscus­ sions, such as the monograph published published by sions, by the Portuguese sea captain captain and and navigator Antonio Galveo Galveo in in 1550 1550 which which sea navigator Antonio maintained that was the the most most favorable favorable of of the the maintained that Nicaragua Nicaragua was four routes possible. possible. historian The following year year Spanish historian / / Lopez de de Gomara Gomara declared declared the feasibility of of three three routes-routes-Lopez the feasibility Tehuantepec, Nicaragua and Panama--and to Tehuantepec, Nicaragua and Panama--and urged urged his his master master to undertake the work for for the the future future glory glory of of Spain. Spain. undertake the work "It is is "It true," he he wrote, "that mountains mountains bar if true," wrote, "that bar the the passes,--but passes,--but if there are mountains, mountains, there are also arms,--take but the resolve, and and the to do do it it will will not be lacking; lacking; the the resolve, the means means to not be " Indies toward which the the passage passage will be be opened will furnish 2 them. ,,2 them." " . But notwithstanding notwithstanding such But such entreaties, entreaties, and and although although o ' r ~Lo'pez d.e~atma:p~, the,~Ind.i<esL Lopez de Gomara•~.dU:st:or--¥ dtiistory of of the -Indies, Part Part JI, II, Mex~co, quoced in Lindley M. Keasbey, The Nicaragua Canal Mexico," quoted in Lindley M. Keasbey, The Nicaragua Canal and the Monroe Doctrine (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, and the Monroe Doctrine (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1896), 69, cited hereafter as Keasbey, The Nicaragua Canal . 1896), 69, cited hereafter as Keasbey, The Nicaragua Canal. M 4 the idea of joining continued to be a favorite joining the two oceans continued subject in the inns of Spain, the early interest of the sovereigns soon turned into the jealous policy instituted during the latter part of the reign of Philip II. II. As the acquired kingdoms mounted, he feared wealth of the newly acquired he f~ared that more accessible accessible route would enable enable other other that aa more route to to them them would nations dispute with with Spain Spain for for their their possession; thus nations to to dispute possession; he he thus prohibited, prohibited, under under the the pain pain of death, anyone to to seek or make known traffic. better route for the the existing traffic. known any better This exclusive policy policy largely governed governed affairs until N~_ colCharles III inaugurated inaugurated the "era of reform" in Spanish col­ onial policy. Under his direction Spanish engineers made however, surveys of the Tehuantepec and Nicaragua routes; routes; however, ominous rumblings of the Napoleonic Napoleonic Wars had already begun and in the confusion which followed, a canal project was forgotten 3 soon forgotten. 3There T h e r e are many accounts of this early history, see Hubert Howe Howe Bancroft, Bancroft, The Works of Hubert Hubert Howe Bancroft Hubert Co., 1883-1888), VI: V I : History of (San Francisco: History Co., Central America, l50m-18l0, 1501-1630, I, I, passim, and VII: VII: History History of Central America. America, 1530-1800, 1530-1800, II, II, passim, C:ntral passim, the works of Bancroft will be cited hereafter by referring to the appropriate appropriate w~ll volume; T. Sullivan, Report of Historical Technical volume; John T. Historieal and Technical Information Relating to the Problem Problem of Interoceanic CommuniCommuni­ Information cation by Way of the American Isthmus (Washington: Govern­ cation by Way of the American Isthmus (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1883), 1-17, cited hereafter as Tu^^ ' Report R P° Sullivan, on Interoceanic Interoceanic Communication; Communication; Keasbey, Keasbey, The Nicaragua Canal. Chap. 1-3; Mr. Wheaton to Mr. Buchanan, The Nicaragua Canal, Chap. 1-3; Mr. Wheaton to Mr. Buchanan, J V a n e r t : o n 5 :l It was was during these very years, while all Europe was years, while convulsed in struggle, struggle, that Alexander Von Humboldt, the convulsed celebrated celebrated German scientist, laid the real foundation of our knowledge of the topography of the isthmus. isthmus. Between traveled extensively 1799 and 1804 he traveled extensively through Spanish America America collecting collecting scientific scientific data data for for future future publication. publication. As his studies he concluded As a a result result of of his studies on on the the isthmus, isthmus, he concluded that a canal to to connect the two oceans was practicable at that one of five points. points. Of these these he wrote wrote that the the "isthmus of Nicaragua and that that of Cupica have always appeared to me me the Nicaragua most favorable for the formation of canals of large dimenmost n4 sions.,,4 sions." 'w.. The observations of Humboldt Humboldt were well well known known in campaign ended in 1813. 1813. Spain by the time the Peninsula campaign Inspired by by Humboldt's assertions and imbued imbued with liberal Berlin, December in U.S., U.S., Congress, December 17, 17, 1845, 1845, in Congress, Senate, 29th Sess., 1845-1846, S. S. Report 339, 339, Sere Ser. rio. ho. 476, Cong., 1st Sess., 476, U.S. Docs., Docs., S. S. Report 339, 339, Sere Ser. 6-35, cited hereafter as U.S. no. 476; J. J, H. Communi­ no. 476; H. Alexander, "Memoir on the Routes of Communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans," in U.S., U.S., Congress, House, House, John A. Rail­ Congress, A. Rockwell, Rockwell, Report on Canal or Railroad Oceans, 30th Cong., Cong., road between between the Atlantic Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, 2nd Sess., Sess., 1848-1849, 1848-1849, H. H. Report Report 145, 145, Sere Ser. no. no. 546, 546, 34-61, 2~d 34-61, cited hereafter hereafter as as Rockwell, Rockwell, Report Report on on Canal, Canal, H. Report c~ted H. Report Ser. no. 546. 145, Sere no. 546. 4"Extract Humboldt~~s Personal Narrata\re ^""Extract from HumboldtAs Narrative of Travels, V~_6~~.parts v.^6; - parts li.iana,2:,.:page;~239 li.and.2 :page^239 to to 300," 300," in in Rockwell, Rockwell, iravels, 185-203. Reportnn Canal. n ~port on H. Report 145, Sere no. 546, 185-203. r n r n 1 R > R e p o r t 1 4 5 j S e r # n o < 5 4 6 ) 6 ideas of making the rejuvenated rejuvenated Spain outshine even the ancient monarchy, one of the first legislative acts of the young Cortes was to pass a formal decree providing providing for the construction of a canal for the largest vessels through construction Central America. enthusiasm However, this brief burst of enthusiasm Ferdinand VII arrested the liberal was soon ended when Ferdinand 1814. leaders of the Cortes in early 1814. As the monarchy engulfed in the Latin American inde­ became engulfed American struggles for independence, the project of interoceanic interoceanic communication communication passed pendence, enter­ out of Spanish hands into the era of capitalistic enterprise which was then being ushered in. ushered in. rei Among other Europeans inspired inspired by Humboldt's dream Among was the aged Goethe. Goethe. Living in peaceful retirement at Humboldt's Weimar, he had taken a particular particular interest in Humboldt's isthmus. views on making a passage through the isthmus. Eckermann, Eckermanq obser­ dined with Goethe and recorded the poet's prophetic obser1827: vations spoken on February 21, 21, 1827: So much, however, is certain, that, that, if they succeed in c.utting such a canal that ships of any burden and cutting navigated through it from the Mexican Mexican Gulf size can be navigated to the Pacific Ocean, innumerable benefits would result civilized and uncivilized. uncivilized. to the whole human race, race, civilized But II should wonder if the United States were to let an opportunity opportunity escape of getting getting such work into their hands. It may be foreseen that this young state, state, own hands. will, in with its decided predilection predilection to to the West, West, will, years, have occupied occupied and peopled thirty or forty years, peopled the beyond the large tract tract of land beyond the Rocky Rocky Mountains. Mountains. It may, furthermore, furthermore, be be foreseen foreseen that along the the whole whole may, that along tgw.", 7 coast of the Pacific Ocean, where where nature has has already formed the most most capacious and secure harbors, harbors, important important further­ commercial towns will gradually gradually arise, arise, for the furthercommercial ance of a great intercourse between between China and the East S t a t e s .. . .. .. I Indies and the United United States. I therefore re­ reis absolutely absolutely indispensable for for the peat, that it is Mexican United States to effect a passage from the Mexican Oceans, and II am certain that they Gulf to the Pacific Oceans, i t .S will do it. 5 Thus in 1827 poet Goethe clearly foresaw the the 1827 the poet principle which, though as yet undefined undefined and scarcely voiced, was to become the guiding policy policy behind United isthmus. States relations regarding the isthmus. Although Thomas expressed interest interest in a a survey of a canal Jefferson had expressed diplomatic at the Isthmus of Panama and had written to the diplomatic representative of the United United States at Madrid Madrid in 1788 that is to me a vast desideratum, for for reasons "this report is interoceanic political and philosophical," the subject of interoceanic characterized by an attitude of defensive defensive communication was characterized communication inquiry rather than positive activity throughout the early nineteenth century.6 century.^ part of the ninet~enth During her her early years years the United States was too too engrossed with forming a new new government and fighting the the engrossed with '5'Johann -Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe, Goethe, Conversations with Eckermann ("Universal Classics Library," New New York: York: M. M. Eckermann Walter Dunne, Dunne, 1901), 179-80. 179-80. 6Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson Jefferson Thomas Jefferson, (Washington, D. D, ;C.: ;C : The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Assoc., Assoc., 1903), Library Edition, VII, VII, 27. 27. SiC 8 War of 1812 to become concerned concerned with such nonpressing India. affairs as a passage to India. The idea lay dormant American throughout policy discussions regarding the Latin American movements for independence and, although later to become inextricably woven into the application of the Monroe inextricably Doctrine to Central America, it was not one of the vital motivating factors behind evolvement of the principles motivating behind the evolvement that doctrine espoused. Not until the idea of a passage com­ to India became reinforced reinforced by the pressing pressing need for communication with munication with our newly acquired possessions on the Pacific coast did the United United States take any positive action in in this this direction. direction. action However, between between 1826 1826 and and 1850 1850 However, definite isthmian isthmian policy policy was was taking taking form. form. aa definite And although although And the principles principles behind the Monroe Monroe Doctrine Doctrine and and a a policy policy the behind the regarding isthmian isthmian communication communication were widely separated separated in regarding were widely in 1826, by 1850 they they had come much much closer closer together. together. 1826, by 1850 had come The next next The few pages will thus thus be be devoted devoted to to tracing tracing the the evolvement evolvement few pages will of an an official official policy the application application of of the the of policy regarding regarding the Monroe Doctrine to Central Central America and the the principles principles that that Monroe Doctrine to America and were to to govern govern negotiations negotiations on on isthmian isthmian communication communication as as were they grew grew out out of of the the discussions discussions on on the the Panama mission in in they Panama mission 1826. 1826. 9 America The Monroe Doctrine and Central America Notwithstanding Notwithstanding the enthusiastic editorials which 1823, the strong followed President Monroe's declaration of 1823, attempt of any measures it advocated, in relation to the attempt hemisphere, European power to colonize any part of this hemisphere, were soon watered watered down to meaningless terms by the actions Department of State. State. of Congress and the Department depart­ While the depart- alli­ ment turned a deaf ear to the calls for defensive a11i- ances from the the republics to the south, south, Congress not only refused to pass pass Henry Clay's resolution resolution endorsing the principles but but also proceeded proceeded to place place an isolationist isolationist interpretation interpretation on on the the declaration declaration during during the the debates debates on on the the 7 Panama Panama mission mission in in 1826. 1826.^ In 1826 the the United States was was formally invited by Colombia, Mexico, and Central America, evidently with the hope of securing a definite commitment commitment from the American American American Nations government, to attend the Congress of American Bolivar to deliberate matters of common concern. concern. called by Bo1{var Secretary Clay were in favor of President Adams and Secretary 7Dexter Monroe Doctrine ^Dexter Perkins, Perkins, A A History of the Monroe (Boston: Brown and Co., (Boston: Little, Little, Brown Co., 1955), 68-71, 68-71, cited herehere­ after as Perkins, Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine A History Doctrine.• •• 10 accepting the invitation; however, they labored under no accomplished at Panama. Panama. delusions as to what could be accomplished In announcing his nominations, PresiPresi­ the letter to the Senate announcing dent Adams carefully explained explained that there was no intention to form alliances or to engage in any project project of hostility estab­ to any nation, but that the intention was rather to estab- lish liberal principles of commercial intercourse and maritime neutrality. connec­ The most that he proposed proposed (in connec- tion with the principle of noncolonization) was "an agreeagree­ ment between all the parties represented represented at the meeting estab­ that each will guard by its own means against the estabborders." lishment of any future European colony within its borders.,,8 Yet even even this this modest language was was met by a a vigorous vigorous attack attack Yet modest language met by by Jackson's Jackson's supporters supporters on on the the mission itself. by mission itself. As con­ As aa con- sequence the the House appended an an amendment amendment to to the the report report of of sequence House appended the Committee Committee on on Foreign Foreign Relations Relations which which endorsed endorsed the the the mission, expressing expressing the the opinion opinion that that there there should should be be no no mission, "departure from from the the settled settled policy of this this Government, Government, "departure policy of that, in in extending extending our our commercial commercial relations with foreign foreign that, relations with nations, we should have have with with them them as as little little political political nations, we should o 8James A Compilation the Messages James D. D. Richardson, Richardson, A Compilation of of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents (New York: Bureau of National and Papers of the Presidents (New York: Bureau of National Literature, hereafter as 1897), 884-85, 884-85, cited cited hereafter as Richardson, Richardson, Literature, 1897), Messages and Papers of the Presidents . Messages and Papers of the Presidents. ., 11 connexion as possible," that the United States should not "form "form any alliance, offensive or defensive, or negotiate respecting such an alliance, alliance, with all or any of the Spanish Spanish respecting American Republics; Republics; nor ought they to become parties with American them, or either of them, to any joint joint declaration for the purpose of preventing preventing the interference of any of the Govern­ European Powers with their independence or form of Governcompact for the purpose of preventing coloni­ ment, or to any compact preventing colonization upon the continent continent of America.,,9 America."^ Thus by by 1826 the policy was firmly established established that Monroe's declaration implied no entangling implied no entangling alliance or inin­ timate political connection the South American connection with any of the American republics, not even republics, not even for for the the purpose purpose of of preventing preventing colonicoloni­ zation this hemisphere hemisphere by zation in in this by the the European European powers. powers. The The figures of Washington and Jefferson completely completely overshadowed overshadowed Monroe in the the bright light of cold reality. reality. As the threatAs threat­ ening designs of the the Holy Alliance proved to be nothing but proved to show, the young young republic republic quickly withdrew withdrew into its isolaisola­ shell. tionist shell. Particularly was this true in relation to Particularly America. British activities in Central America. Between 1830 and 1848 the the British could have have been accused of violating Adam's noncolonization noncolonization principle principle in violating Adam's 9U. S ., Register Register of Debates Debates in Congress, ^U.S., Congress, 19th Cong., Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1826, 1826, II, II, Part 2, 2, 2369. 2369. 12 three different parts of Central America. During During this time the colony of British Honduras extended its boundaries into territory claimed by the Republic of Central America. America. In 1838 the superintendent superintendent of Belize seized the island of Ruatan against the claims of Honduras. Honduras. And in in 1848, 1848, just six under the six days days after after the the Treaty Treaty of of Guadalupe Guadalupe Hidalgo, Hidalgo, under the guise the Britguise of of a a protectorate protectorate over over the the Mosquito Mosquito Indians, Indians, the Brit ish seized the port of San Juan--Atlantic outlet for the proposed proposed canal across the Isthmus of Nicaragua. SurprisSurpris­ encroachments ingly enough, not one of these clearly overt encroachments administration in Washington. Washington. provoked a protest from the administration The appeal of the Central American American government government to the United States in regard to the extension of the southern frontier of British Honduras received the chilling answer that it was not deemed expedient to interfere in the matter. matter. The case of Ruatan passed completely unnoticed as completely unnoticed did the occupation of San Juan despite repeated and impasimpas­ sioned calls for the enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine. Doctrine. And even though President Polk was aroused from from his his slumber slumber long enough by the simultaneous proffer of "dominion and ~ sovereignty" to the the United sovereignty" by by the the authorities authorities of of Yucatan Yucatan to United States, Great Britain, and Spain to ate cite with fixed purpose recommending to Congress that the message of Monroe in recommending - C&? \ \ 13 I I Yucatan would of. a Yucattn would endanger our security in the hands of\ \ European power, the bill for temporary occupation of ~he European power, the bill for temporary occupation of the province met such a powerful assault under the able direcprovince met such a powerful assault under the able direc­ tion of John C. Calhoun that there was still little indication of John C. Calhoun that there was still little indica­ tion that the United States was ready to abandon the tion that the United States was ready to abandon the indifferent attitude thus far evinced. lO indifferent attitude thus far evinced.10 A Policy for for Isthmian Isthmian Communication A Policy Communication interpretation of Monroe's While an isolationist interpretation declaration had thus firmly emerged from the discussions on the Panama mission, these same events saw the the formation of the general principles which were to govern all negonego­ American governm~nt government on the subject of interinter tiations of the American communication and which later served as the basis oceanic communication Clayton-Bulwer Treaty for the negotiation of the now famous Clayton-Bulwer 1850. of 1850. In February 1825 the minister of the newly newly formed Federal Republic of the United Provinces of Central America America 10U.S., 2nd Sess., U . S . , Congressional Globe, Globe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., 2, Appendix, 254; 254; Perkins, Perkins, The Monroe Doctrine, 74, Part 2, 74, Canal, 180-83. 180-83. 89-92; Keasbey, The Nicaragua Canal, 1 U 14 arrived in Washington Washington and at once addressed addressed a note to the arrived Department of State calling its attention to the importance importance of promoting Isthmus of promoting the opening of a canal across the Isthmus Nicaragua. Nicaragua. After amplifying amplifying upon the great advantages advantages such a canal would produce, United States produce, he invited the United to may perpetuto participate participate "by "by means means of of a a treaty, treaty, which which may perpetu­ ally nations."ll ally secure secure the the possession possession of of it it to to the the two two nations. "H As the note arrived during the change of adminisadminis­ trations, not answered until Henry Clay, recently trations, it was not appointed Secretary of State by President Adams, Adams, had had office. time to settle the affairs of his new office. However, However, dis­ within two months the new secretary had found time to dis- cuss the subject with the President and pen reply to the proposal. proposal. an official He informed informed the Central American American minister of the deep interest of the United States in the undertaking "so highly calculated calculated to diffuse execution of an undertaking an extensive influence on the affairs of mankind." He acknowledged that the evidence tended to show the superisuperi­ acknowledged route; however, he carefully carefully pointed ority of the Nicaragua route; out that a "project of such vast magnitude" must proceed with caution and then assured the minister that the recently llRockwell, ckwell, Report on Canal, Canal, H. H. Report 145, 145, Ser. Ser. no. no. 546, 546, 245. 245. ...- 15 appointed charge d'affaires to the Republic of the Centre instructed "to investigate, with the greatest care, care, would be instructed the facilities which the route through the province province of offers."-^ Nicaragua offers.,,12 With these cautious words the American American government officially took notice of the agethus for the first time officially old quest for a passage to India. India. The following December December communication appeared appeared for the the subject of interoceanic communication December 19, 19, 1925, 1925, on the floor of Congress first time, time, on December Committee on in the form of a resolution calling for the Committee instructed to inquire into the expediexpedi­ Naval Affairs to be instructed establishing a line of communication communication through the ency of establishing Isthmus of Panama. Panama. Although the initiator had had something less than than a canal in mind, he pointed the need need for pointed out the obtaining the in­ inobtaining information from those distant seas, seas, the creasing commerce with the newly freed nations on on the Southern Continent, and, "most important," the necessity "promptly conveying orders and of providing providing a means of more "promptly intelligence between the Executive and that part of our Nation which was stationed stationed in the Pacific.,,13 Pacific."^ :12 Ro"ckwe 1 1 , Report on Canal, -•^Rockwell, Canal, H. H. Report 145, 145, Ser. Ser. no. no. 546, 246-47. 546, 246-47. 11 l3U.S., Register of Debates in Congress, 19th Cong., U.S., Register of Debates in Congress, 19th Cong., 1st Sess., II, Part 1, 822-23. 1st Sess., II, Part 1, 822-23. 16 Meanwhile, information had reached the the Department Department of State that an American in Nicaragua American party was already in making surveys and arranging for proper concessions. concessions. In February 1826, 1826, Secretary Clay gave detailed instructions instructions to to our our charge charge d'affaires, d'affaires, who who was was about about to to depart depart for for CenCen­ tral as to tral America, America, to to collect collect all all of of the the data data possible possible as to the the feasibility feasibility of of the the proposed proposed canal canal through through Nicaragua. Nicaragua. 14 Although Although the the subject subject had had not not been been taken taken up up in in the the debates debates on on the the Panama Panama mission, mission, Secretary Secretary Clay Clay clearly clearly foresaw foresaw that that it it would would form form a a proper proper subject subject for for consideration consideration at at the the Panama Congress. Congress. He accordingly issu~d issued a letter of instrucinstruc­ tions, to the tions, under the direction of President Adams, Adams, to Panama envoys who were now waiting on the action of of the Senate before departing. He informed them that the subject of a canal was of interest to all parts of the world, but "to this continent will probably accrue the greatest amount / of benefit from its execution; and to Colombia, Mexico, the Peru, and the United States, States, more than to Central Republic, Per~;: American nations. nations. any other of the American What is to redound redound to the advantage of all America, should be effected by common effected by common exertions, and should not be left to the means and united exertions, l4Rockwell, 1^Rockwell, Report on Canal, Canal, H. H. Report 145, 145, Sere Ser. no. 244. no. 546, 546, 244. 17 any one power. . .. .. separate and unassisted efforts of anyone power . . If the work work should ever be executed so as to to admit of the passage of sea-vessels from ocean to ocean, the benefits exclusively appropriated appropriated to any one of it ought not to be exclusively anyone globe, nation, but should be extended to all parts of the globe, compensation or reasonable upon the payment of a just compensation tolls." notwithstanding the He then advised them that notwithstanding importance of such an endeavor, due to the present limited do more than state of information, it would "not be wise to do. preliminary arrangements." make some preliminary In this regard they were to assure the other American American powers that the United States "takes a lively interest in the execution execution of this information on what had work," and proceed to obtain all information suggested for its joint execu­ been done or that "may be suggested joint execu- tion."lS tion. 5 n l Thus just just as we may date Balboa's discovery of the establishing Pacific Ocean as the birthday of the idea of establishing interoceanic communication communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, we may date the instructions of Secretary Secretary Clay to oceans, the Panama envoys on the eighth of May 1826 as the birthday communication. of United States interest in isthmian communication. 15Rockwe11, Rockwell, Report on Canal, Canal, H. H. Report 145, 145, Ser. Ser. no. no. 546, 546, 330-31; 330-31; U.S., U.S., Register of Debates in Congress, Congress, 20th Cong., 2nd Sess., 47. Sess., 1828-1829, Appendix, 47. 18 Notwithstanding Notwithstanding the spirit of isolation which had hovered interpretation of Monroe's declaration declaration during the over the interpretation advocated by Clay debates on the Panama mission, the policy advocated envisioned the completion completion of the great project clearly envisioned project of an interoceanic canal through the united exertions of all American nations. nations. of the American advocated that the It further advocated extended to all other benefits of the undertaking should be extended globe. nations on the globe. This basic principle, although later Secretary Clayton, Clayton, enlarged upon through the efforts of Secretary was to to remain remain the the guideline guideline of of official official policy the was policy until until the century. last quarter of the nineteenth century. Increased Interest in Isthmian Communication Communication Secretary reSecretary Clay had accurately anticipated anticipated that re­ important newed interest would make a canal project an important subject for the Panama Congress. Congress. This interest interest had been heightened by the prospect of international rivalry heightened rivalry as American and British capitalists vied for exclusive control American route. of the Nicaragua route. As early as 1823 the London firm Messrs. Barclay & & Co. Co. had sent an engineer with a of Messrs. reconnoitering party to Central America America to make surveys and reconnoitering -,.. 19 arrange for a proper concession. News of this expedition prompted American American capitalists to form a company company in New York, York, prompted secure, which in turn sent an agent to make surveys and to secure, possible, a concession in advance of the British. British. if possible, The immediate result of this activity was to to in~ activity was ine American Republic that still confidence in the Central American prompt action would secure to itself the vast benefits of endeavor. this endeavor. Mr, Canaz, Consequently, they sent Mr. Canaz, in early treaty. 1825, to the United States with his proposal for a treaty. noncommittal reply to this Because of the cautious and noncommittal proposal, during the summer the republic proceeded proceeded to pass proposal, an act formally providing providing for the construction construction of a canal through the territory of Nicaragua, and granting very liberal concessions to any parties who would undertake the would undertake work. w o r k .16 1 6 Several proposals, of the the American proposals, including those of American and British companies, were received in response to to this act and after due consideration consideration on June 14, 14, 1826, 1826, the repre­ federal Congress awarded a contract to the American American repreH. Palmer and Associates to construct construct a sentative of Aaron H. l6"Extract in Rockwell, "Extract from Thompson's Guatemala," in Rockwell, Canal, H. H. Report 145, 145, Ser. Ser. no. no. 546, 546, 391-93; 391-93; Report on Canal, Sullivan, Report on Interoceanic Communication, 18-19. 18-19. ifc> 20 canal for vessels of the largest burden possible. possible. Palmer then proceeded proceeded to form a canal company company called called The Central American American and United States Atlantic and Pacific Canal Company; however, following fruitless exertions to raise the necessary capital in both the United States and England, England, the project was given up.l^ up.17 Meanwhile, Meanwhile, all all of of this this activity activity concerning concerning the the Nicaragua route awakened a resolve in the other states of the isthmus not not to be outdone by the Republic of Central America:., established Mexican confederation confederation America:. , The recently established accordingly route while accordingly ordered a survey of the Tehuantepec route ,• General Bolivar arranged for a British engineer to survey General Bolivar arranged for a British engineer to survey the isthmus at Panama. The results of these endeavors, the isthmus at Panama. The results of these endeavors, however, like those in Nicaragua, proved to be as abortive however, like those in Nicaragua, proved to be as abortive as the Panama Congress which had largely inspired them. 18 as the Panama Congress which had largely inspired them. 18 While the broader purposes of the Panama Congress While the broader purposes of the Panama Congress utterly failed to materialize, the interest it had renewed utterly failed to materialize, the interest it had renewed in interoceanic communication continued to grow in almost in interoceanic communication continued to grow in almost direct proportion to the expansion of the United States direct proportion to the expansion of the United States l7Rockwell, "^Rockwell, Report on Canal, Canal, H. H. Report 145, 145, Ser. Ser. no. no. 546, 546, 360-74; 360-74; Keasbey, The Nicaragua Canal, Canal, 143-45. 143-45. l8S ullivan, Report on Interoceanic Communication, l^Sullivan, Communication, Rockwell, Report on Canal, Canal, H. H. Report 145, 145, Ser. Ser. no. no. 19-20; Rockwell, 546, 455-505. 455-505. ... 21 westward. States became increasingly increasingly interinter­ As the United State$ establishing communication communication with the Pacific coast, coast, ested in establishing it turned with increasing interest to activities on the isthmus. isthmus. The receipt of news in 1830 that a Dutch Dutch company, company, backed by the king of the Netherlands, Netherlands, was negotiating negotiating for constructing a ship canal across the the privilege of constructing Isthmus of Nicaragua aroused the attention of the State merchants. Department and the New England merchants. The United United States charge d'affaires in Central America America was immediately immediately geo­ informed of the importance of that country due to its geo- graphical position which may, "at no distant day, make it commerce, the channel or the entrepot of a most extensive commerce, to be carried on between China, the Philippines, the Northwest coast of America, the Pacific coasts of the New States of North and South America, and the islands of the South Sea, Sea, with the rest of the World." The need of propro­ tecting the commercial interests of our merchants was pointed out. out. ascertain With this in mind, he was instructed to ascertain accomplished and to obtain for the United what had been accomplished advantages, and for its citizens, citizens, or for the States the same advantages, government itself, itself, the the right right of of subscribing subscribing to stock government to the the stock 22 of the Dutch company.19 company. * While the threat of the Dutch company was soon company was swallowed up up in the confusion of the Belgian revolution, revolution, the New New England merchants continued pressure for continued to bring pressure Congressional action in behalf of their interests. interests. Their chief spokesman, Senator John M. Delaware, had M. Clayton of Delaware, long long cherished cherished the the object object of of procuring procuring "some "some communication communication across across the the isthmus isthmus which which would would bring bring this this country country nearer nearer to the treasures to the the territories territories on on the the Pacific, Pacific, and and draw draw the treasures of that mighty fertile and of that mighty ocean, ocean, with with its its ten ten thousand thousand fertile and productive islands, islands, into the ports of the United United States." Largely through through his and John Forsyth's efforts, the Senate efforts, the unanimously unanimously adopted, on March 3, 3, 1835, 1835, the"fo11owing the following resolution; resolution: Resolved, that the President of the United United States be respectfully requested to consider the expediency of opening negotiations with the Governments of other nations, and particularly particularly with the Governments of CenCen­ nations, tral America and New Granada, for the purpose of effectually protecting, by suitable treaty stipulations effectually under­ with them, such individuals or companies as may undercommunication between the Atlantic take to open a communication Atlantic and oceans, by the construction of a ship canal Pacific oceans, 19Wi11iam lliam R. R. Manning, Diplomatic Correspondence of the United United States: III: States: Inter-American Inter-American Affairs, Affairs, 1831-1860, 1831^1860, III: Central America, 1831-1850 (Washington: Carnegie Endowment (Washington: 4-8, cited hereafter Peace, 1933), 4-8, for International Peace, hereafter as 1831-1850. Manning, Central America, 1831-1850. 23 across the isthmus which connects North and South America, and of securing forever, forever, by such stipulations, stipulations, the free and equal right of navigating such canal to nations, on the payment of such reasonable tolls all nations, established to compensate the capitalists as may be established who may engage in such undertaking undertaking and complete complete the 20 work.20 work. While this resolution was in keeping with with the the policy advocated by Secretary Clay, in so far as he called for a advocated united effort to complete the project and for securing its benefits for all nations, nations, it went a step further than he regards. was willing to move in two regards. Where Clay merely common effort of the American American nations and called for the common commitments until more advised against making any definite commitments information was available, the Senate was now calling for the extension of common effort to include European nations also and for the United States to enter formal treaty arrangements which would protect the capitalists who were participate. willing to participate. This is a somewhat curious turn of mind for those Jacksonian Democrats who had attached attached the amendment to the Panama mission which called called for avoiding amendment American nations, nations, for the purpose any alliance, even with American of extending extending our commercial commercial relations, relations, and specifically specifically for the purpose of preventing preventing colonization colonization by the European 20U. 2nd Sess., U . SS., . , Consressional Congressional Globe, Globe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., 1852-1853, Part 2, Appendix, 251. 1852-1853, 2, 251. Z U .. 24 nations. nations. Herein can be seen the birth of an attitude which will grow into a turning-away from the warnings of Washington and Jefferson toward the curious application application of Monroe's 1850. declaration to Central America by treaty in 1850. That this should occur can only be accounted for by by the new light which the extension to the Pacific coast was was to to throw on the age-old quest for a passage to India. India. By 1835 the movement for independence in Texas and for the the acquisition acquisition of the Oregon Territory were ominous rumblings of the the new attitude attitude which which was was developing. developing. Although the State Department failed to to see British encroachments in Central America as a threat to isthmian transportation, until the Oregon and Mexican cessions forced this consideration, the period between 1835 and 1850 characterized by repeated attempts to adhere to the was characterized 1835. principles set forth in the Senate resolution of 1835. The House of Representatives adopted the same resolution in administration of President nearly the same words during the administration Buren. Van Buren. In 1847 President Polk carried the principles into practical execution by the treaty which was negotiated negotiated Granada. with New Granada. And under President Taylor, Secretary principles in negotiating negotiating Clayton closely adhered to the princ±ples Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 1850.. the Clayton-Bu1wer 25 In compliance with the Senate resolution of 1835, Biddle, President Jackson appointed a special agent, Charles Biddle, proceed to Nicaragua and Panama for the purpose of making to proceed all necessary inquiries into the present state of the canal projects. projects. instructions, Biddle proceeded Contrary to his instructions, first to Panama where he took up for himself and his friends the lapsed concession granted by New Granada to Thierry. Baron Thierry. As this concession made an exclusive grant of right of way across the Isthmus of Panama, and vested in citizens of the United States a monopoly of the route in direct opposition to the resolution of the Senate, the State Department Department hastened hastened to disclaim disclaim all connection connection with the project on the part of the government. As Biddle died home, nothing further came of his shortly after returning home, 2l plans.21 plans. While Biddle was involved in Panama, the Central American states, states, finding that neither the United States American nor Europe seemed able to furnish any serious aid, boldly resolved to undertake the work themselves. themselves. John Bailey, Bailey, an engineer sent over by an English company company some years 2lManning, 17-18; M a n n i n g , Central America:, America:, 1831-1850, 1831-1850, 17-18; Globe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Sess., 1852-1853, 1852-1853, U.S., Congressional Con~ressional Globe, Part 2, 2, Appendix, 251. 251. 21 26 before, before, was employed employed to survey the line of the proposed canal, but his work was brought to a sudden close by by the canal, but dissolution of the Republic of Central America America in 1839. 1839. The results, United States results, however, were published published in the United and stirred up canal enthusiasts to fresh exertions. exertions. The together with The mayor mayor of of New New York, York, Aaron Aaron Clark, Clark, together with several several citizens citizens of of that that city city and and Philadelphia, Philadelphia, presented presented a petition to Congress early: early "in in 1838 setting forth the need for a ship canal and recommending nations be recommending that other nations invited to join join in its construction. Congress referred the memorial to its Committee Committee on Roads and Canals and the result was an elaborate report which concluded concluded by proposing proposing Senate a resolution couched in nearly the same words as the Senate 1835. resolution of 1835. resolution was then unanimously unanimously This resolution 1 8 3 9 .22 ^ agreed to by the House in March 1839. Another special agent, John L. L. Stephens, was conseconse­ quently to quently sent sent to to Central Central America in the fall of 1839 to collect collect the the data data Biddle had carelessly carelessly neglected. Upon his Upon arrival by civil civil war war that arrival he he found found the country so convulsed convulsed by 22U•S., 22u.S., Congressional Globe, Globe, 32nd Cong., Cong,, 2nd Sess., Sess., 1852-1853, Part 2, G. Squier, 2, Appendix, 251; 251; Ephraim Ephraim G. Squier, People, Scenery, Monuments Monuments>t and the ProPro­ Nicaragua; Its People, Interoceanic Canal (New York: York: D. D. Appleton Appleton & Co., 1852), posed Interoceanic & Co., II, 260-61, 260-61, cited hereafter as Squier, Nicaragua, II. II, II. . i 27 he was was unable to complete his mission. mission. This civil war, war, which culminated culminated in the dissolution of the confederation confederation pre­ by means of the formation of five separate republics, republics, precluded any serious attention to interoceanic interoceanic communication communication decade. 3 in Central America for most of the next decade,.23 2 A Treaty with New Granada A While affairs were disrupted in Central America, America, events proceeded proceeded more smoothly on the lower isthmus. isthmus. In instructions, Benjamin A. Bidlack, keeping with earlier instructions, A. Bidlack, appointed charge d'affaires at Bogota, was inin­ recently appointed formed in June 1845 that in the past few years schemes for a railroad or canal across the Isthmus of Panama had been "much agitated. .. . . important to us that As it is important no other nation should obtain either an exclusive privi­ privilege or an advantage in regard to such a communication communication between the two oceans, in trans­ transoceans, you will lose no time in mitting to the department any information upon the subject rnitting 23Manning, ^ M a n n i n g , Central America, 1831-1850, 22~24; 22-24; John L. L. Stephens, Stephens, Incidents of Travel in Central America, America, Chiapas, and Yucatln (New York: Harpers & Brothers, 12th Chiapas, Yucatan York: & ed., as Stephens, 1871), I, I, II, II, passim, cited hereafter as Stephens, ed., t87l), Incidents of Travel. Travel. 28 which you may may be be able to collect." When Bidlack reported When that he he should be be able to conclude a commercial treaty treaty with New was given full power to to conclude and sign New Granada, he was such a treaty. treaty. He accordingly accordingly proceeded negotia­ proceeded with negotia- December 12, 12, 1846, 1846, signed a general treaty of tions and on December 24 commerce.24 peace, amity, navigation and commerce. Upon receipt of the treaty, President President Polk was somesome­ article. what taken back by the thirty-fifth thirty-fifth article. By this article New New Granada proposed proposed to guarantee to the the government government and citizens of the the United States the right of passage across the Isthmus of Panama on condition that the United States in turn make a similar guarantee to New Granada neutrality of this part of her territory and her of the neutrality sovereignty over the same. same. sovereignty stipulation would grant As this stipulation a monopoly of the right of way to the American people and could be be construed construed as as a a dangerous dangerous and and entangling entangling alliance, alliance, could President Polk Polk debated debated the wisdom of of submitting submitting the the treaty treaty President the wisdom for ratification. for ratification. However, after due due consideration, consideration, in in However, after February 1847 1847 he he determined determined to to submit submit the the treaty treaty with the February with the following explanation. explanation. following 24Manning, b a n n i n g , V: V: 2 Chile and Colombia, 357-60. 357-60 29 After drawing attention to the article in in question and the fact that it had been inserted by Bidlack on on his own responsibility proceeded to responsibility without instructions, instructions, he proceeded point to the the commercial point out out the the importance importance of of the the concession concession to commercial and and political political interests interests of of the the United United States: States: "The "The vast vast advantages from such such aa advantages to to our our commerce commerce which which would would result result from communication, not only with the west coast of America, America, but with Asia and the islands of the Pacific, Pacific, are too obvious to require any detail." He noted that the avoidance of maxim of our policy, but entangling alliances had been a maxim then argued that the "peculiar circumstances of the present case" set aside the force of this objection, as the treaty commercial was not for political objects but "for a purely commercial purpose, in which all of the navigating nations of the world purpose, have a common interest." resolu­ He then quoted the Senate resolu- tion of 1835 and denied that either the United States or views. New Granada had any narrow or exclusive views. Rather, Rather, it expected that similar guarantees would be given by was expected Great Britain and France with the ultimate object of secursecur­ ing to all nations the free and equal right of passage passage over isthmus. the isthmus. concluded that such a guarantee was absoabso­ He concluded lutely necessary as neither "sovereign States nor individuals construction of the would expend their capital in the construction 30 works, without some such security for their expensive works, investment. ,,25 "25 President Polk thus closely adhered to the policy adhered to suggested by Clay in 1826 and which was which had been suggested clearly formulated in the Senate and House resolutions of 1835 and 1839. 1839. The extension to the Pacific coast coast had truly created "peculiar circumstances" which tended tended to overshadow the admonitions of Washington and Jefferson. Jefferson. been signed just eight The The Treaty Treaty of of Guadalupe Guadalupe Hidalgo Hidalgo had had been signed just eight days before; before; however, however, its terms were not yet known. known. As there of the there was was great great hope hope that that it it would would include include a a grant grant of the Tehuantepec Tehuantepec route, route, which which would would undoubtedly undoubtedly arouse arouse more more opposition to the Bidlack Treaty, Congress postponed postponed its consideration consideration until December December next. next. Interest in the Tehuantepec route had been been greatly War. aroused by the Mexican War. discussed with growing It was discussed enthusiasm by the expansionist press and was even enthusiasm even suggested qua ~ non of a treaty by a member of Polk's Cabinet. Cabinet. as a sine gua P. Trist had been instructed instructed to Consequently, Nicholas P. Mexico, offer as high as $30,000,000 for the cession of New Mexico, 25!~essage the treaty 25_"Message of President Polk communicating communicating the with New Granada to the Senate, U.S., Senate, Feb. Feb. 10, 10, 1847," in U.S., Globe. 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Sess., 1852-1853, 1852-1853, Congressional Globe, Part 2, 251-52 . 2, Appendix, 251-52. - . 31 the Californias, and a right of transit across the the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. If no transit right could be be obtained, obtained, the figure was was set at a maximum maximum of $25,000,000. $25,000,000. In Trist had In accordance accordance with with his his instructions, instructions, Trist had suggested that the transit right be ceded to to the the United States. States. But, when the Mexican commissioners commissioners flatly refused on the grounds that the right had been transferred to transferred to subjects, of whose rights Mexico could not dispose, dispose, English subjects, subject. 26° he gave up the subject. When it was discovered discovered that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo did not include a cession of a right of way across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the importance of the Bidlack front. Treaty again came to the front. It was duly taken up for consideration, following the acceptance of Trist's Treaty cons.ideration, in March 1848 and was passed passed with the support of virtually every Democratic senator with a vote of twenty-nine to to seven the following June. June. With its ratification, the Isolationist:at.titudewithwhich isolationist, attitude with which ~he.Democrats the Democrats :had had greeted Monroe's declaration in 1826 was proven to have been 26Frederick and Mission Mission in ^ F r e d e r i c k Merk, Merk, Manifest Manifest Destiny Destiny and in American American History (New York: York: Alfred A. A. Knopf, Knopf, 1963), 128-43, Mission. cited hereafter as Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission. r 32 communica­ severely altered by the pressure for a means of communica- tion with with the Pacific Pacific coast. c o a s t .27 ^ British Encroachments Encroachments and the C1ayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty While the ratification of the treaty treaty with with New Granada had thus been been successfully successfully accomplished, events were culminating up the isthmus which which were were rapidly culminating farther up attracting attention to Central America. With the estabestab­ lishment of independent republics, the break-up republics, following the of the Central American American confederation confederation in 1839, 1839, Nicaragua had been been active in Europe Europe trying to to interest someone in isthmus. her route across the isthmus. Following negotia­ Following abortive negotia- tions with first Louis Philippe in France and then some Belgian promoters, promoters, she turned to Louis Napoleon Bonaparte Ham. who was then a political prisoner prisoner in the fortress of Ham. interested and soon arranged arranged for the He at once became became interested organization of of a a company company called called La Canale Napoleone de organization La Canale Napoleone de Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Upon escape from from Ham in May May 1846, 1846, he he Upon his his escape Ham in ? U . S . , Congressional Globe, Globe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Sess., 27U.S., 1852-1853, Part 2, 252. 1852-1853, Part 2, Appendix, Appendix, 252. 2 33 proceeded to London where he wrote his famous pamphlet route. advocating the Nicaragua route. perception, With keen perception, anticipated the part the transit question was destined he anticipated American politics. politics. to play in European and American After noting loca­ the commercial similarity between the geographical locaconcluded: tion of Constantinople and Nicaragua, he concluded: The State of Nicaragua can become, better than become, better Constantinople, the necessary route of the great commerce of the world, and is destined to attain an destined to extraordinary degree of prosperity prosperity and grandeur. grandeur. extraordinary France, France, England, and Holland have a great comcom­ mercial interest in the establishment establishment of a communicommuni­ cation between the two oceans, has, more oceans, but England England has, powers, a political interest in the than the other powers, execution of this project. England will see with flour­ pleasure Central America becoming a powerful and flourstate, which will establish a balance of power ishing state, by creating in Spanish America a new centre of active enterprise, powerful enough to give rise to a great feeling of nationality, and to prevent, by backing 28 Mexico, any further encrochments from the north. north.28 Mexico, Napoleon's monograph attracted widespread widespread attention in Europe, Europe, and particularly particularly in England. Actually, England had already embarked embarked upon the policy he had anticipated. anticipated. Frustrated her attempt Frustrated in her claims in Oregon and in her attempt to prevent the annexation of Texas, Texas, she now clearly clearly saw the outcome of the Mexican War and lost little time time in preparing 28Napoleon Nicaragua, or N a p o l e o n Louis Bonaparte, Canal of Nicaragua, a Project to Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by (London, 1846), quoted in Keasbey, The Means of a Canal (London, Nicaragua Canal, --Nicaragua Canal. 161-62. 161-62. zo - .. 34 possibility of the United States extending to offset the possibility her control over the proposed interoceanic highway highway across Nicaragua. the Isthmus of Nicaragua. Under the guise of a protectorate over over the the Mosquito Indians, notified the Indians, in early 1847 the British government government notified Central American was of American states that the British government government was the opinion that the Mosquito king's territory should be maintained south of of the maintained as extending from Cape Honduras south River San Juan, be henceJuan, and that this Mosquito kingdom kingdom be hence­ forth recognized recognized as an independent power under the protecprotec­ 29 tion of Great Britain. Britain.^9 The states of Central America raised a cry cry against this being loudest this sweeping sweeping British British claim claim with with Nicaragua Nicaragua being loudest in her protests. protests. Undaunted, on October 23, 23, 1847, 1847, the Council of the State of the Mosquito king notified notified the Nicaraguan government that they would be given until 1, 1848, 1848, to withdraw from San Juan, the port concon­ January 1, trolling the eastern terminus of the proposed proposed canal. canal. Again the Nicaraguans protested, but true to their word English marines were landed at San Juan on the first day of January 29Great ^Great Britain, Britain, Parliamentary Parliamentary ence with the United States respecting tory," LXV, Corns., Corns., 1847-1848, 1847-1848, 1, 1, cited Papers, LXV. •Papers. LXV. Papers, "Correspond"Correspond­ Papers, Terri­ the Mosquito Mosquito Terrihereafter as Pari. hereafter Par1. - ..... 35 3S 1848, the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan officials of the port were were driven out, out, and the Mosquito flag was raised and duly saluted. At aa At banquet held in the evening, the name of the port port was was forfor­ mally rechristened "Grey town" in mally rechristened "Greytown" in honor honor of of "His "His Excellency Excellency the Governor." As As soon soon as as the the English English warships warships had had sailed sailed out out of of gunshot range, the river, drove gunshot range, the Nicaraguans Nicaraguans came came down down the the river, drove the Anglo-Mosquito officials from the town, hauled up town, and hauled the Nicaraguan flag. flag. This action soon brought brought the the return of two two English warships, more took took poswarships, and marines once more pos­ port. session of the port. Nicaraguan troops were The fleeing Nicaraguan then pursued pursued up the river and across the lake to Granada where the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan officials agreed, at the point of a bayonet, not to distrub the Mosquito authorities at San Juan. Juan. extended the southern The following month England extended boundary of the Mosquito territory to the Colorado branch River, which was some twelve miles south of the San Juan River, port. of the port. officially shut off from Nicaragua was thus officially proposed interoceanic canal. canal. both banks of the proposed A A British time, war vessel was ordered to visit San Juan from time to time, notified that any and the Nicaraguan authorities were notified attempt to intrude in San Juan would be met by measures 36 of an unfriendly character upon parts of her own coast. coast. 30 u Despite the fac:t affaires in in fact tha:t that o:ur our charge d' d'affaires Central America had kept the State Department in~ . Department fully inr history of British formed with detailed accounts of the history Belize, or British Honduras, Honduras, and down the encroachments in Belize, notwithstanding the fact that each move Mosquito coast, and notwithstanding of the British had been followed by an appeal of the Nicaraguan authorities for United States protection, the Polk administration chose to officially officially ignore the British administration 3l appeals.31 activities and remained stonily silent to all appeals. Apparently chastened by the unexpected unexpected opposition Apparently he had had encountered of the the war war with encountered during the prosecution of Mexico, what course Mexico, President Polk was unable to determine what to pursue pursue in regard to the British encroachments in in the name of the Mosquito king. king. While his indecision forced continued continued silence, silence, following the successful termination of the Mexican Mexican War, War, in March 1848 he appointed Elijah Hise as charge d'affaires d'affaires Guatemala. to Guatemala. In his instruction to Hise of June 3, 3, James Buchanan reviewed the history of British encroachments and 30Ppar a r ll. . Papers, Papers, LXV, 75-104. 75-104. 3 0 3lManning, Central America, 1831-1850, 1831-1850, 161-286. 161-286. 37 their recent occupation of the port of San Juan. Juan. He acknowledged acknowledged that her purpose was probably to obtain concon­ trol of the Nicaragua route for a railroad or a canal, canal, and that to suffer such interference and to permit permit them them to inde­ establish new colonies would be to jeopardize jeopardize the indeAmerican republics. republics. pendence of the American concluded: But, he concluded: "What can the United States do to resist such European American Republics continue interference whilst the Spanish American civil war and deprive to weaken themselves by division and ·civil themselves of the ability of doing anything for their their own protection?" protection?" He then then informed informed Hise Hise that that "the "the United States He United States has not determined what what course course it it will will pursue has not yet yet determined pursue in in re­ regard to encroachments of of the the British British Government, Government, as as gard to the the encroachments protector of of the the King King and and Kingdom Kingdom of of the the Mosquitos." Mosquitos." protector He He instructed him him to to promote promote the the re-union re-union of of the Central instructed the Central American states states that that they they might might better better resist resist the British American the British encroachments, and and to to gather gather all all information information available available encroachments, which would would aid aid the the government government in in settling settling upon more which upon aa more definite policy.32 policy. definite 32 But the end of the Polk administration was fast administration was approaching. Hise was delayed by sickness and other causes 32Manning, Manning, Central America., America:, 1831-1850, 30-35. 1831-1850, 30-35. 38 and did not arrive in Central America until late late in October 1848. 1 8 4 8 .33 He found the republics in the utmost confusion and 3 3 partially produced on the verge of anarchy, a condition partially produced by agents. the intrigues of British agents. in­ After two months of in- convinced that the vestigation he reported that he was convinced British designed to exercise control over the eastern and communication by way western termini of any interoceanic communication 34 Nicaragua.34of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua. in In February 1849, he again wrote asking if it were possible that the 1849, magni­ United States would permit England to colonize that magni- ficent country and exercise control over the proposed 35 canal. canal.35 Because of the slowness of transportation, no word was received received from Hise before the end of Polk's Polk's adad­ ministration; consequently, no further instructions were sent to him. Under these circumstances, it is is no wonder nego­ that he proceeded, contrary to his instructions, to negoNicaragua. tiate a canal treaty with Nicaragua. By the terms of this treaty, Nicaragua granted an exclusive monopoly over the way. transit right of way. In return the United States was 33HHise i s e to Buchanan, October 26, 26, 1848, 1848, Ibid. Ibid.,, 288-90. 288-90. 3 3 34HHise i s e to Buchanan, December 20, 20, 1848, 1848, Ibid. Ibid.,, 294-96. 294-96. 3 4 35HHiise s e to Buchanan, February 8, 8, 1849, 1849, Ibid. Ibid.,, 304-06. 304-06. 3 5 39 permitted pledged to protect the permitted to fortify the route and pledged neutrality neutrality and sovereignty sovereignty of Nicaragua in all territory 36 hers.36 rightfully hers. While Hise had been been pressing without inpressing ahead without in­ structions, Polk Democrats Democrats had given way to the Whig structions, the Polk administration administration under President President Taylor. Taylor. The discovery of gold confirmed in gold in in California, California, officially officially confirmed in the the President's President's message message of of December December 5, 5, 1848, 1848, had had set set a a grand grand exodus exodus in in motion motion westward. Thus an immediate immediate demand was created for more more adequate transportation transportation than ox teams across the plains, plains, which threw an entirely new light on the isthmian question as slumbering slumbering ears quickly awoke to the threat of America. England's position position in Central America. President Taylor's appointment appointment of John M. Clayton as Secretary Secretary of State assured the new administration administration that it would would not lack for an isthmian policy. policy. Clayton had fathered the Senate resolution of 1835, 1835, 'and -and had well-formuwell-formu­ lated views on how to settle the problem. 1849, In May 1849, letters were written by Clayton and President Taylor to the government in answer to the appeals that had Nicaraguan government 36U.S., 36u.S., Congress, Congress, House, House, Tigre Island and Central ~merica, 75, America. 31st Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1849-1850, H. H. Report 75, Ser. no. no. 579, 579, 110-117, 110-117, cited hereafter as Tigre Island and Ser. Central America, H. H. Report 75, 75, Ser. Ser. no. no. 579. 579. fentral 40 been made to the Polk administration. expressed the They expressed sympathy and painful interest of the United United States and sympathy promised to use their good offices in a friendly manner, manner, promised to both Great Britain and Nicaragua, for the purpose of controversy.^7 adjusting the Mosquito controversy.37 Hise, treaty with Hise, whose correspondence on the treaty immediately recalled, recalled, Nicaragua had not yet arrived, was immediately Ephraim George Squier was named as his successor. and Ephraim In out­ a lengthy letter of instructions Clayton carefully outadministration was to follow. follow. lined the policy the administration In addition to the encroachments of the British, this this policy was dictated by the fact that both British and American British and American capitalists were were currently competing grant from competing for a canal grant the the government government of of Nicaragua. Nicaragua. The The American American capitalists, capitalists, headed headed by by Cornelius Cornelius Vanderbilt, Vanderbilt, had had already already sought sought the the aid aid of their own government. Thus the object of the appointment appointment of Squier was to aid the American in obtaining American capitalists in prin­ the grant of the right of way and to carry out the principles of the Senate resolution of 1835. 1 8 3 5 .38 3 8 37TigreIsland~a1jldJ:CentIa1: ? T i g r e Island apd/ Central Amerlca:,HH.' America, H.' Rep6rt Repflrt ::75~ 75* 3 Ser. Ser. no. no. 132. 132. 38U. Cong., 2nd 2nd Sess., U . SS.., , Congressional Globe, Globe, 32nd Cong., Sess., 1852-1853, 252. 1852-1853, Part Part 2, 2, Appendix, Appendix, 252. 3 8 41 The instruction instruction informed informed Squier at length on the history of British encroachments in Central America;, America~ and directed him to inform the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan government that the government that United States would employ any moral means in its its power "for purpose of designs of "for the the purpose of frustrating frustrating the the apparent apparent designs of Great Britain in to sovereignty Great Britain in countenancing countenancing the the claims claims to sovereignty over Juan asserted over the the Mosquito Mosquito coast, coast, and and the the Port Port of of San San Juan asserted by by her her ally ally the the alleged alleged monarch monarch of of that that region." region." His His attention was drawn attention was drawn to to the the fact fact that that the the interest interest of of the the United had of United States States in in a a passage passage across across the the isthmus isthmus had of late late been materially increased, for it might "be indispensable indispensable to maintain the relations between between the United States and Pacific, and a Canal from their new territories on the Pacific, empty the treasures Ocean to Ocean might and probably would empty of the Pacific into the lap of this country." He was thus authorized to use his personal good offices to aid the authorized American capitalists in their efforts to secure a grant of American the right of way from Nicaragua. But this aid was not to be interpreted interpreted as desiring any exclusive privilege for Americans. Americans. employment No objection would be made to the employment of foreign capital with ours. ours. In this reg~rd, regard, Squier was also empowered with any any of empowered to complete commercial treaties with the five republics. republics. His negotiations on the subject of the 42 Nicaragua passage passage were to to be be guided by by the the policy that the Nicaragua United States desired no monopoly of the right of way, pri­ primarily because if "we held and enjoyed such a monopoly it would entail upon us more bloody bloody and expensive wars than Spain." the struggle for Gibraltar has caused to England and Spain.1l He was to seek only "an equal right of passage for all unincumbered by nations on the same terms, terms, a passage unincumbered government oppressive exactions either from the local government within whose sovereign sovereign limits it may be effected, or from the proprietors of the canal when accomplished." For this authorized to enter treaty stipulations that end he was authorized both governments would would forever protect protect the proprietors who succeed in cutting the canal, canal, for without this propro­ might succeed tection "it is not believed believed that this great enterprise would ever be successful." would He was not, not, however, however, to make any guarantee of the the independence independence of of the the country country through through any guarantee of 39 pass.39 which the canal or railroad might might pass. A careful reading A reading of Clayton's instructions to Squier, and of his subsequent subsequent negotiations with England, England, reveals that the Taylor administration administration was to adhere closely to the principles set forth by Clay, as they were 39Clayton *Clayton to Squier, May 1, 1, 1849, 1849, in Manning, Manning, Central America, 1831-1850, 36-51. 1831-1850, 36-51. J 43 elaborated elaborated upon in the resolutions of both houses of ConCon­ gress and were acted upon by each succeeding succeeding President. President. When Squier arrived at his post, post, he found that the intrigues of·~rt.tish the natural of *BriJtish agents, agents, coupled with the tendency to anarchy, had left the Central American American states in in the the utmost utmost confusion, confusion, making making it it impossible impossible for for Nicaragua Nicaragua to to turn turn to to her her neighbors neighbors for for help. help. Consequently, Consequently, she she was was looking looking towards towards the the United United States States for for aid. aid. Under these Under these circumstances, he was successful in inducing Nicaragua Nicaragua to grant a concession for constructing to the the American constructing a canal to American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company.40 Company.^ With the the arrangeWith arrange­ ments for the Canal Company out of the way, he then had little difficulty in forming a commercial treaty in August outlined in 1849 with Nicaragua based on the general terms outlined instructions. Clayton's instructions. con­ The treaty engaged the two con- American company company in its tracting parties to defend the American American government government a recognition enterprise, secured from the American 4~anning, M a n n i n g , Central America, 1831-1850, 361-66; 361-66; Nicaragua, Ministerio de Relaciones y Gobernacion, Contrato de Canalizacion. de Nicaragua Canalizacion, Celebrado Entre el Gobierno de y una Compa~[a de Ciudadanos de los Estados-Unidos de NorteCompaftjLa Ame"rica U.S., Congress, Congress, Senate, President America (Leo"n, (Leon, 1849); U.S., Franklin Pierce, Routes Between Atlantic Atlantic and Pierce, Message on Routes Pacific, Doc. 68, Pacific. 34th Cong.,lst Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1855-1856, S. S. Doc. 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 86-93, 86-93, cited hereafter as Message on Routes Between Atlantic and Pacific, S. 822. S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822. 40 44 of the rights and sovereignty Nicaragua in the sovereignty possessed by Nicaragua canal route, route, and guaranteed guaranteed its neutrality as long as it controlled by American American citizens. citizens. should be controlled Its rights and privileges were open to any other nation willing to enter into an agreement with Nicaragua for the protection protection of the proposed cana1. canal. 41 proposed Upon completing completing the treaty with Nicaragua, Squier's attention was drawn to British designs on Tigre Island Island in Fonseca. the Bay of Fonseca. belonged to Honduras and This island belonged commanded commanded the bay which was the favored terminus for the western outlet of the proposed canal. canal. The British British agent in Central America, Chatfield, had for some time been enen­ couraging his government to seize the island as as part part paypay­ ment of debts due the British. British. Although unauthorized unauthorized to do so, plan by by forming so, Squier determined determined to offset Chatfield's plan aa treaty treaty with with Honduras Honduras for for the the purchase purchase or or cession cession of of the the island. By the end of September September he had succeeded succeeded in forming Ameri­ a treaty by which Honduras ceded Tigre Island to the Ameri- can government for eighteen months. m o n t h s .42 ^ 41Mann 360-61; M a n n iing, n g , Central America America,z 1831-1850, 1831-1850, 360-61; ParI. Pari. Papers, Papers. LX, 19. 19. 41 42Manning, 393-407. M a n n i n g , Central America, 1831-1850, 1831-1850, 393-407. 42 .. 45 Chatfield learned of the transaction, he lost When Chatfield no time in having having the British Navy seize the island island and hoist the the British British flag. flag. Squier Squier protested protested and and demanded demanded its its evacuevacu­ ation ation but but Chatfield Chatfield refused. refused. However, Admiral Hornby, However, when when Admiral Hornby, commander Indies, heard heard of commander of of the the British British fleet fleet in in the the West West Indies, of the the seizure, seizure, he he promptly promptly ordered ordered the the restoration restoration of of the the island island to to Honduras. Honduras. Later, and Squier Later, both both Chatfield Chatfield and Squier were were rebuked when news news of rebuked for for their their activities; activities; nevertheless, nevertheless, when of the much exthe seizure seizure reached reached the the United United States, States, it it evoked evoked much ex­ 43^ citement and increased increased suspicion of the British government. government. During the course of the negotiations that that were were being carried forth by the British and American American agents in Central initiated a movement from Washington America, Clayton had initiated toward effecting a peaceful settlement of the dispute directly with the British government. These efforts were American ministers in Bri­ at first carried on through the American BriBulwer who had been tain and later directly with Sir Henry Bu1wer appointed by the British as their agent in Washington. Washington. appointed Throughout these protracted protracted discussions and misunmisun­ derstandings, basic principles: derstandings, Clayton was guided by two basic principles: 43Manning, 418-23; ^ M a n n i n g , Central America., America:, 1831-1850, 418-23; Mary W. W. Williams, Williams, Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, 1815(Washington: American Historical Assoc., 1916), 1916), 1915 (Washington: 63-66, cited hereafter as Williams, Williams, Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmian 63-66, Diplomacy Diplomacy.. 46 claim to First, he aimed to get Britain to extinguish her claim quasi-protectorate over the Mosquito coast; and second, second, the quasi-protectorate Nicaragua, he desired that Britain should enter a treaty with Nicaragua, similar to the Squier Treaty, that would guarantee the benebene­ fits of the proposed canal to all nations of the world. He convinced that a monopoly over the route, route, held was convinced held by any States, could result only in country, including the United States, wars. bloody and expensive wars. In order to secure the benefits mankind, of this great highway to the United States and all mankind, he was willing to enter a treaty with Great Britain Britain binding both nations never to annex, annex, settle, settle, colonize, or fortify America. any part of Central America. monopoly over the propro­ While Britain also desired no monopoly posed interoceanic highway, and had seized Juan in in order seized San Juan to prevent such a monopoly from falling into the the hands hands of States, she had placed the rapidly expanding United States, placed herself in a position from which she could not easily withdraw withdraw by the unfortunate proclamation proclamation of her intention intention to uphold coast. Mosquito sovereignty over the coast. Mary Williams, Williams, in Anglo-American isthm.ian isthmian dd.p10macy, diplomacy, concludes her book on Anglo-American attitude, "in reality outworn, but forced on that this attitude, consistant with her past stand, consequently consequently England as consistant became the source of virtually all future trouble trouble between r 47 the British and Americans over Central America.,,44 America. England's complicated by the fact that increased position was also complicated American American interest in the West had focused attention upon the isthmus and might might readily call for the enforcement enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine there. there. A the Mosquito A withdrawal from the coast coast might might be be followed followed by by demands demands for for relinquishing relinquishing her her ancient ancient claims claims to to her her settlements settlements in in the the Belize Belize or or British British Honduras.. Honduras .... These complicating complicating factors precluded precluded any settlement com­ of the affair until Clayton and Bulwer struck upon a com- promise as peculiarly worded in the first article of the convention signed on April 19, 19, 1850. 1850. The uncertain wording uncertain wording interpretation which led to of this article allowed a dual interpretation all future trouble in the Senate of the United States and with Great Britain over the convention. follows: It read as follows: The Governments of Great Britain and the United States hereby declare that neither the one one nor nor the the other will ever obtain or maintain for itself any exclusive control over the said Ship-Canal; agreeing that neither com­ will ever erect or maintain any fortifications commanding the same, or occupy, same, or in the vicinity thereof, or occupy, or fortify, exercise any fortify, or colonize, colonize, or assume or exercise dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Rica, the Mosquito Coast, or any part part of Central America; nor nor will will either make us~ use of any protection which either affords or any may afford, or any alliance which either has has or or may have, the purpose have, to or with any State or people, people, for the 44Williams, Diplomacy, 82. 82. ^ W i l l i a m s , Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, -. D 48 of erecting or maintaining maintaining any such fortifications fortifications or of occupying, fortifying or colonizing colonizing Nicaragua, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito Mosquito Coast, or any part of Central. Rica, the Central, America, or of assuming or exercising exercising dominion over the same. United States same. Nor will Great Britain or the United alliance, take advantage of any intimacy, or use any alliance, connection, or influence that either may possess with Government through whose territory the any State or Government pass, for the purpose of acquiring or said canal may pass, holding, directly or indirectly, for the subjects or one, any rights or advantages in regard citizens of the one, commerce or navigation through the said canal, canal, which to commerce terms, to the subsub­ shall not be offered, on the same terms, 45 jects or citizens of the other. other. ^ 4 Despite the later charges of ambiguity, Clayton was convinced convinced that the treaty clearly vindicated vindicated the prinprin­ ciples he had espoused. He insisted insisted that Britain had unreservedly the Mosquito coast and unreservedly given up her claims to the that the the future security the proposed security of the proposed canal was secured for the benefits benefits of all nations. nations. Nevertheless, it took Nevertheless, the bes the' c'hai1imano:f _tfi~e. ttee bestt efforts of Clayton" Clayton. a.od and _ .the chairman o-f, tfie :Commi Committee Relations,0 to persuade the Democratic opposiopposi­ on Foreign Relations tion, led by Stephen A. A. Douglas, Douglas, that the agreement was a tion, practical application of the Monroe Doctrine and required abandonment of the Mosquito protectorate. the abandonment protectorate. The Democrats attached their isola­ had come full swing since they had had attached their isolationist amendment amendment to to the the application application of of Monroe's Monroe's declaration declaration tionist 45parl. LX, 50. P a r l . Papers, Papers, LX, 50 4 5 ri 49 to the Panama mission of 1826. 1826. A A hard core of expansionexpansion­ completely out of ists led by Douglas wanted the British completely pro­ Central America and were anxious to monopolize the proposed canal for American American use. use. stormy debate, debate, After a stormy however, temporary favor was created however, considerable temporary created for the modification by a vote treaty, and it was ratified without modification ** of forty-two to ten. 46 4 Nevertheless, the treaty was still faced by one Nevertheless, more obstacle. obstacle. The British government was suspicious that the Americans might interpret the treaty as an agreement for British withdrawal from the settlements in the the Belize. Belize. Consequently, Bu1wer to Clayton Bulwer was instructed instructed to deliver to at the time of the exchange of ratifications a declaration that "her Majesty does not not understand understand the engagements of that convention to apply to her Majesty's settlements at Honduras or to its dependencies." If Clayton should object, he he was not to proceed with the ratifications withwith­ 47 out further instructions. instructions. 47 declara­ Clayton was somewhat taken back by this declara- tion, the entire tion, and for a time even considered considered abandoning the convention. ~ But after serious reflection and discussion, discussion, 46U•S ^ U . S .., , Congressional Globe~ Globe,, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Sess., 1852-1853, 267•. 1852-1853, Part Part 2, 2, Appendix, Appendix, 267.. 4 47IIbid b i d .., , 263. 263. 47 r 50 determined to proceed ratifications, but by he determined proceed with the ratifications, counterdeclaration calculated calculated to deny the recogrecog­ way of a counterdeclaration nition of any title of the British to their settlements in Honduras, while at the same time excluding them from the Honduras, treaty. treaty. On July 4, 4, the day upon which ratifications of the explaining that. that treaty were exchanged, he wrote to King explaining con­ he did not want to be charged with duplicity by now con· tending that the term Central America, as used in the Honduras. treaty, applied to British British Honduras. He then asked for understanding King's permission permission to state that "the true understanding explained by you as chairman of Foreign Relations, to was explained Foreign Relations, the Senate, before the vote was taken on the treaty?" To this King replied that the "Senate perfectly perfectly understood understood that Honduras. the treaty did not include British Honduras. Frankness becomes our Government; but you should be careful not to use any expression which would seem to recognize the right of England England to any portion Honduras."^ portion of Honduras.,,48 8 With this assurance, Clayton felt that it was unnecessary to return Senate, and prior unnecessary return the treaty to the Senate, to the exchange of ratifications that night, night, he handed 48 / QU.S., Congressional Globe, i' 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Congressional GiLobe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., 1852-1853, U.S., Part 1, 250 . 1852-1853, Part 1, 250. ... 51 Bu1wer Bulwer a document which declared that the treaty was not understood by either government or the negotiators negotiators understood .. " " to include the British settlement in Honduras (commonly (commonly Honduras, as distinct from the State of called British Honduras, Honduras,) nor the small islands in the neighborhood depend­ of that settlement, which may be known as its dependencies. To this settlement, settlement* and these islands, encies. islands, the negotiated was not intended intended by either of us treaty we negotiated apply. The title to them, it is now and has been to apply. throughbut -~ the_" tfre_ wbo1e whole -- negO.tiatiQn:,: negotiationV c to my intention, throughf:)ut leave, as the treaty leaves it, it, without without denying, affirmaffirm leave, ing, or in any way meddling with the same, same, just ing, just as it previously,. 49 ^ stood previous1y Following a favorable reply by Bulwer, they then proceeded 50 ratifications.50 with the exchange of ratifications. Thus the treaty was concluded concluded without the consent of the Senate to the declaration, and in consequence there was later to ensue extended extended debate over its application application and Great Britain. and meaning, meaning, both both within within the the Senate Senate and and with with Great Britain. Despite to the Despite the the fact fact that that the the declaration declaration was was known known to the President and his Cabinet, and its contenbs were printed contents were in the National Inte11igencer the message Intelligencer on July 8, 8, and in the of the President transferring the House House of transferring the treaty to the Representative~, Representatives, it appears that the Senate as a whole -" · C, :, . . . ... '"- ,r ' . 49U.~., ^ U . S . , Congres~i6nal Congressional Globe, Globe, 32nd 32nd C6rig., Cong., 2nd 2nd Sess., Sess., 18~2-l853, 1852-1853, Part 2, 2, Appendix, 263. 263. 50The 5^The most extensive treatment of the negotiation of °f the the Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty Treaty is is Williams, Williams, Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, Diplomacy. 67-109. 67-109. 52 application o~ of believed that the treaty was an effective application the Monroe Doctrine and would force the British out of .. ^1 Central America. 5l The Clayton-Bulwer the full Clayton-Bulwer Treaty thus completed completed the pendulum since 1826. 1826. swing of the pendulum Where Congress had then implied no entangling insisted that Monroe's declaration implied alliance, not even for the purpose of preventing preventing colonicoloni­ alliance, zation in this hemisphere, that body was now willing willing to purpose. enter an alliance for that purpose. acquired The newly acquired possessions on the Pacific coast, together with the ageold attraction attraction of the Indies, Indies, had awakened awakened American American interinter­ safeguarding isthmian communication. communication. est to the need for safeguarding 51U.S., 2nd Sess., U . S . , Congressional Globe, Globe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., 1852-1853, 1852-1853, Part 1, 1, 248-49; 248-49; Williams, Williams, Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, 100. 100. D i ., CHAPTER II EARLY TRAVEL TRAVEL ACROSS THE ISTHMUS, ISTHMUS, 1848-1850 The Discovery of Gold While diplomatic heads of state had been concerned with negotiating the C1ayton-Bu1wer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, enterprising enterprising capitalists were busily engaged in a race to to capture aa share of the profits offered by the rapidly expanding demands for transportation across the isthmus. isthmus. First prompted by the prompted by the awarding awarding of of government government contracts contracts for for the the transportation transportation of of the the mails mails to to the the newly newly acquired acquired Oregon Oregon Territory in 1847, 1847, their interest was truly aroused aroused by the demands of thousands of gold seekers clamoring for a a way clamoring for across the isthmus. isthmus. Just as the discovery gold awakened discovery of gold diplomatic interest in the importance of the isthmus, isthmus, it created demands that could not be overlooked overlooked by profitentrepreneurs. hungry entrepreneurs. The need of the Oregon residents for communication communication 54 with the rest of the nation ha~been had been recognized recognized in a PresiPresi­ dential message to Congress in August 1846 and was subsesubse­ quently provided for by an act of Congress. Congress. . , A contract A for the transportation Atlantic side transportation of the mails on the Atlantic of the isthmus was awarded in APril the United April 1847 to the States States Mail Mail Steamship Steamship Company, Company, while while similar similar arrangements arrangements for Mail Steamfor the the Pacific Pacific side side were were made made with with the the Pacific Pacific Mail Steam­ ship November 1847. ship Company Company in in November 1847. The The facilities facilities they they propro­ ceeded mails were ceeded to to provide provide for for transporting transporting the the mails were naturally naturally made that were were going made without without any any knowledge knowledge of of the the demands demands that going to be be created by the the discovery of gold in California, concon­ sequently they were wholly inadequate to accommodate accommodate the exodus that was set in motion by the President's message December 5, 5, 1848. 1 8 4 8 .1 of December 1 Although gold had been discovered on the American American River near San Francisco on the twenty-fourth of January succeeded in suppressuppres­ 1848, John Sutter and James Marshall succeeded sing the news while they prepared prepared to capitalize on the lU.S., •'•U.S., :Congressional Congressional Globe, Globe, 29th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1845-1846, Route, 18481845-1846, 1199; 1199; John H. H. Kemble, Kemble, The Panama Route, 1869 ("University of California Publications in History," Angeles: University University of California XXIX; Berkeley and Los Angeles: Press, 1943), 10-25, 10-25, cited hereafter as Kemble, The Panama Press, Route: Bancroft, History of California, 1848-1859, VI, Route; VI, 129. 55 inevitable rush that was to follow its announcement. News that leaked out in the March 15 edition of the California , , -Star failed to convince the skeptical settlers, Star failed to convince the skeptical settlers, thus April had passed away and most of May before Samuel Brannan begin. decided that the time was ripe for the rush to begin. glittering particles in his left Holding aloft a bottle of glittering hand, he electrified electrified San Francisco when he doffed hand, doffed his broadbrimmed black hat and rushed out on the plaza, bellowing brimmed bellowing in voice: his great bull voice: American River." "GOLD! "GOLD! GOLD! GOLD! GOLD! GOLD! from the Uncertainty passed from the minds of his listeners, for San Brannan was regarded as the foremost listeners, leaders. of business leaders. Those who had hitherto denied a lurking faith now proclaimed proclaimed it; it; others, others, who had refused exhibited before their eyes, to believe even in specimens exhibited eyes, exag­ hesitated no longer in accepting any reports however exaggerated. gerated. Many were thrown into a fever of excitement, and subt^.^ influence of the all yielded more or less to the subtl~, malady. malady. Men hastened hastened to arrange their affairs, affairs, dissolving partnerships, disposing of real estate, and convertconvert­ partnerships, departure. ing other effects into ready means for departure. Within a few days an exodus set in that startled those who had placed their hopes upon the peninsular metropolic. "Fleets of launches left this place on Sunday and Monday," exclaims Editor Kemble, "closely beings. stowed with human beings. .. . .. was there ever 56 anything so superlatively s tusuperlatively silly?" But sneers, sneers, expo, expostu lations, and warnings availed not with a multitude lations, multitude so 2 ., born.^ possessed. The Gold Rush was born. .. Copies of the April 1 special edition of the California -Star were not published in the Star were not published in the New York Herald Herald until ' August 19, 19, 1848, 1848, and even then most of the East remained skeptical until Lieutenant Loeser's famous oyster can of gold dust was placed placed on exhibition at the war office and dis­ confirmation of the disPresident Polk included official confirmation Congress. covery of gold in his message of December 5 to Congress. Then delirium delirium seized the country and the grand exodus m o t i o n .3 westward was set in motion. 3 Travel by the Isthmus of Panama The California, first steamer of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, did not sail from New York York until until October October 6, 6, ZBancroft, VI, ^Bancroft, History of Ca1iBornia, California, 1848-1859, VI, 56-57, of the the Gold Rush-56-57, 26-54; Douglas S. S. Watson, "Herald of Sam Brannan," Quarterly of the California Historical Historical Society, Society, X, hereafter as X, No.3 No. 3 (September, 1931), 298-301, 298-301, cited hereafter X; Benj. C. C. Wright, Wright, Watson, California Historical Society, X; Ocean Trade, Trade, Past and Future (San Francisco: Francisco: San Francisco's Ocean A. Carlisle & & Co., Co., 1911), 6, 6, cited hereafter as Wright, Wright, A. San Francisco's Ocean Trade. Trade. ~an Watson, California Historical Society, X, X, 298-301; 298-301; 3Watson, Bancroft, History of California, 1848-1859, VI, VI, 114-16. 114-16. 3 57 18:48, ; to take her place on the Pacific line between 18'48 .,. between Panama and Oregon. Oregon. At the time of her departure public .. - ,--, interest had not been aroused and she carried no gold carried no seekers. seekers. Great was the surprise of the captain when arrivarriv­ ing at Callao, Callao, Peru, Peru, in December, he found a gold-mad throng incited by the stories of Lieutenant Lieutenant Loeser. Loeser. He thus quickly took aboard fifty to seventy-five and continued P a n a m a .4 toward panama. 4 Meanwhile, the United States Steamship Company's steamer Falcon left New York for Chagres on 1, 1848, 1848, just four days before the President's December 1, message. message. By the time she arrived in New Orleans the fervor, and over two hundred excited excited forfor­ people were in a fervor, clamored aboard. tune hunters clamored arrived at Chagres on They arrived 26, 1848, 1848, and proceeded proceeded to make arrangements to December 26, the California 5 cross to Panama to await the arrival of theCalifornia. As the Bidlack Treaty with New Granada had just been ratified the previous spring, no special arrangements arrangements 4John J o h n Carl Parish, Parish, "By Sea to California," The Trans-Mississippi West, Papers read at a conference conference~ld held at 1929, ed. ed. the University of Colorado June 18 -- June 21, 21, 1929, James F. F. Willard Willard and Colin B. B. Goodykoontz (Boulder: (Boulder: UniverUniver­ sity of Colorado, 1930), 127, 127, cited hereafter as Parish, Parish, "By Sea to California"; Kemble, The Panama Route, Route, 31. 31. 4 par ish, "By Sea to California," 127; 5Parish, 127; Kemble, Kemble, The tanama Panama Route, Route. 32; 32; Wright, San Francisco's Ocean Trade Trade,,"""'IS. 15. 5 58 had been made for transportation across the isthmus. isthmus. There were not even any wharves at Chagres or Panama, and the the . A passengers had to be carried backs of sturdy carried ashore on the backs natives. natives. Chagres was a dirty little place of about thirty huts and already had the reputation of being one one of of the most unhealthy places in Christendom. Many of of the the passenpassen­ gers who had their lives insured before leaving had had a clause in their policy which stipulated stipulated that remaining remaining at Chagres overnight would constitute a forfeiture of their their policy.6 policy. From Chagres the only means of travel across the isthmus was by canoe, canoe, or bungo, bungo, up the Chagres River to the village of Gorgona and thence by mile train train twentymiles; or, or, if the river was high, high, to Cruces and eight miles; Panama.7 thence twenty-four miles to Panama. 7 The trip up the river occupied from three to seven days as the natives had to occupied stream.^8 pole the bungos against the stream. When the Falcon's 6This Letts in in CaliThis statement is claimed by John M. Letts Cali­ fornia Illustrated: Including a Description of the Panama 1852), York: William William Ho1dredge, Holdredge, 1852), and Nicaragua Routes (New York: Letts, California Illustrated. Illustrated. 14, cited hereafter as Letts, 7Ju1ius '49," Julius H. H. Pratt, Pratt, "To California by Panama in 4 9," The Century, Century. XLI, XLI, New Series XIX (November, 1890 to April, April, 1891), 904, XLI. 904, cited hereafter as Pratt, The Century, XLI. 7 f g 8Joseph Joseph W. W. Gregory, Gregory, Gregory's Gregory's Guide Guide for for California California Travellers; via The Isthmus of Panama (New York: Travellers; via The Isthmus of Panama (New York: Nafis Nafis & 1850), 4, 4, cited cited hereafter hereafter as as Gregory, Gregory, Gregory's Gregory s & Cornish, Cornish, 1850), Guide. occupied three Guide. Gregory Gregory says says that that the the trip trip usually usually occupied three 1 59 passengers arrived in Chagres, Chagres, the landlord landlord at one of the hotels exhibited, in a confidential way to a few acquaint ;- :, acquaint­ ances, he alleged ances, a four-ounce vial of gold dust which he alleged came from California. This worked like a charm there was charm and there a rush to obtain aa bungo to proceed up the river, river, as the California was supposed to be due at Panama on the fifth of January. The great demand for bungos placed the price trip.^ at from $50 to $60 a trip.9 At Gorgona and Cruces there was an equal scarcity scarcity of pack animals, animals, and numbers abanaban­ doned their luggage and merchandise or left it to the care irretrievably lost in the confusion and of agents to be irretrievably 10 foot.10 hurried to Panama on foot. January 5 came and went and still there there was was no sign of the California. California. Many became impatient impatient and, unwillunwill­ ing to wait, set out in decrepit old boats and even in log canoes and by land in their hurry to get to the the mines. m i n e s .ll ^ days; days; Julius H. H. Pratt says that it took him him four days to Gorgona, The Century, XLI, XLI, 904; 904; and John M. Letts reach Gorgona, states that that it it took took him seven days, days, California California Illustrated, Illustrated, states him seven 27. 27. 9Wright, the price ^Wright, San Francisco's Francisco s Ocean Trade, Trade, 19; 19; the later dropped to from $30 to $40, $40, Gregory, Gregory's Guide, Guide, 4. 4 f 10Bancroft, VI, B a n c r o f t , History of California, 1848-1859, VI, 131-32; Gregory, Gregory's Guide, Guide, 5. 5. 10 llparish, P a r i s h , "By Sea to California," 127. 127. U 60 When the California finally anchored at Panama on January January 17, 17, 1848, five more vessels had landed their living cargoes at River, and it was reported the mouth of the Chagres River, reported that opportunity to get there were 1,500 people awaiting the opportunity 2 across the isthmus in the absence of canoes and bungos.1 bungos.^ The California had been constructed constructed to carry some 250 passengers at the outside. outside. Many times that that number were eagerly anticipating berths were anticipating passage, passage, and while berths built tickets exbuilt in in the the open open spaces spaces aboard aboard the the steamer, steamer, tickets ex­ changed hands at exceedingly higher rates. rates. Many wanted nothing more than to make their bed in a pile of of rope; rope; rose, it is said, to $1,000 or more. more. steerage tickets rose, Over 400 passengers had been crowded aboard when the California 31, 1849. 1 8 4 9 .13 ^ sailed for San Francisco on January 31, One of the passengers described the crowded conditions in these words: words: The main deck is difficult to cross without stepping upon some of the numerous recumbent that are recumbent forms that extended around. around. 12Kemble, K e m b l e , The Panama Route, Route, 34:, 34;; Wright, San FranFran­ cisco's Ocean Trade, the Builders Trade, 18; 18; Bancroft, Chronicles of the of the Commonwealth, V, V, 384. 384. lz l3Kemble, •^Kemble, The Panama Route, Route, 35; 35; Bancroft, History VI, 134; 134; Bancroft, Chronicles of of California, 1848-1859, VI, V, 385; 385; Parish, "By Sea the Builders of the Commonwealth, V, to California," 127. 127. , -- 61 Everywhere the ship is crowded, the passages on each side of the machinery, the upper and and lower lower forward decks, the bows bows aft decks, the long steerage extending from the aft,. on both sides of the engine--all are full, full, and many of the berths are occupied occupied by two passengers each. each. The state rooms and cabins are all crowded crowded to their utmost 14 capacity. 14 x capacity. ^ On February 28, 1849, the city of San Francisco On February 28, 1849, the city of San Francisco turned out to the very limit of its population to bid welturned out to the very limit of its population to bid wel­ come to the California. The Pacific Squadron opened the come to the California. The Pacific Squadron opened the welcome with a boom which rolled over the waters, boats welcome with a boom which rolled over the waters, boats came out and their occupants poured into strained ears came out and their occupants poured into strained ears reassuring stories of the richness of the mines. These reassuring stories of the richness of the mines. These stories were so attractive that before the passengers had stories were so attractive that before the passengers had fairly left the steamer, she was deserted by all the offifairly left the steamer, she was deserted by all the offi­ cers and crew except Captain Cleveland Forbes and one of cers and crew except Captain Cleveland Forbes and one of the engine-room boys--a practice which was soon to turn the engine-room boys--a practice which was soon to turn the bay into a graveyard of deserted ships.15 the bay into a graveyard of deserted ships When the Oregon, second of the Pacific Mail steamers, When the Oregon, second of the Pacific Mail steamers, reached Paidama on February 23, 1848, there were some 1,200 reached Parlama on February 23, 1848, there were some 1,200 persons between Chagres and Panama struggling to get to persons between Chagres and Panama struggling to get to California. She sailed for San Francisco On March 13 with California. She sailed for San Francisco On March 13 with l4"By Littell's " B y Sea and Land to California," Littell s Living Age, XXI, XXI, 164, 164, cited hereafter as Littell's Littell s Living Age, Age, XXI. XXI. 1 4 1 f l5Bancroft, VI, B a n c r o f t , History History of of California, California, 1848-1859, 1848-1859, VI, 137; Kemble, Kemble, The Panama Route, Route, 35. 35. 15 ~ ~ 62 250 passengers, passengers, leaving hundreds on the isthmus. isthmus. By the time the Panama arrived and departed in May with with 290 .. .- '..1 passengers, over 2,000 passengers, those left behind had mounted to over 16^ desperate souls. souls. to The three steamers were entirely inadequate to carry the travelers who were arriving in Panama and and demanddemand­ ing ing passage passage to to the the mines. mines. Fortunately the mass, mass, aa few Fortunately for for the few sailing vessels had casually arrived in Panama and a few more were called from adjoining points. points. With the the approach of spring every available ship was made ready to to sail. sail. A A purchased a Peruvian-built Peruvian-built schooner, schooner, party of fifty-two purchased eaten, weatherbeaten, and minus her keel, keel, for $5,000 worm eaten, 21, 1849. 1849. and sailed in her on March 21, The whaling bark Equator sold her cargo of whale oil at Panama and took 130 passengers, while the whaler Niantic sailed sailed in April with passengers, 300. The Humboldt, a ship of five hundred tons, was hundred tons, anchored in the harbor as a storeship for coal under a bond of $10,000 to remain as such. such. Due to the prevailing prevailing sicksick­ ness and distress, distress, the consignee was persuaded persuaded to forfeit his his bond bond and and send send the the vessel vessel to to San San Francisco. Francisco. The The arrangearrange ments provided that the number of passengers was was to to be l6Kemble, Kemble, The Panama Route, Route, 36. 36. 63 400, the price of passage was to be $200 each, each, limited to 400, .. such. ~.> and no cooked provisions were to be furnished, except such. fifty-gallon as could be prepared once a day in a large fifty-gallon kettle. iron kettle. cleared out and The hold of the vessel was cleared bunks of boards were arranged arranged in tiers along the sides so space, measuring six feet high, wide, that each cube of space, high, wide, and deep respectively, should contain nine persons. persons. This all, but the rest were to seek places did not provide for all, davits. to sleep on deck or in the boats hung at the davits. promiscu­ Upon boarding, the leader of this group found "a promiscuous crowd from every nation under heaven, heaven, the predominating predominating American rough." type being that of the American The deck was so densely packed packed with men from stem to stern that they could move. scarcely move. sickness, or "Many were prostrate with sickness, friends, or lying in hammocks swung along the supported by friends, rigging.. . .A11 All day long this crowd of men were seething, seething, sside ide rigging swaying, quarreling, quarreling, and and cursing. cursing. swaying, No food food was provided, No was provided, and hunger hunger and and thirst thirst gave gave edge edge to to the the bad bad passions of the the and passions of mob. 1117 mob." ? 1 These conditions remained relatively relatively unrelieved throughout 1849. 1849. Passengers arrived from the the Atlantic 17pratt, New York York Herald, ••-'Pratt, The Century, XLI, XLI, 905-06; 905-06; New Herald, April 8, 37. 8, 10, 10, 1849; 1849; Kemble, The Panama Route, Route, 37. ... 64 transported up the coast, coast, seaboard faster than they could be transported and every ssteamer teamer from Panama for San Francisco left more passengers behind than it took. took. ,;..1 Even as late as November November the Oregon left 400 fortune hunters at Panama, although she carried 444 on that trip, trip, the largest list of any steamer lS for for the the year. year. The The vast vast majority majority of of the the sailing sailing vessels vessels that trip. that left left Panama Panama never never returned returned for for a a second second trip. Once Once they arrived at San Francisco, passengers and crew crew headed for the gold fields leaving the ship stranded the bay. stranded in the bay. Bancroft gives the following description of this this growing graveyard: By the middle of November upward of six hundred hundred vessels harbor, and in the following year came had entered the harbor, more. The larger proportion were left to swing still more. at anchor in the bay, bay, almost without guard--at guard--at one time more than 500 could be counted--for the crews, crews, possessed no less than the passengers by the gold rushed no less than the passengers by the gold fever, fever, rushed once, carrying off the ship boats, boats, and caring away at once, little for for the the pay due them, them, and and still still less less for for the the little pay due dilemma of the consignees of the captain. The helpless dilemma of the consignees of the captain. The helpless commander frequently frequently joined in the the flight. flight. So So high was commander joined in high was the cost of labor, and so glutted the market at times the cost of labor, and so glutted the market at times with certain certain goods, goods, that that in in some some instances instances it it did did not not with pay to to unload unload the the cargo. cargo. Many Many vessels vessels were left to to rot, rot, pay were left or to be beached for conversion into stores and lodgingor to be beached for conversion into stores and lodginghouses. The The disappointments disappointments and and hardships hardships of mines houses. of the the mines brought many penitants back in the autumn, so as to brought many penitants back in the autumn, so as to permit the the engagement engagement of of crews. crews. 19 19 permit 18Wright, 31. W r i g h t , San San Francisco's Francisco's Ocean Ocean Trade, Trade, 31. 10 19Bancroft, VI, B a n c r o f t , History of California, 1848-1859, VI, 19 167-68. 167-68. , t 65 During 1849 prices in the sailing vessels vessels to to San Francisco ranged ranged from $100 to $300, usually the the,~) $300, though usually , ^ s $200. cabin fare was not over $200. Of the immigrants who arrived in 1849, 1849, it was estimated estimated that 35,000 came by sea, sea, to which ships. should be added 3,000 sailors who left their ships. Land arrivals for the same year were put down at 42,000 and the population of the state at the close of the year was 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 .20 100,000. 20 Throughout 1850 the Pacific Mail Steamship Company and the United States Mail Steamship Company actively comCompany actively com­ peted for the passenger trade between the Atlantic Atlantic and and the Pacific. Pacific. The Pacific Mail placed steamers on the the Atlantic and to and the the backers backers of of the the United United States States Mail Mail sent sent steamers steamers to the known as the Pacific Pacific to to be be operated operated by by an an organization organization known as the the Law Line. Line. This competition January 21, 21, competition continued continued until January 1851, when when the two companies signed an agreement which was agreement which to regulate their relations until the end of the mail concon­ 1859. tracts in 1859. By this agreement the United States Mail sold the steamers it had been operating on the Pacific to Mail, and in turn it purchased purchased the steamers the the Pacific Mail, 20wright, ^Wright, Chronicles of the Bancroft, History Route, The Panama Route, San Francisco's Ocean Trade, 31; 31; Bancroft, Bancroft, Builders of the Commonwealth, V, V, 386; 386; 168; Kemble, Kemble, of California, 1848-1859, VI, VI, 168; 39. 39. 66 , companies agreed to cooperate in business matters, matters, encour-;l encour- r aging the sale of through tickets and carrying carrying through Pacific Mail had been operating on the Atlantic. The two I. t, freight. freight. The receipts for the freight were to to be be divided, divided, with and 36 per cent with 64 64 per per cent cent going going to to the the Pacific Pacific Mail Mail and 36 per cent to to the the United United States States Mail. Mail. From trade in From six six steamers steamers engaged engaged in in the the Panama Panama trade in 1849, and from 1849, the the number number had had risen risen to to twenty-one twenty-one in in 1850; 1850; and from fourteen trips trips in 1849, made in 1850. 1849, there were forty-one made 1850. With one exception, all of the twenty-one steamers brought up, the number varying from twentypassengers on every trip up, 495, while the total number was 7,718 against 3,959 two to 495, 1849. in 1849. Despite this large amount of steamer tonnage in 1850, the steamer California, on her last trip trip up up for that year, reported year, reported forty-five sailing vessels at Panama, most 2l Francisco.21 of which were entered for San Francisco. 2lWright, 31-33; Kemble, W r i g h t , San San Francisco's Francisco's Ocean Ocean Trade, Trade, 31-33; Kemble, 38-52. Route, 38-52. The Panama Route, Zi t 67 Crossing the Isthmus at Nicaragua Although the vast majority of passengers in 18591850, crossed to California via the Isthmus of Panama or sailed around Cape Horn, Horn, many sought to save time and money by selecting one of the shorter routes farther up up the isthmus. isthmus. popu­ Of these the Nicaragua route was the most popu- lar and destined to become the most traveled. Unconcious Unconcious controversy that was evolving over the of the diplomatic controversy route, passengers were early attracted by its natural lakes route, and waterways. waterways. Perhaps they had read Napoleon's glowing description, at any rate there was plenty of information transit. available to acquaint them with the details of the the transit. From San Juan del Norte on the Atlantic, travelers could ascend up the San Juan River 122 miles to Lake Nicaragua and then proceed across the lake 120 miles to the city of Granada. Granada. From Granada it was another 134 miles by by land land to to 22 the Pacific port of Realejo.22 the Pacific port of Realejo. Among the first of the gold seekers to attempt Among the first of the gold seekers to attempt this route was a company organized by Gordon's Passenger this route was a company organized by Gordon's Passenger o o . G. Squier, Nicaragua, I, 26; Correo del Istmo de 22E " E . G. Squier, Nicaragua, I, 26; Correo del Istmo de Nicaragua, March 13, 1851; U.S., Congress, Senate, Report of Nicaragua. March 13, 1851; U.S., Congress, Senate, Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, 1899-1901, 57th Cong., 1st the Isthmian Canal Commission, 1899-1901, 57th Cong., 1st Sess., 1901-1902, S. Doc. 54, Part I, Ser. no. 4225, 108, Sess., 1901-1902, S. Doc. 54, Part I, Ser. no. 4225, 108, cited hereafter as Report of the Isthmain Canal Commission, cited hereafter as Report of the Isthmain Canal Commission, S. Doc. 54, Ser. no. 4225. S. Doc. 54, Ser. no. 4225. 68 Line of New York. York. The ticket served as a brochure for the proposed journey: proposed , * Gordon's Line to Gordon's Passenger Passenger Line to San San Francisco, Francisco, via via Lake Lake Nicaragua and Rea1ejo. Nicaragua and Realejo. On payment payment of Balance, One Hundred Hundred and Thirty Dollars, this Receipt secures to him passage passage in the Hayes, from New York to San Juan de Mary, Captain Hayes, Nicaragua, from thence per Steam Steam Boat P1utus Plutus to GranGran­ ada, on Lake Nicaragua; or, or, navigation permitting, to ada, Leon, as may Managua, Matiares or Nagarote on Lake Le6n, convenient for landing; and a passage from be most convenient Realejo, on the Pacific, to San Francisco, with Hammock, Hammock, Realejo, accommoda­ Bed, and Bedding Bedding for the the voyage, ~oyage, and Camp accommodations during detention on land, en route. tions during detention on land, en route. Saloon Passengers will be expected expected to form into Messes, and the Gentlemen in rotation to receive and cooks. Passengers serve up their own meals from the cooks. Steward provided who take State Rooms will have a Steward provided who will expect a fea feer of $5 from each passenger. passenger. The propro­ cases. visions are alike in both cases. Gentlemen Passengers, Passengers, if required, will have to walk from Granada or Lake Leon to Rea1ejo 3 Realejo (1~ (1% to 3 days days'r march). march). In the unexpected In unexpected event of Vessels not being propro­ days' proviprovi­ cured, $75 of the passage money and 60 days' Realejo, sions will be refunded to each passenger at Realejo, procure passage in the Mail Steamers which which will procu~e 23 there.^3 touch there. New York York on February The brig Mary left New February 20, 20, 1849, 1849, with 130 passengers and landed at San Juan del Norte twenty later. days later. After three weeks' weeks' detention, the boiler and machinery of the steamboat, which had been machinery been brought with them and put together, was declared worthless and the 23Roger R o g e r S. S. Baldwin, Jr., Jr., "Tarrying in Nicaragua," Nicaragua," The Century, New Series XX XX (October, 1891), 911-12, 911-12, Century. XLII, XLII, New cited hereafter as Baldwin, The Century, XLII. XLII. J 69 company bungos, the company left to proceed up the river, river, half in bungos, other half on the remains of the steamboat. .. the~ Each night thev. camped camped on some sandy beach and spent an hour or so hunting turtle or iguana eggs and catching fish. fish. These were were easily cooked and combined combined with some coffee made an exc~llent excellent meal. meal. Eight days were thus spent, and after struggling past on Lake past the the rapids rapids the the group group arrived arrived at at San San Carlos Carlos on Lake Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Here after two two days' Here they they changed changed piraguas, piraguas, and and after days' detention set sail for Granada, landing there on the the thirthir­ teenth of April. April. Mules and carts were employed employed for the trip to Realejo and, while some pushed on, on, many elected time. to remain in the city for a time. Part of the company found passage on a ship for San Francisco during the first June, while the rest were forced to remain at Realejo of June, appeared and took until the brigantine Laura Ann finally appeared 20. them aboard on July 20. company did not The last of the company 4, 1849, 1849, seven months arrive at San Francisco until October 4, York.^ and fourteen days from New York.24 4 Because of the limited facilities for transit, transit, the length of time involved, and the uncertainty of obtaining uncertainty of passage from Realejo up the coast, few passengers crossed 24Baldwin, Baldwin, The The Century, Century, XLII, XLII, 912-30. 912-30. 70 to California via the Nicaragua route throughout 1849 and the early part of 1850. 1850. In May 1849, 1849, the United States charge d'affaires to Guatemala was forced to obtain pass­ passage from New York on the brig Francis which which he described described "encumbered with pigs and poultry, poultry, as having her decks "encumbered tarpaulins, to say nothing of water casks and spars and tarpaulins, tar barrels, barrels, forbidding in advance any peregrinations, by deck." -* unsteady landsmen, beyond the quarter deck.,,~5 2 Only two appeared in the advertisements for San Juan del Nicaragua appeared New York Herald Herald prior to June 1851. 1851. The schooner EnterEnter­ prise advertised advertised to sail in July 1850, 1850, and Vanderbilt's December 27, 1850, on new steamer Prometheus departed on December 27, 1850, Nicaragua. her maiden voyage to Nicaragua. Although the vessels out of New York preferred preferred the Panama or Cape Horn route to California, in the spring of 1850 advertisements began to appear in the New Orleans and San Francisco papers attracting attention to the climate, abundance of provisions, provisions, and cheaper healthier climate, Nicaragua. transportation by way of Nicaragua. Even the editors of attempted to attract the Correo del Istmo de Nicaragua attempted ->Squier, I, 50. 50, The trip from New York 25 Squier, Nicaragua, I, to San Juan del Norte Norte took twenty-six days. days. 2 71 passengers and claimed that what what would cost one dollar in in claimed that Panama could be had in Nicaragua of a better quality for twenty-five cents, men in numbers of forty could cents, and that men cross from ocean to to ocean for as little as $9 to to $11 each. ^ e a c h .26 2 In early July, further attention was was drawn to the isthmus when announcements appeared New York and appeared in the New San papers that that the the agents Howard & San Francisco Francisco papers agents of of Howard & Son's Son's and Law & Pacific steamers had had arranged & Company's lines of Pacific Realejo, which would for building wharves in the harbor of Realejo, become their principal coal and provision depot where all stop, both in their uPWard upward and of their steamers would would stop, downward passage. passage. With such provisions promised promised for the transportation of passengers from Realejo to San Francisco, Francisco, transportation sailing vessels vessels at at New Orleans prepared to capitalize capitalize on on sailing New Orleans prepared to the Nicaragua route. the Nicaragua route. On July July 31, 31, 1850, 1850, the fast sailing clipper Thorn advertised advertised to leave from New Orleans for San Juan, Nicaragua, Nicaragua, on the first of September next. September next. The advertisement advertisement stated that flrom ~rom San Juan to Realejo on the Pacific, the route would be be by the river San Juan and Lake Nicaragua Nicaragua with twelve miles of land carriage, and that that the route was 1,000 1,000 26Correo C o r r e o del Istmo de Nicaragua, May 30, 30, 1850. 1850. 2 6 l 72 miles shorter than any other in operation. operation. Evidently attracting passen;--.> passenthe captain was somewhat skeptical about attracting • gers, as even the Nicaraguans stated the distance from Realejo to be 134 miles. miles. Granada to Rea1ejo He soon had other worries, for on August 22, 22, the clipper brig Major Eastland worries, was up to sail with dispatch, and in October three more advertising to sail from New Orleans for San ships were advertising N i c a r a g u a27 ^ Juan de Nicaragua. As passengers were beginning to depart from New Orleans, arrangements were being made on the Pacific Pacific to Realejo. call at Realejo. 24, 1850, 1850, the Empire City Line On August 24, advertised advertised in the Alta California that the steamship Northerner would stop at Rea1ejo to Panama in in Northerner Realejo on the way to opportunity to those who preferred order to afford the opportunity preferred it to take the route through "the beautiful and healthy healthy State of Nicaragua." Nicaragua. " advertised On the same day the brig Taranto advertised Realejo and Panama. Panama. to sail for Rea1ejo During the following month the steamship Ecuador and no less than eleven sailing ships were up for Realejo and Panama, Panama, and the papers continued continued to advertise vessels daily in the succeeding succeeding months. months. By 27New 6, 'New Orleans Picayune, July 31, 31, August 22, 22, October 6 20, 29, March 13, 29, 1850; 1850; Correo del Istwo Istmo de Nicaragua, March 13, 1851. 1851. 73 January 1851, 1851, Wm. A. A. White and Company Company had established established a "Regular Packet Line and Passage Office" advertising advertising vessels •i·i~? to sail weekly for Rea1ejo and Panama. to sail weekly for Realejo and Panama. The Correo del Istmo The Correo del Istmo de Nicaragua reported that from the eighth to the thirtieth de Nicaragua reported that from the eighth to the thirtieth of November 1850, a total of 1,613 passengers had passed of November 1850, a total of 1,613 passengers had passed through Nicaragua. 28 An outraged American citizen had the through Nicaragua.28 An outraged American citizen had the following notice printed in the New York Herald on January 3, following notice printed in the New York Herald on January 3, 1851. 1851. It was dated at San Juan, December 3, 1850: It was dated at San Juan, December 3, 1850: We found the town town crowded with Californians, on home, via Rea1ejo. Realejo. There are about five their way home, hundred here at present, and "the cry is still they down the river yesterday, yesterday, come." One hundred came down, and reported eight hundred at the latter port. port. Much is shown by the passengers in not dissatisfaction 'is place, as they finding a ready conveyance from this place, instead of were led to believe would be the case; instead which, they have to await the arrival of the English Chagres, to take them there, there, when they steamer from Chagres, anticipate immediate conveyance from here to the States; of passage is $15 a head for the deck passage. passage. the rate of'passage today. What are our steamers Some two hundred go today. about? They might pay themselves, themselves, and accommodate accommodate American citizens anxious to get home, home, who now have American await an uncertain change in the British steamers. steamers. to 'await Notwithstanding Notwithstanding the absence of ready conveyance from San Juan del Norte to the States, States, passengers continued to to stream stream over over the the isthmus, isthmus, and and in in February February 1851 1851 it it was was reported that that 5,000 had passed over the Nicaragua route 28A1ta A l t a California, September September 1-30, 1850, 1850, January 5, 5, 1851; Correo del Istmo de Nic~ragua, Nicaragua, December December 26, 26, 1850. 1850. 2 8 74 pre­ . since the California travel commenced, and 500 were presently on the isthmus. isthmus. Rates of passage from New Orleans .• ~ to San Juan del Norte and from San Francisco to Realejo ranged from $70 to $80 in the cabin to $40 to $55 in the 29 steerage.29 steerage. The passage across Nicaragua, although taking more time, time, was healthier and on the whole more enjoyable than that by way of Panama. Panama. Upon arriving at Realejo, passenpassen­ gers were were taken taken to the shore aboard canoes or bungos, bungos, thence the more timid were carried to dry land on the backs of sturdy natives. natives. In the fall of 1850 Realejo boasted some 400 inhabitants. inhabitants. The houses were one story, story, built of adobes, adobes, and covered with tile. tile. A A spacious hotel was being built and the town had prospects of becoming Americanized. Due to the absence of hotels, hotels, many were obliged to take lodging in private homes where at night they slung themselves in a hammock at the mercy of the mosquitos. mosquitos. premium and a wait Horses and carts were at a premium uncommon. of two or more days to secure passage was not uncommon. A horse to Granada could A could be had for from $5 to $10, $10, and a cart which could be made to accommodate eight people with 29New February 15, 15, N e w Orleans Picayune, January 12, 12, 14, 14, February 1851; Alta Alta California, September September 24, 24, 1850. 1850. z y 75 their baggage baggage cost $20. $20. usually drawn by oxen. oxen. The carts were were crude affairs After placing their baggage baggage inside, inside, the passengers would seat themselves themselves atop the the trunks and bid the driver toward Granada. bid the driver to to proceed proceed toward Granada. Those Those with with more money often hired a mule when one was available. available. DurDur­ ing the the rainy rainy season the road was a continuous mudhole which, combined heat and the open conveyance, made combined with the heat the trip trip most uncomfortable. uncomfortable. The cities were delightful delightful spontaneously and the retreats where delicious fruits grew spontaneously incense. flower-laden vines permeated permeated the air with their incense. Provisions were abundant and consisted consisted of chickens, chickens, eggs, eggs, cheese, rice, rice, milk, chocolate, and almost every beef, cheese, fruit. variety of tropical fruit. A man could subsist on twentyA five to thirty cents a day, although one traveler traveler reports days. that he he spent $15 in eight days. The trip from Realejo Realejo to to Granada by mule or cart took between four and seven days, days, a distance of 134 miles. miles. At Granada passage passage across the the lake and down the river river to to secured in exaggerated exaggerated canoes called San Juan del Norte was secured bungos. bungos. Some of these these were hollowed hollowed from a single tree, tree, but the the better varieties varieties were were built built from the timber of the cedro, cedro, a very light and durable kind of wood, which when water. loaded drew only from two to three feet of water. They 76 were long, from eight to to long, rather deep and narrow, and held from twelve oarsmen who drove them along by means of long sweeps A~t \* * i and setting-poles. and setting-poles. The sails used on the lake were un- The sails used on the lake were un­ shipped prior to descending the river. shipped prior to descending the river. There was a small There was a small space near the stern called the chopa covered with a board space near the stern called the chopa covered with a board roof, a thatch of palm leaves, or with hides which was roof, a thatch of palm leaves, or with hides which was assigned to the passengers. assigned to the passengers. The rest of the boat was open, The rest of the boat was open, and the oarsmen, or marineros, slept upon their benches at and the oarsmen, or marineros, slept upon their benches at night, covered only with their blankets with the gunwale night, covered only with their blankets with the gunwale of the boat for a common pillow. of the boat for a common pillow. One of these bungos, One of these bungos, capable of carrying twenty-five men with their baggage, capable of carrying twenty-five men with their baggage, could be obtained for around $80. could be obtained for around $80. From Granada the trip across the lake and down the From Granada the trip across the lake and down the river--the bungos shooting the rapids with all aboard-river--the bungos shooting the rapids with all aboard-usually took three days. usually took three days. Upon arriving at San Juan del Upon arriving at San Juan del Norte, the passengers discovered that civilization had been Norte, the passengers discovered that civilization had been left behind. left behind. The city, if it could be called such, was The city, if it could be called such, was composed of a double row of huts, some built of boards but composed of a double row of huts, some built of boards but most of reeds, and all thatched with palm leaves. most of reeds, and all thatched with palm leaves. center of the line of houses was an open space. center of the line of houses was an open space. In the In the In the In the middle of this was a building larger than the others, but middle of this was a building larger than the others, but of like construction, surrounded by a high fence of canes, of like construction, surrounded by a high fence of canes, and near one end rose a stumpy flagstaff from which flew and near one end rose a stumpy flagstaff from which flew 77 the flag of the "King of the Mosquitos." This was was the This .. Juan, the residence of all the British .. customhouse of San Juan, officials. officials. The trip west from San Juan del Norte to to the the Paci­ Pacific port of Realejo was complicated complicated by the task of passing River. the rapids in the San Juan River. This journey journey took from eight to ten days as the bungos had to be poled poled against the current, and at the Machuca, Castillo, and Toro rapids the passengers had to disembark with their baggage baggage while struggled to pull the natives natives struggled pull the bungo past past the the rocks. rocks. Despite the the inconveniences inconveniences of of the the trip, trip, the the passengers passengers Despite were usually usually entranced entranced by by the the beauties of the tropical were beauties of the tropical forest which formed an an impenetrable impenetrable wall wall along along the river forest which formed the river bank with with blooming vines and and flowery flowery garlands, garlands, inhabited inhabited bank blooming vines by exotic exotic colored colored birds, birds, strange strange snakes, snakes, and and chattering chattering by monkeys.30 monkeys.30 30Charies trip across the ^ C h a r l e s R. R. Parke, Parke, "Journal of a trip plains from Illinois to California by by way of of Ft. Ft. Lara-Mil & & Donner Donner Pass; Pass; mining on on the the Feather River; River; and aa voyage voyage from San Francisco to to New New Orleans via Nicaragua," MS MS in the Huntington Library; Julius Froebe1, Years Travel Froebel, Seven Years in Central America, Northern Mexico, and the Far Far West West of the United States (London: (London: Richard Bentley, 1859), 19-27, cited hereafter as Froebe1, Froebel, Seven Years Travel; Correo del Istmo de Nicaragua, May 30, Nicaragua, I, I, 30, 1850; 1850; Squier, Nicaragua, Letts, California Illustrated, 141-60. 141-60. 55-113; Letts, ,J' 78 The Isthmus of Tehuantepec Tehuantepec Besides Panama and Nicaragua, various routes routes from the Gulf of Mexico were tried by the early early fortune hunters expenses. in an effort to save time and cut down expenses. When passengers discovered that every ticket by the Howland Howland and Aspinwall steamers for Chagres had been sold for months advance, they eagerly sought to take advantage of the in advance, much-lauded routes, routes, for which enterprising enterprising men new and much-lauded were organizing companies to be put through safely "in days," the "rapid transit" of the time. time. sixty days," One of these companies known as the New England Pioneers went by rail from Boston via Charleston to New Orleans, thence by by boat Orleans, thence to Vera Cruz. Cruz. Traveling inland to Mexico City and and across ~ Bias, they again took ship to Mazatlan and trans­ to San BIas, transferred there to another boat which proved proved to be leaky and ~ . Jose, Mex~co. Mexico. set them t h em down at San Jose, From there they traveled ~ north by land taking fifty-one days from San Jose to San 3l Diego.31 Diego. Of all these various routes, routes, tpe the only one that route. became regularly traveled was the ancient Tehuantepec route. 3lB Ba a lldwin, d w i n , The Century, XLII, XLII, 9l1~ 911i Parish, "By Sea 135. to California," 135. Ji 79 On March 14, 14, 1850, 1850, an advertisement advertisement appeared in the Alta California Hunter leaves California advertising advertising that that the the "Gold "Gold Hunter leaves totomorrow morrow for for Tehuantepec, Tehuantepec, with with intention intention of of opening opening the the new new route to the the United United States. States. The distance to be be traveled across to Minatit1an, across the the Isthmus Isthmus of of Tehuantepec Tehuantepec is is 110 110 miles miles to Minatitlan, where passengers will enbark on board the steamer Alabama, Alabama, for New New Orleans." Evidently the owners of the Gold Hunter Evidently the were either purposely purposely misleading misleading the the public or misinformed, misinformed, for the Alabama did not make her first trip from New Orleans December 5 of that year. year. until December On November November 19, 19, 1850, 1850, the first advertisement advertisement for Tehuantepec appeared in the New New Orleans Picayune, announcing announcing the opening of the route by the steamship Alabama on the fifth of December. advertisement stated that the The advertisement shortened nearly travel to San Francisco was shortened nearly 2,000 miles and the cost greatly reduced; passage being set at $50 in the steerage. saloon, $45 in lower cabin, and $30 in the steerage. It claimed that the country to be traversed claimed traversed was healthy and facilities for travel were considered considered abundant, the road was dis­ open with mules and horses obtainable, and an~ the whole dishours. tance could be made in about twenty-four hours. admitted It admitted established arrangement of travel had yet been made that no established Company of New Orleans, Orleans, but they proposed by the Tehuantepec Company 80 to give it their immediate attention and in the meantime opportunity to become prac~ prac­ desired to afford the public an opportunity acquainted with a route of communication communication which tically acquainted highway. would soon become the great highway. The Alabama sailed on schedule arriving arriving at Vera Cruz on December 16 and continued continued up the river 144 miles to Minatitlan, the port port of entry. entry. From Minatitl{n to Minatitlan to Suchil, the head of navigation, it was 90 more more miles miles up the river. river. At ~uchil were hired §uchil mules, mules, horses, horses, or carts were for the land passage of 117 miles to Ventosa, the Pacific terminus, terminus, making the whole distance of the route across 231 231 miles. miles. After the route, route, pasAfter this this initial initial opening opening of of the pas­ sengers continued continued to travel via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Tehuantepec, the vessels on the Pacific stopping at Ventosa to to discharge and embark passengers. passengers. Although there were never never a great many passengers, passengers, one or two sailing vessels were continucontinu­ 32 Orleans.^2 ally up for Tehuantepec out of New Orleans. 32New November 19, 3^New Orleans Orleans Picayune, Picayune, November 19, 1850 1850 through through 1857; (Captain) (Captain) Seymour, The Isthmian Routes, July 1857; Routes, AA Brief Description of Each Projected Projected Route, Route, and of Those Now Description Harbors, the ComCom­ Existing, Showing the Capacity of Their Harbors, Each, and the Distance by Each from parative Advantages of Each, Infor­ New York to San Francisco, from the Best Sources of Information, and from Personal Observation and Survey over Each, mation, Observation Each, York: Hall, in the Years from 1856 to 1861 (New York: Hall, Clayton & Medole, Medole, 1863), 1863), 3-4, 3-4, cited cited hereafter hereafter as as Seymour, Seymour, The The & Isthmian Routes. Routes. --- 81 While the passengers were thus engrossed in finding their way across the isthmus~ ~~ being,,, isthmus > their activities were being • watched with interest by one of New York!s York's leading entreentre­ watched preneurs. preneurs. determined to turn his attenatten­ From the time he determined route, isthmian transportation never tion to the Nicaragua route, composure. regained its former composure. 82 .~ •• Fig. 2.--Cornelius Vanderbilt CHAPTER III BIRTH OF THE NICARAGUA NICARAGUA ROUTE WESTWARD, WESTWARD, 1851-1852 The Nicaragua Contract The early events of the rush across the the isthmus isthmus for California had not escaped the watchful eye of of Cornelius Vanderbilt. The business opportunities they afforded were in direct line with the work in which he had been been employed employed all his life. life. Captain of his own periauger eighteen, periauger at eighteen, he had expanded his operation of carrying passengers and forty-four, freight in the New York harbor until now, at forty-four, steamboat he was worth nearly a million dollars and his steamboat embraced most of the eastern continent. lines embraced A A man of capping his career with tireless energy, he had visions of capping importance.l an achievement of international importance. 1 lThe in the the middle •'•The first Vanderbilt came to America. America in of the seventeenth century. His descendents had had lived lived on a sterile farm on Staten Island for nearly two centuries centuries when Cornelius was born on the twenty-seventh of May May 1794. twenty-seventh of 1794. By ceaseless toil and strict economy, at eighteen he he was 84 After pouring over maps of Nicaragua Nicaragua and and familiarfamiliar­ point izing himself with the transit potentialities at that poi~~ isthmus, he concluded--like concluded--like Napoleon, the British, British, of the isthmus, investigated an interinter­ and the majority of those who had investigated canal--that the natural waterways of the San Juan oceanic canal--that captain and part owner of the largest periauger in the New York harbor. guided by by selfharbor. Throughout his career he was guided established rules, rules, by a strength of purpose that varied established not, and by a resolve as immutable as the rising and setset­ not, sun. Before he had reached the age of forty, forty, ting of the sun. he was worth half a million dollars and had a score of himself; vessels in commission, most of which he had built built himself; these were of so superior a character character and so rapidly inin­ bestowed upon him creasing in number that there was bestowed him by acclamation the title of "Commodore." This honorary honorary badge life, and the designation, designation, of distinction he wore all his life, universally employed employed first applied facetiously, was at last universally as a serious recognition of his worth and power. power. In 1849 steamboat lines embraced embraced almost the entire continent, continent, his steamboat 1853, he had $11 million and when he sailed for Europe in 1853, invested at 25 per cent a year. year. In 1865 he disposed disposed of all his vessels and invested from $30 to $40 million in rail­ railroads. Here he drove to the wall such veteran operators as roads. Fisk, Jay Gould, and Daniel Drew. Drew. Looking Looking back on James Fisk, day, not with the vainglorious his career he remarked one day, purse-proud millionaire, but with a just and boasting of a purse-proud becoming pride, million dollars pride, "I have mad~ madie on an average a million every year of my life, been worth worth at life, and each million has been least three millions to the people of the United United States." success, he replied, "I never When asked the secret of his success, tell anybody what II am going to do until II have done it." passed away on January 3, 3, 1877, 1877, leaving a fortune worth He passed million. "The Vanderbilt Family," MS in more than $100 million. the Bancroft Library; James Parton, Famous Americans of (Boston: Ticknow and Fields, Fields, 1868), 376-90; Recent Times (Boston: 376-90; W. A. A. Croffut, The Vanderbilts and the Story of Their ForFor­ W. 1886), tune (Chicago and New York: York: Belford, Clarke & & Co., Co., 1886), ~ Vanderbilts. 43-46, cited hereafter as Croffut, The Vanderbilts. 85 River and Lake Nicaragua offered the most likely spot for endeavor. the construction of such an endeavor. The events that had .. ~ dis­ followed the acquisition of the Pacific coast and the disattested to the fact covery of gold in California further attested that this was the opportune time to initiate the underunder­ taking. taking. After noting that the Pacific Mail Steamship Company passage via via Panama, Company had charged as high as $600 for passage Panama, Vanderbilt is reported as saying, "I can make money at half that rate, rate, taking my passengers by Lake Nicaragua, and saving saving at at least least seven seven hundred hundred miles miles of of distance.,,2 distance." 2 By the spring of 1849, had formulated aa 1849, Vanderbilt had plan and was ready to put put it into execution. William Henry William Aspinwall and his associates, the Pacific Pacific Mail associates, directors of the obtaining the Steamship Company, had been successful in obtaining pro­ Pacific mail contract and were presently making large propassengers. fits from the California passengers. Under the protection successfully completed completed of the Bidlack Treaty, they had also successfully a contract with New Granada in December 1848 to construct a transisthmian railroad railroad and had already already petitioned transisthmian petitioned Congress for aid in that undertaking. They were thus in exclusive successful control of that part of the isthmus and any successful 2"The " T h e Vanderbilt Family," MS in the Bancroft 2 Library. 86 competition competition would have to offer better facilities at some point. other point. Vanderbilt was convinced that he could could immediately immediately compete for the passenger passenger trade by opening the route through Nicaragua. was, he thought, some seven hundred It was, hundred miles effected by river and shorter than by Panama and could be effected lake steamers with only twelve miles of land travel. travel. While profitably engaged in transporting passengers, he thus profitably he could go ahead ahead with the project project of of constructing constructing an interoceanic go with the an interoceanic canal. canal. Upon its completion, completion, the the vessels vessels presently using the the Upon its presently using Panama route, route, in in order order to to avoid avoid the the delay delay and cost of of Panama and cost transshipment, would would most most certainly certainly use use his his canal, canal, and the transshipment, and the lucrative California California and and India India trade trade would would fall fall into his lucrative into his lap. lap. Here, for for the the first first time, time, was was combined combined in mind Here, in the the mind of aa man man capable capable of of the the undertaking, undertaking, the the lure of the Pacific of lure of the Pacific coast with with the the old old idea idea of of a a passage passage to to India. India. coast Thus the the Thus forces that that had had interested interested diplomats diplomats in in Central Central America, America, forces were also also working working upon upon American American capitalists. capitalists.^ 3 were 3The T h e early advertisements claimed claimed the saving to be 1,000 miles, miles, although later the claim claim was reduced 1,000 reduced to 700 miles. miles. On October 17, 17, 1850, 1850, the London Times stated, "A statement having been put forward that the saving by the Nicaraguan route over Panama is only 400 miles, miles, it would be sufficient to state on the authority of Mr. Mr. Arrowsmith, that sufficient the direct saving is 805 miles." Between 1856 and 1861 Captain Seymour surveyed the distance and set the saving J : ! I 87 Vanderbilt now turned to certain of his business .. associates, associates, including Captain Jake, Jake, Daniel B. B. Allen, and L. White. Joseph L. White. The latter was an Indiana lawyer who had York. recently moved to New York. A ability, A shrewd man of great ability, he had served a term in Congress as a Whig and had been a 1844. Presidential elector on the Clay ticket in 1844. Since the 1848, his Whigs had been successful in the election of 1848, political connections would would be invaluable. invaluable. The commodore's commodore's accepted and the group appointed appointed an agent, agent, idea was well accepted L. White, Colonel David L. White, to go to Nicaragua to negotiate isthmus. a contract for aa transit across the isthmus. They then Department of State used White's influence to petition petition the Department capitalists for aid in securing the contract, as British capitalists 4 were also seeking a similar grant. grant.^ That the petition to the Department Department of State State was successful was was seen in the instruction of Clayton to to Squier prior to his departure as United States charge at 524 miles, miles, The Isthmian Routes (New York: York: Hall, Hall, Clayton & Medole, Medole, 1863), 1863), 27. 27. Another survey survey made by John T. T. & in the early 1880's reduced the saving to 374 Sullivan in. Interoceanic Communication, 212. miles, Report on Interoceanic 212. 4 of the of the 86-87, 86-87, 4Wheaton J. Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt, and Epic Wheaton J. Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt, and Epic Steam Age (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1942), Steam Age (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1942), cited hereafter as Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt. cited hereafter as Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt. 88 5 d'affaires to Guatemala in May 1849. 1849.^ Because of circum~ circum r stances in Central America, as previously previously described, with ~t Squier's influence Colonel White White had had little trouble trouble in in concluding concluding a contract with Nicaragua in behalf of the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company, composed American Atlantic composed of White, Nathaniel Nathaniel H. of Cornelius Cornelius Vanderbilt, Vanderbilt, Joseph Joseph L. L. White, H. 6 Wolfe Wolfe and and their their associates. associates.^ The was signed The contract contract was signed on on August 27, ratified on the the twenty-sixth of the 27, 1849, 1849, and ratified same month. same month. Nicaragua granted the company Nicaragua granted to to the company the the exclusive exclusive right and privilege of constructing constructing a ship canal across its expense. territory, by a single route and at its own expense. In company agreed keeping with Clayton's instructions, the company that the canal would be open to the transit of vessels of tolls. all nations, nations, subject to fixed and uniform uniform tolls. For the company agreed to pay the state transit privilege the company $10,000 at at the ratification of of the the contract contract and and each each year year $10,000 the ratification thereafter until completion of of the the canal. canal. thereafter until the the completion Nicaragua Nicaragua was to to receive receive $200,000 of stock in the enterprise and 10 profits, without per cent of the the net net profits, without any deduction of company might establish establish interest, of any route which the company ->See text above page 41. 5See 41. 6See page 43. 43. ^See text above page 89 between the two oceans. oceans. The company company received received exclusive right to construct rail or carriage roads and to estab1isp~ establish .. l steamboats and steam lakes, as steam vessels on the rivers and lakes, might be necessary necessary to complete complete the canal. canal. In the event impos­ that the construction of the canal were to become imposcompany agreed sible by any unforeseen event, the company agreed to con;con~ rail-and-carriage road and water struct a railroad or rai1-and-carriage communication between the two oceans. oceans. communication By these last two company provided for the immediate immediate estabestab­ provisions, the company lishment of a transit to compete with Panama and an escape 1ishment clause to take advantage of the California traffic by some other means should the more grandiose canal project project fall through. through.7 7 With the Nicaragua contract ratified, Vanderbilt and his associates could now foresee only one serious obstacle to their plans. plans. If the British remained remained adamant in their desire ~esire to continue the Mosquito protectorate's protectorate's claim to the port of San Juan del Norte, Norte, all of their 7Manning, U.S. Manning, Central America, 1831-1850, 1831-1850, 361-66; 361-66; U.S. Docs., Message on Routes Between Atlantic and Pacific, Pacific, S. S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 86-93; 86-93; Nicaragua, Ministerio de Relaciones y Gobernacion, Contrato de Cana1izaci~n, Canalizacion, Ce1eCeleRe1aciones el Gobierno de Nicara Nicaragua brado Entre e1 ua y una Compaftfa Com aff!a de Ciudadanos de los Estados-Unidos de Norte-America Norte-Am rica (Le n, 1849).. 1849) 7 90 efforts would likely fall under the threat of the British fleet. fleet. At first discouraged discouraged by this opposition to an exclusively American American canal, canal, they were soon heartened heartened by exclusively the prospect of a compromise between between the two countries. countries. As it was as yet impossible to estimate the cost of the canal, would be canal, Bulwer's hints that London capitalists would ready to help finance the project project made made the compromise compromise even more inviting. The company company thus turned from a posiposi­ tion of hostility hostility to Britain Britain to to one of cooperation, and proceeded to exert its influence at Washington proceeded Washington for a settlement of the Clayton and Bulwer negotiations. negotiations. peaceful settlement Edward Carcache, Carcache, Nicaraguan Nicaraguan charge d'affaires d affaires at Washington, Washington, Edward f encouraged in his inclination to exert his influence influence was encouraged treaty. in behalf of the treaty. Even before the Clayton and Bulwer recognized by Treaty was was signed, Carcache's exertions were recognized company at a testimonial banquet the company banquet given in his honor honor in in New York. New York. Daniel B. B. Allen, Allen, vice vice president president of of the the company, company, Daniel presided while while Joseph Joseph L. L. White White made principal address. address. presided made the the principal Both Clayton Clayton and and Bulwer, Bulwer, as as well as the aging Henry Henry Clay Clay Both well as the aging who had long been interested in in an an isthmian isthmian canal, canal, sent sent who had long been interested regrets for for their their inability inability to attend. regrets to attend. Vanderbilt, like like Vanderbilt, the majority majority of of the of the Senate, was convinced the the members members of the Senate, was convinced that the the British British had agreed to to withdraw from the Mosquito 91 proceeded to conduct his business at San protectorate, and proceeded He also determined to sound determined to Juan with this understanding. ." , ; out the London capitalists as soon as proper arrangements arrangements o 8 could could be be made made on on the the isthmus. isthmus. Opening the Route and Surveying for a Canal Meanwhile, preparations had been undertaken for opening a transit across the isthmus and having having surveys made for the proposed canal. canal. On November 20, 1849, November 20, 1849, the company Nicaragua thanking thanking him company wrote to the President of Nicaragua for the reception reception given to Colonel White, and informing him within ninety to establish a him that that within ninety days days they they expected expected to establish a line line of of communication communication between between New New York York and and California California via via Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Orders Orders were were given given to to Jeremiah Jeremiah Simonson Simonson for for two the lake two shallow-draught shallow-draught steamboats steamboats to to operate operate on on the lake and river, river, while Vanderbilt also submitted submitted specifications specifications for an ocean steamship of 1,500 tons, christened the tons, later christened Prometheus. Prometheus. While waiting for the vessels to be built, built, arrangements were made to test the feasibility of navigating 8Manning, Manning, Central America, 1831-1850, 1831-1850, 528; 528; Lane, Lane, Commodore Commodore Vanderbilt, 89-90. 89-90. 8 92 the river and to explore a route for communication communication from Pacific. the lake to the Pacific. Orus, which The small steamer Orus, ^ ;t 4 transporting passengers from the steamships to had been transporting Chagres, was purchased the American American side of the river at Chagres, Q to make the trial run up the San Juan River. 9 to make the trial run up the San Juan River. David L. White was dispatched with a small party David L. White was dispatched with a small party in December 1849, on the Crescent City for Chagres where in December 1849, on the Crescent City for Chagres where they picked up the Orus, arriving at San Juan del Norte they picked up the Orus, arriving at San Juan del Norte on January 21, 1850. After preliminary investigation of on January 21, 1850. After preliminary investigation of the river, it was decided that some of the obstructions the river, it was decided that some of the obstructions would have to be removed before the steamer would be able would have to be removed before the steamer would be able to ascend. Leaving the Orus in port, the party proceeded to ascend. Leaving the Orus in port, the party proceeded to the interior in native bungos to examine the route. In to the interior in native bungos to examine the route. In February, White informed a reporter for the New York Herald February, White informed a reporter for the New York Herald in Le6n that the whole passage from ocean to ocean could be in Leon that the whole passage from ocean to ocean could be made in thirty-six hours by taking steamers up the river made in thirty-six hours by taking steamers up the river and across Lake Nicaragua, and then proceeding over only and across Lake Nicaragua, and then proceeding over only twelve miles of land travel to the Pacific. He foresaw twelve miles of land travel to the Pacific. He foresaw a saving of one week's time over the Panama route--two days a saving of one week's time over the Panama route--two days on the Atlantic and four on the Pacific. lO 1 on the Atlantic and four on the P a c i f i c ^ 9Correo 1850; ^Correo del Istmo de Nicaragua, March 1, 1850; Gregory, Gregory's Guide, Guide, 4. 4. 10New 10, N e w York Herald, December December 14, 14, 1849, 1849, March 10, 1850; Manning, Central America. 501. America, 1831-1850, 1831-1850, 501. 1 0 93 Convinced Convinced that it was feasible to establish an isthmus, White proceeded immediate transit across the isthmus, proceeded to ^ ;~ authorities iron out some minor reforms with the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan authorities and on March 9, 9, 1850, 1850, signed signed a modified modified contract contract and act incorporation which enabled the company company to carry into of incorporation full effect the objects and purposes of the grant as a incorporated in the State of Nicaragua. body politic incorporated Nicaragua. He then returned to New York to make a full report to the company. 11 Colonel White's report satisfied satisfied the company company that the project could be carried forth without without delay. delay. AccordAccord­ ingly, Colonel o. head a a corps 0. W. W. Childs was selcted to head of fourteen engineers to complete a survey of the the canal route. route. Childs fra\d h~.d conducted conducted the recent enlargement enlargement of the Erie of New New York York and Erie Canal Canal as as chief chief engineer engineer of of the the State State of and was well qualified was well qualified for for the the task. task. The in The group group departed departed in August on the schooner Enterprise and arrived arrived at San Jorge on Lake Nicaragua on August 27, 27, 1850. 1850. Their first task was 11 U.S. Docs., "'"''"U.S. Docs., Message on Routes Between Atlantic S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 86-96; 86-96; Correo and Pacific, S. 21, 1850; 1850; Jos~ Jose D. del Istmo de Nicaragua, Nicaragua, March 21, D. Ga'mez, G~mez, Historia de Nicaragua, Obra premiada en el Concurso Historico de 1888 y declarada de texto para los establecit6rico mientos nacionales de Nicaragua, por acuerdo gubernativo l d e marzo de 1880, 1880, Segunda Edici6n Edicion (Nicaragua, (Nicaragua, 1955), 1955), tde if 464, cited hereafter as Gamez, Gamez, Historia de Nicaragua. Nicaragua. 464, a 94 to blast blast the the worst worst obstructions from the the river river so that the steamers might make their way past the rapids and to sur-, • sur- * ( • vey a transit road from Virgin Bay on the lake to San Juan Pacific. del Sur on the Pacific. company intended to open The company communication across the isthmus as soon as passenger communication possible. possible. shallow-draft steamer had come off The first shallow-draft July. the docks of Jeremiah Simonson in July. Christened the Christened month. Director, it sailed for Nicaragua the same month. A 120A calculated for the conveyance of about 400 ton steamer calculated 12 intended to ply on Lake Nicaragua. Nicaragua. passengers, she was intended 12 With these these preliminary taken, Vanderbilt and preliminary steps taken, Joseph L. L. White sailed for London in the fall of 1850 to enlist the aid of the London capitalists. capitalists. Bearing letters Bearing introduction from Sir Henry Bulwer, they arrived in of introduction immediately entered entered into conversaconversa­ England on October 5 and immediately 13 tions with firms of of Rothschild Rothschild and and Baring Baring Brothers. Brothers. tions with the the firms 13 l20rville 0 r v i l l e Whitmore Childs, Childs, Report of the Survey and Estimates of the the Cost of Constructing Constructing the Inter-oceanic Inter-oceanic Ship Canal, York: W. W. C. 1852), Canal, . .. . .. (New York: C. Bryant & & Co., Co., 1852), 3, 3, cited hereafter as Childs, Childs, Report of the Survey;. Survey; Californ~a California Daily Courier, August August 26, Daily 26, 1850; 1850; Correo del Istmo de Necaragua, ragua, September September 5, 5, 1850; 1850; San Francisco Daily Herald, Herald, January 9, 1851; Keasbey, The Nicaragua Nicaragua Canal, 217. 1851; Keasbey, Canal, 217. 12 13 l3London Times, October 15, 1850; Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt,London 91. Times, October 15, 1850; Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt, 91. 95 Not being in possession of any specific data on the the canal, canal, they submitted submitted a hypothetical case and received received for answer,:" answer: •• "Substantiate your statements by facts, no difficulty facts, and no difficulty will be experienced experienced in securing the financial aid which you desire--until then, no definite then, we can return you no answer.,,14 answer."^ The London Times announced: "By the course parties, conjointly conjointly with which has been adopted these parties, offering to the British others, will possess the power of offering public in due time one-half share of the enterprise, the understand upon its exercise of which power will depend we understand being demonstrated demonstrated to the satisfaction satisfaction of Government Government engi:engi­ unquestionable reliance.,,15 reliance."-^ neers as to warrant the most unquestionable Childs, As everything depended on the report of Colonel Childs, Vanderbilt and White returned to New York to hasten the communication and await the completion completion opening of passenger communication survey. of the survey. In Nicaragua efforts were being expended expended to open survey. the route while Childs was going ahead with the survey. The main obstacle to the opening of the transit was the River. navigation of the San Juan River. Although deep enough l4New N e w York Herald, December December 3, 3, 1852. 1852. 1 4 l5London L o n d o n Times, Times, October 15, 15, 1850. 1850. 1 5 96 throughout most of for the navigation of small steamers throughout obstructed by a series of rapids, its length, it was obstructed rapids, three, thre,e~ •• impos­ of which--the Machuca, Castillo, and El Toro--were impossible to pass without considerable difficulty. The steamer Director had entered to the mouth of the Machuca Rapids; on the sand Rapids; however, the Orus ran high and dry on bar while attempting the Colorado. attempting to enter the channel of the Colorado. After repeated repeated attempts it fin:a1l:y' over the the bar finially passed passed over and arrived at the Machuca Rapids. Rapids. Here they they both both sat for over a month awaiting an engineer to blast out the worst obstructions from the river. river. During November November 1850, another attempt was made on the rapids. rapids. The Director The succeeded in passing over; over; however, the Orus broke up on succeeded the rocks and was left at the foot of the Machuca a total wreck. wreck. The Director was finally got past the Castillo Rapids by means of attaching cables to trees in advance of the boat and warping it inch by inch across the rocks. rocks. It arrived on the lake sometime in the latter part of December and was immediately immediately put into November or early December use carrying passengers across the lake who were arriving at Granada from Realejo.16 Realejo.^ l6Froebel, F. Stout, F r o e b e l , Seven Years Travel, Travel, 22-23; 22-23; Peter F. Stout, Nicaragua: Past, Present and Future; Nicaragua: Future; . .• . .. (Philadelphia: (Philadelphia: i0 97 Upon his return from England, Vanderbilt Vanderbilt decided to go to Nicaragua and investigate the route himself. himself. The The.,J' •• new steamship Prometheus had been launched from the docks launched from of Jeremiah Simonson in August and was now ready for serser­ vice. vice. 1,207 The Prometheus was a three-deck steamer of 1,207 tons and was probably the first steamer ever owned owned by one m a n .17 ^ man. her, remarking Vanderbilt had paid cash for her, remarking that bottom." he wanted her to go "out on her own bottom.,,18 18 E. Potter, Potter, 1859), 21-22. 21-22. cfted cited hereafter as Stout, Stout, John E. I, 27, 27, 80, 80, 106-13; U.S. Nicaragua; Squier, Nicaragua, I, U.S. Docs., Docs., S. Doc. 54, Ser. Ser. Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, S. Doc. 54, no. 4225, 4225, 108; 108; Childs, Childs, Report of the Survey, 30-40; no. 30-40; Bulman to Bennett, August 25, (Mosquito), Reel 25, 1850, 1850, FO 53 (Mosquito), 10, Vol. 23, Vol. 25; 25; Correo del Istmo del Nicaragua, October 23, 1850; New Orleans Picayune, January 14, 14, 1851. 1851. Both Wheaton J. Lane and W. W. A. A. Croffut state that Vanderbilt towed the Director to Nicaragua Nicaragua behind behind the Prometheus in December of 1850 and personally personally directed her ascent her ascent up up the the river. river. These These statements statements are are in in error error as the Correo del Istmo de Nicaragua Nicaragua reports the the Director as carrying passengers on the lake in November and Joseph November and N. N. Allen, Allen, who who accompanied accompanied Vanderbilt Vanderbilt in in the the Prometheus Prometheus and on his his trip up the river in December, reports reports in his diary lake when when they diary that that the the Director Director was was already already on on the the lake they arrived at San Carlos on January 14, 14, 1851. 1851. The error was probably probably derived from an article in the New New York Tribune of January 5, the occasion occasion of 5, 1877, 1877, published published on the Vanderbilt's death. Vanderbilt, 92; 92; death. See Lane, Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt, Vanderbilts, 44; 44; Joseph N. Diaries, Croffut, The Vanderbilts, N. Allen, Diaries, Library. 1850-1851, MS in the Bancroft Library. l7Kemble, K e m b l e , The Panama Route, Route, 243~ 243! 17 l8"The the Bancroft T h e Vanderbilt Family," MS in the i 0 l , Library. 98 She departed on her maiden voyage for San Juan del Norte on December December 26, 26, 1850, 1850, making a record trip of twelve days-- ^ i ten days and twelve hours running time. time. Vanderbilt Vanderbilt propro­ ceeded to the interior where he remained for two months checking on the route and making arrangements for opening the transit. transit. He returned to New York in the the latter part of February 1851 and announced that the engineers had completed completed their surveys and that he had returned returned with the conviction impressed be conimpressed on his mind that a canal could be con­ structed by energy and enterprise. enterprise. In regard to to the the transit route, route, he stated that it would be in operation sometirne.~in sometimelin the month of June next. next. Passengers would travel travel by by steamsteam­ ship from New York to San Juan del Norte, Norte, thence to the Castillo Rapids on the San Juan River by steamboat; from rapids, a distance of this point to the river above these rapids, so, by land; thence by the river and one hundred yards or so, Lake Nicaragua to Virgin Bay; from Virgin Bay to San Juan del Sur Harbor on the Pacific, a distance of twelve miles and thirty chains by land; and finally to San Francisco Y o r k — p a s s a g e many days shorter within twenty days of New York--passage than the connection connection by any other route. r o u t e .19 ^ 19New Joseph N. N e w York Herald, December 27, 27, 1850; 1850; Joseph N. Allen, Diaries, Diaries, 1850-1851, 1850-1851, MS in the Bancroft Library; Library; 1851. New York Herald, March 6, 1851. 1 9 99 While awaiting steamships to arrive on the Pacific route, the Prometheus sailed~~ sailed^ to open that portion of the route, I throughout the winter and spring of 1851 to to San Juan del Norte and Chagres from New New York. York. The Independence, built William H. H. Brown for Vanderbilt, left New York on JanuJanu­ by William 13, 1851, 1851, for San Francisco via Cape Horn. ary 13, Horn. Pacific, The Pacific, which had been running between New Orleans and Chagres for the United States Mail Steamship Company, was purchased and followed the Independence in March. March. The new steamer especially for navigation on the Sir Henry Bulwer, built especially Hollingsworth, San Juan River by the firm of Harlan and Hollingsworth, was sent to connect with the Director at the Castillo Rapids, and by July everything was in readiness to open Rapids, route. the route. The New New York papers advertised, "VANDERBILT'S "VANDERBILT S NEW 1 AND INDEPENDENT LINE FOR CALIFORNIA, via NICARAGUA," NICARAGUA," with the Prometheus leaving on July 14, for San Juan 14, 1851, 1851, for direct, connecting with the new and elegant steamship Pacific. Pacific. advised that the Prometheus would Passengers were advised opportunity of taking proceed to Chagres affording them the opportunity route. either the Nicaragua or Panama route. San Francisco In San the Pacific was advertised advertised to sail to San Juan del Sur and Panama giving passengers the option of crossing crossing via 100 Nicaragua or proceeding on to Panama. Panama. She was was to leave on following her first trip on July 14 with the Independence following~ •• her on the thirty-first. proven, Until the route had had been proven, company had determined not to take the chance of sailsail­ the company 20 ing with empty empty vessels. vessels.^0 advertised The Prometheus sailed from New York as advertised on July 14, 14, 1851. 1851. Commodore Vanderbilt was aboard to California. direct the opening of the Nicaragua route to California. Approximately to serve Approximately one hundred passengers had elected elected to 21 as the pioneers of the Vanderbilt Line. 2l After ten days as the pioneers of the Vanderbilt Line. After ten days travel, they arrived in the harbor of San Juan del Norte. travel, they arrived in the harbor of San Juan del Norte. Across the bay could be seen the British styled village of Across the bay could be seen the British styled village of Grey town with the Mosquito flag flying from the largest Greytown with the Mosquito flag flying from the largest of a cluster of houses built of boards and reeds and of a cluster of houses built of boards and reeds and thatched with palm leaves. Along the shore were drawn up thatched with palm leaves. Along the shore were drawn up a number of bungos and canoes which until recently had a number of bungos and canoes which until recently had 20New Alta California, 2^New York Herald, January-July January-July 1851; 1851; Alta California, July 1851. 1851. 21 2lThe exact number of passengers is not recorded in The exact number of passengers is not recorded in the papers. The Alta California records 110 passengers as the papers. The Alta California records 110 passengers as arriving in San Francisco on August 30 aboard the Pacific. arriving in San Francisco on August 30 aboard the Pacific. As the Pacific had come up from Panama, it is not possible As the Pacific had come up from Panama, it is not possible to detennine how many of these crossed at that point; howto determine how many of these crossed at that point; how­ ever, from the descriptions of the conditions aboard the ever, from the descriptions of the conditions aboard the river and lake steamers and the fact that the route had river and lake steamers and the fact that the route had attracted much attention, it appears that the majority attracted much attention, it appears that the majority crossed at Nicaragua. crossed at Nicaragua. 101 101 ;00 \'\ II \\, , ..... -,- Fig. 3.--San 3.--San Juan Juan del Norte 102 been the only means of navigating the river. river. The harbor was formed by by a long, which projecte4~ long, narrow spit of land which projected from the southern bank of the river San Juan into the the sea leaving only a narrow opening for the admission of vessels. admission of vessels. This was Point Arenas where the Transit Company had erected Company had Greytown pur­ a few buildings across the bay from Grey town for the purvessels. poses of their workmen and the coaling of vessels. Soon the small steamer Sir Henry Bulwer Bu1wer drew up alongside the Prometheus to take aboard the passengers for river. the ascent of the river. She was a stern-wheel, two-decked deck. boat, with an awning over the upper deck. The main deck was pretty pretty much taken up with the engine, engine, fire-room, and soon the passengers' passengers' baggage. baggage. By seventeen minutes of seven on the morning of the twenty-fourth, everyone everyone was aboard, and the Sir Henry Bulwer cut loose from from the the ProPro­ metheus for her trial run up the river San Juan. Juan. Some few minutes after starting, the pilot struck a false channel and snagged the boat on a sand bar bar near the mouth mouth of of the river. river. The passengers, desire to to passengers, animated animated with a laudable desire exception of a few, few, jumped commence their journey, with the exception attempted to haul and ptish into the water and attempted ppsh her off the bar. bar. labor, at which time After three hours of exhausting labor, all were about to "give up the ship," the captain of an 103 English man-of-war in the harbor came to their their assistance assistance was with a crew, and with their united effort the steamer wa&~ •• dragged over the bar. bar. Continuing up the river, river, the first six miles were' were minutes.. For some miles the banks of the made in sixty minutes." river, as also the numerous islands which studded it, it, were river, low, covered with canes and a species of tall grass. grass. low, In compressed between the islands with places the stream was compressed current; while elsewhere it spread out in broad, broad, a rapid current; shallow everyevery­ glassy reaches of great apparent depth but shallow channel. where except in the channel. At the Colorado the banks higher, the low islands disappeared, and the dense became higher, side. forest rose as a wall on either side. vines At places long vines, loaded with gay and fragrant flowers, over the flowers, trailed over steamer as it passed underneath. Brilliantly colored birds Brilliantly colored sparkled in the coo'a, cooH, green coverts; coverts; monkeys chattered sparkled chattered in branches, and a vast variety of many-colored many-colored snakes the branches, projecting limbs of the looked curiously down from the projecting trees. trees. From time to time the stillness would would be broken by From the crack of a rifle as a passenger would try his luck at silently from the banks one of the crocodiles which slipped silently water. into the water. paradis All were enamored by this tropical paradise which was to continue to inspire passengers with its beauty 104 even though they complained complained bitterly of the conditions on transit. the transit. i,^ As dusk closed in upon the river, the steamer drew river, the along shore and anchored for the night. night. As there there were were no accommodations for sleeping, not even a single berth, berth, the room with baggage, room styled styled the the cabin, cabin, which which was was nearly nearly filled filled with baggage, was while the was occupied occupied by by the the ladies ladies as as best best they they could could while the gentlemen picked out the softest planks on the the deck deck and bedded down for the night. night. No cooking stove being being on board, everyone fared accordingly. Anchor was was raised raised at daylight and early morning found the steamer passing passing the mouth of the Serapiqui River about seventy miles from the sea. sea. Probably the largest tributary of the San Juan, the Serapiqui took its rise at the base of the great volcano Rica, whose people had long used it of Cartago in Costa Rica, coast. as one of the main avenues to the coast. By middle contracted and hills rose morning the river had greatly contracted from its banks two thousand feet high. high. They passed passed the San Carlos and arrived at the first real obstacle to their course, course, the Machuca Rapids. Rapids. At the first attempt attempt to pass over, was swept back over, the steamer grounded on the rocks and was current. by the current. Several unsuccessful runs were made, made, and then, then, to the consternation consternation of all, all, Vanderbilt Vanderbilt tied down the 105 and, with a full head of steam steam up, safety valve and, up, lunged rocks. headlong upon the rocks. creaked , The steamer groaned and creakeq~ and finally scraped over the last rock to the cheers of passengers. the passengers. The river now began to widen a little and the steamer passed along easily until late afternoon when the commanding view. commanding eminence of Castillo Viejo rose into view. The ruins of the old Spanish castle had sat atop this this steep hill with its cliff-like sides since 1780. 1780. At its its foot At jutting into the water was the platafor~ which anciently jutting plataforma* which held the water batteries but which was now covered covered with with aa few thatched houses--the quarters of a small garrison kept by Nicaraguan government of occupancy by the the Nicaraguan government as as an an evidence evidence of occupancy and Rapids, the and to to assist assist boats boats in in passing passing the the Castillo Castillo Rapids, the grand obstacle to navigation. navigation. Vanderbilt had determined Vanderbilt had to attempt a passing, although failure was anticipated. anticipated. After placing the passengers ashore, ashore, a hauser and chain was rigged, and the little steamer leaped against the the rapids. rapids. Once, twice, twice, three times she was hurled back by the cur-' cur­ Once, rent, thumping and banging rent, banging against the rocks until finally downstream. she came to rest against the bank of the river downstream. From four until ten o'clock in the evening, Vanderbilt strove with dogged determination, but the rapids refused refused to 106 yield. Meanwhile the passengers had sought what protection they could find and settled down for the night. night. t ^ In the morning the passengers walked walked the some three hundred yards around the rapids and were crowded crowded into bungos. bungos. All All day day the the natives natives poled poled the the cumbersome cumbersome crafts crafts against against the the strong strong current current while while the the rain rain poured poured down down bountifully, bountifully, keeping keeping everyone everyone cool. cool. At Rapids had had been At dusk dusk the the El El Toro Toro Rapids been passed, they were were steaming passed, the the steamer steamer Director Director boarded, boarded, and and they steaming past the town of San Carlos on the edge of Lake Lake Nicaragua. Nicaragua. The town consisted consisted of some twenty or twenty-five houses occupied occupied by Nicaraguan authorities, authorities, who, who, since the occupaoccupa­ tion of San Juan del Norte by the British, had collected here. the customs here. Behind the town on a higher point stood anciently comcom­ the now decayed fort of San Carlos which anciently lake. manded the entrance to the lake. Spread before them was the lake, its opposite shores marked broad expanse of the lake, marked by the Orosi, Madeira, and Ometepec, Ometepec, regular volcanic peaks of Orosi, distance. capped with clouds which rose dim and blue in the distance. To the left was the Rio Rio Fr{o Frfo which descended descended from the land of the Guatosos Indians, Indians, who denied all to enter their wooded domain. domain. The passengers had now been three days and two nights on the river and had covered a distance of 121 miles. miles. lake. lake. Virgin Bay was another fifty-six miles across the 107 The steamer Director Director was was built built like a tugboat withwith­ out a cabin or awning. awning. The ladies made a screen of b1ank~ts blankets • on deck while the rest of the the passengers passengers laid down on the deck. deck. continually splashed Throughout the night the water continually fatigued. upon them; many were seasick, others cold, wet, wet, and fatigued. All gave a sigh of relief when the shore hove into sight the next morning. morning. The wind was blowing the surf ashore with such fury that the native bungos were unable to come to unload the passengers, passengers, the steamer having anchored about one-quarter of a mile from shore because of the hard and sandy bottom bottom of the port. port. After two or three hours the steamer's boat was finally lowered and slowly carried the passengers to a point offshore where many would would mount the backs of natives to escape wetting feet. wetting their feet. Despite this precaution, several toppled posi­ toppled from their insecure posilake. tion to a luckless swim in the lake. At that time there were only six or eight buildings at Virgin Bay. Bay. Thus some took mules and others walked walked four Rivas, a place of about 10,000 miles inland to the city of Rivas, inhabitants, to await the arrival of the steamer at San Sur. Juan del Sur. July. July. twenty-seventh of It was then Sunday, the twenty-seventh The Pacific arrived arrived from San Francisco on the twenty- embarked 150 of her 425 passengers, continued on ninth, embarked passengers, and continued 108 to Panama. Panama. The passengers remained at Rivas until August 12, 12, dra- ^ boarding at a hotel kept by an English ex-captain of dra-.t ; goons, when they again hired mules at from $5 to $7 each goons, for the twenty-mile trip to San Juan del Sur. Sur. Here they remained three more days waiting for the Pacific to return Panama. from Panama. At night they all crowded as best they could place. under the one shed then standing at that place. On the carried them from the shore to sixteenth the natives again carried their bungos and thence to the side of the steamer. steamer. All being aboard, aboard, the the Pacific Pacific weighed weighed anchor anchor at at six six in the being in the evening. evening. Stopping at at Realejo Realejo on on the the seventeenth seventeenth and and AcaAcaStopping pulco on on the the twenty-first, twenty-first, she she entered entered San San Francisco Francisco Harbor Harbor pulco at two two in in the the morning morning on on August August 30, 30, 1851, 1851, with 110 passenpassen­ at with 110 gers, completing completing the the first first trip trip on on the the Vanderbilt Vanderbilt Line gers, Line to to California via via the the Isthmus Isthmus of of Nicaragua, Nicaragua, having having spent spent California twenty-three days days on on the the isthmus isthmus and and forty-five forty-five days from twenty-three days from New York. York. New One of of the the passengers passengers penned penned the the following following One description of of the the trip trip from from San San Juan Juan del del Sur Sur aboard the description aboard the steamer Pacific. Pacific. steamer Although perhaps perhaps somewhat somewhat harsh, Although harsh, it it is is indicative of of some some occurrences occurrences aboard aboard ship: ship: indicative The accommodations, or in fact the want of them them on the steamer, beggars all description. II have have been been on the Pacific sea six times; times; never saw the like in my life, life, anywhere. anywhere. Passengers were some paying paying $200 to $250 passage money. money. The potatoes gave out in three 109 biscuit was old, rotten days; no fresh bread; the ship's biscuit and wormy, and was put in the oven every day to drive insects; the fish stunk; the orange~~ oranges out and kill the insects; table, were sold at the bar for instead of coming to the table, bar'tor 12% cents per piece; piece; soda water at fifty cents a glass. glass. l2~ At Acapulco Acapulco no no beef beef was was taken taken in, in, there there being being .. .. .. At still some half-dead cows on board, whose natural natural end was only only anticipated anticipated by by the the butcher butcher a a day two. was day or or two. Eight dozen chickens were laid in there, and when within Eight dozen chickens were laid in there, and when within three days days from from this this port, port, matters matters and and things became three things became so woeful that nothing but the fact of a passenger so woeful that nothing but the fact of a passenger having three three dozen dozen chickens chickens as as freight freight on on board, saved having board, saved 22 us from positive starvation.22 us from positive starvation. officially opened. The Nicaragua route was officially Vander­ Vander- creating two separate bilt had put it into operation by creating organizations. organizations. Under the charter of the American American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company, means were provided providep for isthmus. transporting passengers across the isthmus. This was an independent organization owned and operated operated by the Canal Company with Vanderbilt as president. Company with In addition, a comcom­ organization was created created to transport the pletely separate organization passengers by ocean steamer from New York and San Francisco 22Alta ^ A l t a California, September September 3, 3, 1851. 1851. There are several descriptions available of this first trip, trip, see the 14, 1851; 1851; Alta California, August New York Herald, August 14, September 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 1851; 1851; Stout, Nicaragua, 19-32. For 31, September Froebel, Seven Years descriptions of the river and lake see Froebel, Travel, 19-27; Squier, Nicaragua, I, 26-117; 26-117; Stout NicaNica­ Travel, Nicaragua, I, N. Allen, Allen, Diaries, Diaries, 1850-1851, MS in ragua ragua,, 19-32; Joseph N. the Bancroft Bancroft Library. Library. For distances see U.S. U.S. Docs., Docs., Report S. Doc. Doc. 54, 54, Sere Ser. no. no. 4225, of the Isthmian Canal Commission, S. 4225, Childs, Report of the Survey, 30-40, 30-40, 101. 108; Childs, 101. 110 to the isthmus. isthmus. Known as the Vanderbilt Line, Line, this organiorgani­ .. zation to transport transport its. ~ zation contracted contracted with with the the Canal Canal Company Company to its * ; passengers to the passengers across across Nicaragua Nicaragua and and then then accounted accounted to the owners of the steamers for the clear profits. profits. During 1850-1851, 1850-1851, the the Canal Canal Company Company would would transport transport any any passenger passenger who the isthmus who arrived arrived on on the the shores shores of of Nicaragua Nicaragua across across the isthmus for for $40. $40. The trips from The Brother Brother Jonathan Jonathan made made several several trips from New New York Norte for the indeYork to to San San Juan Juan del del Norte for E. E. Mills Mills as as did did the inde­ pendent New Orleans. pendent steamers steamers Mexico Mexico and and Alabama Alabama from from New Orleans. Numerous to and and from Numerous sailing sailing vessels vessels conducted conducted passengers passengers to from Nicaragua on the Atlantic and the Pacific. In August August 1851, 1851, In the American American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company Company divided its responsibilities for the construction construction of a canal and the transit of passengers by incorporating the Accessory incorporating the Transit Company to carry out the latter. 23 Transit Company to carry out the latter. The immediate success of these operations quickly The immediate success of these operations quickly brought the Nicaragua route to the attention of the mail brought the Nicaragua route to the attention of the mail companies operating by way of Panama. After successfully companies operating by way of Panama. After successfully eliminating the Law and Empire City Lines' competition and eliminating the Law and Empire City Lines 1 competition and arriving at an amicable arrangement among themselves, they arriving at an amicable arrangement among themselves, they 23Briggsv. Barbour (New -'Briggs v. Vanderbilt and Drew, 19 Barbour v. Vartderbilt, Vaitderbilt, 17 Smith (New York) York) York), 222 (1855); Quimby v. York, New Orleans and San Francisco news­ 306 (1858); New York, news1851. papers, 1851. Ill III compe­ were not at all happy at the prospect of renewed competition. tition. 8, 1851, 1851, Howland and Aspinwall felt.t felt On November 8, it necessary to write an open letter to the editor of the New York Herald stoutly denying that they had applied applied to the government of Nicaragua for the right of transit through that country or that they had any interest in or knowledge of such an application. The Pacific Mail ordered ordered new steamers and put her old ones on the run at reduced reduced rates list. to draw passengers from the enemy's sailing list. In September she announced announced that the new Pacific liner Golden September Gate was to sail from New York around the Horn to Panama trip. on her first trip. sur­ She was 2,200 tons burden, far sur- line; a passing in size any of the steamers of either line; accom­ long description of the beauty and adequacy of her accom- 24^ published in the press for weeks. weeks. modations was published Long articles enumerating enumerating the inconveniences of the papers. Nicaragua route began to appear in the papers. The fol­ f01- lowing editorial appeared in October in the Panama Star passen­ and is typical of the efforts made to discourage passengers : gers: 24Ernest of the 2^Ernes;t A. A. Wiltsee, Wiltsee, Gold Rush Steamers of Francisco: Grabhorn Press, Press, 1938), 60-61, Pacific (San Francisco: 60-61, Wiltsee, Gold Rush Steamers; New York cited hereafter as Wiltsee, newspapers, September, 1851. 1851. and San Francisco newspapers, 112 We are very clearly of the op1n10n, that in in about opinion, that a month and aa half the whole thing will "peg out" out" and travellers to and from California will be glad;! # glad enough to avail themselves of the the comforts, comforts, convenconven­ iences, certainties, and economy of the Panama route, route, than, by endeavoring to save one or two day's rather than, time, in a travel of upwards of five thousand miles, time, thousand miles, run the risk of starvation, complete depletion of purse, the very likely loss of fifteen days, days, the probaproba­ purse, hut, to escape from bility of a siege in a thatched hut, which, one may have to run the gauntlet through a horde of semi-barbarians, semi-barbarians, who think nothing nothing of putting thirty-five bayonets through his carcass--to say it, in the nothing of the horrible mutilation mutilation of it, -> life.. . . .. ..25 endeavor to extinguish life ; 2 But notwithstanding to discourage them notwithstanding the efforts to and the inconveniences that many experienced, more more and more passengers continued continued to board the Vanderbilt Vanderbilt steamers. steamers. By January 1852, 1852, the battle between the Nicaragua and Panama routes was well underway and destined to continue destined to for for several several years years to to come. come. A A semimonthly semimonthly service service was was inaugurated inaugurated from New York and San Francisco and the number of steamers was increased on the the Pacific, increased to five on Pacific, three on the Atlantic, with one more soon to come off the docks. docks. In July 1852, 1852, a service between New Orleans and San Juan del Norte was initiated. Although only 1,931 1,931 passengers crossed to California via Nicaragua in 1851, as opposed opposed to 15,464 via Panama, Panama, by the end of 1852 the 25panama Panama Star, Star, October 3, 3, 1851. 1851. 113 113 years totals showed that that 10,563 selected the Nicaragua selected the route in comparison to 21,263 21,263 at Panama. comparison to Panama. Vanderbilt's plan to capture the passenger passenger trade was thus well under way to to success. success. 26 Hopes for a Canal Abandoned Hopes Abandoned in London With the the transit route in profitable profitable operation, operation, Vanderbilt turned his attention to the more grandiose Vanderbilt constructing a canal across the isthmus. isthmus. project of constructing Childs survey proceeded Colonel Childs.' proceeded more slowly than was 1 desired, but hopes quickly soared soared when in his report of March 9, 9, 1852, 1852, Childs recommended recommended the practicability practicability of constructing a canal across Nicaragua by way constructing way of the San Brito, Juan River and Lake Nicaragua Nicaragua to the harbor harbor of Brito, just Sur. just north north of San Juan del Sur. estimated that a He estimated a deep, fifty feet wide bottom, canal seventeen feet deep, wide at bottom, and 118 118 feet feet wide wide at at top could be be completed completed in in six six years years and top could at a a cost cost of of $31,538,319. $31,538,319. at The only only drawback drawback to to his his recrec­ The ommendations was that the size of the the canal would would not vessels, allow passage of the larger merchant and war vessels, 26New B. New Orleans Picayune, Picayune, July 18, 18, 1852; 1852; Appendix Appendix B • .,J •• 114 which would require a depth of twenty-five to to thirty thirty feet, feet, * and thus did not meet the specifications of the Nicaragua; Nicaragu~t accom­ charter which called for a canal large enough to accomsizes. modate vessels of all sizes. recognized that the Childs recognized dimensions proposed proposed would not meet this requirement requirement but reasoned in his report that there were no vessels plying between the Atlantic states and the Pacific coast with a feet; consequently, the draft as great as seventeen feet; tremendous ratio of the increase of expense for a deeper application of means of canal would be an injudicious application company and would not be required for the general use the company 27 commerce. of commerce. 27 At the request of the Canal Company, President Fillmore immediately to the Corps immediately submitted submitted Childs' Childs' report to inspec­ of United States Topographical Engineers for their inspecopinion. tion and opinion. 20, 1852, 1852, they reported On March 20, reported that proposed plan was practicable and merely recommended recommended the proposed oo 28 some some changes changes and and modifications. modifications. ° 97 27Childs, Report of the Survey, passim; U.S. Docs., Report of the Survey, passim; U.S. Docs., Report of 'Childs, the Isthmian Canal Commission, S. Doc. 54, Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, S. Doc. 54, Sere no. 4225, 111-13; New York Herald, December 3, 1852. Ser. no. 4225, 111-13; New York Herald, December 3, 1852. 28U.S. Canal ComU . S . Docs., Docs., Report of the Isthmian Canal Com­ mission, S. S. Doc. Doc. 54, 54, Sere Ser. no. no. 4225, 4225, 113. 113. 2 8 115 As soon as the news news greeted the American American public, public, trading began began on the the New York York Stock Exchange in the the "canal rights" the American rights" held held by by the American Atlantic Atlantic and and Pacific Pacific Ship Ship Canal Canal Company. Company. Originally had been Originally 192 192 grand grand shares shares had been issued issued at a down payment payment of $2,000 a share to cover the early expenses. expenses. Each been subdivided Each grand grand share share had had been subdivided into into 200 200 shares shares in in stock stock of of the the Accessory Accessory Transit Transit Company Company whose whose nominal capitalization was set at 40,000 shares. capitalization was shares. "Canal rights" which were not subdivided subdivided and were first traded in at around $800 soared to a high of $3,600 by the end of March. March. Accessory In the general enthusiasm, shares of the Accessory Company rose from $20 to $50; $50; thus each original Transit Company stockholder in the Canal Company, for his $2,000, $2,000, now stockholder 29 $13,600.^9 had securities with a peak market value of $13,600. While American the canal was was still American interest in the mounting, in the early summer Vanderbilt sent summer of 1852 Vanderbilt commission to present his report Colonel Childs with a commission to the British capitalists. British engineers and London capitalists. At the Lawrence, the American American minister, Lord request of Abbott Abbott Lawrence, Malmesbury designated designated Lieutenant Ma1mesbury Lieutenant Colonel Edward Edward Aldrich engineers, and Mr. Mr. James Walker, of the royal engineers, Walker, an eminent civil engineer, to make the desired examination. 2QLane, •Lane, Commodore Commodore Vanderbilt, 99. 99 They 116 submitted a report on July 16 in which they expressed expressed the submitted Childs project was practicable and opinion that the Childs' 1 ...., engineering difficulties be­ would not be attended with engineering beexpected in a work of such yond what might be naturally expected magnitude. magnitude. However, they objected objected to the proposed size, However, proposed size, suggested a canal twenty feet deep as being and suggested being more 30 u s e s of trade. trade.^0 efficient for the general uses With such heartening heartening encouragement encouragement the commission commission then turned to the London capitalists who now, now, for the first time, time, thought the project sufficiently sufficiently advanced advanced to merit their serious attention. In August the the result result of their examination was communicated communicated to the Canal Company from the head .of of the house of Baring Brothers. Brothers. To their To dismay, the London capitalists declined to embark embark in the enterprise for a variety of reasons, reasons, chiefly financial. financial. While unhesitatingly local advantages unhesitatingly conceding the immense local advantages of a canal to the United States, States, their arguments boiled down to two basic reasons why it would not be profitable investors. to English investors. consideration was that The primary consideration inquiry showed that its small size would prevent prevent nearly 30U.S. Canal ComU . S . Docs., Docs., Report of the Isthmian Canal Com­ mission, S. York Herald, mission, S. Doc. Doc. 54, 54, Sere Ser. no. no. 4225, 4225, 48; 48; New York Herald, December 3, 3, 1852. 1852. December J U 117 two-thirds of the Indian and western American American trade--the .. only trade in which the canal would prove serviceable serviceable to to. ...^ Europe~-from Europe<--from passing through the the canal. canal. Also, calculations Also, calculations indicated that little, little, if any, any, of the European trade with indicated pas­ canal, inasmuch the Orient would pass through the canal, inasmuch as pas1,500 sage by the way of Cape Good Hope was on an average 1,500 miles nearer than by way of the proposed proposed canal. canal. In addiaddi­ tion, the heavy toll of $3 a ton proposed proposed to pay for the tion, canal would prevent such vessels as could pass from doing so, as on a vessel of 1,000 tons tons the toll would would be be $3,000, $3,000, or more than the average earnings of such vessels vessels on their 31 voyages. 3l JJ voyages. - Inasmuch as the expenses necessary to increase the Inasmuch as the expenses necessary to increase the size of the canal to accommodate larger vessels would size of the canal to accommodate larger vessels would probably triple the cost, bringing the total to around probably triple the cost, bringing the total to around $100,000,000, the London capitalists made no counteroffer $100,000,000, the London capitalists made no counteroffer in this direction. Faced with an outright refusal of aid, in this direction. Faced with an outright refusal of aid, Vanderbilt and his associates determined that it would Vanderbilt and his associates determined that it would be prohibitive to undertake the project alone. With all be prohibitive to undertake the project alone. With all 3lU•S . Docs., U.S. Docs., Report of the Isthmian Canal CommisCommis­ s~on, sion, S. S. Doc. Doc. 54, 54, Sere Ser. no. no. 4225, 4225, 48; 48; E. E. G. G. Squier, The States America; . .. . .. (New York: York: Harper & & Brothers, Brothers, of Central Americaj 1858), 437-41, 437-41, cited hereafter as Squier, The States of CenCen­ tral America; New York Herald, December Lane, ComDecember 3, 3, 1852; 1852; Lane, Com­ modore Vanderbilt, 99-100. 99-100. J 118 hopes of a canal gone, gone, the Canal Company's stock quickly disappeared from trading. trading. dropped to $800 and soon disappeared Thus ,.t the age-old dream of an isthmian passage to India once materialize. again failed to materialize. By refusing to shoulder the responsibility of proceeding alone, alone, American American capitalists responsibility delayed the realization of that dream for another halfcentury. meantime , immediate attention was In the meantime, conveying passengers returned to the profitable business of conveying 32 isthmus.32 across the isthmus. 32Lane , Commodore Vanderbilt, 99-100. ., CHAPTER IV CHAPTER .~ THE NICARAGUA NICARAGUA ROUTE CHANGES HANDS, HANDS, 1853-1855 Vanderbilt Vanderbilt Sells Out Although the steamships had been highly profitable, profitable, estimating that they returned the New York Times estimating returned a profit operation, of over one million dollars the first year of operation, dissatis­ the failure of his canal scheme left Vanderbilt Vanderbilt dissatisventure. fied with the whole venture. Still intent upon gaining international recognition for his achievements, he now turned to a more direct method. method. After selling his line steamships, he determined determined to vacation in Europe in a of steamships, vessel that would would give credit to his enterprise. enterprise. September 1852, 1852, following the dissent of Baring In September Brothers and associates, associates, Vanderbilt Vanderbilt resigned from the presidency presidency of the Accessory Accessory Transit Company. The fo11owfollow­ December he offered to sell to the company company "the steamsteam­ ing December ships Northern Light, Star of the West, Prometheus, Prometheus, Daniel 120 Webster, Brother Jonathan, Pacific, and Lewis, Lewis, together . furniture, for the sum of $1,350,000; $1,350,000; payable . with their furniture, . ,~^ cash, and $150,000 in bonds of your company, company, $1,200,000 in cash, payable in one year from the date of the bill of sale. sale. "1 1 11 The company accepted the offer and immediately immediately made arrangements for the purchase. purchase. To raise the cash, cash, 40,000 additional shares of stock were sold to the controlling group of officers and to leading Wall Street capitalists. capitalists. This was not difficult for with the entire route route under under one ownership, it was confidently confidently expected expected that the company company would be able to make large profits. profits. stock rose from $30 to $40. $40. On the the exchange the The $1.2 million was was then then paid and a contract entered with Vanderbilt for the the remaining $150,000. $150,000. The contract also provided the coal, provided that the coal, coal hulks, a value value of hulks, and other fixtures, fixtures, ascertained ascertained at a $180,706, would be paid for out of the first earnings of $180,706, ships. the ships. Vanderbilt was to retain the agency of the months. steamship line for the next twelve months. For this service he was to receive 20 per cent of the gross receipts of the company. conceded to do this He later stated that he conceded indebtedness. in order to secure the amount of the company's indebtedness. lCited Cited in Lane, Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt, 103. 103. 121 On February he made made this doubly secure by by once February 14, 14, 1853, 1853, he again becoming becoming a director in the company but did not not re- ., ~* company but , surne the presidency which had remained vacant. I 22 sume the presidency which had remained vacant. With his steamships disposed of, Vanderbilt turned With his steamships disposed of, Vanderbilt to completing plans for his vacation. In writing to to completing plans for his vacation. In writing to turned Hamilton Fish, then a senator at Washington, he explained, Hamilton Fish, then a senator at Washington, he explained, "I have a little pride, as an American, to sail over the "I have a little pride, as an American, to sail over the waters of England and France, up the Baltic and through waters of England and France, up the Baltic and through the Mediterranean and elsewhere, under this flag without the Mediterranean and elsewhere, under this flag without a reflection of any kind that it is a voyage for gain-a reflection of any kind that it is a voyage for gain-- with such a vessel as will give credit to the enterprise with such a vessel as will give credit to the enterprise of our country.,,3 of our country."3 The vessel Vanderbilt had ordered for his trip was The vessel Vanderbilt had ordered for his trip was built in part to his own design at a cost of about $500,000. built in part to his own design at a cost of about $500,000. Of 2,500 tonnage and over-all length of 270 feet, she was Of 2,500 tonnage and over-all length of 270 feet, she was christened the North Star and was launched in the spring christened the North Star and was launched in the spring of 1853. The newspapers were most impressed with her of 1853. The newspapers were most impressed with her appointments, which were more luxurious than most of the appointments, which were more luxurious than most of the 2Vanderbilt Vanderbilt v. v. The Accessory Accessory Transit Co., Co., 9 Howard o r k ) , 352 (1854); New York Herald, September September 28, (New YYork), 28, November 1, 1, 1853; 1853; San Francisco Prices Current and Shipping November 1853; Lane, Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt, 103, 103, List, February February 9, 1853; 110. 3 3Cited Cited in Lane, Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt, 104. 104. 122 millionaires' millionaires' mansions along Park Avenue. Avenue. The main main saloon The satinwood and rosewood, the furniture was paneled with satinwood ,'* • I being carved in the style of Louis XV with velvet velvet plush flowers. covering figured with bouquets of flowers. The walls of marble, the dining saloon were covered with ligneous marble, polished to a mirror-like brightness; the panels were granite, the style of Breschia jasper, and the of Naples granite, marble. surface of yellow Pyrenees marble. On the ceiling were Washington, medallion paintings of Columbus, Webster, Clay, Washington, and other American American statesmen. In the words of Reverend 0. Choules who served as minister on the trip, J. o. trip, "The entire enterior furnishing has been done with with the single idea of producing the very best effect possible, and every article shows elaborate design and workmanship, which re­ reflects much credit on American American taste and skill.,,4 skill." 4 The launching of his yacht completed completed Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt's arrangements for his trip. trip. In May of 1853, the North North Star 1853, the steamed away from the harbor at New York for Europe; Europe; before September the Accessory Transit Company Company had her return in September slipped entirely entirely from Vanderbilt's control. control. slipped 4John J o h n Overton Choules, Choules, The Cruise of the Steam Steam (Boston: Gould and Lincoln, 1854), 19Yacht North Star (Boston: description of the yacht 22. Choules gives a detailed description trip. and the trip. 4 123 Company Morgan and Garrison Gain Control of the Company .~ •• Just two days after Vanderbilt completed completed arrangearrange­ ments with the Transit Company, the line experienced experienced its greatest maritime disaster. disaster. Early on the morning morning of February 16, 16, 1853, 1853, the captain of the steamship IndeInde­ pendence struck a sunken reef about a mile off the shore of Margarita Island, off the coast of Lower California. California. off; however, however, The engines were backed and the ship came off; examination showed that she would have to be beached examination beached to keep from sinking. After running head-on into a small cove, three life boats were started to shore filled with cove, children. Meanwhile water had risen to such a women and children. height in the hold as to stop the draft from the lower doors. floor which forced open the furnace doors. Flames immediimmedi­ ately rushed out and caught the woodwork which burned ate1y shavings. like shavings. hatch­ Soon flames were coming up from the hatch- ways, fireroom, engine room, ventilators, and around the smokestack. The passengers were completely completely bewildered, bewildered, and the ship quickly turned into a mass of confusion overboard to escape the flames. flames. with dozens jumping jumping overboard The passen­ scene has been most ably described by one of the passengers : gers: 124 Now was the agonizing time -- .. .. .. Men and women, as the flames were spreading, screamed screamed frantically, the former smiting their breasts, breasts, the latter tearing .~ disheveled hair. description. their disheveled hair. The scene beggars descriptio~: Females could could be be seen seen clambering clambering down down the the sides sides .. .. .. Females clinging with deathlike tenacity to the of the ship, clinging ropes, rigging and larboard wheel. ropes, wheel. Some were hanging skirts, which, unfortunately, in their efforts by their skirts, to jump jump overboard, had caught, and thus swung, crying piteously and horridly, until the flames relieved relieved them piteously clothes, from their awful position by disengaging their clothes, deep. causing them them to drop and sink in the briny deep. husbands, threw Mothers, going to meet their fond husbands, waves, rather than see their tender offspring into the waves, flames, and them devoured by the fury of the flames, trusted to fortune and chance to take their bodies to the shore. shore. .. .. .. As I passed through the surf, surf, how I passed help. All horribly sounded the piteous moans for help. around me were the sinking and drowning bodies of the "Independence. passengers and crew of the steamer "Independence." 0 God! what a situation situation to be in! in! Planks, spars, trunks God! Planks, spars, and coops, coops, covered covered with human beings struggling struggling enerener­ getically for life, life, some wafted shore, others getically wafted to the shore, sea, some sinking, others being miraculously miraculously out to sea, preserved. . On the shore, At a time time when when money shore, what a acene! sjcene! At had no value, value, could be seen the sacriligious pillagpillag­ ing and plundering plundering of the dead--old dead--old men and young clothing, men were stripping the bodies of the clothing, pockets, and actually securing the contents of their pockets, plun­ quarreling, yea fighting over a corpse for the plunder! But this is too horrible, suffice it to be der! col­ said that in less than one hour from the fatal collision, not less than 150 of the 400 souls on the grave. The balance "Independence" had found a watery watery grave. were driven ashore on a lone, barren isle, destitute destitute were driven ashore on a lone, barren isle, 5 life.5 of every essential of life. 11 5This ^This statement was signed by 150 of the passengers who survived survived the wreck of the Independence and was pubpub­ 2, 1853. 1853. It is a lished in the Alta California, April 2, little poetic yet does not exaggerate the horror of the attested to by the captain of the situation which was attested California, vessel in his statement found in the Alta California, 1, 1853, 1853, and in the diary of another passenger, passenger, April 1, 125 125 , ~ •• ..::t · Fig. 4.--Steamer Independence 12.6 126 Fortunately Company, the Fortunately for the Accessory Transit Company, Independence was owned by R. R. and G. G. L. L. Schuyler as mort-. mort-.^ t inaugu­ gagees and had been running under lease since the inauguroute. ration of the route. Such was not the case when just two S.S. Lewis missed the entrance to San months later the S.S. Francisco harbor in a dense fog and was lost a total wreck on Duckworth Reef eighteen miles to the north. north. a soul Not was lost, lost, but the wreck cost the Transit Company Company $125,000, a sum they could ill afford at the time. t i m e .6 6 Public indignation had run high at the the loss loss of the Independence. Independence. One hundred fifty of the surviving passengers signed a statement attributing her. loss loss to to attributing her the "carelessness, of Capt. "Carelessness, mismanagement, or wilfulness of Capt. Sampson. ,,7 Sampson." 7 An editorial stated, "We have never never recorded a more distressing calamity upon our shores, shores, our columns columns have never depicted a more fearful scene of horror than "Leaflets of Memory of A A Journey to California, January 17March 31, 31, 1853," in "Fish Family Papers, Papers, 1835-1913," MS on microfilm microfilm in the Bancroft Library. Library. 6Quimby York), 306 Quimby ,v, v... Vanderbilt 17 Smith (New York), William T. T. Sherman, Memoirs of General William T. (1858); William William T. York: D. D. Appleton and Co., Co., 1875), 94-100; Sherman (New York: 94-100; 10, 11, 11, 1853; 1853; New York Herald, Herald, Alta California, April 10, 1854. January 6, 1854. 7Alta A l t a California, April 2, 2, 1853. 1853. 7 127 has been been shown in the the destruction of the steamer 'Inde­ 'Independence.,,,8 pendence . " 1 8 The the S.S. The wreck wreck of of the S.S. Lewis Lewis was was received received somewhat more philosophically. .~ •• The editor of the Alta California, after pointing pointing out that on her last trip up she had nine feet of water water in her her hold, hold, concluded, "This loss may be considered considered as rather beneficial to the traveltravel­ 'S.S. Lewis' Lewis' could not ing public than otherwise, as the 'S.S. considered wholly seaworthy.,,9 seaworthy." be considered 9 The traveling public was shocked, but it did not deter them them from patronizing patronizing the Nicaragua route. route. happen to them. them. Perhaps they felt that it could never Whatever their reasoning, the S.S. Lewis had departed San Francisco just just thirteen days after the wreck of the Independence with 886 passengers, and the 1, with 716. Sierra Nevada Nevada followed on April April 1, with 716. After the loss of of the the S.S. S.S. Lewis, Lewis, the next three three steamers steamers for for San San loss the next lO Juan averaged averaged more than 500 500 passengers passengers apiece. apiece."^ Juan more than Nevertheless, the directors of the Transit Company Company concerned with the mismanagement were concerned mismanagement and accidents on the Pacific end of the route, route, and negotiations were soon A l t a California, April 2, 2, 1853. 1853. 8Alta 8 9Alta A l t a California, April 10, 10, 1853. 1853. 9 10Appendix A p p e n d i x A, Part 1. 1. 10 128 completed to offer the San Francisco agency, at a salary completed K. Garrison. of $60,000 a year, year, to Cornelius K. Garrison had moved to Panama at the beginning of the gold rush and es­ esFretz. tablished the firm of Garrison and Fretz. At first in the transporting business, business, they later became a prosperous comcom­ transporting house. mercial and banking house. personal Upon Vanderbilt's p~rsonal encouragement, Garrison accepted the agency and arrived 23, 1853, 1853, aboard the company's company's in San Francisco on March 23, Nevada. newly acquired steamer Sierra Nevada. aggressiveness His aggressiveness demonstrated when he was elected and ability were soon demonstrated mayor of San San Francisco six months after his arrival. arrival. He immediately the company's immediately set about the task of putting putting the company's schedule ll newly acquired steamers on a dependable schedule. llCornelius on March 1, C o r n e l i u s K. K. Garrison was born on 1, 1809. 1809. His ancestors were Dutch and were among the first settlers of New Amsterdam. He left home at the age of thirteen and found employment employment in the carrying trade on the Hudson River. River. At nineteen he removed to Canada where for five or six years he was actively engaged in the erection of buildings Lakes. and the construction of steamboats on the Great Lakes. About the time of the discovery of gold in California, he established the commercial removed to Panama where he established commercial and Fretz. He accepted accepted the San banking house of Garrison and Fretz. ar­ Francisco agency of the Nicaragua Steamship Line and ar23, 1853, 1853, at a salary of rived in San Francisco on March 23, $60,000 per annum and $25,000 additional as the agent of companies, He was an energetic and capable sundry insurance companies. leader and six months after his arrival was elected elected mayor of Francisco. Oscar T. T. Shuck, Shuck, Representative and Leading San Francisco. 1870), Francisco: Bacon and Co., Men of the Pacific (San Francisco: Co., 1870), 143-64; Bancroft, History of California, 1848-1859, VI, VI, 766. 766. 11 ~. 129 129 Before sailing Vanderbilt had committed committed the New York agency to to the management management of Charles Morgan during his absence. absence. ., .~ Ten days after the North North Star steamed down the narrows, Morgan set up new offices at 5 Bowling Green, narrows, Morgan Green, and before before Vanderbilt returned he he had had succeeded Vanderbilt returned succeeded to the presidency the company. presidency of the He was was a shrewd businessman He businessman and brought a great deal of shipping experience to the agency, having run his own line of steamers in the Gulf 1836. 12 of Mexico since 1836. With their their eyes on the immense profits profits monopolized monopolized by Vanderbilt, Vanderbilt, Morgan and Garrison immediately immediately set in motion actions designed to give them them complete control of the Transit Company. By manipulating manipulating the stock on the secured for himself the presidency Exchange, Morgan secured presidency of the company. Action was then then taken taken to to terminate VanderVander­ bi1t's agency, and and all all further further payments payments under under his his con­ conbilt s agency, f suspended on the charge that he was indebted tract were suspended 12Charles was born born at Clinton, Connecticut, Charles Morgan was Connecticut, on April April 21, young man he he began began the the importa21, 1795. 1795. As a young importa­ tion of tropical tropical fruits and thus became interested in interested in shipping. He ran the first steamer between New York and inaugurated a line from New Orleans Charleston and in 1836 inaugurated to Galveston. Galveston. He continued continued to run steamers in the Gulf 1853, when he accepted accepted the New York agency of Mexico until 1853, Accessory Transit Company. Lewis E. E. Stanton, An of the Accessory Dedication of Morgan School Building (New Account of the Dedication passim. York: F. Hart and Co., Co., 1873), passim. York: 130 to the the company. While proceeding proceeding with with these these activities, While activities, immediate attention was given to improving improving the operation , immediate .~j» r o u t e .13 ^ of the route. In order to to secure the the position of the the new line, line, negotiated with Captain Knight, the San Francisco Garrison negotiated agent of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, to to secure aa working agreement between between the two companies. companies. An arrangement arrangement 1853, whereby company agreed to set was made in May 1853, whereby each company their rates rates at $244 first cabin, $188 second, and $113 steerage, exclusive of isthmus isthmus transit. transit. However, New New York officers were not as eager as Captain Knight to come to terms so easily. On August August 17, in the the Alta 17, they announced announced in California, "It is evident that the company company do not intend Galifornia, and will not take an undue advantage of the public. public. In Capt. every other matter the acts of Capt .. Knight, who is very acknowledged and respected greatly esteemed, are acknowledged respected by the officers and and directors. directors. officers In this, however, they they were were In this, however, him."-^ forced to dissent from him.,,14 13New York Herald, September N e w York September 24, 24, 28, 28, 1853; 1853; Lane Vanderbilt, 109. Commodore Commodore Vanderbilt, 109. 1 3 l4Reports •^Reports from Two Committees of Stockholders, apap­ pointed 1855, of Pacific Mail pointed at the Annual Meeting, May, 1855, Co.'s adjourned Steamship Co. 's Stockholders, and made to an adjourned June, 1855 (New York: & Meeting, held 20th June, York: Baker, Godwin & 19, cited hereafter as Reports of Pacific Mail Co., 1855), 19, Stockholders. Steamship Co.'s Stockholders. l 131 131 Garrison accepted the Pacific Pacific Mail's Mail's dissent as aa call to battle and employed employed all avenues at his disposal to induce passengers passengers on the the Nicaragua Nicaragua Line. Line. . .~ . * Letters were published newspapers pointing pointing out the the disadvantages published in the newspapers disadvantages of Panama route route and the Nicaragua Nicaragua Line of the the Panama and in in September, September, the Line dropped its rates in the first cabin from $300 to to $100, $100, second cabin went down to $75, $75, and steerage, which had $150, was placed at $50. $50. been $150, The mail lines followed Themail September 10, 10, 1853, 1853, the New York Herald suit, and on September prophesied that '~ith "with this foretaste of the benefit prophesied benefit of exhibiting low prices, prices, and the signs of the controversy, exhibiting evidences of a deeper depression, we have no doubt that passengers will be paid paid for their patronage until the weaker party shall be compelled to to knock and draw draw weaker party shall be compelled knock under under and off. o f f .1115 " 1 5 The pressure pressure was was soon felt by by the the Pacific Mail Company, and in the same month it was reported that its competition with the stock was declining because of the competition Nicaragua Line. Line. It was was said that the the time time by Nicaragua was consistently than that by by Panama, and it seemed consistently less than within the realm realm of possibility contract possibility that the mail contract l5 New Herald, September New York Herald, September 8, 8, 10, 10, 1853. 1853 132 would be annulled by Congress and given to the the Transit Company. C o m p a n y .16 " These grand speculations were short-lived, for after hand, Morgan and Garrison turned a brief display of their hand, to improvements within the company, rather than reduction fares, to induce passengers aboard their steamers. steamers. of fares, In month, the fares had mounted the middle of the following month, to their former places with the Nicaragua Line charging 17^ even more than the mail companies. companies. Besides showing the Panama steamers that they were competitors to deal with, this short display of competicompeti­ tion had attracted more passengers to actually try the Nicaragua route and see for themselves the improvements improvements that were taking place. place. The macadamized between San macadamized road between Juan del Sur and Virgin Bay had been completed at a cost completed at $126,000, and rain or shine passengers were regularly of $126,000, hours. crossing in from two to three hours. Arrangements were also made to place express wagons on the road for the l^Kemble, The Panama Route, Route, 67. 67. For a complete complete l6Kemble, competition between the various development of the rate competition September 1853 to March 1857, 1857, see steamer lines from September 66-76. pages 66-76. l7Kemble, l Kemble, The Panama Route, Route, 69; 69; Panama Weekly Weekly Herald, October 17, 1853. 17, 1853. 7 133 transportation transportation of passengers and baggage. baggage. The greatest immediate change was the establishment establishment of a dependable 1 ( j Q schedule. 18 schedule. • LO The steamers between New York and San Juan del The steamers between New York and San Juan del Norte had regularly been sailing direct in from eight to Norte had regularly been sailing direct in from eight to nine days; however, such was not the case on the Pacific. nine days; however, such was not the case on the Pacific. Although the steamers left San Francisco quite regularly Although the steamers left San Francisco quite regularly on the first and the fifteenth, their time to San Juan del on the first and the fifteenth, their time to San Juan del Sur and their return varied from thirteen to twenty-two Sur and their return varied from thirteen to twenty-two days with an average time of about sixteen days. Under days with an average time of about sixteen days. Under these conditions the passengers were continually held up these conditions the passengers were continually held up on the isthmus, and the Atlantic steamers frequently found on the isthmus, and the Atlantic steamers frequently found themselves awaiting the arrival of the passengers. themselves awaiting the arrival of the passengers. Under Vanderbilt the steamers on the Pacific had Under Vanderbilt the steamers on the Pacific had been stopping either at Realejo or Acapulco, and sometimes been stopping either at Realejo or Acapulco, and sometimes both, for coal and provisions. The captains seemed to be both, for coal and provisions. The captains seemed to be in no great hurry and sometimes were delayed as many as in no great hurry and sometimes were delayed as many as three days at these ports. To remedy this situation, three days at these ports. To remedy this situation, Garrison established a coaling depot at San Juan del Sur Garrison established a coaling depot at San Juan del Sur and directed the steamers to sail direct between there and directed the steamers to sail direct between there and San Francisco. Following these arrangements, the and San Francisco. Following these arrangements, the l8NNew e w York Herald, January 6, 6, 1854; 1854; Alta California, California, October 2, 2, 1853. 1853. i 0 134 steamers consistently consistently made the trip in eleven and one-half twelve. days and seldom took more than twelve. With the passengers Sur, the river and arriving regularly at San Juan del Sur, lake steamers were able to meet their schedules, and the time of crossing from ocean to ocean was soon reduced hours. to thirty-six hours. By these methods Garrison succeeded in reducing the time of transit from four to six days. days. In August passengers crossed from San Francisco to New York hours, the shortest time on in twenty-two days and three hours, record. r e c o r d .19 19 Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt s "Independent "Independent Opposition Line" f When the North Star anchored off Staten Island on September 23, 1853, that Morgan and September 23, 1853, Vanderbilt discovered discovered that succeeded in gaining complete complete control of the Garrison had succeeded company. president and Joseph L. Morgan was pres'dent L. White was position. restored to his former position. Once fully cognizant of the situation, the Commodore Commodore exploded. As his clerk manipulated the stock told him in detail how Morgan had manipulated 19New N e w York Herald, Herald. January l852-December 1852-December 1853; i-December 1853. Alta California, January l85i lSS^-December 1853. l 9 135 on the the Exchange, seized control of the company, and sussus­ pended he dictated a classic warning to pended all payments, he ,t Morgan and Garrison: Garrison: Gentlemen: You have have undertaken undertaken to to cheat me. me. II won't sue you, you, for the law is too slow. slow. I'll ruin you. you. Yours truly, truly, 20 Cornelius Vanderbilt Vanderbilt 20 Having delivered delivered himself of this emotional outburst, he calmly set about making plans plans for his his revenge. revenge. The day after Vanderbilt returned, the Accessory Vanderbilt returned, Accessory Transit Company the New New York York Herald that Company announced announced in the Vander­ "it is quite true that since the departure of Mr. Mr. Vandercompany have not paid him bilt the company him the twenty per cent on simple the gross receipt of the route for the plain and simple indebted to the reason that in their belief he is largely indebted company." impossible They claimed that they had found it impossible statement of the accounts of the agency durdur­ to obtain a statement ing the time he had acted as agent for the steamers. steamers. On September 28, Vanderbilt September 28, Vanderbilt wrote to the editor of the the Herald were false, Herald that these allegations were false, that the accounts of his agency had constantly been subject to 20 20Cited Lane, Commodore Cited in in Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt, Vanderbilt, 109. 109. 136 their inspection. He claimed the twenty-second claimed that on the twenty-second of July there was a balance of indebtedness of the company, company, of upwards of $36,000 in addition to the 20 per cent of route, which they had the gross receipts of the transit route, withheld from his agent during his absence under the false withheld pretense of his being indebted to them. them. He stated that he had accepted accepted the agency to secure the amount of the company's indebtedness and he supposed that they had terminated the agency in his absence to avoid its payment. payment. terminated M y rights against the company company will be He concluded, "'~y determined in due time by the judgment determined judgment of the legal tri­ tri- bunals, to whom, rather than to the public, public, good taste at company should have made their least required required that the company appeal." Company replied that The next day the Transit Company appertaining to VanderVander­ when the the "accounts and vouchers vouchers appertaining bilt 's agency shall be company will bilt's be received the company will be be ready and willing willing to him any any balance may be found due." d u e . "2l and to pay pay him balance that that may be found 2 con­ Following this initial public airing of their conAccessory Transit Company Company and Vanderbilt troversy, both the Accessory i dispute. turned to more private means of settling their dispute. I Vanderbilt attempted attempted to place an attachment attachment on the PromeProme­ Vanderbilt corporation had no theus on the grounds that a Nicaragua corporation York Herald, Herald, September 21New New York September 29, 29, 1853. 1853 137 however, the power to operate steamships in this country; however, collector of the port refused the attachment, pointing pointing p, j>J- t out that the vessels were registered in the names names of the officers as trustees and that Vanderbilt had had approved approved of this at the time of transfer. transfer. the Commodore from his aims. aims. This setback did not deter A A far more effective plan 22 was in the process of execution. execution. 22 Despite competition Lines and and the competition with the Mail Lines dispute with Vanderbilt, business was very good throughthrough­ Accessory Transit out the summer and fall of 1853 for the Accessory Company. Steamers arriving at New York and San Francisco continually reported reported lists of from 500 to 700 passengers. passengers. continually published their semiannual statement statement in January When they published combination of Morgan and 1854, it was clear that the combination one. Garrison had been a profitable one. The report showed showed that company under their management for the six-month period, the company had made a clear profit in excess of half a million dollars. dollars. It hastened hastened to add that the net receipts had all been improve­ applied to the payment of past indebtedness, mainly improveisthmus, the purchase of the Cortes, Cortes, and the ments on the isthmus, liquidation of $150,000 in bonds to complete the purchase liquidation line. of the line. 22 speculated that if the business should It speculated Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt, 110. 138 continue to be as prosperous, would be be enabled prosperous, the company company would d i v i d e n d s .23 to pay half-yearly dividends. 23 ,+ At the beginning beginning of 1854 the accounts between unsettled. Vanderbilt and the Transit Company were still unsettled. It is impossible to establish from the material published the exact obligation; however, it is apparent had pocketed pocketed a sizeable fortune. fortune. that someone that The New York York Herald reported that during the time of Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt s agency, from f January to May 1853, by the 1853, the entire amount received received by company company out of the gross earnings of the steamships was $175,000. $175,000. It went on to say that after making inquiry into proper quarter, it was astonished to find that that VanderVander­ bilt had had received received the same amount as he had paid paid the company. It then concluded concluded that "it appears Mr. Mr. Vanderbilt had got the entire earnings of the steamships in his hands during the time he acted as agent.,,24 agent." ^ 2 If the the Herald's Herald s 1 received close to inquiries were accurate, Vanderbilt had received agency. a half-million dollars during his agency. profitable. venture had been highly profitable. Nicaragua The Nicaragua It is probably probably safe to say that he received close to $2 million during the two years that he was in control of the line. line. 23New New York Herald, January 6, 1854. 1854. 24New New York York Herald, Herald, January January 11, 11, 1854. 1854. He could 139 well afford to take the action against Morgan and and Garrison he had planned. ~ ,'"»* * In February 1854 Vanderbilt made his move move to to make good his threat to "ruin" Morgan and Garrison. The establishment arrangement he made for this purpose was the establishment of an Independent Opposition Line to run on the Panama route. route. To effect this he converted his steam yacht North Star for passenger passenger service and entered an agreement agreement with Mills. Edward Mills. independent steamers Mills had been running independent since he had secured part of the early trade between between New York and San Juan with the Brother Jonathan. Jonathan. In May May 1853 he sent the steamer Uncle Sam to the Pacific with the Blade, intention of having her connect with the Yankee Blade, which was soon to come off the docks of Perine, Patterson York. and Stack in New York. launched in The Yankee Blade was launched December and had made one run to Aspinwall when when Vanderbilt completed their plans for the Opposition Opposition Line. Line. and Mills completed By this arrangement, the Yankee Blade left for the Pacific 2, 1854, 1854, to join the Uncle Sam. on February 2, On February February 20. 20: Inde­ the North Star left New York for Aspinwall, and the Inde- 25 operation.^5 pendent Opposition Line was in operation. 25Append~x; Appendix; New York Herald, February 20, 1854. February 20, 1854. 140 Vanderbilt and Mills proceeded proceeded to cut rates alarmingly; through cabin fares were set at $150 and steerage $75. $75. ",,~+ Fortunately Nicaragua and Mail Fortunately for the Nicaragua lines there was a new wave of immigration to California, immigration to California, and they were able to follow to some extent the the lead set by the Independent Line and still stay in operation. operation. The low rates attracted attracted even more passengers, and the Nicaragua steamers arrived in San Francisco with with capacity loads. loads. In February the Sierra Nevada Nevada carried 927 passengers carried 927 851. and in March the Cortes arrived with 851. In April the again with 955 and was followed by Sierra Nevada arrived again the Cortes with 804. 26 26 the Cortes with 804. By March the Pacific Mail had reduced their fares By March the Pacific Mail had reduced their fares to $200 first cabin, $100 second, and $40 steerage. The to $200 first cabin, $100 second, and $40 steerage. The Nicaragua Line was also charging $200 first cabin but Nicaragua Line was also charging $200 first cabin but had held second cabin to $175 and steerage to $60. On had held second cabin to $175 and steerage to $60. On June 6, Vanderbilt turned the screw even tighter and June 6, Vanderbilt turned the screw even tighter and reduced his rates to an all-time low of $100 first cabin, reduced his rates to an all-time low of $100 first cabin, $80 second, and $35 steerage. The competition was begin- $80 second, and $35 steerage. The competition was begin­ ning to tell, and it was evident that the Commodore was ning to tell, and it was evident that the Commodore was willing to expend a good deal of his fortune to force the willing to expend a good deal of his fortune to force the Transit Company's hand. Whereas the Nicaragua route had Transit Company's hand. Whereas the Nicaragua route had 26New Appendix A, N e w York Herald, February 28, 28, 1854; 1854; Appendix A, Z D Part 1. 1. ... 141 recently overtaken through passenovertaken the Panama in number of through passen­ month, the establishmeq~ establishment, gers, averaging more than 2,000 a month, of the Opposition Line had swung the balance in favor of Panama. Panama. The Mail Lines found it impossible impossible to follow and TheMail second, now raised their rates to $225 first cabin, $130 second, 27 steerage. and $75 steerage. 27 As spring passed the great influx of of passengers off. died off. Thus the Transit Company and Mail Lines faced the issue of settling or continuing to operate at ruinous rates. rates. claims, They chose to meet Vanderbilt's painful claims, September 1, 1, 1854, 1854, it was announced announced that the NicaNica­ and on September ragua Transit Company, the Pacific Mail Steamship Steamship Company, Company, and the United States Mail Steamship Company had jointly Company had purchased the Uncle Sam, Yankee Blade, Blade, and North Star. Star. purchased The price price set by Vanderbilt was $800,000 for the three steamers, bonus for his steamers, plus $100,000 as an additional bonus promise to never again enter the steamship trade to to CaliCali­ fornia. fornia. The Nicaragua Transit Company Company paid $500,000 and Blade, while the Mail received the Uncle Sam and Yankee Blade, contributed $400,000 for the North Star. S t a r .28 Lines contributed 2 8 27NNew 6, 12, e w York York Herald, Herald, March March 26, 26, June June 6, 12, 1854. 1854. 2 7 28New N e w York Herald, September September 1, 1, 1854; 1854; Alta California, fornia, October 2, 2, 3, 3, 13, 13, 1854 1854.. 2 8 142 Vanderbilt had had not yet yet succeeded succeeded in ruining Morgan and Garrison, but he he had had brought brought them to terms terms on bended bended *>~ knee. knee. At the the time of the settlement, the Transit Company Company and Mail Lines came to an agreement whereby whereby they increased their rates rates to to $206.25 first cabin, $168 second, and $112.50 transit; they $112.50 steerage steerage exclusive exclusive of of isthmus isthmus transit; they also also arranged arranged for their steamers to sail on alternate weeks, weeks, thus giving a weekly weekly service between New York and San Francisco. 29 Francisco. Taste of of Success A A Taste Throughout the period period of competition competition with Vanderbilt, Vanderbilt, Morgan and and Garrison were were busy busy with improvements improvements on the isthmus. isthmus. commenced the building In February February they had commenced building of piers at Virgin Bay and San Juan del Sur to eliminate the loss of time involved in transporting transporting the passengers to cumbersome launches. launches. shore in cumbersome longIn the same month the 10ng- awaited carriages arrived arrived under a contract with Colonel Colonel awaited G. W. W. White. G. White. especially made for the transit They had been especially 29Reports Mail Steamship Co. R e p o r t s of Pacific Mail C o . 's s StockStock­ holders, 19. holders , 19. 29 f 143 143 road with with elipitical springs, springs, stationary stationary tops, tops, and curtains. waterproof curtains. arranged lengthlength­ The seats were arranged , .~ cushioned with stuffed backs, wise and were cushioned backs, each carriage accommodating eight or nine passengers. accommodating passengers. The panels ornamented with emblematic emblematic paintings of scenes in were ornamented California and Nicaragua, and the exteriors were painted stripes, the Nicaraguan colors, mingled white with blue stripes, Nicaraguan colors, flag. with the stripes of the American American flag. Provided with Provided good brakes, they were pulled by four mules mules each each and and formed formed good brakes, they were pulled by four road. a colorful procession as they moved inland along the road. Following their inauguration, passengers were able to Following cross over the the road road regularly regularly in from one and one-half on to two hours. 3D to two hours . J By October there were four steamers running on By October there were four steamers running on the lake and several new ones had been added on the river. the lake and several new ones had been added on the river. In December it was announced that the company had added In December it was announced that the company had added twenty new carriages which had been built by the welltwenty new carriages which had been built by the well- known firm of Eaton and Company of Troy, New York, and known firm of Eaton and Company of Troy, New York, and that the wharf at San Juan del Sur had been completed, that the wharf at San Juan del Sur had been completed, Of) 30Bancroft, Bancroft, Chronicles Chronicles of of the the Builders Builders of of monwealth, V, 395; New Orleans Picayune, February monwealth, V, 395; New Orleans Picayune, February Alta Alta California, California, February February 22, 22, 1855. 1855. J the the ComCom­ 7, 7, 1854; 1854; 144 thus enabling the the steamers to take take on and discharge their dock. 3l passengers directly at the dock. , .~ Despite the reduction reduction of rates rates to to meet the compecompe­ tition by Vanderbilt's tition offered offered by Vanderbilt s Opposition Opposition Line, Line, the the Transit Transit f Company's net net receipts for the first six months months of operaopera­ tion in 1854 were were $820,000 and they paid a dividend of $3.. $3 .. It ~1kely that that this was paid paid to It is is likely this dividend dividend was to bolster bolster the the stockholders the shock stockholders for for the shock that that was was sure sure to to come. come. As As business painful claims business dropped dropped off off and and the the painful claims of of Vanderbilt Vanderbilt were met, and then when when the the Yankee Blade was were met, and then the loss loss of of the Yankee Blade was added, the the stockholders' began to look look dim. stockholders' prospects began dim. December revealed company to be in Yet the report in December revealed the company Vanderbilt, much better condition than many, including Vanderbilt, 31New February 7, New Orleans Picayune, January 7, 7, February 7, April 26, 26, 1854; 1854; Alta California, October 13, 13, 1854; 1854; New York Herald, Herald, October 28, 28, 1854; 1854; Alta California, December December 1854. 21, 1854. Other than than the steamers being less crowded and the addition of carriages on the transit road which enen­ time, there abled passengers to cross in a much shorter time, significant changes in the conditions of travel were no significant during 1854. 1854. Carl Scherzer, Travels in the Free States of Honduras, and San Salvador Central America: Nicaragua, Honduras, (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & & Roberts, Roberts, (London: Brown, Green, I, 11-20; 11-20; George Bruce Upton, Jr. to Mr. Mr. & 6c Mrs. Mrs. 1857), I, Upton, Jr. B. Upton, January 15, 15, 1854, 1854, a letter in the HuntHunt­ George B. Grover, V1854 ington Library; James Madison Grover, '~1854 Diary of Voyage to California via Nicaragua Nicaragua on steamers 'Prometheus' 'Prometheus' 'Pacific,'" Papers, 1854-1905, MS in the and 'Pacific, "' in Diary and Papers, Bancroft Library; Journal of J. A. A. Clarke, Clarke, MS in the HuntHunt­ ington Library. Library. 145 might have have supposed. Instead of a deficit, the the company company showed a net profit of $180,000 for the las half of the .... lastt half * t I year which which gave them, clear of expenses, about one million expenses, about year. dollars profit for the year. A dividend was passed A passed in however, and the company company carefully carefully explained explained that January, however, indebted­ the profits had been expended in paying off past indebtedness, in paying a dividend to the stockholders in July, in ness, settling claims with Vanderbilt, in adding to the property company two ocean steamers, steamers, several lake and river of the company steamers, and in equipping its road with carriages. carriages. steamers, Morgan and Garrison had been able to meet Vanderbilt Vanderbilt at his company after a own game and were still in control of the company 32 year and a half of operation. operation.32 In the spring of 1855 an innovation was was added added to to the transit route. route. ,Up Up to that time the passengers were still sleeping on the decks of the steamers and and rustling their own food. food. Now two new steamers were placed placed on the Now lake with sleeping and eating acconurradations. accommodations. appear. rado was first to appear. The ColoColo­ 1,000 Capable of carrying 1,000 passengers and their baggage on a draft of only ten inches, inches, she was able to navigate the whole length of the river 32 New York York Herald, Herald, December December 25, 25, 1854. 1854. 146 without any danger of getting aground._ aground. The San Carlos was for made of iron; she was 250 feet long and made expressly t~r rooms, sofas, sofas, a large galley, and the lake with state rooms, accommodations passengers_ accommodations for 1,500 1,500 passengers. Twenty more carriages were added on the the transit road, making seventy-five in all, all, giving the capability capability of carrying 700 passengers over at a time in from one and one-half to two hours. hours. With the steamers docking at the the wharf at San Juan del Sur, Sur, carricarri­ ages transit road, ages en on the the transit road, and and new new steamers steamers on on the the lake, lake, passengers were now crossing from ocean to ocean in twentyone and one-half hours and were making the trip between New York York and San Francisco in less than than twenty-one days.33 days. 3 3 These improvements improvements on the isthmus had not been completed merely passengers. completed merely to satisfy the whims of the passengers. Company was forced to make the route more The Transit Company comfortable and faster in order to compete with the Panama 1855, had completed completed the railway route which, in January 1855, across the isthmus and was transporting transporting passengers across day. in less than a day. In that same month the agreement settlement with the reached at the time of the Vanderbilt settlement I ~ A l t a California, February February 22, 22, March 24, 24, May 8, 8, 33A1ta August 11, 1855; 1855; New York Herald, December December 3, 3, 1854, 1854, March 20, August 11, 20, 23, May 9, June 13, 13, 1855; Sacramento Daily Union, Union, March 23, 1855. 3 3 147 terminated and competition competition was Pacific Mail Company was terminated resumed. By March, however, the improvements on the Nicaragua route route had placed the Transit Company in a strong Company in bargaining was drawn up. bargaining position, and a new agreement was up. provided for the weekly trips to be continued continued and for It provided equitable rates to be established. The contract was to months, and, as a bonus to the Transit run for twelve months, Company, the Pacific Mail agreed to divide the gross receipts for the first three months. months. This was a distinct Company as the Pacific Mail advantage to the Transit Company carried more passengers and, having a longer route, ex­ carried route, expended more for the operation of their steamers. steamers.34 ^ pended 3 paid about Under the agreement the Pacific Mail paid $100,000. $100,000. Then shortly after receiving the the money, the Transit Transit Company Company set set about about annulling annulling the the contract contract on on grounds the Pacific Mail pronounced pronounced unjustifiable. When an an attempt attempt to to renew renew negotiations negotiations was was made, made, the the Transit Transit Company Company claimed claimed one-half one-half of of the the gross gross receipts receipts of of the the two two companies for themselves and expected the Pacific Mail Mail to to pay for the maintenance of all they carried. The Pacific Mail maintained they carried maintained this was inequitable as they carried more 34Kemble, Kemble, The Panama Route,. Route, 71; 71; Alta California, California, January 17, 17, 1855. 1855. 148 expense, thus negotiations ceased. ceased. passengers at greater expense, In May fierce competition both lines lines began competition was resumed and both rates. lowering rates. By June passage via Nicaragua Nicaragua was set at s t e e r a g e .35 $175 first cabin, $125 second, and $50 steerage. 35 This was the condition of affairs at the the beginning of the summer of 1855. 1855. run so smoothly. Never before had the the Nicaragua Nicaragua Line Never Steamers arrived and departed on schedule; departed on schedule; passengers dock at passengers were were swiftly swiftly transported transported from from the the dock at San San Juan del Sur in comparatively to Vircomparatively comfortable carriages to Vir­ gin night's rest rest on gin Bay, Bay, they they enjoyed enjoyed a a good good meal meal and and a a night's on the the lake the river lake steamers, steamers, and and were were then then loaded loaded directly directly from from the river steamers onto the Atlantic steamships waiting in the the harbor. harbor. Since Morgan and Garrison had assumed control of the the line, line, it had had cleared half a million dollars for each six months ..;-;-.. of operation. They could well afford to look look hopefully hopefully to to t e r m s .36 ^ the future and demand that the Mail Lines meet their terms. 3 35 35Reports of Pacific Mail Steamship Co. 's StockReports of Pacific Mail gteamship Co.'s Stock­ holders , ..2.9-.3.7.;. Statement of 28th June, 1855 z from Mr. holders, 29-37; Statement of 28th June, 1855, from Mr. William H. Aspinwall, President of the Pacific Mail SteamWilliam H. Aspinwall, President of the Pacific Mail Steam­ ship Company, in answer to the Reports from Two Committees ship Company, in answer to the Reports from Two Committees Appointed by Stockholders, 24th May, 1855 (New York: Hall, Appointed by Stockholders, 24th May, 1855 (New York: Hall, Clayton & Co., 1855), 7-8; New York Herald, March 14, 17, Clayton & Co., 1855), 7-8; New York Herald, March 14, 17, June 30, 1855. June 30, 1855. 36See See text text above above page page 145. 145. 149 In 1853 under under their management management 10,396 passengers traveled eastbound those by eastbound via Nicaragua, overtopping overtopping those way of Panama Panama by by 194 persons. persons. I *~ ( • Even with the stiff compecompe­ tition in 1854 and the addition of Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt s steamers, steamers, f eastbound via Panama eastbound travelers travelers via Panama only only exceeded exceeded those those via via Nicaragua by 1,560 1,560 persons with 10,808 passengers; while westbound, where where Panama Panama held held a lead of 7,327 persons over Nicaragua Nicaragua's s 9,687 passengers in 1853, 1853, this lead was f increasing her reduced to 5,382 in 1854 with Nicaragua increasing 1 3 , 0 6 3 .37 total to 13,063. 37 By the spring of 1855 the Nicaragua Nicaragua route route was was thus effectively competing competing with Panama. Panama. effectively Born out of VanderVander­ bilt s dream bilt's dream of of constructing constructing aa canal, canal, it it had had survived survived the the f failure of that scheme as a profitable undertaking. Thus, Thus, originally tied closely to the diplomatic controcontro­ although originally emerged primarily primarily as a capitalistic capitalistic struggle, struggle, versy, it emerged not, however, without without somewhat affecting the diplomatic conflicting interinter­ complications which developed out of the conflicting Clayton-Bulwer Tr.eaty. Treaty. pretations placed placed upon the Clayton-Bulwer As these complications grew along with the struggle for control of the route, route, it will be necessary to turn back to 1850 to them. review them. 37Appendix A p p e n d i x B. B. 37 CHAPTER V V I •.. INTERPRETING INTERPRETING THE CLAYTON-BULWER CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY, TREATY, 1850-1854 The Prometheus Affair The Clayton-Bulwer had been successfully Clayton-Bulwer Treaty had successfully ratified because because of the the dual interpretation interpretation that both countries placed placed upon the the first article. article. Where Clayton Where and the Senate were convinced convinced that the British had agreed kingdom, to relinquish relinquish their protectorate protectorate over the Mosquito kingdom, convinced that they had in the British were as decidedly convinced abandoned the protectorate, although they recogrecog­ no way abandoned nized that their position position was somewhat weakened and necesneces­ nized that their was somewhat weakened and sitated a more sitated more definite arrangement. guar­ As the treaty guar- half-interest in any projected canal, anteed the the British British a half-interest projected canal, maintaining the Mosquito they no no longer had had any interest in maintaining Juan, provided provided that claims to to the port port of San Juan, that they could extricate themselves themselves in in a a manner that would their extricate manner that would preserve preserve their honor and and justify their past actions. honor justify their past actions. Their overtures overtures to Their to 151 adjust the Mosquito boundary were, were, however, complicated complicated by their relationship with Costa Rica and her boundary boundary dispute with Nicaragua over the transit route. route. The the United The renewed renewed interest interest of of the the British British and and the United States in an interoceanic canal across the isthmus of NicaNica­ ragua convinced the time time was was ripe convinced Costa Rica that perhaps the for the realization of this ancient idea. idea. so, If this were so, she could hardly stand by and watch all of the lucrative benefits of this project fall into the hands of Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Thus, no sooner had Nicaragua awarded a canal contract to Thus, asserted a Vanderbilt and his associates than Costa Rica asserted claim that her boundary included all of the land to the southward of the River San Juan and Lake Nicaragua, and southward that she had an exclusive right to the navigation of lake. the river and the lake. Nicara­ As Squier's Treaty with Nicara- proposed to extend United States protection protection to the gua proposed Canal Company, Costa Rica then turned to Britain to uphold her claims. claims. As the seizure of the port of San Juan in January 1848 had incurred the hostility of Nicaragua, Chatfield immediately immediately turned to Costa Rica in order to strengthen opposition from that British claims and forestall any opposition quarter. quarter. The Costa Rican government was more than willing 152 to place her her claims under the wing of the British British fleet, fleet, * and a treaty of amity and commerce was quickly conclude4 conclude4~ whereby the British agreed to uphold Costa Rica's claims to her boundary dispute with Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Costa Rica then immediately dispatched a minister to England England with an offer immediately to place Costa Rica under British protection. Although the British turned down this offer, in December December 1849 when negotiations with the United States looked doubtful, doubtful, they proceeded became honor proceeded to ratify the treaty and thereby became l bound to uphold uphold Costa Rica's claims to the transit. transit.^ While the Costa Rican claims had been been ignored ignored durdur­ ing the Clayton and Bulwer negotiations, they now now came to to light in the attempts made to adjust the Mosquito Mosquito boundary. boundary. Throughout the negotiations of the treaty, the the conflicting claims of the Mosquito kingdom and Nicaragua to the port of San Juan had been at the center of the dispute. dispute. While complicated by Britain's intention Bulwer's position was complicated to uphold the claims of the Mosquito king, the United side. States had not officially taken either side. Clayton's intent was to get the British to give up the protectorate and to insure the equal rights of the canal to all nations; nations; lManning, b a n n i n g , Central America~, America., 1831-1850, 468-86. 468-86. 153 thus he made no effort to advance Nicaragua's position. position. When Bulwer Bulwer had had insisted ratification of the Squie~t insisted that ratification Squier,* Treaty, because it recognized recognized Nicaragua's right to the canal route, route, would preclude any peaceful peaceful settlement would preclude settlement of the dispute, dispute, Clayton had influenced influenced President Taylor to refuse incompatible the Senate's call for the treaty as being incompatible with the public interest. The United United States thus ratified Clayton-Bulwer Treaty without officially officially backing the the C1ayton-Bu1wer Ni ca ra gua claims. cla ims. Nicaragua When negotiations were resumed in early 1851 to make a final settlement settlement of the Mosquito protectorate, protectorate, Bulwer was still under the impression impression that the United Bu1wer States could be induced induced not to uphold uphold Nicaragua's claims. claims. He thus suggested suggested the desirability desirability of settling at once by joint mediation all of the territorial differences be­ bejoint tween Mosquito, Costa Rica, Rica, and Nicaragua. However, when he insisted upholding Costa Rica's claims, insisted on upholding claims, Daniel Secretary of State, State, refused Webster, Clayton's successor as Secretary consulting Nicaragua and absolutely absolutely opposed to act without consulting Greytown the cession of Grey town to Costa Rica, Rica. After prot~acted protracted delays the representatives of Costa Rica and Nicaragua finally met with Webster and Bu1wer, Bulwer, but as they both refused to yield sufficiently, sufficiently, all all proposals proposals for for a a threethreerefused to yield 154 way settlement proved proved futile. futile. Bulwer then gave up the 1 8 5 1 .2 negotiations and returned to England in August 1851. 2 Shortly after these abortive negotiations, the issue complicated by an event on the isthmus which threatened was complicated to disrupt the friendly relations between Britain and the States. United States. Clayton-Bulwer In accordance with the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, whereby both governments agreed to undertake the establishment of a free port at each end of the canal, canal, establishment instructed the Mosquito authorities authorities Lord Palmerston had instructed December 1850 to make Grey Greytown in December town a free port. These instructions were obeyed, but as they left the local authorities without any remuneration remuneration for expenses connected with the harbor, harbor, they passed a law which levied small port charges on all merchant vessels vessels which entered the harbor, entered the harbor, to be effective as of January 1, 1, 1851. 1 8 5 1 .3 3 From the Prometheus' first trip trip to to the the port port of of Prometheus first 1 Grey town in January 1851, Greytown 1851, the Canal Company Company had refused 2 2James James D. D. Richardson Richardson (ed.), (ed.), A A Compilation Compilation of of the the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897 (WashingMessages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897 (Washing­ ton: 31-32, cited ton: Government Government Printing Printing Office, Office, 1897), 1897), V. V. 31-32, cited hereafter as Richardson, Messages and Papers the Presihereafter as Richardson, Messages and Papers of of the Presi­ dents; Williams, Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, dents ; Williams, Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, 110-19. 110-19. 3Instructions December 20, 20, ^Instructions from Lord Palmerston, December 1850, Fa FO 53 (Mosquito), (Mosquito), Reel 10, 10, Vol. Vol. 25; 25; Laws and ReguRegu­ 1850, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel lations of the Port of Grey-Town, Fa Vol. 29. 29. 10, Vol. 155 to pay the port charges on the grounds that the Clay tonClayton- . authorities' *•~* Bulwer Treaty did not recognize the Mosquito authorities' t claim claim to the port, but rather that of the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan exempting government which had granted them a contract exempting k i n d .4 them from the payment of duties or charges of any kind. 4 November 21, 21, 1851, 1851, the city authorities, authorities, On the afternoon of November determined to collect the port charges, charges, sent the acting determined captain of the port to the Prometheus for this purpose. purpose. When he informed Captain Churchill that he intended intended to collect port dues not only for the present, but for all ships, Commodore Commodore Vanderbilt, who happened to be past ships, aboard, informed him that he did not recognize any authority and would would not pay unless unless made made to to do do so so by by force. force. and not pay The port The port captain thereupon thereupon returned returned to to shore shore and and secured secured an an attachattach­ captain ment for for debt debt against against the the steamer. steamer. ment attempted to When the constable and a small force attempted serve the attachment on Captain Churchill, Churchill, they were sursur­ hustled bodily rounded by the crew and passengers and hustled bodily over side. the side. The Prometheus then dropped down the harbor with the currents while receiving baggage from one of the 4Coates Coates to Green, Green, FO 53 (Mosquito), (Mosquito), Reel 10, 10, Vol. Vol. 29; 29; D.S. U.S. Docs,., Docs.,, Message on Routes Between Atlantic and Pacific, Pacific, S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 93. 93. S. 4 156 river steamers. steamers. Meanwhile, the constable had reported his treatment to James Green, Grey town * I~* Green, British consul at Greytown and chai.rman chairman of the city council, council, who immediately immediately made application to Commander Commander Fead of the English brig-of-war application Express requesting him to detain the Prometheus. Prometheus. ComCom­ mander Fead weighed anchor and when within a quarter of a mile of the departing vessel fired two shots across her stern. stern. The Prometheus then returned to the harbor and 5 Vanderbilt paid the debt under protest. protest.^ Vanderbilt Upon Vanderbilt's return to New York, York, the board of directors of the Canal Company Company adopted a resolution whereby company was directed to protest the counsel of the company protest the affair to the United States government. Accordingly, Accordingly, L. White wrote to the Secretary Secretary of State on DecemDecem­ Joseph L. ber 2, 2, 1851. 1851. ber He pointed pointed out out that the captain captain of of the the He that the Express had had acted acted under under the the authority authority of of the the British British Express Greytown continued to exercise dominion in consul at Grey town who continued in flagrant violation violation of of the the Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, Treaty, and asked flagrant and asked 5Coates ^Coates to Green, Green, n.d., FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 10, Vol. to Vol. 29; 29; Henry Churchill, Churchill, Captain Steamship Steamship Prometheus 10, Vol. New York Herald, in FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 10, Vol. 29 December 2, 2, 1851; 1851; Green to Fead, Fead, and New York Herald, December 21, 1851, 1851, ParI. Pari. Papers, Papers, LX, LX, 113; 113; Fead to McQuhae, McQuhae, November 21, December 8, 1851, ibid.; Fead to Parker, January 3, 1852, Parker, January 3, 1852, December 8, 1851, 10, Vol. Vol. 29; 29; Churchill to New York FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 10, ibid. Herald, ibid. 157 that a man-of-war be sent to protect the Canal Company's Company's 6 American citizens. citizens.^ property and the lives of American ^ f •• h The Secretary of State immediately had the Navy immediately had Department the home Department order Commodore Parker, Parker, commander commander of the squadron, to leave as soon as possible for Greytown Grey town in American interests there. there. order to protect American Parker was instructed that whatever may have been the merits of the instructed affair between the Prometheus and the authorities of Greytown, acknowledged no right of Grey town , the United States acknowledged supervision over Great Britain to exercise any policy or supervision American merchant vessels in Nicaragua or elsewhere; on American Clayton-Bulwer the contrary the first article of the C1ayton-Bu1wer Treaty expressly excluded excluded each of the contracting contracting parties from assuming or exercising any dominion over any part of Central America. At the same time, to time, he was instructed instructed to assure the local authorities of the port that the the United States would not justify justify the nonpayment of any lawful and proper port dues on the part of their merchant vessels. vessels. On the same date a dispatch was sent to the minister of 6White Par1. Papers, Papers, White to Webster, December 2, 2, 1851, 1851, Pari. LX, 105; Millard Fillmore, 105; U.S., U.S., Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, President Millard Fillmore, Message on Seizure of Prometheus, Sess., Prometheus, 32nd Cong., 1st Sess., 1851-1852, S. S. Doc. Doc. 6, 6, Sere Ser. no. no. 614, 614, 2, 2, cited cited hereafter as U.S. Docs., Docs., Message on Seizure of Prometheus, Prometheus, S. S. Doc. 6, U.S. Doc. 6, Sere Ser. no. no. 614. 614. 158 the United United States in London calling his attention to to the action of the British officials at Grey town and directing directing ip .~ Greytown him to inquire whether the captain of the Express had acted under orders from his government and whether whether his course course was was approved. approved.7 7 As As soon soon as as word word of of the the affair affair reached reached Jamaica, Jamaica, Vice Vice Admiral Admiral Seymour Seymour wrote wrote to to Commander Commander Fead Fead and and informed informed him him that that he he had had received received no no orders orders to to so so employ employ Her Her Majesty's Majesty's vessels had been vessels and and he he did did not not find find that that Consul Consul Green Green had been authorized ~p authorized t ;o demand demand their their assistance assistance for for that that object. object. He He instructed instructed him him to to desist desist from from enforcing enforcing the the payment payment of dues at Grey town until further ordered. Greytown On January 14, 14, 1852, the British Foreign Office informed Abbott Abbott Lawrence, Lawrence, American American Minister in London, of Seymour's instructions to Commander Fead. Fead. Commander They stated that Her Majesty's government fully approved of the vice admiral's conduct and entirely disavowed apology was disavowed the acts of Green and Fead; an ample apology 7U•S U . S ,. Docs., Docs., Message on Seizure of Prometheus, Prometheus, S. S. Doc. Doc. 6, Sere Ser. no. no. 614, 614, 4; 4; British and Foreign State Papers, Papers, Compiled Papers, Foreign Compiled by the Librarian and Keeper of the Papers, Office, Vol. Vol. XLI (London: (London: William William Ridgway, 1862), 760, Office, 760, cited hereafter as British and Foreign State Papers, Papers, XLI; XLI; U.S., Congress, Senate, President Fillmore, Message on U.S., Congress, Senate, Prometheus, 32nd Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1851-1852, 1851-1852, Attack on Prometheus, S. Doc. Doc. 30, 30, Sere Ser. no. no. 618, 618, 1-2, cited hereafter as Message S. Prometheus, S. S. Doc. Doc. 30, 30, Sere Ser. no. no. 618; 618; ParI. Pari. on Attack on Prometheus, Papers. LX, LX, 98. Papers. 98. 7 159 offered. The apology was duly accepted and the matter ended peaceably with friendly feelings between the two * »* governments.8 governments. 8 Although the United States and Britain had come to Company and the an amicable understanding, the Transit Company Greytown Grey town authorities were not so disposed. During the arrangements summer previous to the incident, while making arrangements route, the agent of the Transit Company Company to open the transit route, wrote to the Grey Greytown requesting a grant of town authorities requesting connected with the land on Point Arenas for purposes connected enterprise. operation of the company's enterprise. H. H. H. Foote, H. Foote, then acting British consul and chairman of the City Council replied, "I have therefore to inform you that until the land in question may be required for the purposes of the Mosquito Government, II can see no objection to your objection to request." request. 9 o 8parl Foreign State Pari.. Papers, Papers, LX, LX, 114; 114; British British and and Foreign State Papers, XLI, 766; U.S. Docs., Message on Attack on PromePapers, XLI, 766; U.S. Docs., Message on Attack on Prome­ theus, LX, 115. theus , S. S. Doc. Doc. 30, 30, Ser. Ser. no. no. 618, 618, 7; 7; ParI. Pari. Papers, Papers, LX, 115. It is interesting to note that Commander Fead died It is interesting to note that Commander Fead died soon being hastened, soon after after the the Prometheus Prometheus affair, affair, his his death death being hastened, it is supposed, by the treatment he met with from the it is supposed, by the treatment he met with from the Admiralty, Admiralty, R. R. N. N. Pim, Pirn, The The Gate Gate of of the the Pacific Pacific (London: (London: Lovell Pim, 1863), 229, 229, cited cited hereafter hereafter as as Pirn, Lovell Reeve Reeve & & Co., Co., 1863), Gate of the Pacific. The The Gate of the Pacific. 9Foote F o o t e to Martin, Martin, June 12, 12, 1851, 1851, FO 53 (Mosquito), (Mosquito), 10, Vol. Vol. 29. 29. Reel 10, 9 160 Following this correspondence, the Transit Company Company continued to build up their establishment establishment on Point Arenas Ij•....* continued inaugurated a regular transit of passengers over the and inaugurated Nicaragua route. route. Their refusal to pay port dues would probably not have aroused the citizens of Grey town had had they Greytown not established unloading pasestablished the practice of loading and unloading pas­ sengers directly from the steamers to the river boats, boats, thus prohibiting town citizens prohibiting the the Grey Greytown citizens from from benefiting benefiting from from any any trade trade with with the the passengers. passengers. Their Their determination determination to to force force the Prometheus to pay port dues was only the first step in an effort to compel the company company to land their passengers at Grey town. Greytown. The day following this successful show show of force, the City force, they communicated communicated the following order of the Council to the agent of the Transit Company: Company: 1. 1. All river steamers to take their departure up the River San Juan by the old passage passage.. . , .. .. 2. 2. The river steamers will not be allowed to go alongalong­ side or to receive from any steam-ship or other vessel in the port of Grey town any passengers or cargo. Greytown cargo. 5. 5. All river steamers returning from said river shall land their passengers and cargo upon the beach beach in front of the city of Grey town, the captain of the steamer Greytown, lO^ first reporting his arrival to the Port Captain. Captain. I With the Transit Company Company informed that they would have to deposit their passengers on the Grey town side of Greytown 10parl. P a r l . Papers, Papers, LX, 118. 118. x w L 161 the harbor harbor and still feeling feeling that that they they had the power power of the British Navy behind behind them, the City Council next inin­ I.~ secretary of the Transit Company Company that the formed the secretary intended to set apart immediately immediately a Mosquito government intended portion of the opposite side of the harbor for quarantine purposes. purposes. This necessarily necessarily required required the withdrawal of permission to occupy Point Arenas which would permission would take effect 1, 1852. 1 8 5 2 .11 on January 1, 1 1 Before the City Council had an opportunity opportunity to carry out their plan, plan, Vice Admiral Admiral Seymour disavowed the the act of Commander Fead and instructed him not to use Her Majesty's Commander Fead instructed him Majesty's vessels to to enforce the policies policies of the Grey town authorites. Greytown authorites. Soon after this the the British Foreign Office informed informed Consul Green that they they highly disapproved disapproved of his conduct in the Prometheus affair, vessels were were merely merely to Prometheus affair, that British vessels defend the town and not to enforce fiscal payments, payments, and that such proceedings on his part were highly injurious to the interests of Her Majesty's government. l2 Not long before the arrival of these curt instructions, he had been informed that in consideration consideration of the recent incident, incident, informed 1lBritish 772. ^ B r i t i s h and Foreign State Papers, Papers, XLI, XLI, 772. 12PPar1. Papers, LX, 116. a r l . Papers, 116. 1 2 162 misunderstandings were likely to to arise between between Britain and the United States; States; therefore, therefore, it was of great moment that ·t ' means should be be found to to come to to an amicable arrangement arrangement with the the Transit Company.13 with Company.-'3 As a result of these instructions, the City Council did now press press its did not not feel feel it it could could now its demands demands and and the the issue issue was dropped. Consul Green determined that because because of the opposition the American American portion portion of to opposition of of the of the the inhabitants inhabitants to British would be be in the best British influence, influence, it it would in the best interests interests of of good relations between Britain and the the United States to withdraw from all direct interference with the management management withdraw of the local government. 29, 1852, 1852, he withdrew On March 29, Council, and on from his position position as chairman of the City Council, April 15 the city held an election of new officers and constitution establishing establishing a free town not drafted a new constitution 14^ Hamburg or Bremen. Bremen. unlike the German cities of Hamburg With the peaceful settlement of affairs at GreyGrey­ town, town, conditions were now conducive for a final disposidisposi­ tion of the Mosquito question. question. Having given up the idea l3Ppar Papers, LX, 120. a r ll. . Papers, 120. 1 3 l4Green to Malmesbury, Malmesbury, June 3, l^Green to 3, 1852 and Green to (Mosquito), British Foreign Office, Office, May 31, 31, 1852, 1852, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 10, Vol. 29. 10, Vol. 29. J 163 of having Nicaragua and Costa Rica come to an agreement beforehand, Webster acceded to the proposition J~ proposition of John F. F. iT ,* Crampton, who had succeeded succeeded Bu1wer, Bulwer, to first agree on a contend­ basis of settlement and then to propose it to the contendnations. ing nations. continued to refuse to settle their If they continued American governments would affairs, the British and American would then proceed to adopt measures deemed advisable to carry into Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. Treaty. full execution the terms of the C1ayton-Bulwer Webster was apparently guided only by by an interest in gaining protection for the transisthmian canal. transisthmian canal. He felt that this could be accomplished British ceased accomplished if the British to enforce the claims of the Mosquitos and Costa Ricans to the port port of San Juan. Juan. There is no evidence that he he made any British out any attempt attempt in in the the negotiations negotiations to to force force the the British out of of their their settlements settlements in in the the Belize. Belize. The on the The British, British, on the other hand, remained remained steadfast other hand, steadfast in in their their original original purpose. purpose. They They aimed aimed to to effect effect aa settlement settlement entirely entirely satisfactory satisfactory to United States, to the the United States, providing providing that that it it was was in in keeping keeping with what the with what the British British government government called called its its "honor" "honor" in in connection connection with the Mosquito protectorate and the Costa Rican claims. claims. With these objects in view, and after various changes of the articles, 30, articles, a convention was signed on April 30, 164 1852. (1) (1) It essentially essentially called for an agreement on three points: points: The Mosquitos would relinquish the port port of San Juan 1 I>; • in return for definite boundaries boundaries in the north and the net receipts three years. receipts of of duties duties collected collected at at the the port port for for three years. (2) (2) San Juan was to be established established as a free port under the Nicaragua. the sovereignty sovereignty of of Nicaragua. (3) (3) The boundaries between The boundaries between Nicaragua were to to be be adjusted, Nicaragua and and Costa Costa Rica Rica were adjusted, giving giving to to the the latter territory south the San latter all all of of the the territory south of of the San Juan Juan River River and and limited privileges of limited privileges of navigation navigation of of the the river. r i v e r .15 ^ Following the Webster-Crampton Following the the signing signing of of the Webster-Crampton ConCon­ vention, arrangements were were immediately to induce Nicaimmediately made to Nica­ ragua and Costa Rica to to accept it as a basis basis of settlement. settlement. ada­ While Costa Rica readily readily consented, Nicaragua remained ada- mant in her position. humiliating She felt the terms were humiliating betrayed both to her pride and that the United States had betrayed Clayton-Bulwer Treaty by recognizing Nicaragua and the Clayton-Bulwer recognizing the British right to treat in the name of the Mosquito king. king. insiste4 that the Mosquito Territory, including the She insisteq reannexed to Nicaragua and that her port of San Juan, be reannexed boundaries with Costa Rica remain as she had formerly claimed. To reinforce her position, she issued a decree l5Manning, M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, 18-23; Williams, Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, 130-33. Williams, Anglo-American 130-33. 13 l 165 officially refusing to accept the recommendations recommendations and officially solemnly protesting protesting against all foreign interference. Witb+ With* affairs, it now appeared that the United this turn of affairs, States would proceed to make some definite arrangements with alone; however, however, recent British activity in the Bay Britain alone; Islands quickly upset the friendly relations that had persisted since the Treaty of 1850. 1 8 5 0 .16 persisted 1 6 The Bay Islands Colony Ameri­ From the earliest discussions on the Central Ameri- can question, Britain had been guided by a fairly constant policy. policy. Finally convinced to preclude convinced that it was impossible impossible to American had determined American extension extension to to the the Pacific Pacific coast, coast, she she had determined to her settlements and to to foreto protect protect her settlements in in Central Central America America and fore­ stall American American monopoly of transisthmian communications communications there. there. Uncertain as to how far south the spirit of the "All of Mexico" movement movement might carry American American encroachments, encroachments, she had had seized seized the port of San Juan and honor bound bound herself herself region. to uphold the claims of the Mosquito king to that region. 16Manning, -^Manning, Central America, 1851-1860, 293-95, 293-95, 313-19. 313-19. 166 When it became evident that the United United States had no desire to extend into Central America America or to monopolize the pro- ~~ , * posed canal, canal, Britain Britain readily entered negotiations to resolve the conflict. Throughout these discussions, discussions, she had kept kept two main ends in view: view: first, maintain her first, to maintain claims to to the the Belize settlements and forestall any possible application of the the Monroe Monroe Doctrine to that area; second, second, after insuring British participation participation in the proposed proposed canal, canal, to extricate herself herself from the the Mosquito Mosquito protectorate in terms commensurate commensurate with her "honor." We have followed the abortive attempts to apply the Convention of 1850 to the Mosquito protectorate. protectorate. Throughout these discussions the Throughout position in Belize remained remained undisturbed, apparently apparently British position settled by Clayton's declaration declaration at the exchange of ratifiratifi­ settled cations of the treaty. treaty. Former British fears were revived, revived, however, by Congressional reaction to news that Ruatan neighboring islands had been erected into the and five neighboring 20, 1852. 1852. "Colony of the Bay Islands" on March 20, Clayton's declaration had led the British to believe that the United States understood understood that the Treaty of 1850 did not apply to British Honduras or its dependencies. dependencies. This conviction conviction had been steadily reinforced reinforced by the studied neglect of this area in all subsequent negotiations and 167 to even bring was practically practically confirmed confirmed when Webster failed to consideration in the "basis for settlement;J' settlement" the subject into consideration Crampton in April 1852. 1852. of the treaty signed with Crampton It thus appeared to the British government that although the United States would would never permit foreign control of any portion of the canal route, would not take a similar stand route, they would on the Bay Islands which lay hundreds of miles away from routes. any of the favored routes. Notwithstanding Bay Islands' Notwithstanding the Bay Islands' direct unimportance unimportance to a canal route, were strategically route, they were strategically located so as to control the Bay of Honduras and would would likely become an important whenever transisthmian comimportant commercial commercial center whenever com­ munication munication was effected. Particularly was this this so if aa Particularly present scheme of British capitalists to complete an interinter­ oceanic oceanic railway railway across across the the Honduras Honduras route route came came into into fruition. fruition. The recent necessity of deposing an American American William Fitzgibbon, who had himself elected adventurer, William residents, chief of the native population population over the English residents, also suggested suggested that if some definite action were not taken, taken, the islands were likely to fall under the control of some other government. With such thoughts thoughts in mind mind on March 1852, the extended official 20, 1852, the British government quietly extended claim to claim to the islands by by erecting the the "Colony of the Bay 168 Islands." Not wishing to chance a disturbance of the prepre­ States*1 sent calm, no official notice was made to the United United State~~17 Information of the British proclamation first came proclamation first to the the attention of the United States Senate on December December 28, 28, 1852, when Lewis Cass, Cass, prompted prompted by newspaper editorials, editorials, submitted to the Senate a resolution requesting requesting the President submitted communicate information on the new British Colony in to communicate Central America together with measures that had been taken violation of the Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. Treaty. to prevent the viQlation tjie New holidays, the President replied After the New Year holidays, replied by informing the the Senate Senate that that the the administration administration had received informing had received no information information on on the the subject. subject. no Transmitted with his Transmitted with his message, however, however, were were the the declarations declarations exchanged exchanged by Clayton message, by Clayton and Bulwer Bulwer stating stating that that it it was was understood understood that the treaty treaty and that the 18 did not not apply apply to to British British Honduras Honduras nor nor its its dependencies. dependencies.18 did This was the first time the declarations had had come whole. before the Senate as a whole. The treaty had been ratified in executive closed session after a short debate, debate, and other protectorate over than a short discussion of the British protectorate l7U.S., Sess., l^U.S., Congressional Globe, Globe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., 1852-1853, 2291852-1853, Part I, I, 237; 237; Keasbey, The Nicaragua Canal, Canal, 22931; Williams, Williams, Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, 139-40. 139-40. l8U•S U . S .., , Congressional Globe, Globe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Sess., 1852-1853, 237. 1852-1853, Part I, I, 158, 158, 237. i 0 169 the Mosquitos early in 1851, 1851, the subject had failed to Senate. attract the attention of the Senate. interim the In that interim I~ Democrats defeated the Whigs and were now preparing to take over the reigns of government. That a new Central American policy was now brewing was soon evident when Cass launched an attack upon the declarations as being contrary to the intent of the treaty. treaty. He accused Clayton of willwill­ fully concealing that had concealing the correspondence and insisted insisted that it come before the Senate, not have have re­ reSenate, the treaty would not cei ved one that he he had ceived one vote vote in in tha thatt body. body. . ·He He recalled recalled that had distinctly distinctly stated stated "that "that my my object object in in voting voting for for that that treaty was to to Central treaty was to sweep sweep away away all all British British claim claim to Central America. A m e r i c a .,,19 "^ He Downs who He was was followed followed by by Solomon Solomon W. W. Downs who stated he rose to express his "very great astonishment" astonishment" and surprise at the construction construction which Clayton had placed upon the treaty. treaty. Downs maintained maintained that he "never understood the treaty in that form," and insisted that "no member member of the Senate so understood it. i t .,,20 " 2 0 Other Democrats then emphatically that had they understood arose and declared emphatically 19U.S., l^U.S., Congressional Globe, Globe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Sess., 1852-1853, 1852-1853, Part Part I, I, 237~ 237~. ~20Ibid. 20ibid. _ 170 the treaty did not apply to British Honduras, they never Honduras, they would have voted for it. it. would . , ~^ • In the debates that followed, followed, William William H. H. Seward led the defense of the Taylor administration. He attempted attempted to show that neither the whole nor the chief object of the convention was to get the British out of Central America but to set forth the views and intentions of the two proposed canal. canal. nations on the proposed endeavored to show that He endeavored complaining Senators were not ignorant of the construcconstruc­ the complaining tion by pointing out that the substance of the the declarations declarations appeared in the the National Inte11igencer just four days days after Intelligencer just the ratification of the treaty and were brought to to the attention attention of of Congress Congress in in the the President's President's message message communicommuni­ cating the the treaty that same month. month. He defended defended Clayton's action on King's correspondence and concluded that "the concluded that proper organ of the Senate reported that they perfectly understood that the convention understood that convention did not include British Honduras.,,21 Honduras." 21 In succeeding debates, debates, including those following Clayton's election as a Senator from Delaware, the extreme presented evidence to support their contention Democrats presented 21UU.S., . S . , Congressional Globe, Globe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Sess., 1852-1853, Part I, I, 248-50. 248-50. Z 1 171 171 that British Honduras was was included term "Central included in the term "Central America" as used used in the the treaty. treaty. Clayton led the the oppositioI\,t opposition, in his own defense by presenting presenting counterevidence that British Honduras Honduras never never had been, either politically politically or considered as being included in Central geographically, considered America. sides, however, agreed that the Bay Islands Both sides, Territory were meant to be included included in and the Mosquito Territory treaty. Central America by the terms of the treaty. Through the efforts of the Democrats, adopted Democrats, a resolution was finally adopted which instcucted instructed the Committee Committee on Foreign Foreign Relations to inquire whether whether any measures measures should be taken taken in in relation to the declarations annexed to the ratifications of the treaty. treaty. The resolution and the President's message were 22 committee for investigation. investigation. then sent to the committee 22 In their their report report the committee members members stated that they had no official information but that they were in possession of a proclamation the newspapers proclamation published published in the dated July 17, notice to to the the British 17, 1852, 1852, which gave notice settlements of the erection of "The Colony of the Bay Islands." Although true, they had Although not knowing if it were true, proceeded with their inquiry as if it were so. so. proceeded They pointed 22 U.S., Globe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Sess., U•S ., Congressional Globe, 1852-1853, 414. 1852-1853, Part I, I, 250-53, 250-53, 259, 259, 265-72, 265-72, 391, 391, 414. r 172 out that by the treaties of 1783 and 1786, 1786, Spain had re1uctreluct­ ant1y antly given English subjects the privilege they had theret~thereto­ fore lawlessly assumed of cutting dyewoods in the the swamps however, Spain had specifispecifi­ and rivers of Spanish America; however, cally reserved her dominion and sovereignty the area. sovereignty over the area. They concluded boundaries of of the concluded that the geographical boundaries Confederation of Central America were those of of the old vice the five vice royalty royalty of of Guatemala Guatemala and and now now embraced embraced the five repubrepub­ 1ics lics of of Central Central America. America. That had assumed That these these republics republics had assumed Spanish in the the same Spanish sovereignty sovereignty which which left left the the British British in same 23 relation they had relation as as they had been been to to Spain. Spain. 23 The that in The committee committee members members also also reported reported that in their their opinion opinion the the Bay Bay Islands Islands constituted constituted a a part part of of the the territory territory of a part of the the Republic Republic of of Honduras, Honduras, "and "and therefore, therefore, form form a part of 'Central America,' and, in consequence that that any occupaoccupa­ tion or colonization of these islands by Great Britain, Britain, would be a violation of the treaty of the 19th of of April, April, 1850." On the subject of the settlements in British British HonHon­ duras, duras, they were somewhat more evasive. evasive. Although recognizing 23 23U. S ., Congress, Senate, Report of the Committee on U.S., Congress, Senate, Report of the Foreign Relations on The President's Message of Committee January 4 on Foreign Relations on The President's Message of January 4 and the Senate Resolution of January 27, 1853, 32nd Cong., and the Senate Resolution of January 27,no. 1853, 2nd Sess., 1852-1853, S. Doc. 407, Sere 671,32nd 1-9.Cong., t 2nd Sess., 1852-1853, S. Doc. 407, Ser. no. 671, 1-9. 173 that some authorities placed placed them them in the the province of ./ Yucatan, and hence under the sovereignty sovereignty of Mexico, they ( I~ * put it forth as their decided opinion that that the the settlements settlements "lie the territory the republic republic of "lie within within the territory of of the of Guatemala, Guatemala, and part of and so so equally equally constitute constitute a a part of 'Central 'Central America. America. I 1 Should such be the fact, not prefact, whilst the committee committee are not pre­ pared to say, the engagements of the treaty treaty of 1850 say, that the would require that those settlements shall be apandoned abandoned discontinued on the part of Great Britain." and discontinued They then proceeded proceeded to point out that even if it were later "Central proven that the settlements did not form a part of "Central engagements America," and hence were not within the strict engagements colonies, or other permanent establish­ of the treaty, treaty, "any colonies, permanent estab1ishments there by Great Britain, or any European European power, power, must necessarily necessarily excite the most anxious concern of this in, lead to conseconse­ government, and would, if persisted persisted in, character." ^ quences of most unpleasant unpleasant character.,,24 2 As far as the resolution of the Senate was concon­ cerned, the committee the defense of Clayton's committee came to the 24U. ^ U . SS.., , Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, Report of the Committee on Foreign Relations Relations on The President's Message of January 4 4 and the Senate Resolution of January 27, 27, 1853, 1853, 32nd Cong., Cong,, 2nd Sess., Doc. 407, 10-17. Sess., 1852-1853, 1852-1853, S. S. Doc. 407, Sere Ser. no. no. 671, 671, 10-17. 2 174 actions by pointing out that the declarations exchanged exchanged at imported nothing ,* the time of ratifications of the treaty imported not~ing t .~ admission on o n the part of the two governments, more than admission governments, or functionaries, that nothing contained contained in the treaty their functionaries, was to be considered considered as "affecting "affecting the title, title, or existing rights, of Great Britain to the English settlements in rights, Honduras bay." Consequently, it was the opinion of the committee that no measures were necessary on the part committee declarations.25 ^ of the Senate because of the declarations. 2 Although the report of the Committee on Foreign Committee on Relations did not end the debate in the Senate, it was indicative of the new policy that was now assumed assumed by Pierce's administration. Where all previous administraadministra­ tions Britain over tions had had studiously studiously avoided avoided discussions discussions with with Britain over her confined themher settlements settlements in in British British Honduras Honduras and and had had confined them­ selves to to the Mosquito protectorate, there now now appear rumblings, for the first time, to the the Monroe time, of appealing to Doctrine. Doctrine. While the Whigs had been primarily primarily interested commercial beneifts that in insuring participation participation in the commercial establishment of interoceanic interoceanic were to be derived from the establishment 9S 25 U•S ., Congress, Senate, Report of the Committee on U.S., Congress, Senate, Report of the Committee4 on Foreign Relations on The President's Message of January Foreign Relations on The President's Message of January 4 and the Senate Resolution of January 27, 1853, 32nd Cong., and the Senate Resolution of January 27, 1853, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., 1852-1853, S. Doc. 407, Sere no. 671, 17. 2nd Sess., 1852-1853, S. Doc. 407, Ser. no. B71, 17. 175 inclined to apply the communication, the Democrats were now inclined broader principles of "manifes tiny" to Central Americ~. America*. "manifestt des destiny 11 A. Douglas in the Their extreme spokesmen, with Stephen A. lead, began to call upon Texas as their example and to to contend that until Britain was driven out and the area continu­ was "Americanized," there could be no end to the continu- ous wars that kept the isthmus in such an unsettled unsettled and nonbeneficial condition. As this attitude had been feared from the beginning beginning by Britain, it naturally naturally led to strained war. relations and even talk of war. The new tendency to advocate the Monroe Doctrine evidenced when President Pierce appointed appointed James was further evidenced Buchanan, former Secretary of State to President Polk, Polk, as United States minister to England. In his instructions to Secretary Marcy pointed out that since the Buchanan, Secretary acquisition of California, Great Britain had manifested manifested a acquisition more deliberate design to change the Spanish license to dyewood at the Belize into a British dominion, cut dyewood dominion, and that while the United States conceded that Great Britain Belize, she was bound to resist had rights in the Belize, resist any attempt to to convert convert the the settlements settlements into into a a British colony. attempt British colony. Thus, although he was not to insist as a matter of right, right, Thus, Buchanan was was to to prevail prevail upon upon Britain. Britain to to withdraw· withdraw from the Buchanan from the 176 Belize, for while the the United States was was not aware that Britain claimed full sovereignty territory, if shf! sh~ sovereignty over the territory, did the United United States "would contest that claim, and regard infringement of the Monroe docdoc­ the assertion of it as an infringement t r i n e — a doctrine which it is the policy of the President trine--a to maintain." Secretary that while Secretary Marcy then went on to state that the direct object of the Clayton-Bulwer was ostenClayton-Bulwer Treaty was osten­ sibly to guarantee the the free and common use use of the the proposed canal to to all nations, nations, there were other highly important important objects. objects. The regarded most most of by the The stipulations stipulations regarded of all all by the United States was that that Britain Britain discontinue her protectorate protectorate over the Mosquito Indians and cease to interfere in the affairs America by affairs of of Central Central America by confining confining herself herself to to the the enjoyment of her her limited rights in the Belize. Belize. NotwithstandNotwithstand­ ing the fact that Britain had had obligated obligated herself, by the 1850, not to occupy, colonize, colonize, or exercise domindomin­ Treaty of 1850, ion over any part of Central. Central~ America, she had continued to exercise control over large districts of that country and important important islands in the Bay of Honduras. Honduras. While he was not to to protest protest formally formally the the occupancy occupancy of of the Islands not the Bay Bay Islands opportunity to explain her views, until Britain had had an opportunity her views, Buchanan was was to leave no doubts in the minds minds of Her Majesty's 177 177 ministers that the United United States would insist on the abandonabandon­ ment of that colony. In conclusion Marcy stated that the.~ the,* "object which it is hoped you may be able to accomplish accomplish is to to induce induce Great Great Britain Britain to to withdraw withdraw from from all all control control over over the territories and the territories and islands islands of of Central Central America, America, and, and, if if possible, possible, over over the the Belize Belize also, also, and and to to abstain abstain from from interinter­ meddling political affairs meddling with with the the political affairs of of the the governments governments and people in and people in that that region region of of the the world.,,26 world."26 As the Crimean War was impending impending when Buchanan arrived in London, it was some time before he was able to secure an interview; however, however, in the months that followed opportunity to outline the new policy to the he took every opportunity British government. Clarendon, In the early interviews Lord Clarendon, attempted to draw attention the British foreign secretary, attempted away from Belize and the Bay Islands by proposing settle­ proposing a settleoutlined in the Webster-Crampton Webster-Crampton ment on the principles outlined 1852. Convention of 1852. When it became evident that Buchanan was going to insist on applying the principles of the Monroe I evidently concluded concluded that he would Doctrine, Clarendon evidently either have to give in or take a more definite stand on the '26U·.S.,Co~gress, 2^U.S., Congress, House, House, Message of the President Accompanying Documents, Documents, 3,4th 34th Cong., :lst ;lst Sess., Sess., 1855with Accompanying H. Doc. Doc. 1, 1, Ser. Ser. no. no. 840, 840, 42-50, 1856, H. 42-50, cited hereafter as U.S. Docs., Accompanying U.S. Docs., Message of the President with AccQmpanying Documents, H. H. Doc. Doc. 1, 1, Ser. Ser. no. no. 840. 840. Documents, 178 Belize settlements. settlements. As Britain had never intended to give intended to up her her contended rights in this region, :y* region, Clarendon, in an * interview in the first part of January 1854, 1854, astonished Buchanan by informing him that in Britain's opinion opinion the "entirely prospective in its operation & & did not treaty was "entirely require them to abandon any of their possessions in Central America.,,27 America." 27 At the next interview in April Clarendon reinforced this view, and in May he supplied Buchanan with a written outlining the British position. statement outlin!ng It thus became determined not to budge evident that the British British were determined budge from the Belize Belize settlements settlements or or the the Bay Bay Islands. Islands. the ments had had now now settled settled on on two two opposing opposing views. views. ments The two two governgovern­ The While the While the American government government took took the the position position that that the was American the treaty treaty was retrospective as as well well as as prospective prospective and and insisted insisted on on retrospective British withdrawal withdrawal from from Central Central America, America, the the British British stood stood British on the the ground ground that that it it was was only only prospective prospective and merely on and merely prohibited further further political political and and territorial territorial extension extension prphibited in that that region. region. in With relations relations in in this this strained strained condition, condition, With events were quickly coming coming to to a a head head at at Grey Greytown, which events were quickly town, which 27James J a m e s Buchanan, The Works of James Buchanan, ed. ed. John Bassett Moore, Moore, (New York: York: Antiguarian Antiguarian Press Ltd., Ltd., IX, 134-35, 134-35, cited hereafter as Buchanan, Works, IX. 1960), IX, Works, IX. 2 7 179 allowed the Pierce administration by force that administration to show by + the United States would would not tolerate such an interpreta- I~ t • 28 tion of the treaty.28 tion of the treaty. The Bombardment Bombardment of Grey town Greytown Following peaceful settlement Following the peaceful settlement of the Prometheus affair and the withdrawal withdrawal of Consul Green from direct partiparti­ cipation in the City Council, town Council, affairs between the Grey Greytown officials and the the Transit Company Company had remained calm for almost a year. year. During this this time the company During company erected erected many Arenas and manifested new buildings at Point Arenas manifested no intent to comply with the the earlier demand to land their their passengers comply with and Grey town. and cargo cargo at at Greytown. While While the the withdrawal withdrawal of of British British support originally originally discouraged discouraged the City Council from further demands, they could not long attempts to enforce their demands, endure the sight of hundreds of passengers passing passing up and down the river without without stopping to pass any of the benefits Greytown. of that trade to the citizens of Grey town. The lure of 28 28Buchanan, Works, IX, 180; U.S. Docs., Message of Buchanan, Works, IX, 180; U.S. Docs., Message of the President with Accompanying Documents, H. Doc. 1, Ser. the President with Accompanying Documents, H. Doc. 1, Ser. no. 840, 80-93; Williams, Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, no. 840, 80-93; Williams, Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, 153-67. 153-67, 180 sharing in this profit evidently convinced them that that they convinced them no longer needed the aid of the British fleet, fleet, for on ... ** • 7, 1853, 1853, the City Council ordered ordered the Transit February 7, Company to remove in five days the buildings lately Company lately erected days. and the rest in thirty days. In an effort to somewhat compensate the company company for removing their operation to compensate Greytown, Grey town, they also passed a resolution that if the company remove their offices and other trappings, trappings, they would would re1nove be exempt from paying any city taxes on their property property or steamers. steamers. company refused refused to comply, When the agent of the company to comply, the marshal marshal proceeded proceeded to to Point Point Arenas Arenas with with a of armed armed the a party party of men and and demolished demolished some some buildings buildings used used for for lodging and men lodging and ^ boarding of of employees. employees.29 boarding 2 Before the expiration of the thirty days' days' notice, notice, Company appealed to the United States government the Transit Company Arenas. to protect their property at Point Arenas. In keeping with the new policy that was then emerging from the the Senate debates on the Clayton-Bulwer Navy Department Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, the Navy Department L f 29British XLII, 214; 214; ^British and Foreign State Papers, Papers, XLII, U.S., Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, President Franklin Franklin Pierce, Message Affiars, 33rd Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1853-1854, 1853-1854, on Nicaraguan Affiars, S. Message on S. Doc. Doc. 8, 8, Sere Ser. no. no. 694, 694, 18, 18, cited hereafter as Message Nicaraguan Affairs, Affairs, S. S. Doc. Doc. 8, 8, Sere Ser. no. no. 694; 694; City Council of Grey town to Lieut. FO 53 (Mosquito), (Mosquito), Greytown Lieut. Jolly, June 28, 28, 1854, 1854, FO Reel 12, 24, 1853, 12, Vol. Vol. 33; 33; Green to Russell, Russell, February February 24, 1853, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 11, 31. 11, Vol. Vol. 31. 181 dispatched dispatched the sloop-of-war Cyane under the command command of American interests at San Juan~! Juan*,* Captain Hollins to protect American Captain Hollins arrived in port on the tenth of March and Company that the was notified by the agent of the Transit Company balance of of the the property property was was to to be be destroyed destroyed the the next morn­ balance next morn- ing at eleven o'clock. Early the next day Hollins Hollins went went to to the mayor mayor and and informed informed him him that that he he intended intended to protect the to protect the property property of of the the Transit Transit Company. Company. the When, in defiance When, in defiance of the the warning, warning, the the city city marshal marshal proceeded proceeded with an armed armed of with an force to to Point Point Arenas, Arenas, Captain Captain Hollins Hollins landed landed a a marine marine force guard to to intercept intercept them. them. guard Thus frustrated, frustrated, the posse Thus the posse returned to to Grey Greytown.^0 returned town. 30 The City Council thereupon resigned and hauled hauled down the Mosquito flag to make it known to Hollins that that they had surrendered surrendered the city to his hands. hands. Following Following this action, Consul Green prevailed prevailed upon the most respectable and influential inhabitants to forego their previous intentions and resume their duties on the City Council. Council. On the last day of March, the former members of the 1, Captain Council resumed their functions and on April 1, acknowledged their authority insofar as his Hollins acknowledged 30 ~.S. Nicaraguan Affairs, U.S. Docs., Docs., Message on Nicaraguan Affairs, S. S. Doc. Doc. 8, no. 694, 240-41. Pari. Papers, Papers, LX, LX, 240-41. 8, Ser. Ser. no. 694, 10-12; ParI. 182 instructions would would permit. permit. day, the British On the same day, commander of the Geyser and the British consul recognized recognized^l ! commander tranquility was temporarily temporarily the provisional government, and tranquility 3l restored.31 restored. Throughout the the summer and fall of 1853, town 1853, the Grey Greytown authorities made made no further move to interfere with the operaopera­ tion transit route. tion of of the the transit route. In reIn September September Consul Consul Green Green re­ ported to the Earl of Clarendon that although a great number ported to continually passing by Grey Greytown of persons were continually town to and from landed. California, it was only by chance that they were ever landed. Company made an effort to settle In early 1854 the Transit Company their differences by offering to remove their operation to Greytown Grey town providing providing the City Council would recognize their title to Point Arenas, exempt them Arenas, forever exempt them from taxes or sufficient for their duties of any kind, kind, and build build a pier pier sufficient 32 at.32 ocean steamers to dock at. The City Council replied favorably to to all proposiproposi­ tions excepting excepting that the ocean steamers were to pay pilot 3lBritish XLII, 240-41; 240-41; B r i t i s h and Foreign State Papers, Papers, XLII, Pari. Papers, LX, 244; U.S. Docs., Docs., Message on Nicaraguan Par1. Papers, LX, 244; U.S. Affairs, S. Doc. 8, Sere Ser. no. 694, 39; 39; Green to Russel, Russel, Affairs, S. Doc. 8, no. 694, 11, Vol. Vol. 31. 30, 1853, 1853, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 11, March 30, 31. 31 32Green Earl of Clarendon, September 22, G r e e n to the Earl September 22, 1853, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 11, Vol. 31; 11, Vol. 31; J. L. L. White to 11, Vol. Vol. 31. Greytown Council, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 11, Grey town City Council, 31. 3 2 183 and boarding officers' the limited reofficers fees and, owing to the limited re­ 1 building a wharf, w h a r f ~* sources of the city, the proposition for building t could not at present be entertained. • however, They stated, however, council, as soon as circumstances circumstances that it was the wish of the council, would permit, to render every facility and aid in their w h a r f .33 power for the construction of a wharf. 3 3 Evidently the Transit Company's representative felt that if the city could not afford to build a wharf, wharf, the build a company company could not afford to move their facilities. facilities. On March 17, he departed San Juan del Norte without having 17, he effected effected any settlement and left instructions for the captains port dues, to captains of of the the steamships steamships to to pay pay no no more more port dues, to take have no take no no letters, letters, packages, packages, or or freight freight for, for, and and have no communication of Grey 34 communication of of any any nature nature with, with, the the people people of G r e ytown. town. 34 This This attitude attitude soon soon produced produced very very strained strained relations relations between town and between the the citizens citizens of of Grey Greytown and the the workers workers at at Point Point Arenas. Arenas. On with Transit On May May 5 5 four four men men loaded loaded a a yawl yawl boat boat with Transit 33City town to C i t y ·Counci1 Council of of Grey Greytown to Joseph Joseph L. L. White, White, February 16, Vol. 31. 31. 16, 1854, 1854, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 11, 11, Vol. J 34U.S., Congress, Senate, President Franklin U.S., Respecting Congress, Senate, President of Franklin Pierce, Message the Bombardment San Juan de Pierce, Message Respecting the Bombardment of San Juan de Nicaragua, 33rd Cong., 1st Sess., 1853-1854, S. Doc. 85, Nicaragua, 33rd Cong., 1st Sess., 1853-1854, S. Doc. 85, Sere no. 702, 10, cited hereafter as Bombardment of San Ser. no. 702, 10, cited hereafter as Bombardment of San Juan de Nicaragua, S. Doc. 85, Sere no. 702; British and Juan de Nicaragua, S. D o c 85, Ser. no. 702; British and Foreign State Papers, XLVI, 859. Foreign State Papers, XLVI, 859. 184 Company Company property and escaped across the harbor toward the city. city. pursued them and When three transit employees pursued I ~ *• j* posses­ knocked one into the water in an attempt to take possesthreat­ sion of the boat, soldiers from the station house threat- ened to fire on the transit men, men, and they were forced to leave without their property. The clerk of the Transit attempted to take the boat with Company then arrived and attempted men, but the police with the help of the crowd stopped his men, him. him. When he returned the next morning, he found that the property had been turned over to the marshal who refused property to release it. it. That same morning the mayor issued a warrant for the arrest of William William Sloman for assaulting assaulting one of water. the men in the boat and knocking him into the water. proceeded to Point Arenas and arrested The marshal then proceeded Sloman over the objections of Joseph Scott, agent of of the Transit Company. attempted to obtain When Scott attempted obtain the release of of Sloman Sloman under under bond, bond, he he was was arrested arrested himself himself release for interfering interfering and and was was held held until until J. J. W. W. Fabens, Fabens, the the for Greytown, United States commercial agent at Grey town , furnished bail. bail. Greytown refused to As the Grey town authorities refused to deliver up the property, property, Scott Scott returned returned to to Point Point Arenas Arenas and and reported reported the 185 company directors in New York.35 the affair to the company strained condi-*.* With the state of affairs in this strained condi-, •~ tion, an incident occurred on May 16 of even graver circir­ tion, cumstances. cumstances. As the river steamer Routh, Routh, under the command command of Captain Smith, was coming down the river, she ran against shore. a bungo lying near the shore. The native master of the commenced to abuse Captain Smith in bungo thereupon commenced English. Spanish, to which he retorted fully in English. In a entangled in some short time the steamer, which had become entangled proceeded into the river. brushwood, got clear and proceeded river. After she had separated separated a short distance, distance, Captain Smith, who now hands, turned her around and bore down held a rifle in his hands, upon the bungo under full steam. attempted As the native attempted ashore, he was shot down by Captain Smith from the to leap ashore, steamer. upper deck of the steamer. river. her passage down the river. The steamer then proceeded proceeded on The whole affair was witnessed by Snlo..mBorland, SoJlomBorland, United States minister to Nicaragua, who aboard. happened to be aboard. Borland was a strong advocate of Claytonthe Monroe Doctrine and had urged abrogation of the Clay tonviolated its terms. Bulwer Treaty on the grounds Britain had violated its terms. 35Bombardment Nic.aragua, S. 85, ^^Bombardment of San Juan de Nicaragua, S. Doc. Doc. 85, Ser. Ser. no. no. 702, 702, 13-14; British and Foreign State Papers, Papers, XLVI, 860-63. XLVI, 860-63. 186 He 100kedLupon looked upon Cen:tdtL Central America as the next region to fall under the cloak of manifest destiny and in a public , ~ I speech in Nicaragua had stated that his greatest desire was to see Nicaragua form a bright star in the flag of States. the United States. attitudes, he Guided by such extreme attitudes, proceeded to project an insignificant insignificant and local affair proceeded 36 incident.36 into an international incident. That evening as the river steamer was was lying lying alongalong­ side the Northern Light delivering her passengers, a pulled alongside bungo filled with some thirty armed men pulled the Routh. Routh. The marshal and a few men jumped jumped on board board the steamer and announced their purpose to arrest Captain Smith murder. on the charge of murder. informed of the propro­ Upon being informed ceedings, Borland, who had been aboard the Northern Light, Light, ceedings, came on board the steamer and informed the marshal that no Greytown citi­ authority existed at Grey town to arrest an American American citimen. zen and ordered him to withdraw withdraw his men. As the marshal 36Statement of the HanStatement of Henri Wiedemann, Consul of U.S., Congress, Senate, seatic Town of Bremen and Hamburg, U.S., Congress, Senate, Nicaragua, President James Buchanan, Message on Affairs in Nicaragua, Sess., 1857-1858, 1857-1858, S. S. Doc. Doc. 13, 13, Sere Ser. no. no. 35th Cong., 1st Sess., U.S. Docs., Docs., Message on Affairs 918, 8-9, cited hereafter as U.S. S. Doc. Doc. 13, 13, Ser. Ser. no. no. 918; 918; Coro.ner's Coroner's Inques Inquest in Nicaragua, Nica ragua, S. t 16, 1854, 1854, FO 53, over the body of Antonio Paladino, May 16, 53, (Mosquito), Reel 12, 12, Vol. Vol. 33; 33; Borland Borland to Marcy, May May 30, (Mosquito), 30, Bombardment of San Juan de Nicaragua, S. S. Doc. 85, 1854, Bombardment Doc. 85, Ser. no. no. 702, 702, 2. 2. Sere 187 announced announced his intention to wi-thdraw, withdraw, several of the men aboard the bungo brandished brandished their weapons and rushed steamer. aboard the steamer. k . +~ • At this moment Borland, taking a rifle from the hands of a bystander, stepped towards the railing and warned the men to stay off at the peril of lives. their lives. boarding ceased and Thus threatened, the boarding withdrew across the harbor. harbor. soon the bungo withdrew About dark Borland harbor to GreyBorland went across the harbor Grey­ J. W. W. Fabens, Fabens, the United States commercial commercial town to visit J. agent. agent. Soon after his arrival a loud knocking was heard it, he found a body Fabens opening it, at the door and upon Fabens' 1 men. of armed men. Borland and declared their They inquired for Borland and declared purpose to to arrest arrest him. him. purpose Borland, hearing hearing this, this, went down­ Borland, went down- stairs and and confronted confronted them. them. stairs He repeated repeated what said He what he he had had said to the the marshal marshal about about their their lack lack of of authority authority and and inquired inquired to if they they were were not not aware aware of of his his exemption exemption from from arrest arrest in in if his capacity capacity as as minister minister of of the the United United States. States. his They They declared that that they they cared cared nothing nothing for for all all that come declared that but but had had come to arrest arrest him and meant meant to to do do it. it. to him and About this this time time the the About mayor arrived arrived and and informed informed Borland Borland that that the the proceedings proceedings mayor had been his order order and and authority. authority. had been without without his While this While this conversation was was going going on, on, someone someone from from the the drowd conversation drowd threw threw aa broken bottle bottle which struck Borland Borland in in the the face, face, slightly slightly broken which struck 188 wounding him. him. The person who threw the bottle disappeared in the dark and the crowd soon dispersed. j. '•* i • ( Fabens then procured procured a bungo and went aboard the Northern Light to make known to Captain Churchill and the city. passengers the state of affairs in the city. A A meeting was held and it was agreed to send a committee committee of three to consult with Borland. approached the shore, shore, a As they approached number of armed men threatened to fire into the boat; thus prevented from landing, they returned returned to forcibly prevented to the steamer. steamer. Throughout the night sentinels were stationed between the the American American consulate consulate and and the the harbor, harbor, obliging obliging between Borland to to remain at the the house house until until morning. morning. Borland remain at Early the the Early next day day he he procured procured a a boat boat and and returned returned on on board North­ next board the the Northern Light, Light, where where he he was was informed informed by by Fabens Fabens and and Joseph Joseph Scott Scott ern about the the trouble trouble between between the the Transit Transit Company Company and and the Grey­ about the Greytown authorities. authorities. town Convinced that that American American citizens citizens and and propro­ Convinced perty would would not not be be safe safe after after the the steamer steamer left, left, he called a perty he called a meeting of of the the passengers passengers and and engaged engaged fifty fifty men protect meeting men to to protect American interests. interests. American The Northern Northern Light Light then then steamed steamed out out of of The 37 the harbor harbor to to report report the the outrage outrage to to Washington. Washington.37 the 37Statement Statement of the purser of the Northern Light, Light, officially his own, own, Bombardofficially adopted by Minister Borland as his Bombard­ ment of San Juan de Nicaragua, S. no. 702, S. Doc. Doc. 85, 85, Ser. Ser. no. 702, 5-8; 5-8; Borland to Marcy, May 30, 30, 1854, 1854, ibid., 2-4; 2-4; Fabens to Marcy, Marcy, Borland 189 Prior to the Northern Light's arrival in New York the Transit Company protested the action, Company had already protested action: of the G-r-eyGrey­ town authorities in not returning returning their stolen property. On June, the Secretary Secretary of State wrote to J. W. W. the third of June, Fabens instructipg notifying the Greyinstructing him him to lose no time in notifying Grey­ town authorities that "this government will require a restoragovernment will restora­ tion of, payment for, of, or payment for, the property property taken to their town, town, and all damages sustained sustained by their outrageous conduct in preventing the company preventing the company from repossessing repossessing itself of it."38 Following report of Minister Borland, additional instrucFollowing the report instruc­ tions were issued on June 9: 9: Mr. Mr. Borland, our minister to Central America, has represented that, while recently recently at represented to this government that, San Juan, Juan, he was insulted by the authorities or people offered to the nation. nation. of that place. place. An indignity offered If done by order of the authorities of the place, place, they must answer for it in their assumed assumed political character. character. Nothing short of an apology for the outrage will save the place from the infliction that such an act justly merits. It is expected expected that this apology will be merits. promptly made, made, and satisfactory satisfactory assurances given to promptly Commander Hollins of future good conduct toward the Commander United States and public functionaries who may in 39 future be be at at th~t th^t place. place.39 future 30, 1854, 1854, British and Foreign State Papers, Papers, XLVI, May 30, XLVI, 864L. Codd, City Marshal, 16, 1854, 1854, 66; Statement of Thomas L. Marshal, May 16, 12, ~01. Vol. 33; 33; James Geddes to the FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 12, 20, 1854, 1854, ibid. ibid. Earl of Clarendon, May 20, 38Bombardment Nicaragua, S. 85, 3^Bombardment of San Juan de Nicaragua, S. Doc. Doc. 85, Ser. no. no. 702, 702, 9. 9. Sere 39Ibid. 39ibld 190 The day following these instructions to Fabens, Fabens, the Commander Hollins to proceed i* Navy Department Department ordered Commander proceed to .t Grey town , as the property Greytown, property of the Transit Company Company had been unlawfully detained Minister Borland detained and Minister Borland had been treated with rudeness and disrespect. He was instructed instructed to learn particularly about the conduct of the from Fabens more particularly which had been people and the views of his government wh~ch communicated to him communicated him from the State Department. He was instructed to further instructed to . . .. consult consult with with him him freely, freely, and and ascertain ascertain the the true true facts. Now, it is very desirable that state of the facts. these people should be taught that the United States outrages, and that they have will not tolerate these outrages, the power and determination to check them. them. It is, is, however, very much to be hoped that you can effect however, vio­ the purposes of your visit without a resort to violife. lence and destruction of property property and loss of life. will, no doubt, doubt, work The presence of your vessel will, pru­ much good. The department reposes much in your prudence and good sense.A-0 sense. The upon learning that Commander The Transit Transit Company, Company, upon learning that Commander Hollins was to be sent to Grey town , lost no time Hollins was to be sent to Greytown, lost no time in in capicapi­ talizing to settle talizing on on this this opportunity opportunity to settle their their differences differences with with the the citizens citizens of of Greytown--once Greytown--once and and for for all. all. On On July 16 Joseph L. wrote to J. W. W. Fabens his his own L. White wrote personal instructions: instructions: 40Bombardment Nicaragua, S. ^Bombardment of San Juan de Nicaragua, S. Doc. Doc. 85, 85, Ser. no. 702, 21. Ser. no. 702, 21. 191 Captain Hollins, Hollins, commanding commanding the corvette "Cyane," leaves on Monday. You will see by his instructions, instructions, which I I have written on the margin, that it is intendee intended his authority would not be so exercised as to show any exercised mercy to the town or people. people. If the scoundrels are soundly punished, we can take possession, and build build it up as a business place, place, put in our own officers, officers, transfer the jurisdiction, and you know the rest. rest. It is of the last importance that the people of the town should be be taught taught to fear us. Punishment will us. Punishment teach them. them. After which you must agree with them as to the organization organization of a new government, and the offioffi­ cers of it. it. Everything Everything now depends on you and Hollins. Hollins. The latter is all right. right. He fully understands understands the outout­ rage, rage, and will not hesitate in enforcing reparation. reparation. II hope to hear from you that all has been properly properly executed. ^ executed.41 4 From the foregoing instructions it appears that some understanding between the the State Department, understanding existed existed between Department, Hollins, Fabens, Fabens, and the Transit Company. If not, not, the subsequent subsequent events certainly certainly leave every reason to believe that their actions were all guided with one goal in mind. m i n d .42 4 2 Shortly after the departure of the Northern Light, Light, the local authorities of Grey town resigned their authority Greytown authority and formed a militia for their defense against the armed force left at Point Arenas. Arenas. The absence of any formal 4lCited C i t e d in Pim, Pirn, The Gate of the Pacific, 235-36; 235-36; Williams, Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, Diplomacy, also cited in Williams, Crampton to Clarendon, September September 178, from an enclosure in Crampton 1855, Foreign Office, Office, America, vol. vol. 623, 623, no. 10, 1855, no. 188. 188. 4 1 42Williams, Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, 177. W i l l i a m s , Anglo-American 177. 42 192 government to take responsibility responsibility and the reluctance of the former authorities to assume the same is largely the reason Commander Hollins was able to excuse himself in the action Commander 43 subsequently took. took.^" he subsequently 3 According received on the According to his instructions received twenty-fourth of June, Fabens notified notified the the late acting June, Fabens authorities and the people of the town that the United States government would would require of them reparation for the committed toward American American citizens. citizens. wrongs they had committed He received no official reply, the town being without politipoliti­ received that, according to private cal organization, but reported reported that, sources, he was able to detect that the people were fully sources, determined to make no pecuniary determined pecuniary redress either to the Transit Company Company or or the United States States for for any any obnoxious obnoxious Transit the United 44^ committed. acts they might have committed. When Hollins arrived aboard the sloop-of-war Cyane on the eleventh of July, he consulted consulted with Fabens and Joseph Scott, agent of the Transit Company, and it was immediate payment decided to demand the immediate payment of $8,000 for the 43James the Earl of Clarendon, May 20, 20, ^"3James Geddes to the 1854, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 12, 33. 12, Vol. Vol. 33. 44Bombardment Nicaragua, S. Doc. 85, ^Bombardment of San Juan de Nicaragua, S. Doc. 85, Sere Ser. no. no. 702, 702, 18. 18. 193 destruction of the the Transit Company's property property on Point Arenas and $16,000 for the imprisonment ,t* imprisonment of Scott and the * loss of stolen merchandise. merchandise. On the following day Fabens communication to the late city authorities outlining sent a communication the foregoing provisions provisions and demanding an immediate and ample apology for the insults offered to Minister Borland. offered to Borland. About noon of the same day Commander pulled alongCommander Hollins pulled along­ side Her Her Majesty's ship Bermuda and informed informed her commander, commander, Lieutenant Lieutenant Jolly, that if the demands of Fabens' Fabens' letter were not complied complied with, proceed at 9:00 9:00 a.m. on with, he would would proceed the following day to to bombard bombard the town. town. The late authorities failed to reply"favorably reply favorably to Fabens' Fabens' demand; thus on the morning of the twelfth Commander Commander Hollins Hollin~. issued a proclamation proclamation and had it posted posted in three conspicuous parts of the town. town. proclamation repeated The proclamation for the citizens of Grey Greytown satis­ town that if the demands for satisspecified in the letter of Fabens were not followed, followed, faction specified he would at 9:00 a.m. of the the thirteenth proceed proceed to bombard the town. the town. He then then landed landed a a party of marines and removed removed He party of marines and ammunition from the police h o u s e ,45 the arms and ammunition polic.e station house. 4 5 45proc1amation of George N. N. Hollins, 12, ^Proclamation Hollins, July 12, 25-26; also in British and Foreign State 1854, ibid., 25-26; XLVI, 880. 880. Papers, XLVI, 194 To these these actions Lieutenant Lieutenant Jolly and James Geddes, Geddes, British vice consul at Grey town , both both entered their protests. protests. Greytown, entered their . ,~ • Lieutenant Jolly stated, "The force of my my command command is so totally protection against the Cyane, totally inadequate inadequate for for this this protection against the Cyane, II can only enter this protest."46 p r o t e s t . T To o this Commander Hollins Hollins replied, "Be assured II sympathize the risk sympathize with yourself in the of English subjects and property property under the the circumstances, circumstances, and regret exceedingly exceedingly the force under your command command is not doubly equal to that that of the 'Cyane.,,,47 'Cyane.'"^7 He then then had one He of the Transit Company's steamers move the Cyane into a town. position to bombard bombard the town. On the the morning of the fatal thirteenth thirteenth there was still no no favorable reply to to the demands. demands. Most of the citizens were were busily busily removing what items they could to the forest. forest. The British vice consul and forty or fifty individuals, mostly women and children, boarded boarded the Bermuda. Bermuda. Scott sent two of the Transit Company's steamers to to take on board board women women and children and all who were were willing willing to declare themselves to to be be friendly United States. declare themselves friendly toward'jthe towardjthe United States. However, only about twelve persons availed themselves of 46BBritish XLVI, 881. 881. r i t i s h and Foreign State Papers, Papers, XLVI, 46 47Bombardrnent Nicaragua, S. Doc. 85, ^Bombardment of San Juan de Nicaragua, S. D o c 85, Ser. no. no. 702, 702, 27. Sere 27. 195 this offer. offer. Then sharply at nine o'clock o'clock on the morning of July 13, 13, 1854, 1854, the Cyane's batteries were opened opened on th~ th& town with shot and shell for three-quarters of an hour, hour, time, when followed by an intermission of the same time, when they hour, followed by a second were opened again for half an hour, intermission of three hours. hours. intermission expiration of this At the expiration interval, the firing was recommenced recommenced and continued continued for interval, minutes, when the bombardment bombardment ceased. twenty minutes, Hollins stated that the object of these several intervals was to give the inhabitants of the town an opportunity opportunity to satissatis­ factori1y factorily arrange matters. matters. As no advantage was taken of command of marines the consideration, at four o'clock a command was sent on shore to complete the destruction destruction of the town by fire. fire. During the conflagration, the Bermuda had had been 48^ towed out of the harbor by a Royal mai1packet. mailpacket. Where a few hours before had stood the city of Grey town , there was now nothing but ashes. Greytown, ashes. The entire The 48 ^ TThere h e r e are no important important contradictions in any accounts of the bombardment, see Hollins to Dobbin, July 1854, British and Foreign State Papers, Papers, XLVI, 16, 1854, XLVI, 885-87; 885-87; 16, 1854, 1854, Bombardment Bombardment of San Juan Fabens to Marcy, June 16, S. Doc. Doc. 85, 85, Ser. Ser. no. no. 702, 702, 19-20; 19-20; James Geddes de Nicaragua, Nicaragua, S. (Mosquito), 20, 1854, 1854, FO 53 (Mosquito), to the Earl of Clarendon, July 20, 12, Vol. Vol. 33; 33; Late members of City Council of Grey Greytown Reel 12, town Lieut. A. A. D. D. Jolly, June 28, 28, 1854, 1854, ibid. ibid. to Lieut. ~ 196 population of the town was left without a roof roof to shelter heads. their heads. L. White must have been pleased Joseph L. indeed at the report of Fabens. Fabens. . •~ It would would be a long time before the Transit Company problems with Company would have any problems city. the authorities of that city. It would seem to have been uncivilized in the extreme. extreme. an act uncivilized Ameri­ Reaction in the Ameri- can press was strong and bitterly denounced denounced Hollins.' Hollins 1 action. action. The New York Times assumed that the action was intimated that directed or approved by the government and intimated Clayton-Bulwer Treaty had been the terms of the Clayton-Bulwer been broken and denounced President President Pierce Pierce for for violation violation of of the the ConstituConstitu­ denounced tion of of the the United United States States on on the the ground ground that that Congress Congress tion alone could could declare declare war. war. alone The fact fact that that both both houses of The houses of Congress passed, by large large majorities, majorities, resolutions resolutions asking asking Congress passed, by for the the correspondence correspondence on on the the subject, subject, with with the the instrucinstruc­ for tions to to Commander Commander Hollins, Hollins, is is indicative indicative of of the the general general tions disapprobation of of the the country.49 country.49 disapprobation In England the affair was universally universally disapproved. disapproved. The London Times found consolation in the fact that the condemned by all the act had already been disavowed and condemned . enlightened and honorable classes of society in most enlightened 49 Williams, Anglo^ NNew e w York Times, Times, August 1, 1, 1854; 1854; Williams, American American Diplomacy, 180. 180. 197 America America and observed, "They are regarded as the measures of a profligate and incapable administration, which has dec~~ed decQwed the hopes of its constituents, and sacrificed sacrificed many of the soundest principles of national policy."50 policy.,,50 -phe British The Foreign Office felt the outrage to be "without a parallel times," and looked for the American American in the annals of modern times," indig­ government to disavow the act in keeping with the indig- 5l nation shown by public opinion in the United States.51 United States. In this, this, however, however, they were were grossly underestimating underestimating the hold hold that that the the new adherence to the Monroe Monroe Doctrine had upon the the Pierce Pierce administration. In a very meaningful way, the Grey town disaster was a direct outgrowth of the Greytown stalemate that had just just culminated culminated in London. But two or three weeks before the instructions were sent to Fabens and Hollins, h~d received from Buchanan Hollins, Secretary Secretary Marcy Marcy had Lord Clarendon's Clarendon s statement statement of May 2 presenting presenting formally f and officially the view view that the the Clayton-Bulwer officially the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was "prospective" only in operation and did not apply to the possessions in Central America. Although Although existing British .possessions undoubtedly believing that Hollins could obtain his demands undoubtedly 50London August 14, ^ L o n d o n Times, Times, August 14, 1854. 1854. 5lW ^ W iilliams, l l i a m s , Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, Diplomacy, 180-81. 198 without employing employing such extreme measures, measures, it is evident that the real lesson was meant for the British government rattier rathe~ •• Greytown. situation at Grey Greytown than the citizens of Grey town. The situation town opportunity to convince Britain that offered a ready-made opportunity interpretation the United States would not tolerate such an interpretation treaty. of the treaty. administration was not about to give The administration Greytown. up their gain over the loss of a few huts at Grey town. forthcoming, rather the Department Thus no disavowal was forthcoming, Department of possible. State avoided discussion of the incident as long as possible. Finally, an official position was taken in the President's December 4, 4, 1854. 1854. message of December After giving a somewhat Presi­ detailed and biased account of the bombardment, the the President concluded: concluded: dent It certainly to me certainly would have been most satisfactory satisfactory to if the object of the Cyane's mission could could have been consummated without any act of public force, force, but the consummated rendered it imim­ arrogant contumacy of the offenders rendered possible to avoid the alternative either to break up establishment or to leave them impressed impressed with their establishment the idea that they might persevere with impunity in the idea that they might persevere with impunity in 52 plunder. a career of insolence and p1under. 52 Although this was essentially the end of the the inci­ incident, dent, it it was only the beginning of the bad feelings that generated between the United States and England were being generated 52 52Richardson, the Presidents, Richardson, Messages Messages and and Papers Papers of of the Presidents, VII, 2817. 2817. 199 over affairs in Central America--affairs were about America--affairs that were to be complicated most famous to be complicated by by the the appearance appearance of of the the most famous filibuster in American American history. Strangely enough, talk Strangely enough, of war war reached its height when William William Walker's star approached its zenith, zenith, although peaceful relations were not restored until Walker's fateful ending removed removed him scene. from the scene. ot CHAPTER VI l .. • FILIBUSTER FILIBUSTER COMPLICATIONS, COMPLICATIONS, 1855-1857 Walker Enters the Scene Throughout the repeated attempts made made by by the United States and Great Britain to reach aa common common agreement the Central American American states, states, negotiations had been with .the complicated and delayed by unsettled unsettled conditions in NicaNica­ complicated ragua. ragua. American Following the break-up of the Central American Confederation in 1839, 1839, political control of the country Confederation shifted periodically periodically between the two dominant cities had shifted republic. of the republic. Granada was located at the western end of Lake Nicaragua. Nicaragua. It had been the commercial center of the isthmus since colonial times and was dominated by merdominated by mer­ chants and large landholders who formed the stronghold stronghold of the conservative party. party. Under the title of "Legitimists," they claimed rightful rightful rule of the country. The opposition 201 party, who who styled themselves "Democrats, n controlled· "Democrats," controlled the· the country about Leon, a city situated situated in the center of a large plain plain to to the north. north. • ^ ·ot • Its inhabit;ants inhabitants were largeJ.;y largely artisans and small farmers. farmers. A temporary lull in the periodic periodic struggle for A temporary control of the the republic republic was disturbed disturbed in early 1854 when instigated a revolution the Leonese instigated revolution with aid from Honduras advanced upon Granada. Granada. and advanced Following an unsuccessful unsuccessful Following of the city, open conflict turned to negotiations negotiations seige ,of for peace. peace. These, Thes~, however, however, were unsuccessful, and by fall preparations were in in progress. progress. fall preparations to to reopen reopen hostilities hostilities were Left to its own resources, resources, the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan revolution revolution would undoubtedly have ended as the many that had gone before; before; undoubtedly in­ however, the appearance of Byron Cole with a plan to inAmerican filibusters forewarned grave circumstances circumstances troduce American Nicaraguan politics and transportation for Nicaraguan transportation across the isthmus .l isthmus. 1 lThe T h e reader is reminded that the author's purpose is development of a United States policy toward to trace the development and the capitalistic capitalistic struggle for control of the Nicaragua route. Consequently, political activities in Nicaragua and route. considered only in their effects on the Costa Rica will be considered route. While an investigation investigation of the political transit route. struggles behind the formulation of governmental policies behind would be highly interesting, such a study lies beyond the scope of the present work. work. The bibliography bibliography contains some 1 202 had read read reports of the Democratic Byron Cole had concern. revolution with growing concern. occupied While primarily primarily occupie4 as one of the proprietors of the Commercial Advertiser Advertiser in San Francisco, he was also part-owner of the Honduras Company which was about to exploit a Mining and Trading Company mineral-bearing lands. lands. large tract of mineral-bearing He was convinced that Guatemalan threats to 'aid. the Legitimists were Guatemalan threats aid the inspired by by British agents, that if the Democrats agents, and that government in Honduras would failed in Nicaragua, the government would go of the the basic materials available for further study in this area. area. For the the period period 1821 to 1854 see: see: G~mez, Gamez, Historia de Nicaragua, Nicaragua, 431-97; 431-97; Bancroft, Bancroft, History of Central America, America, III, 42-144, 165-214, 238-59. 238-59. 1801-1887, III, 42-144, 165-214, For the the period period from January January 1854 to July July 1855 see: see: Jeronimo Perez, para la Historia de la Revolucion Perez, Memorias para (Managua: Imprenta del Gobierno, Gobierno, de Nicaragua en 1854 (Managua: Perez, Memorias de 1a la 1865), 3-136, cited hereafter hereafter as Perez, Revolucion 1854; Bancroft, History of Central America, America, Revolucion en 1854; III, 256-61; 256-61; Froebel, Froebel, Seven Years Travel, Travel, 149-56; 1801-1887, III, Gamez, Historia de Nicaragua, 489-503; 489-503; C. C. W. W. boubleday, Doubleday, GJmez, Reminiscences of the "Filibuster" War in Nicaragua (New York and London: G. P. Putnamfs Putnam's Sons, Sons, 1886), 24-89, 24-89, cited G. Nica­ hereafter as Doubleday, Reminiscences of the War in NicaWilliam V. Wells, Explorations and Adventures in ragua ; William ragua; V. Wells, 1857), 26-29, 26-29, cited cited Honduras (New (New York: Harper & & Brothers, Brothers, 1857), Honduras York: Harper hereafter Honduras; hereafter as Wells, Wells, Explorations and Adventures in Honduras; Stout, Nicaragua, 200-203; James Jeffrey Roche, The Story Stout, Nicaragua, 200-203; James Jeffrey Roche, The Story 1891), & Co., Co., 1891), of the the Filibusters Filibusters (New York: York: Macmillan & 70-71, cited cited hereafter as Roche, Roche, The The Story Story of of the Filibusters 70-71, hereafter as the Filibusters; U.S. Docs., Message on Routes Between Atlantic and Pacific, U.S. Docs., Message on Routes Between Atlantic and Pacific, S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 149-50; 149-50; William S. William Walker, Walker, War War in 1860), 13-18, cited Nicaragua (Mobile: S. H. Gbetzel & Co., Nicaragua (Mobile: S. H. Goetzel & Co., 1860), 13-18, cited hereafter Nicaragua. hereafter as Walker, Wa,lker, War War in Nicaragua. 203 down with it and be replaced by a pro-British pro-British regime. regi~e. American interests would be doomed. this case American In On the other hand, if the Democrats could be put into power power through through the aid Nicaragua might be opened aid of of American American adventurers, adventurers, Nicaragua might also also be opened to American American enterprise. enterprise. Fortunately Cole, the type of Fortunately for Cole, adventurer he needed to complete his plan had just just returned from his first firfet attempt at filibustering. filibustering. On May 8, just three days after the revolu8, 1854, 1854, just revolu­ tion had broken out in Leon, Leon, a novel scene was enacted on the boundary between Upper and Lower California. On that day a small band of Americans marched across the boundary between the United States and Mexico and yielded yielded their there. arms to United States forces there. They had just just escaped a Mexican force which had been pursuing them for almost a month across the desert wastes of Lower California. California. The leader of this destitute and poorly clad group was William Walker. Walker. He had sailed from San Francisco in October 1853 with the intent of establishing colony on the establishing a military military colony frontier of Sonora; however, it was not long before before dede­ sertions, to the sertions, sickness, sickness, and wounds reduced his force to point where he was forced to flee from the Mexican Mexican soldiers. soldiers. Francisco. Following his surrender, Walker returned to San Francisco. He had just just been acquited of violating the neutrality neutrality laws 204 approached by Byron Cole. Cole. when he was approached Attracted by the Attracted *+ Cole, he was soon ~t potentialities of glory ably drawn by Cole, t Commerical Advertiser, while located as editor of the Commerica1 Cole traveled to Nicaragua to make arrangements for carrying out out his his p1an. plan.2 carrying Cole arrived at Leon in the fall of 1854 when when prepre­ parations were were being made to renew hostilities. hostilities. D. FranD. Fran­ cisco Castellon, leader of the Democratic forces at Leon, Leon, eagerly listened to Cole's praises of Walker, and Cole was 2Wi11iam William Walker was born on May 8, 8, 1824, 1824, at NashNash­ Tennessee. His father amassed a considerable considerable ville, Tennessee. fortune as abariker in Scotland and had immigrated a"banker immigrated to the United States about 1820. 1820. Walker graduated graduated from the UniverUniver­ sity of Nashville at fourteen; received the fourteen; at nineteen he received degree of M.D. M . D . from the University University of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania and then went to Eur~pe years. He Europe to study and travel for two years. returned to Nashville in 1845, 1845, gave up the practice of medicine, medicine, began readings in the law office of Edwin H. H. Ewing, and in due time was admitted bar in New admitted to the bar Orleans. he turned turned to to Orleans. Despairing of success as a lawyer, he journalism, and in the winter of 1848 became one one of the journalism, editors and proprietors of the New New Orleans Crescent Crescent until it was sold in 1849. he removed to San Francisco 1849. In 1850 he where he became one of the editors of the Daily Daily Herald. Herald. During 1851 and 1852 he practiced Henry P. Watkins practiced law with Henry in the town of Marysville, California, and in 1853 sailed for Sonora. Sonora. See William William O. 0. Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters and William Walker and His Associates Financiers; the Story of William York: The Macmillan Co., Co., 1916), 9-16, cited (New York: cited hereafter Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers; William William V. V. Wells, Wells, as Scroggs, A History History of the Central Walker's Expedition to Nicaragua; A American War and the Sonora and Kinney Expeditions (New American York: York: Stringer and Townsend, 1856), 21-22, cited cited hereafter Wells, Walker's Expedition to Nicaragua. Nicaragua. as Wells, z 20S 205 Fig. Fig. S.--William 5.--William Walker 206 soon on his his way back back to to California with a contract to engage three hundred hundred men for military military service in Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Walter, Wal~r, however, with his lawyer's background hOWever, background quickly pointed pointed out that the agreement was in violation of the Neutrality 1818, and Cole was forced to return to Nicaragua Law of 1818, colonization grant. grant. to exchange the contract for a colonization This grant was in February February 1855, 1855, and and he he grant was received received by by Walker Walker in immediately set about making expedi­ immediately making arrangements for the the expedi- 3 tion .3 tion. After experiencing experiencing considerable financial diffidiffi­ culties the leaky he had culties and and eluding eluding an an attachment attachment on on the leaky brig brig he had secured to carry him him to to Nicaragua, Walker finally sailed on May May 4, with his "fifty-six 4, 1854, 1854, with "fifty-six immortals." They were warmly received received by Castellon, as the fortunes of the wane. Democratic party were then on the wane. The group was designated the "American "American Phalanx," and Walker was advanced designated colonel. to the rank of colonel. This cordial atmosphere was soon inten­ disturbed when it became apparent that that Walker had no no in ten- tion of following the the strategy devised by the Democratic 3Walker, Nicaragua, 18-25; ^Walker. War in Nicaragua. 18-25; Wells, Wells, Walker's 37-43; Perez, Memorias de la Expedition to Nicaragua, 37-43; Perez, Memoriasde Revolucion 1854, 135-36; Contract with Byron Cole Revo1uci6n en 1854, 11, 1854, 1854, cited in signed by Francisco Castellon, October 11, Gamez, Historia de Nicaragua, 656-58. 656-58. 207 leaders. leaders. Concerned only with defending Leon and attacking Concerned their opponents at Granada, they they had completely t~ completely ignored tfce transit route route many miles to the the south. south. Control of the transit, however, however, was the the key to Walker's carefully carefully laid plans. plans. Knowing that he he could never exert his influence with only fifty-six men, men, before leaving San Francisco he had arranged arranged for recruits to be sent to his aid on the steamers. regularly scheduled scheduled steamers. He also planned to enlarge his force by recruiting recruiting from the passengers crossing the isthmus. isthmus. continually increasing force, force, he would With a continually eventually be able to extend his control over the country country.. eventually .. Much to the consternation consternation of Castellon, he refused refused to join in an attack on Granada and insisted insisted on directing directing transit. his energies to gaining control of the transit. The enmity generated would generated would probably probably have led to his early downfall attempted failed to deliver up had the bold bold plan he later attempted Granada,4 Granada. 4 N e w York 4New . Nicaragua, N~caragua, 42-57; June^2, 7, 1855; 1855; Walker, Walker, War in Herald, June 2, 7, ~ Lorenzo Montufar, Walker en CentroAmerica (Guatemala: ("Guatemala: Tipograf{a Tipografia "La Union," 1887), 69-78, AmJ'rica 69-78, Centro-America; cited hereafter as Montufar, Walker en Centro-America; Expedition to Nicaragua, 51-55; 51-55; By An Wells, Walker's Expedition Walker, The Destiny Nicaragua: Officer in the Service of Wa1ker,The Destiny of Nicaragua: Is, and May Be (Boston: (Boston: S. S. A. A. Central America America as It Was, Was, Is, 59, cited hereafter as An Officer, The & Co., Co., 1856), Bent & 1856~, 59, Destiny Bolanos, Centena;rQ Centenario Destiny of Nicaragua; Gustavo Aleman Bolanos, la Guerra Nacional (Guatemala, de 1a Naciona1 de Nicaragua contra Walker (Guatemala, 4 208 Despite the protests protests of the the Democratic leaders, leaders, Walker sailed for San Juan del Sur to to gain control of the,* thQ~ transit. transit. He suffered suffered an early defeat but returned a second successfully the Legitimist Legitimist forces at time to drive out successfully Bay. Virgin Bay. With the transit under his control, control, he Francisco. awaited the arrival of the steamer from San Francisco. After a long month's wait, the Cortes finally arrived with command of Colonel Charles thirty-five men under the command Gilman, a one-legged one-legged veteran of the Sonora expedition. expedition. augmentation of his force, force, Walker was ready to With this augmentation execute the plan that had been forming since his arrival Nicaragua. in Nicaragua. On October 10, 10, he seized the lake steamer Virgin as she docked with her her passengers passengers at Virgin Virgin Bay. Bay. After landing the passengers and freight, he embarked freight, he embarked his force proceeded on the steamer toward: Granada. and proceeded toward; Granada. Steaming Steaming extinguished during the past the city with the lights extinguished night, he disembarked disembarked his men at a point three miles north night, of the of the port. port. At six six o'clock o'clock on on the morning of of October October 13, 13, At the morning they fell upon Granada while the small force of Legitimists 1956), 7l"'19 hereafter as Bolanos, la 7rl9,, cited hereafter Bolanos, Centenario de la Guerra;r^ew 26, 1855; 1855; Alta California, California, Guerra;~~ew York Herald, July 26, 16, August 14, 1855. 1855. July 16, August 14, 209 were still in their beds. beds. After fifteen minutes of sharp fighting, fighting, the city was theirs. theirs. Following aa proposition proposition Qo~~ £ peace by by the chief citizens of Granada, Granada, Walker was appqinted appqirited month, during which time an provisional president for one month, election was to be ordered by the people and and the president office. elect to take office. entrenched in the enemy's Firmly entrenched 5 capital, Walker was now practically practically master of the state. state.^ capital, Walker now turned his attention to negotiations negotiations for peace. peace. Native commissioners were sent by land, while John H. Wheeler, the American American minister, minister, departed departed in the Virgin H. Rivas. to use his good offices at Rivas. The Legitimists refused commissioners and Minister to treat with the native commissioners Minister Wheeler not only failed to see the commander, but was was also held prisoner for for two two days days before before being being allowed allowed to to return prisoner return to to Granada. Granada. In addition addition to to these these insults, insults, a a Legitimist force In Legitimist force 5 5walker, War in Nicaragua, 73-99, 106-15; Gamez, lker, War in 509-12; Nicaragua, 73-99, 106-15; Historia de Nicaragua, Roche, The StOry of Gamez, the Historia de Nicaragua, 509-12; Roche, The Story of Filibusters, 80-92; Doubleday, Reminiscences of the the War Filibusters, Reminiscences of the War in Nicaragua, 80-92; 157-64;Doubleday, Wells, Walker's Expedition to Nicain Nicaragua, 157-64; Wells, Walker's Expedition to Nica­ ragua, 61-62; Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, 115-116; ragua , 61-62; Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, 115-116; Wiltsee, Gold Rush Steamers, 182; Wheeler to Marcy, Wiltsee, Gold Rush U.S. Steamers, Wheeler to Marcy, October 14, 1855, Docs., 182; Message on Routes between October 14, 1855, U.S. Docs., Message on Routes between Atlantic and Pacific, S. Doc. 68, Ser. no. 822, 22-23; Atlantic and Pacific, S. Doc. 68, Ser. no. 822, 22-23; Marco1eta to Marcy, January 7, 1856, ibid., 67; Manning, Marcoleta to Marcy, January IV, 7, 1856, ibid., 67;Nicaragua, Manning, Central America, 1851-1860, 481-83; Stout, Central America, 1851-1860, IV, 481-83; Stout, Nicaragua, 196; John H. Wheeler, "Nicaragua; the Centre of Central 196; John H. "Nicaragua; Centre and of Central America: Its Wheeler, Past History; PresentthePosition Future America: Its Past History; Present Position and Prospects," MS in the Library of Congress, 92-104,Future cited Prospects," MS in the Library of Congress, 92-104, cited hereafter as Wheeler, "Nicaragua." W a hereafter as Wheeler, "Nicaragua." 210 attacked Virgin Bay. attacked the eastbound eastbound passengers at Virgin Bay. A A volley of shots poured into a group standing near the Transit It * * office, and before they could escape, escape, five were Company's office, dead and about nine more wounded. wounded. They were then taken office. prisoner while the soldiers ransacked ransacked the transit office. pas­ As soon as the soldiers departed, about four hundred pas- sengers boarded boarded the Virgin and headed headed for the hospital on the island island of Ornatepe Omatepe but were informed informed that the enemy enemy had captured the hospital. captured hospital. An attempt attempt was then made to return Legiti­ to Virgin Bay, Bay, but, but, finding it in possession of the LegitiGranada. mists, the steamer headed headed for Granada. one-quarter About one-quarter wounded or sick with vomito and yellow of the passengers were wounded fever. fever. Although Although there was an American American doctor aboard, the lack of medicine and facilities allowed allowed him him to do little to relieve the suffering. At Granada the passengers found lodging as best they could and waited waited for the transit to opened 6 be opened. 6Wheeler Wheeler to Marcy, October 23, 23, 1855, 1855, in Manning, Manning, 1851-1860, IV, 482-83; Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters Filibusters Central America, 1851-1860, IV, 482-83; 118; Wheeler, "Nicaragua," 106-113; J. C. C. and Financiers, 118; Tucker, To the Golden Goal and Other Sketches (San FranTucker, Fran­ cisco: William Doxey, 1895), 203-20; U.S. Docs., 203-20; U.S. Docs., Message Message cisco: William on Routes Routes between Atlantic and Pacific, S. S. Doc. D o c 68, 68, Ser. Ser. no. 822, Nicaraguense, October 20, no. 822, 27-32; E1 El Nicaraguense, 20, 1855; 1855; Alta California, November November 4, November 4, 4, 1855; 1855; New York Herald, November 4, 5, 5, 1855. 1855. 6 211 With his his overtures for peace peace thus thus repulsed, Walker determined to strike in another bold manner. manner. determined On the mornr, morq~ ing of October 22 Mateo Mayorga was was marched before a firing marched before squad in the main main plaza plaza and shot. shot. Mayorga was a member member of the cabinet of President Jose the most Jose' Maria Estrada and the prominent prominent Legitimist Legitimist in Walker's power. power. A A messenger was then sent to to the Legitimist Masaya with the the news Legitimist camp at Masaya of Mayorga's execution reasons therefor. execution and the reasons therefor. Further notice that the notice was was given given that the families families of of Granada Granada would would hencehence­ forth be be held as hostages subject to the the good behavior of the Legitimists. Legitimists. The move had been been well planned, planned, as most officers' families were in Granada. Granada. of the officers' peace. they began to advocate peace. With one accord Consequently, Walker and the Legitimist leaders met in Granada on the morning of the Legitimist twenty-third where a treaty was drafted which provided provided for twenty-third hostilities and a provisional government government the cessation of hpstilities with both sides represented. A Legitimist, A moderate Legitimist, Patricio Rivas, was chosen chosen provisional provisional president and Walker Walker Patricio Rivas, was president and was named commander-in-chief of of the army of of the the republic. republic. was named commander-in-chief the army That evening passengers passengers boarded boarded the the San Carlos for San transportation across the isthmus rere­ Juan del Norte, Norte, and transportation sumed normal normal operation. in­ Other than than the suffering and in- conveniences experienced experienced by the passengers for New New conveniences by the passengers bound bound for 212 York, Walker's activities had not even interrupted interrupted the flow York, of traffic. traffic. plan. plan. Everything thus far had worked to 'I t* worked according according to i Walker now turned his attention to making making more recruits. adequate provisions for a continual supply of recruits. Unfortunately for his future, future, his decision to join Unfortunately join forces with Morgan and Garrison in their struggle with with Vanderbilt was fraught with consequences unforeseen even by his t i m e .7 antagonists at that time. 7 Annulment of the Transit Company's Charter The idea for Walker's next move was suggested suggested by the unsettled the Canal and Accessory unsettled debt of the Accessory Transit companies to the Republic of Nicaragua. Nicaragua. According to the According to Canal Company's contract of 1849 and that which which formed the Accessory Accessory Transit Company Company in 1851, 1851, the companies engaged sums, to pay the government of Nicaragua, among other sums, profits, $10,000 annually plus 10 per cent of their net profits, 7Walker, Walker, War in Nicaragua, 132-34; 132-34; Walker and Corrall Corrall 23, 1855, 1855, Wheeler to Marcy, October Treaty, dated October 23, 1855, in U.S. U.S. Docs., Docs., Message on Routes between 30, 1855, between Atlantic S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 31-32; Wheeler and Pacific, S. Wheeler to Marcy, November 8, 1855, in Manning, Central America, 1851November 8, 1855, 1&60. IV, IV, 486; 486; Appendix A. A. 1.8.60, 7 213 213 together with an annual account of their their receipts receipts and expenditures. expenditures. The $10,000 was was paid paid from 1849 through 185.2^ 1852. •• however, on the first of June 1852, 1852, the company company declared a dividend of 2 per cent to their stockholders without without making any payment payment to to Nicaragua. Upon learning of this, this,' Upon Nicaragua named two two commissioners commissioners to proceed to New York to inquire into the cause of this dereliction and to to investigate the the affairs of the the company. They were hastened in this move move by by pressure pressure from Thomas Manning and Jonas Glenton to whom whom Nicaragua Nicaragua had assigned all moneys due them company as securement of a debt of $164,092. by the company $164,092. Upon their their arrival in New York the commissioners' commissioners 1 first step was to ask for an inspection books and inspection of the books accounts of the company. The books showed that a dividend of two dollars a share had been paid. paid. As dividends implied implied commissioners demanded a statement of accounts. accounts. profits, the commissioners purporting to be a statement After a long delay a document purporting of accounts was handed handed to them. them. The document listed a long line of charges against the receipts of the transit company to be a losing concern. concern. which showed the company Among the charges were the cost of boats, boats, the transit road, surveys canal, and the expenses of White and Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt s for the canal, f expedition to England. expedition commissioners questioned questioned the The commissioners 214 propriety these charges and submitted to counsel propriety of these submitted them to and leading merchants who concurred concurred in their decision. decision. Itt It* determined that a sum of $30,000 was due to NicaNica­ was then determined com­ d a y s sight on the comragua and a draft was drawn at ten days' 1 pany. pany. Following the company's refusal to accept the draft, draft, Following negotiations. the affair became tied up in futile negotiations. After assumed control of the company, they Morgan and Garrison had assumed offered to to settle for $35,000, but when when the the Legitimists $35,000, but Legitimists increased increased their demand to $45,000 negotiations once again came to to a standstill. standstill. The most recent recent attempt at settlesettle­ ment was in the the state of arbitration when Walker arrived in Nicaragua. Nicaragua. forces, With the success of the Democratic forces, Legitimist representatives ceased to receive instrucinstruc­ the Legitimist 8 negotiations.8 tions and were forced to end negotiations. Before leaving San Francisco, Walker was aware of the unsettled unsettled affair and had approached with aa approached Garrison with settling the debt in turn for carrying American American plan for settling recruits to Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Garrison However, at that time Garrison 8U. Message on Routes between between Atlantic and ^U.S. Docs., Message S. Docs., S. Doc. 68, Ser. Ser. no. 822, 86-87, 95; 95; CorrespondCorrespond­ Pacific, S. Doc. 68, no. 822, commission and the Accessory ence between between the Nicaragua Nicaragua commission November Transit Company, reproduced reproduced in the New York Herald, November 1852; Manning, Central America. America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, IV, 395-404; 395-404; 18, 1852; U.S. Docs., between Atlantic and Pacific, Pacific, U.S. Docs., Message on Routes between S. Doc. 68, Ser. Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 68, 68, 81, 81, 102, 102, 121; 121; Walker, War S. Doc. 68, War in in Nicaragua, 148. Nicaragua, 148. 215 informed him that his principles prohibited him from enterprohibited him enter­ ing any such arrangement. Walker was thus pleasantly pleasantly 1 I J* •... surpris:ed when shortly after his successes in Granada, Granada, he surprised when was approached approached by Charles J. Macdonald, Garrison's agent in Nicaragua, who who proposed proposed to advance the new government $20,000 from the treasure in transit from California to to New York. York. A{ter After convincing himself that Macdonald Macdonald actually act, Walker sent an armed had authority from Garrison to act, Carlos. force aboard the San Carlos. N. Under protest from Joseph N. containing the stated stated amount was Scott, a box of bullion containing taken from the st~met steamer. Obligations were then drawn by pledged a repayment with interest and which the state pledged Accessory Transit secured the debt by pledging dues from the Accessory Company. When the draft arrived in New York, it was was duly a honored by Morgan. 9 honored by Morgan. The advance of Macdonald convinced Walker that The advance of Macdonald convinced Walker that Morgan and Garrison might be brought to cooperate in the Morgan and Garrison might be brought to cooperate in the policy of introducing Americans into Nicaragua. He policy of introducing Americans into Nicaragua. He therefore wrote to A. P. Crittenden, his recruiting agent therefore wrote to A. P. Crittenden, his recruiting agent in San Francisco, instructing him to endeavor to make in San Francisco, instructing him to endeavor to make 9Walker, Walker, War in Nicaragua, Nicaragua. 127-28; 127-28; 146, 146, 149; 149; Joseph N. Scott to John H. H. Wheeler, cited in Wi1tsee, Wiltsee, Gold Rush N. Steamers, Steamers, 182. 182. 9 216 arrangements with with Garrison to bring bring five hundred hundred men into the country. H. French, one of At the same time Parker H. 1 * I~ appointed minister to the United States, States, Walker's officers appointed instructed to contact Morgan in New York with a similar was instructed proposal. proposal. French immediately immediately Upon his arrival in New York, York,French contacted Morgan and proposed proposed that as the company company bad had contacted advanced $20,000 to the state, state, it would consider already advanced the claim would send emigrants to Nicaragua claim settled settled if they would for $20 a head. After due reflection, the the directors of the After company agreed to take the emigrants at that rate, rate, provided provided company they were not organized military bands and did not propose organized military soldiers. to enlist as soldiers. abro­ Before this arrangement was abro- gated, more than one thousand thousand emigrants reached Nicaragua steamers. 10 aboard the company's steamers. behind Morgan The reason behind Morgan and Garrison's change in attitude toward Walker was because of recent events in the company. Notwithstanding the competition with the Notwithstanding route, they had been able to make the company company a Panama route, paying concern. concern. Following their annulment of the contract Following 1855, rates had continued continued to with the Pacific Mail in May 1855, 1^^Walker, 0walker, War in Nicaragua, Nicaragua, 149; 149; Vanderbilt Vanderbilt to 17, 1856, 1856, in U.S. Marcy, March 17, U.S. Docs., Docs., Message on Routes between S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, between Atlantic and Pacific, S. 822, 120-21. 217 be cut throughout the summer. Even though the Transit Company was forced to withdraw withdraw their steamers from New Or-... OrCompany # • leans because because of another outbreak of yellow fever, fever, they were evidently making it difficult for the Mail Lines Lines to to meet expenses. expenses. In September reached which September another agreement was reached provided pooling and equal division of of the the gross re­ reprovided for the pooling ceipts retroactively retroactively from the first of July 1854. 1854. Since the Nicaragua Line carried fewer passengers and had lighter expenses of operation, this was a distinct advantage in f a v o r .ll H their favor. revealed in the The extent of this advantage was revealed November 22, 1855, Transit Company's financial statement of November 22, 1855, when it was reported that from July 1, to October October 6, 1, 1854, 1854, to 6, 1855, the amount due from the United States Mail Mail and Pacific Mail on account of their excess of freight and and passengers was $101,949. $101,949. It was probably difficult for the stockholders stockholders to understand understand why the same report announced the agreeannounced that the agree­ ment had been Mail's failure failure to to ment had been broken broken because because of of the the Pacific Pacific Mail's loan the report report showed loan the the company company $100,000, $100,000, particularly particularly when when the showed 12 that the net earnings for the period period were $1,149,235. $1,149,235. 12 llAppendix New York Herald, S~ptember 12, 12, -^Appendix A, Part 3; 3; New HeraId» September 16, October 16, 72. 16, 1855; 1855; Kemble, The Panama Route, Route, 72. 12New N e w York Herald;. Herald, November 22, 22, 1855. 1855. 1 2 218 The New York Herald made a vigorous attack on the company by pointing out that: management of the company that: i* In proper hands the company company could be made one of the most profitable concerns in this country. It could pay out of its present net earnings ten per cent per payout annum on the par value of its stock. stock. .. .. .. The net annum earnings of its steamships in fifteen months were dollars, not one cent nearly one and a quarter million dollars, manage­ of which reached a stockholder outside of the management. . . . With these facts before the stockholders ment. . . . With these facts before the stockholders complain it would be strange indeed if they did not not complain of the the extravagance extravagance and and mismanagement, mismanagement, to say the the of to say 13 least, of their servants.13 least, of their servants. Just what percentage of these these profits was was remaining in the hands of Morgan and Garrison is difficult to ascerascer­ tain, tain, yet it must have been a very large amount. amount. The Herald insinuated per annun in insinuated that Morgan was receiving $100,000 per salary alone, for $60,000 aa alone, while Garrison had been hired for year. year. Whatever the exact amount may have been, been, it it is certain accumulating a large fortune. fortune. that they were rapidly accumulating Yet, Yet, un­ they could see dark clouds on the horizon and knew knew that unthis profitable business less they did something drastic, th,is hands. would soon slip from their hands. Vanderbilt was again comcom­ Vanderbilt picture, and this time it appeared appeared that there ing into the picture, was no way to stop him from withil)~t:he within.the company.14 company.-^ 13New N e w York Herald, November 27, 27, 1855. 1855. 1 3 l4Ibid. Ibid. 1 4 219 B. Allen, Vanderbilt's son-inIn March 1855 Daniel B. law, officers, law, had brought charges against the company company officers, . t i •... declaring that they had illegally issued 40,000 shares misappropriating to buy the Vanderbilt steamships and were misappropriating funds. funds. temporary injunction against the He secured a temporary be* issuance of more stock and aginst further contracts becompany and Morgan and Garrison. Garrison. tween the company Although Although the judge finally declared that he could not decide if the company had exceeded its powers until it became a party company case, the move accomplished accomplished the effect. in the case, the desired effect. On news news of of the the injunction injunction the the price price of of the the stock stock dropped dropped to to On $15 a a share. share. $15 Throughout the the spring spring and and summer summer of of 1855 1855 Throughout stories of of revolutionary revolutionary fighting fighting and and filibuster filibuster activiactivi­ stories ties in in Nicaragua further depressed depressed the the stock stock on on the the ties Nicaragua further Exchange. Exchange. During this this time time Vanderbilt Vanderbilt and and his had During his friends friends had been quietly quietly picking picking up up a a large large amount amount of of the floating been the floating stock. stock. Before November November Morgan Morgan and and Garrison Garrison could could see see Before that -they. they were were slowly slowly losing losing control control as as it it would just that would be be just matter of of time time until until Vanderbilt Vanderbilt made made the the influence influence of of aa matter his stock stock felt. felt. his As this this realization realization came came upon upon Garrison, Garrison, As he changed changed his his attitude attitude toward toward Walker Walker and and devised the he devised the 220 to gain control of the "coup" by which he hoped to the Nicaragua route. ls route. , ..# • I When Crittenden received Walker's letter, evidently the sixteenth of November as as this was was the the first steamer on the up, he immediately contacted contacted Garrison with the the proposal. proposal. up, he immediately was soon evident that Garrison was was interested interested in in a a much It was larger scheme than devising a a way way to to settle the the debt of the Transit Company. He explained explained to to Crittenden that the Transit Company Company had had failed to to fulfill its its obligations to the to the state and and had had therefore forfeited its its right to corporate existence. existence. He then proposed Walker secure proposed that Walker the new concession the annulment annulment of of its its charter charter and and obtain obtain a a new concession for the the benefit of himself and Morgan. Morgan. In return return for this, for this, they passage for for they would would advance advance to to the the state state the the price price of of passage all the Nicaragua. the emigrants who who desired to to go go to to Nicaragua. CrittenCritten­ den readily accepted the to the offer and provisions were made to 16 it into effect. effect.1^ put it On the W. R. R. Garrison, the seventeenth of December December 1855, 1855, W. Garrison, the son and Edmund son of C. C. K. K. Garrison, Charles Macdonald, and Randolph arrived at San San Juan del del Sur. Sur. Accompanying Accompanying them 15 lsLane, Commodore Vanderbilt, 113-14; New York Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt, 113-14; New York Herald, March 16, 17, April 2, 6, 1855. Herald, March 16, 17, April 2, 6, 1855. l^Kalker, War War in Nicaragua, 151. l6Walker, 151. 221 were over a hundred recruits who had been duly forwarded under the agreement. Randolph had known Walker since his early days in New Orleans and had been his his attorney for the trial after the Sonora expedition. Besides being close friends, friends, Walker highly respected respected his capabilities capabilities lawyer. as a lawyer. Garrison could not have made a better better choice '' After reaching Granada, Randolph for the mission. 17 1 informed Walker that he and Crittenden had both both examined the charter of the Transit Company and were duly duly convinced that it it had had been been forfeited. forfeited. that He then then explained explained Garrison's Garrison's He proposal and and said said that that he he had had come come to to work work out out the arrange­ proposal the arrangements in in his his behal!. behalf. ments Of course course Walker Walker accepted accepted the pro­ Of the pro- posal and and together together they they soon soon agreed agreed on on the the terms of a a new new posal terms of transit grant, grant, after after which which Macdonald Macdonald was was sent sent with copy transit with aa copy for Garrison Garrison in in San San F~ancisco, Francisco, and and W. W. R. R. Garrison Garrison left left for for for New York York to to inform inform Morgan Morgan of of the the arrangements. arrangements. New All of this this All of was done done secretly, secretly, without the knowledge knowledge of of President Rivas was without the President Rivas or his Cabinet,18 18 or his Cabinet. l7walker, •^Walker, War in Nicaragua, 150; 150; Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters and Fipanciers, Financiers, 13,_1'3. 13,.33. l8Walker, Perez, l^Walker, War War in in Nicaragua, Nicaragua, 150-52; 150-52; Jeronimo Jeronimo Perez, Memorias la Memorias Para Para la la Historia Historia de de la la Campana Campana Nacional Nacional contra contra la Filbusterismo. Filbusterismo, 1856-1857 (Masaya: (Masaya: Imprenta Imprenta del Orden, Orden, 1873), 29, 29, cited hereafter as Perez, Perez, Memorias de la Campana Nacional. Nacional, 1856-1857. 1856-1857. 222 W. R. R. Garrison arrived in New York to obtain When W. approval, he found that Morgan was no longer in I~ + Morgan's approval, ( control of the Transit Company. December Vanderbilt In December had decided to make the influence of his stock felt and eliminate Morgan from the agency and presidency. Evidently matter of general the $20,000 advanced to Walker was not a ~tter knowledge among the stockholders. stockholders. When Vanderbilt Vanderbilt communicommuni­ cated the facts of the transfer to them, he was was reappointed general agent, Morgan was forced to to resign, and and on January' January r 30, 1856, 1856, Vanderbilt was elected president president of the company.19 company.19 Morgan was furious. furious. In an effort to embarrass the company company and depreciate the current value of its stock, he initiated initiated a suit for $70,000 and pressed pressed large quantities sale. of stock upon the market for sale. circum­ Under these circum- stances he was more eager than before to secure the the Transit W. R. R. Garrison was soon on his way Company's charter, and W. 20 scheme.20 back to Nicaragua with full approval of the scheme. Macdonald and W. W. R. R. Garrison returned After Macdonald returned with plan, Randolph and Walker sat down final approval of the plan, 19Vanderbilt U.S. Docs., Docs., l^Vanderbilt to Marcy, March 26, 26, 1856, In U.S. Message on Routes between between Atlantic and Pacific, S. 68, S. Doc. Doc. 68, Ser. Barbour (New Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 81; 81; Murray v. v. Vanderbilt, 39 Barbour York), 144 (1863). (1863). 20New New York Herald, January 7, 7, March 17, 17, 1856. 1856. 223 and carefully drew up a decree for the annulment of the existing charter. charter. The decree first recited the failure failure of.· recited the of J* company to perform perform its agreements stipulated stipulated in the the company charter. charter. American It then decreed that the grants to the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company Company and the Accessory Company were dissolved dissolved and abolished, except for Transit Company the purposes of examining their records to ascertain the Nicaragua. amount due the State of Nicaragua. commissioners Three commissioners companies were appointed to seize the property of the said companies and make the examination. examination. As a final provision, the decree provided that that the the property property could could be be given given under provided under bond bond to to company so that transportation transportation across the another company the isthmus would not not be be interrupted. interrupted. would After the the decree decree of of revocation revocation After had been drawn up, up, it it was was presented presented to to President President Rivas who had been drawn Rivas who signed it it "not "not only only without without hesitation hesitation but but with undisguised signed with undisguised pleasure." pleasure.,,2l 21 This was on the eighteenth of February February 1856. 1856. The approached President Rivas with a new following day Walker approached charter in the name of Randolph and his associates. associates. polite. this time the reception was not so polite. However, However, D. D. Fermin Ferrer 2lWalker, Nicaragua, 155; Docs., Message ^ W a l k e r , War in Nicaragua, 155; U.S. U.S. Docs., on Routes between between Atlantic and Pacific, S. Doc. 68, S. Doc. 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 106-08; M<;lnning,:n Manning, Central America:, America;, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, IV, 506-08; 506-08; 822, 109-08; Nicaragiiense, February 23, 23, 1856. 1856. El Nicaraguense, 224 dubbed the new contract "a sale of the country," and it was only after the Spanish translation had been reworded reworded **• 1 " to deprive the company of many of its privileges that it was signed. Although copies of the decrees were delivered publication was to Randolph on the nineteenth, their publication delayed until the passengers then crossing crossing from California California delayed had departed departed for New York. York. Word was sent secretly secretly with arrange­ them to Morgan so that he would have time to make arrange- ments for starting a new line before the news reached Vanderbilt. Morgan received received the secret Consequently, Morgan 28, whereas the Transit Company dispatch on February 28, Company was published in the El Nicaraguense not notified of the decree published 23, until March 13, 13, 1856. 1 8 5 6 .22 on February 23, 2 2 Upon receiving word word that the blow had had been been struck, struck, Morgan proceeded on the proceeded with his plan to make a killing on exchange. stock exchange. In February the stock had sold up to $23, its rise being caused by the recent buying of around $23, friends. Vanderbilt and his friends. Garrison, Acting for himself and Garrison, Morgan sold not only their own holdings in Accessory Accessory Transit stock, but went heavily "short." stock, When news reached reached New York 22Walker, W a l k e r , War in Nicaragua, 155; 155; El Nicaraguense, Nicaraguense, March 1, 1856; 1856; Perez, Perez, Memorias de la Campana Campafia Nacional, Nacional, 1856-1857, 29; 29; Appendix Appendix A, A, Part 2. 2. zz 225 225 that the charter had been annulled and a new one one g+anted granted to Edmund Randolph, stock declined four points in one day undea: Edmund und&l:' • subsequently sold off to $13. $13. Morgan heavy selling and subsequently covered his short position at a huge profit. Already the Already scheme with with Walker Walker had had gained gained Morgan Morgan and and Garrison Garrison a a hundredhundred­ scheme 23 fold return. return.23 fold to VanThe announcement came as a complete complete surprise to derbilt and his associates in the Transit Company. Just two weeks previously previously 250 recruits for Walker had sailed sailed from New Prometheus, their passage paid for by drafts Orleans on the Prometheus, on Vanderbilt as general agent of the company. Domingo De Domingo Goicouria, a Cuban filibuster on his way to join join forces with Walker, had persuaded persuaded Vanderbilt that Walker would amen­ Walker, would be amen- able to adjusting the company's dispute with Nicaragua. Nicaragua. To say that Vanderbilt was enraged enraged would would be to put it mildly. mildly. immediately withdrawn, and The steamers on the Atlantic were immediately M. Cross was hurriedly sent to divert the Pacific James M. Panama. steamers to Panama. informed of On March 17 the public was informed 24 the "Non intercourse decree" as the Herald termed termed it. it. 24 23Lane ^^Lane,, Commodore Vanderbilt, 119. 119. 24Ibid~,~118; 2^lbid.,J118; Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, Financiers, 151; Walker, War in Nicaragua, 156; 156; Campbell etal. et al. v. v. The Cases, 1198, 1198, Case No. No. 2,371 (1856); (1856); Uncle Sam, 4 Federal Cases, 17, 1856. 1856. New York Herald, March 17, 226 That same day Vanderbilt penned a letter of protest Secretary William William L. L. Marcy urging him to determine to Secretary *•J;.. wherther or not the government should interfere to to "pro"pro­ 2S tect the rights and property of her citizens." citizens."25 On March 26 he sent another letter to Marcy, enclosing enclosing docudocu­ ments pertaining to the recent negotiations over over the the comcom­ pany's debt and charter. charter. To the charge that the the company company canal, or railroad, or rail had failed to construct a ship canal, and carriage road, road, he pointed pointed out that under the charter charter there were still more than five years remaining to fulfill these obligations, and although a ship canal of the requisite depth had been found impracticable, the company had already prepared the bed for a railroad and would would ful­ £ulfill the terms long before the expiration of the time 26 allowed.^6 allowed. company had not To the allegation that the company of $10,000 annually and 10 per cent of made the payments obi correctly established established the net profits of the company, he correctly that Walker had erred in that the $10,000 had been paid 2S etween A t 1antic ^ UU.S., . S . , Docs., Docs., Message on Routes b between Atlantic and Pacific, S. S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 122. 122. 26By he must must have been referring to ^ B y a railroad bed he the transit road road as this was the only work of that that sort that had been accomplished accomplished by the company. company. I 227 from 1849 through 1854 and that the money money had had been been ready , ,,., in 1855; however, the company orde~ 1855; however, company was enjoined enjoined by a court ord£r* Messrs. Manning, Glenton and Company Company from in the suit of Messrs. it. paying it. claimed that the question of indebtedness indebtedness He claimed had been entirely disposed of when it was referred referred into the hands of commissioners, and that when the accounts were adjusted, a balance would be found due the company. He seized property between set the value of the seized between $700,000 and $1 million and said it was being withheld withheld by "fraud "fraud and force of arms .. . . in open defiance of all law and all authority." He closed by requesting requesting the "interference "interference government .. .. .• to wrest from the aggressors their of the government enjoyment of our outraged plunder, and to restore us to the enjoyment rights.,,27 rights." 27 Despite the lengthy explanations offered by Vanderoffered by Vander­ bilt, there was small comfort from the State Department Department corporation that but a few weeks before had openly for a corporation neutrality laws. laws. defied the neutrality correspondence In his correspondence 27U•S U . S .. Docs., Docs., Message on Routes between Atlantic and S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 81-122. 81-122. Pacific, S. The legality of the decree annulling the the company's company's charter is so confused in points of international and domestic law that it would would be but foolish speculation speculation for a historian to attempt to establish the correctness of the claims of either side. side. 2 7 228 Vanderbilt was forced to acknowledge that the company company had carried filibusters to Walker, although he claimed claimed that I lit none were given free passage unless they went unarmed intent. and avowed a peaceable intent. company was a That the company Nicaraguan corporation, a fact which White had used used in the claim exemption, was now turned back against its past to claim request for interference. interference. The New York press, press, following following Secretary Marcy's lead, sarcastically sarcastically urged the company company Secretary ^ Nicaraguan government government for relief. relief.28 to apply to the Nicaraguan 2 Meanwhile in San Francisco Garrison attempted attempted to keep the Transit Company's steamers running as long as possible. possible. Thus the Cortes departed for San Juan del Sur 20, and the Uncle Sam followed on April 15. 15. on March 20, However, James M. M. Cross was waiting at San Juan del Sur diverted her to Panama and when the Cortes arrived, he diverted instructions. according to his instructions. boarded the He then boarded intercepted the Uncle Pacific Mail's Golden Gate and intercepted Uncle Sam just just a few days out of San Francisco. to Panama. Panama. to ijsait She too was was sSEt'll: 1\ • " Communication was was now now stopped stopped across across Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Communication 28U.S. 28u.S. Docs., Docs., Message on Routes between Atlantic and Pacific, S. S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 81-82; Lane,Commodore Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt, 120; 120; Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, 152. 152. • 229 More than six weeks were to pass before it could be re­ re^9 sumed. 29 i ,* In the interim made to interim arrangements were being made reopen the route. route. Morgan withdrew withdrew his steamer Orizaba Orleans-Vera Cruz run to connect on the from the New Orleans-Vera Pacific with the Sierra Nevada which had been running under lease to the Transit Company.30 under In in early April arrived in New York and was advertised advertised to the Orizaba arrived eighth. sail for Nicaragua on the eighth. On the morning morning set for her departure, gathered to see departure, a vast concourse of people gathered her off,· off, as it had been rumored that the United United States marshal intended intended to prevent her sailing at the instigation of the Transit Company. Just as the ropes were were being thrown, with marshals thrown, the deputy district attorney arrived arrived with and commanded the vessel, vessel, but commanded Captain Tinklepaugh to stop the the captain failed to give the order and the steamer moved into the stream. The excitement at the pier grew intense; however, intense; however, the steamer soon stopped, a boat was sent out, and three alleged filibusters were taken off. out, off. The C a m p b e l l et al. al. v. v. The Uncle Sam" Sam, 4 .F.e.deral Federal ..Ca.s,es, Cases, 29Campbell 1196-97, Case No. No. 2,371 (1856). (1856). 29 30Appendix ^Appendix;:; New York Herald, November 27, 1855. November 27, 1855. 230 31^ Orizaba then proceeded proceeded to Nicaragua. Nicaragua. While the the Orizaba was was on her her way, Morgan Morgan sent the*.* the t new steamer Charles Morgan on a one-time trip from New Orleans to San Juan del Norte with with 250 250 recruits for Walker. Walker. She arrived on April April 15, just one one day before before the the Orizaba 15, just steamed into the harbor. harbor. Unknown to Captain Tink1epaugh Tinklepaugh the Hosea Birdsall, the steamer steamer carried carried Hosea Birdsall, agent agent of of Vanderbilt Vanderbilt who who had been sent to demand the surrender of all the company's company's property at Point Arenas. 32 property at Point Arenas. Birdsall was instructed to ask the assistance of Birdsall was instructed to ask the assistance of Her Majesty's Navy if he met any resistance from Walker's Her Majesty's Navy if he met any resistance from Walker's filibusters. Accordingly when the Transit Company's agent filibusters. Accordingly when the Transit Company's agent refused to surrender the property, he went to Captain refused to surrender the property, he went to Captain Tarleton on the British sloop-of-war Eurydice. He pre- Tarleton on the British sloop-of-war Eurydice. He pre­ sented his instructions and requested Tarleton to arrest sented his instructions and requested Tarleton to arrest the ascent of the river steamer which was then receiving the ascent of the river steamer which was then receiving passengers from the Orizaba, first on the plea that the passengers from the Orizaba, first on the plea that the authority of the heretofore agent was revoked, and secondly authority of the heretofore agent was revoked, and secondly that the majority of the passengers were filibusters to that the majority of the passengers were filibusters to reinforce Walker. Captain Tarleton said that he could not reinforce Walker. Captain Tarleton said that he could not 3lNew N e w York Herald, April 9, 1856. 1856. J 1 32New Orleans Picayune~ Picayune, April 22, 22, 1856. 1856 231 interfere between two American American companies but sent an t *officer to prevent the ascent of the river steamer until It concerning the filibusters. filibusters. he could inquire concerning He then proceeded proceeded to the river steamer and, after consultation consultation with Scott and Captain Tinklepaugh, boarded boarded the Orizaba to inspect her waybill. waybill. The purser produced produced the waybook the vessel and passengers had and informed Tarleton that the.vessel inspected by the United States authorities previous been inspected York. to leaving New York. office, one or two of While in the office, presented themselves and stated stated that it the passengers presented was not their intention to join Walker. Walker. Captain Tarleton thereupon informed Scott that he would not prevent prevent the proceeding up the river and returned returned on steamer from proceeding 33 Eurydice.33 board the Eurydice. Captain Tinklepaugh Tinklepaugh duly Upon returning to New York Captain entered a protest against the boarding of his vessel. vessel. In response the State Department Department dispatched dispatched Commodore Commodore Paulding to Grey town to investigate. Greytown investigate. After looking into the 33Thomas T h o m a s Lord to Hosea Birdsall, April 8, 8, 1856, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 14, 14, Vol. Vol. 37b; Hosea Birdsall to Captain Tarleton, April 17, W. Tarleton 17, 1856, 1856, ibid.; J. W. to James Gi..een, Green, April 25, 25, 1856, 1856, ibid.; Protes Protestt of Captain 1856, U.S. U.S. Docs., Docs., Message on Tinklepaugh, dated May 6, 1856, S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Ser. Ser. no. no. Routes between Atlantic and Pacific, S. 153-54. 822, 158-54. 33 232 incident, Paulding Paulding wrote to Tarleton that "upon the disdis­ charge of your duties here . justice to say,'! .. . .. it is but justice say,*.* that as far as II am informed, you have met them them in a spirit of moderation, justice justice and humanity."34 humanity.,,34 Thus Vanderbilt's scheme to embroil the British fleet fell through and he was left to his own resources to settle the I/ 35 score.35 score. Upon arriving at Castillo Viejo, Viejo, the passengers passengers from the Orizaba were informed that war had broken out between Nicaragua and Costa Rica and the transit route was closed. days, they were given the After waiting two days, choice of returning to New York or going on to Granada to wait for the route to be reopened. As they were comcom­ pelled concluded to pel led to abandon their baggage in case they concluded go back, looked as though Walker would back, and because it looked would soon determined to have the route open, about three hundred determined 36 Granada.36 continue on to Granada. 3 4WW. Paulding to J. W. . Paulding W. Tarleton, June 9, 1856, 1856, Fa FO 14, Vol. Vol. 39 53 (Mosquito), Reel 14, 3 4 35J. W. 35j. w. Tarleton to James Green, April 25, 25, 1856, 1856, 14, Vol. 37b; New Orleans Picayune, Picayune, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 14, Fa Vol. 37b; 22, 1856. 1856. April 22, 36San S a n Francisco Bulletin, June 7, 7, 1856; Alta 7, 1856; 1856; New Orleans Picayune, May 3, 3, California, June 7, 1856. 3 6 233 War with Costa Rica I,. t ,<* While negotiations with Morgan and a n d Garrison had propro­ ceeded smoothly, Walker's efforts to gain g a i n the acceptance of American republics were totally t o t a l l y frustrated. frustrated. the Central American Communications expressing the desire of the t h e Republic of Communications Nicaragua for harmony and fraternity with w i t h its neighbors met silence, except in San Salvador, while w h i l e in Costa Rica stony silence, Mora, is issued proclamation dede­ the president, pres ident, Juan Rafael Mora, sued a proclamation claring that the peace of his country was w a s in danger. c1aring danger. Costa alarm upon u p o n the filibuster Rica had good reasons to to look with alarm the filibuster movement in in Nicaragua. Nicaragua. movement In the the first first p l a c e , the conservative In place, the conservative element strongly strongly predominated predominated and and was was naturally n a t u r a l l y opposed opposed to to element an armed armed foreign foreign force force coming coming to to the the aid aid of o f the fac­ an the liberal liberal faction in in her sister republic. republic. tion her sister The arrival arrival of filibusters The of more more filibusters and the the colonization colonization decree decree made made her her fearful f e a r f u l of of the Americani­ and the Americanization of of Nicaragua and eventually eventually Costa Costa Rica. Rica. zation Nicaragua and Besides the Besides the fear of of invasion, invasion, Costa Costa Rica Rica had had never never relinquished relinquished her her fear claim to to share share in in the the benefits of the the transit t r a n s i t route felt claim benefits of route and and felt that the the success success of of Walker Walker would would end end all all hopes h o p e s of of a satis­ that a satisfactory settlement settlement of of that that dispute. dispute.37 37 factory 37Scroggs, 37Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, F i n a n c i e r s , 159; 159; Montufar, Montufar, Walker en Centro-AmJrica, of Juan Rafael Centro-America, 186; 186; Proclamation Proclamation of Mora, November 20, 1855, 1855, cited in Joaqu!n Joaqu£n Bernardo Calvo, Calvo, Mora, November 20, 234 Thus President Mora issued a call for 9,000 men and on March 1 declared war war on the filibusters, filibusters, taking ,* • I • Nica­ care to stipulate that Costa Rica was not fighting Nicaragua. ragua. An order was sent to the agent of the Transit Company instructing instructing him to suspend suspend operation on the river Company consequences. San Juan or suffer the consequences. Mora took personal command of his troops and ~n in March command March mobilized mobilized the army at 38 San Jose Jose for the invasion of Nicaragua. Nicaragua.38 Word of the invasion reached reached Granada on March March 11, 11, and President President Rivas promptly promptly retaliated by declaring war retaliated by on Costa Rica. Rica. The first engagement engagement took place at Santa Rosa where the filibuster force under Louis Louis Schlessinger Schlessinger complete was taken by surprise and in five minutes was in a complete La Campana Nacional Nacional Contra los Filibusteros en 1856 yy 1857 La Tipografia Nacional, Nacional, 1909), 17-18, 17-18, (San Jose, Jose, Costa Rica: Rica: Tipograf!a Calvo, La Campana Nacional; cited hereafter hereafter as Calvo, Nacional; Rafael Obregon Tra'nsito, Jose, Costa Loria, La Campana del Trans ito , 1856-1857 (San Jose, 62, cited hereafter as Rica: Antonio Lehmann, 1956), 62, Rica: Campana del Transito; Felipe Molina, Bosqueio Bosquej,o Obregon, La Campana de la Republica de Costa Rica (Nueva York: S. W. Benedict, York: S. W. Benedict, 52-53; New York Herald, 13, 1854; 1854; Marcoleta 1851), 52-53; Herald, July 13, Marcoleta to to 16, 1854, 1854, Manning, Central America, 1851P1860, Marcy, May 16, America, 1851~1860, IV, 412. IV, 412. 38Calvo, Nacional, 19; 3^Calvo, La Campana Nacional, 19; Comision de Investigacion Investigacio'n Hist6rica Historica de la Campana Campana 1856-1857, 1856-1857, Proc1amas Proclamas 10, cited Mensajes, No.3 No. 3 (San Jose, Jose, Costa Rica, Rica, 1954), 10, y Mensajes, hereafter U.S. Docs., hereafter as Comision, Proclamas y Mensajes; Mensajes; U.S. Docs., S. Doc. Message on Routes between between Atlantic and Pacific, S. Doc. 68, 68, Ser. no. 822, 136-37. 136-37. Sere no. 822, 235 rout. rout. When Mora arrived with with the main body of the army, When army, carried out his previous threats and ordered all pris-*»* he carried pris-.t courtmartialed and shot, including the wounded. wounded. oners to be courtmartia1ed mobilized his When news of the defeat reached Walker, he mobilized Rivas; force at Granada and marched directly to the city of Rivas; however, word shortly arrived that the northern states were planning an invasion and he was forced to withdraw. planning withdraw. With attacked the transit route left unguarded, the Costa Ricans attacked Company at Virgin Bay. Bay. the office of the Transit Company Several of the the workmen were killed outright, while while those those who lay of workmen were killed outright, who lay gasping for for life life on on the ground were stabbed with with bayonets bayonets gasping the ground were stabbed and swords. swords. and The office office was was then then ransacked, ransacked, and and the wharf, The the wharf, recently completed completed at at a a cost cost of of $120,000, $120,000, was set afire afire recently was set and completely completely destroyed. destroyed.39 39 and Upon returning to Granada, Walker learned that the fear of an invasion from the northern republics republics had quieted down, he thus quickly returned and attacked the Costa down, Rican force at Rivas. Rivas. Although capturing the the center of Although 39fjomisidn de Investigacion Investigacion Historica de 1a la Campana Campana 39Comision Batalla de Santa Rosa, 1856, No. No. 1856-1857, Bata11a Rosa, 20 de Marzo de 1856, 4 (San Jos~, 1954), 9-84; 9-84; Statement of Charles Charles 4 Jose, Costa Rica, Rica, 1954), Mahoney, dated April 15, o~ Routes 15, 1856, 1856, U.S. U.S. Docs., Docs., Message on between Atlantic and Pacific, S. Doc. 68, between S. Doc. 68, Ser. Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 1292, 1856, 1856, ibid.; Wheeler, "Nicara"Nicara­ 30; Marcy to Molina, May 2, 153-54. gua," 153-54. 236 the town, town, he was quickly surrounded by superior forces. forces. After dark he managed to collect his force in aa church church neajr nea~ plaza. the plaza. Those incapable of being moved were placed withdrew from the near the altar while the rest silently withdrew town, protected protected by darkness and the exhaustion exhaustion of the enemy. enemy. town, When the Costa Ricans discovered neat morning discovered the next that Walker had escaped, they entered the church, bayoneted the wounded wounded near the altar, altar, and shot seventeen prisoners. prisoners. Mora, however, failed to follow up his advantage and did not pursue the retreating foe. foe. Instead, he remained remained at Rivas where the putrefying bodies of the dead were were not even burned or buried. Soon cholera broke out and stuuck stmuck a blow far more effective than the American rifles. rifles. mortality increased daily. daily. The Mora hastened home home upon upon receivreceiv­ ing news that a revolution was brewing, leaving his his brotherin-law, General Canas, Canas, in charge of the troops. troops. But the But rigors of the pestilence continued continued without abatement, and Canas was forced to make preparations to return home. home. Before leaving he sent Walker a courteous note asking him behind. to take care of the sick that he was forced to leave behind. By the middle of May the last of the survivors of the Costa Rican Rican Army arrived in San Jose. Jose. a trail of death. death. The march had been It is reported that more than five hundred hundred 237 bodies were interred on the beach at San Juan del Sur, Sur, where whitening skeletons It ,* the waves and tides soon exposed the whitening which glistened in the sun for many months to to come. come. The dreaded disease was carried litomel?y crea ting an home by the soldiers, soldiers, creating epidemic that ravaged the country, leaving in its wake more toward the the end more than than 10,000 10,000 dead dead before before it it subsided subsided toward end of of June. June. It Rica was was again It would would be be many many months months before before Costa Costa Rica again 40^ ready ready to to drive drive the the hated hated Americans Americans from from the the isthmus. isthmus. Nicaragua when Such Such was was the the condition condition of of affairs affairs in in Nicaragua when the Granada. the passengers passengers from from the the Orizaba Orizaba arrived arrived at at Granada. Although Although Walker had reoccupied reoccupied the transit road and San Juan del Sur by April April 27, the sight of 27, day after day passed without without the any steamer. steamer. While waiting waiting in Granada many of of the the passengers failed to heed the unaccustomed unaccustomed food and climate, and because of unwise indulgence became ill. ill. Many more more fell Many 40For For a general treatment of this first engagement see: Walker, Walker, War in Nicaragua, 179-211; with Costa Rica see: Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, Financiers, 177-95; Obregon, La Scroggs, 83-221; Stout, Nicaragua, 199-200; Campana del Transito, 83-221; 535-38; Calvo, La Campana Campana Gamez, Historia de Nicaragua, 535-38; Nacional, 15-38; Bolanos, Bolanos, Oentenario de la Guerra, 20-28; Nacional, 15-38; 20-28; Comisidn de Investigacion Historica de la Campana Comision Investigacion Campana de Rivas, No. Jose, Costa Rica, 1856-1857, Batalla de Rivas, No.55 (San Jose, Costa Rica, 7-77; Comision Comisidn de Investigacion Investigacion Historica de 1956), 7-77; de la la 1856-1857, Hero!smo Herofsmo de Juan Santamar!a, Santamarfa, No. Campana 1856-1857, No.22 Jose*, Costa Rica, Rica, 1954), 11-65; 11-65; Most of the newspapers (San Jose, of late late May May and and early early J~ne June 1856 1856 carried carried glowing glowing accounts accounts of of the the battles, battles, see see Alta Alta California, California, June June 2, 2, 1856; 1856; New New of Orleans Picayune, June 12, 1856. Orleans Picayune, June 12, 1856. 238 victim victim to the cholera which had spread from Rivas. Rivas. As the weeks passed Walker was forced to supply rations to those*,* those'~ possessed means to buy subsistence. who no longer possessed Seventy- quartered in nine of the some three hundred passengers quartered arrived on May Granada were buried before word finally arrived May 20 Sur. that the Sierra Nevada was at San Juan del Sur. The sursur­ vivors were crowded crowded on a lake steamer and after nineteen disembarked at Virgin Bay. hours of confined suffering were disembarked ~irgin Bay. expired while Several died during the journey journey and others expired attempting to cross over the road to the steamer. attempting On their way they passed the passengers from San Francisco. Thus the Nicaragua route was finally reopened by Morgan Morgan and Garrison. More than two months had passed passed since Vanderbilt 4l^ withdrew the Transit Company's steamers. steamers. withdrew Final Arrangements for the the Route The reopening of the transit nearly nearly completed completed the scheme of Morgan and Garrison to gain control of of the 410bregon, ito , 189-91; 4-lobregon, La Campana del Trans Tra'nsito, 189-91; San 7, 1856; 1856; Alta California, June 7, Francisco Bulletin, June 7, 7, 1856. 1856. 239 Nicaragua route. route. necessary was the compleAll that was now necessary comple­ tion of the the paperwork paperwork and the the acquisition of the Transit k* I~ Company's facilities on the the isthmus. isthmus. With the the route safely With in operation, Garrison departed San Francisco for New York in July to complete personally personally the arrangements with Randolph Morgan. Randolph and and Morgan. 18, 18, 1856. 1856. They They met met at at Saratoga Saratoga Springs Springs on on July July The Randolph to The concession concession was was transferred transferred from from Randolph to Garrison according to to a previous agreement for $10,000, $10,000, and the the file was was completed by an agreement between Morgan completed by and Garrison whereby whereby the former was given a part interest in the grant. g r a n t .42 4 2 While these arrangements were being completed completed in commission appointed to seize the Transit New York, York, the commission property and ascertain the amount due the state Company's property published its report. report. published The report was a long and detailed difficulties explanation of the investigation and the difficulties encountered because of no records having been kept by the encountered company in Nicaragua. company Nicaragua. After utilizing utilizing private records and testimony of the company's employees as a base, base, a great interpolation was introduced introduced in order to arrive amount of interpolation estimates. at the final estimates. 42W W iiltsee, l t s e e , Gold Rush Steamers, Steamers, 227. 227 42 I 240 The commissioners commissioners concluded concluded that an average of 2,000 2,000 crossed over the isthmus. isthmus. passengers per month had crossed As , * ',. each paid $35 for his passage, monthly receipts were passage, the monthly $70,000. placed at $70,000. The receipts for carrying freight and transporting treasure were placed transporting placed at $8,000 which brought $78,000. the total monthly monthly receipts to $78,000. An average of $21,000 a month was allowed for expenses which deducted from the total receipts left a net profit of $57,000 a month, or $696,000 per annum annum from August 1851 to March March month, 1856. To this amount was added interest at 6 per cent per company sent no representative annum and, as the company representative to establish that the annual payment payment of $10,000 had been indebtedness made, these too were added, bringing the total indebtedness 43 $412,589.96. to $412,589.96. 43 43El E 1 Nicaraguense, Nicaraguense, July July 26, 26, 1856; 1856; San San Francisco Francisco Bulletin, September September 3, 3, 1856. 1856. Scroggs states that that "these figures are of course absurd. Vanderbilt in his complaint Marcy stated that complaint to Marcy confiscated property property was between the value of the confiscated between $700,000 $1,000,000; and it is inconceivable that such an inin­ and $1,000,000; $696,000, or vestment should have yielded a net profit of $696,000, Scroggs from seventy to ninety-nine per cent a year." To Scroggs' observation could be added that as the company reported observation could company in November November 1855 that their net profits from July 1854 to twelve­ October 1855 were $1,149,235 or $919,380 for a twelve$696,000, or month period, it is highly unlikely that $696,000, better than two-thirds of the net profits of the entire line for one year was derived derived from the isthmus receipts. receipts. Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, 157; 157; New See Scroggs, New York Herald, November 22, 1855. Herald, November 22, 1855. 4 3 1 241 One month after the the report was published published in the confiscating all '." , .* El Nicaragifense, Nicaragiiense, Walker issued a decree confiscating the steamers and other property of the company other property company on grounds that their value value did not exceed $200,000 and the company company the state in excess of that amount. was indebted indebted to the amount. The following to Charles following day day he he assigned assigned to Charles Morgan Morgan and and Cornelius Cornelius K. under their K. Garrison, Garrison, under their grant grant of of February February 19, 19, 1856, 1856, all all of the property property confiscated the Accessory of the confiscated from from the Accessory Transit Transit Company the sum of $400,000. Company in consideration consideration of the $400,000. The arrangements for the the payment of this this $400,000 were concon­ ceived with the idea of furthering Walker's interests and turning the property property over to Morgan and Garrison without part. any cash outlay on their part. To accomplish this it was was agreed that every dollar accomplish this contributed contributed by Morgan and Garrison should count for five dollars. dollars. The cash payment payment was $30,000 which which included included the $20,000 released Macdonald in October released from the shipment by Macdonald Morgan in January 1856. 1856. 1855 and $10,000 paid paid by Morgan To this was added the steamer fares of recruits sent down from $100,000. San Francisco, valued at enough to make the total $100,000. At five to one this placed placed a credit of $500,000 to Morgan and Garrison. From this was deducted the total assets of From the Transit Company's property, which had been set at 242 $400,000, leaving a balance of $100,000 due to to Morgan Morgan and Garrison. lri~lconsideration Ih_iConsideration of this amount Walker then Garrison. »f I •• cent. issued government bonds bearing interest at 10 per cent. Hence for a cash outlay of $30,000, $30,000, Morgan Morgan and Garrison succeeded in acquiring all of the Accessory Accessory Transit succeeded isthmus, which had been Company's property property on the the isthmus, valued in in excess excess of of $700,000 $700,000 by by Vanderbilt. Vanderbilt. valued Walker acceded Walker acceded to such such a a favorable favorable arrangement arrangement on on one one condition, condition, a con­ to a consideration that far outweighed outweighed any any financial financial remuneration remuneration sideration that far for the the property. for property. This clause clause was was that that recruits recruits would would This continue to to be be sent sent on on the the new new line's line's steamers. steamers. continue The The Americanization of of Nicaragua Nicaragua was was at at the the heart heart of Walker's Americanization of Walker's plans to to gain gain complete complete control control of of the the country. country. plans Recruiting Recruiting activities in in the the United United States States had had been been conducted conducted persistpersist­ activities 44 ently since since the the day day he he sailed sailed for for Nicaragua. Nicaragua.44 ent1y Recruitlng Recruiting and the Neutrality Neutrality Laws the capture of One of Walker's first moves after the Granada was to launch an extensive advertising advertising campaign • l 44El Wi1tsee, Gold ^ E l Nicaraguense, Nicaragiiense, August 30, 30, 1856; Wiltsee, 247. Rush Steamers, Steamers, 185; 185; Walker, Walker, War in Nicaragua, 247. 243 to attract colonists and instill American American ideas into NicaNica­ ragua. ragua. Within a week a weekly journal appeared appeared under the't the * J* title El Nicaraguense. Nicaraguense. Published Published in English and Spanish, Spanish, it covered current activities and extolled the virtues virtues of extolled the the country. country. Hundreds of copies were sent to to be be distridistri­ buted in the United States. States. In the American American newspapers numerous numerous advertisements advertisements began began to to appear. appear. Great Great induceinduce­ ments were offered to settlers who wished to colonize. colonize. Each single person person was tempted of 250 250 acres tempted by the offer of of government land, while each family was to to receive receive aa hundred acres additional, additional, not to mention the exemption exemption imported for the use from all duties on personal effects imported of the colonists or the development of the resources of the state.45 5 state. 4 Long advertisements, of which the following is typical, offered additional inducements: inducements: typical, Fine and large haciendas, but now now deserted haciendas, well fenced, fenced, but 8-can value. Public Ucan be bought for one-fourth their value. little, as in any country. country. lands can be bought for as little, The lots on the water in this city, and in fact lake, can now be between the principal plaza and the lake, bought for one twentieth of what will be their value years. And the water 10ts,--real lots,--real in two or three years. lots.--can be and veritable veritable extension water lots--can be had had for a song. And then the mines--said to be as rich as as a song. And then the mines--said to be as rich world--situated in the healthiest healthiest part any in the the world--situated part of the c o u n t r y , — t h e s e are other openings for enterprise t'he country.,.--these. are other 0E.eni~g.s ...fprent.e.J;'prise 45El thru February ^ E l Nicaraguens~, Nicaraguense, October 20, 20, 1855 thru 1856; Alta California, December December 19, 19, 1855. 1855. 16, 1856; 244 and industry. It will not be long before many many steamers produc­ will be puffing on the lakes to this rich and productive country--carrying country--carrying gold dust, dust, coffee, coffee, cotton, coc9, coco sugar, rice, rice, indigo, indigo, tobacco, tobacco, and all the valuable sugar, and rich woods to the seaports for exportation, and luxury. A A bringing back only a few articles of luxury. dollar rolled over and kept in sight in this country-ball--will become monstrous in size in like a snow ba11--wi11 time, you who have money laid up waiting for a short time, an opportunity opportunity to increase your capital by investment, investment, 46 here, and come at once. once.46 bring it here, > With such splendid opportunities spread before their eyes and then being offered free transportation, it it is no wonder that colonists were soon arriving on every steamer. steamer. By March 1856 Minister Wheeler reported to the Secretary Secretary of State that "many capitalists, Merchants, Merchants, Farmers, Mechanics and Laborers arrived in the the last Steamers from New Orleans, New York and California," Orleans, New California," besides many men for the army which had been increased to increased to 47^ 1,300 American rif1es. 1,300 American rifles. had not The The sailing sailing of of so so many many would-be would-be colonists colonists had not taken the federal taken place place without without due due scrutinization scrutinization by by the federal authorities. authorities. Their attention to such activities had had been already attracted by a similar colonization colonization scheme the year before. before. Colonel Henry L. acquired near L. Kinney had acquired 46A1ta A l t a California, 4 6 December December 20, 20, 1855. 1855. ^ W h e e l e r to Marcy, March 17, 17, 1856, 1856, Manning, Manning, 47Whee1er Central America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860. IV, IV, 509. 509. 245 Grey town a grant of land once given to the Shepherd Greytown Shepherd brothers of Georgia and he he planned planned to develop an "agricultural "agricultural settlement" of Americans in that that region. region. i ,* I • For this purpose For he formed a company President Pierce's company in which several of President close associates were financially interested. Kinney had even the President even been been entertained entertained by by the President at at the the White White House House in December December 1854. 1854. President Marcy were were at President Pierce Pierce and and Secretary Secretary Marcy at first first inclined inclined to ignore the company company as a peaceful business enterprise with which which the government could not interfere. interfere. However, persistent persistent protests protests from Great Britain and CenCen­ tral America America soon forced the administration administration to take a public stand. February 7, 7, 1855, 1855, Secretary Secretary Marcy pub­ On February Marcy pub- correspondence with Kinney in the Union. Union. lished some correspondence The contained Kinney's avowal that the proposed expedi­ letters contained proposed expediaccomplished peacefully tion was to be accomplished peacefully and legally, and expedition was merely a peaceful Marcy's reply that if the expedition emigration, the government would would not interfere, but but emigration, the American American government not interfere, expressed a determination determination of the United pre­ he expressed United States to pre- , serve the neutrality neutrality laws of the the nation. nation. In spite of this published advertisements in the newspapers newspapers warning Kinney Kinney published that did not promise a peaceful venture. venture. In March March the directed Marcy's Nicaraguan minister minister directed Marcy's attention to an 246 advertisement to all advertisement which promised promised 640 acres of land to capacity for colonists engaging to serve in a military capacity months. twelve months. ,I~ This seemed to prove that the land was to be taken by force, force, and he asked that the United United States government prevent the "perfidious projects" from being out. carried out. administration was considering considering this While the administration neutrality laws, laws, other complications complications possible breach of the neutrality 48^ expedition. forced a decision against the expedition. 21. the newspapers carried carried the news that On March 21, British agents were recruiting in our principal cities for volunteers to serve in the Crimean War. War. The British minister immediately recruiting was immediately informed informed Marcy that the recruiting unauthorized, but the district attorneys of New New York York and Philadelphia Philadelphia soon reported that enlistment enlistment continued. The situation the Cabinet Cabinet with situation was was investigated investigated and and reported reported to to the with the result result that on March 26 President Pierce ordered ordered such violations prosecuted. violations of of our our neutrality neutrality to to be be legally legally prosecuted. With With such a determined determined stand against the British violation of neutrality, the President was in no position openly openlY': to 48Manning, M a n n i n g , Central America. America, 1851-1860, IV, 404-09, 404-09, 431, 433, 433, 449-50; 449-50; Roy F. F. Nichols, Nichols, Franklin Franklin Pierce: Pierce: 425, 431, Young Hickory of the Granite Hills {Philadelphia: (Philadelphia: UniverUniver­ sity of Pennsylvania Press, 398, cited hereafter Press, 1931), 398, Pierce. as Nichols, Nichols, Franklin Pierce. 48 247 overlook the enforcement of our neutrality laws as they neutrality laws applied to expeditions such as Kinney's. Kinney's. Consequently, I* t » t an investigation led to the indictment of Kinney on the charge of preparing preparing a military expedition against Nicaragua and orders were given for the detention of any vessel he 49^ purpose. might attempt to use for that purpose. As a consequence of the Kinney affair and and British enlistment, the Pierce administration already taken administration had already neutrality laws when an official stand on enforcing the neutrality American protests against Great Britain and Central American against Walker's activities began to pile up in the State Department. This situation was unfortunate for Walker, for otherwise he might situation bombardment of Grey Greytown, have served, as had the bombardment town, as as another means of of twisting twisting the the lion's lion's tail tail in in Central Central America. America. means However, the the repeated repeated protests protests of of the the Central Central American American However, ministers, with their demands demands that that the United States States issue issue ministers, with their the United more stringent stringent orders orders to to prevent prevent Walker Walker from from being joined more being joined by a a new new gang gang of of filibusters, filibusters, induced induced President President Pierce to by Pierce to issue a a proclamation proclamation in in December December 1855 1855 warning warning all all persons persons issue 49Nichols, Docs., ^ N i c h o l s , Franklin Pierce, Pierce, 398; 398; U.S. U.S. Docs., Message on Routes between Atlantic and Pacific, S. Doc. 68, 68, S. Doc. Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 8-9; Manning, Central America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, Ser. IV, 69. 69. For a full treatment of Kinney's activities see IV, Financiers, 93-107. Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, 93-107. 248 against connecting themselves in any way with with any enterconnecting themselves enter­ prises allegedly being prepared prepared for the invasion of the allegedly being State of Nicaragua. Nicaragua. ~t ** He further warned warned that that any who went would thereby cease to be be entitled to the protection entitled to protection of the American American government. During the same week Attorney- dis­ addressed a circular letter to the disGeneral Cushing addressed trict attorneys in the principal ports of the United States instructing them to "exercise "exercise the utmost vigilance in the instructing offi­ detection and prosecution of all acts within their official district in violation cia1 violation of the neutral obligations of the United States," and to detain any vessel fitted out to carry on any such undertaking. undertaking.50 ^ carryon 5 On the the twenty-second twenty-second of December December John McKeon, McKeon, district attorney at New York City, received received information that there would would be be a rendezvous rendezvous that that evening of Nicaraguan recruits who planned planned to sail on the the Transit Company's Company's steamer Northern Northern Light on the the twenty-fourtb. twenty-fourth. Acting under Acting Cushing's instructions he contacted contacted Parker H. H, French, French, appointed minister, and Joseph L. L. White, agent of Walker's appointed insisted that their the Transit Company; however, however, both insisted 50Richardson, Richardson, Messages and Papers of the Presidents, Presidents. VII, 2869-70; U.S. Docs., Message on Routes between Atlantic VII, 2869-70; U.S. Docs., and Pacific, Pacific, S. S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 11. 11. 249 arrangements provided only for the sending of peaceful peaceful colcol­ onists to Nicaragua which was in no way a violation violation of the~ the^ laws. neutrality laws. investigation and the re­ After further investigation re- informed the ceipt of instructions from Washington, McKeon informed Transit Company that the Northern Light would be prevented pibrt. from leaving the pbrt. He explained that he had facts which satisfied him satisfied him that a portion of her passengers were engaged in a hostile expedition against Nicaragua and that she was war. carrying a considerable quantity of munitions of war. Deputy marshals were then sent to take formal possession possession 5l stearner.51 of the steamer. By two two o'clock were be~ween o'clock that afternoon there were between four and five hundred passengers on board the Northern Light pier. and over that number on the pier. A report was rapidly A circulated among the crowd that the steamer would circulated would start law, and somebody somebody said in spite of the officers of the law, that if they interfered, they ought to be thrown overboard. overboard. At this juncture McKeon made his appearance on the gangway commenced exhorting the crowd not to violate the law and commenced duty. by stopping him in the discharge of his duty. A A forward movement was then made toward him, but he maintained maintained his SINew N e w York Herald, Herald. December December 24, 24, 1855. 1855. 5 1 250 position gallantly, and the police, police, having by this time ascertained ascertained that he was the district attorney, formed a . ,• , 52 protective guard guard around him. him.52 Joseph L. L. White then appeared and went went aboard the steamer. steamer. Hardly five minutes elapsed before the Northern Light commenced commenced slowly moving out from the pier. pier. She was encouraged by the cheers from the pier soon in the river encouraged with the deputy marshals still aboard. As she passed Stated revenue Governor's Island; however, however, the United United Stated cutter Washington Washington discharged discharged a cannon across her bow. bow. wheels were were thereupon thereupon stopped, and she was was boarded boarded by The wheels officers from the cutter under whose charge she returned anchored at the wharf. and anchored wharf. Strict orders were given that allowed to leave the steamer until no person person would be be allowed 53 she was searched. searched.53 Joseph L. L. White, White, accompanied accompanied by Captain Tink1epaugh, Tinklepaugh, then called at the the residence of McKeon. McKeon. On entering White said that he had come to apologize for the hasty language , day. he had used to McKeon in the early part of the day. He wrong, said that McKeon McKeon was perfectly perfectly right and that he was wrong, 52New December 25, N e w York Herald, December 25, 1855. 1855. 3 Z 53IIbbid. id. 5 3 251 tickets that there were over one hundred men on board without tickets. authority to put them He then asked if McKeon would lend his authority on shore as they were a desperate set and had had been been breaking in the cabin doors and doing all sorts of mischief. At this point several officers of the Transit Company Company entered with a view, as they said, to express to McKeon their entire ignorance of this proceeding and their willingness willingness to have have any objectionable persons put ashore. a s h o r e .54 ^ 4 Two had been Two days days later later those those without without tickets tickets had been removed removed from from the the steamer. steamer. The The cargo cargo was was searched, searched, but but when when the to be be saddles the supposed supposed cannons cannons and and rifles rifles turned turned out out to saddles and ploughshares, the and ploughshares, the Northern Northern Light Light sailed sailed for for Nicaragua. Nicaragua. On January 18, 18, 1856, 1856, the captain and engineer, along with Joseph L. with an L. White, White, were indicted for interfering interfering with officer in the discharge of his duty. duty. later. place several months later. Their trial trial took The case against the engineer was dropped because of a flaw in the indictment, and White 55^ acquitted. and Tinklepaugh were acquitted. Following this initial public demonstration demonstration showing that the neutrality laws were going to be enforced, the 54New N e w York York Herald, Herald, December December 25, 25, 1855. 1855. 5 4 55New May 9, N e w York Herald, December 26, 26, 27, 27, 1855, 1855, May 9, 13, 1856. 1856. 5 5 252 searched prior to their departure; departure; steamers were frequently searched however, the Transit Company to see see that, that,!* Company was very careful to all of their passengers, passengers, including those being sent under the the agreement agreement with with Walker, Walker, were were in in possession possession of of tickets tickets and and displayed displayed no no arms. arms. On On January January 9, 9, the the United United States States marshal's West and marshal's deputies deputies boarded boarded the the Star Star of of the the West and arrested arrested five men allegedly going to Walker, yet 125 were were permitted to go on their passage on the representation the offirepresentation of the offi­ employed by the cers of the vessel that they were laborers employed completion of their wharf Transit Company for the completion wharf at Virgin Bay. Bay. Individuals were never arrested unless positive obtained against them. them. evidence had been obtained As the greater majority of the passengers were actually bound bound for CaliCali­ fornia or were leaving with the legitimate intent of of being colonists, and as there was no way of distinguishing distinguishing be­ colonists, be- tween them and the filibusters, enough to filibusters, it was simple enough send recruits to Walker in spite of the neutrality neutrality laws. laws. It was reported that even pfter the Northern after the search of the Light, eighty recruits were still carried to Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Under these conditions Secretary Marcy could could answer the British and Central American American protests by insisting insisting that the neutrality laws were being enforced best ability enforced to the best States, while in reality very few recruits of the United States, 253 were ever denied passage to Nicaragua. Nicaragua. The newspapers and correspondence from Central America continued to continued to (j +.. • report the arrival of recruits and arms for Walker on almost every steamer. steamer. 56 That the enforcement of the neutrality neutrality laws along the Atlantic seaboard the record seaboard was more for the sake of the than for prohibiting eviprohibiting the sailing of recruits was also evi­ denced the Pacific denced by by the the application application of of these these laws laws on on the Pacific coast. coast. Although the district attorney at San Francisco, Although Francisco, S. S. W. W. lnge, Inge, received the same instructions as McKeon, he interpreted interpreted them them far far differently. differently. As as April As late late as April 1856 1856 he he reported reported that that in in the the latter latter part part of of 1855 1855 and and in in the the beginning persons had themselves of beginning of of 1856 1856 many many persons had availed availed themselves of the of Walker. the steamers steamers from from San San Francisco Francisco to to go go tp tp the the aid aid of Walker. He stated that no effort was made to arrest their their departure as apparently not in apparently their purposes and objects were not neutrality laws. laws. violation of the neutrality He said that Walker had been invited to Nicaragua to aid the Republican party against the Aristocratic party of that state in a domestic revolution, that he had accepted the invitation, and with accompany him proceeded proceeded from an American American the men chosen to accompany 56New l85~.· New York Herald, January 10, 10, Febt;uary February 1.4:, 14, 1856. 254 port to the theater of operations in a foreign country. country. enlistment or organization organization within He said there was no enlistment t j * • ,. American fall, "in the American territory and such a case did not fall, opinion of the United United States attorney, within the prohibiprohibi­ tions of the act of 1818, 1818, and hence no effort was made to prevent the departure of the men raised by Walker Walker for this purpose, 1157 purpose, or of those subsequently subsequently raised to support him'. him."57 interpretation of the laws was clearly clearly a While such an interpretation misrepresentation of the actual circumstances in San misrepresentation administration did not feel Francisco, evidently the administration that the activities in California would create any political or international complications, for no effort there. was apparently made to enforce the laws there. President Walker Becomes President When Walker arrived in Leon on June 4, 4, 1856, 1856, from his campaign was received received by campaign against the Costa Ricans, Ricans, he was the people as their deliverer. deliverer. A was prepared A great feast was 57 U.S. Docs., Docs., -> Inge to Cushing, April 1, 1, 1856, 1856, U.S. Message on Routes between Atlantic and Pacific, S. Doc. 68, 68, S. Doc. Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 18. 18. 7 255 in his honor honor and men and women of every age and rank rank came protecting their homes. homes. to thank him him for protecting but* It had had been but'f sailed from one year and one month to the day since he had sailed American San Francisco with dreams of creating a Central American empire. empire. His successes to that point gave him assur­ him every assur- progressing toward its ful­ ance that events were rapidly progressing fulfillment. fillment. By the arrangement with Morgan and Garrison, he was assured that recruits would continue to arrive arrive on on the steamers, the Costa Costa Ricans steamers, while the ignominous retreat of the had catapulted catapulted him into the status of a national hero. hero. His popularity, however, aroused the jealous jealous anxieties of the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan leaders then contesting for election election to the Presidency. Presidency. Whi1~ While Walker had been leading the struggle in the south, region around south, an election was held in the northern region Leon. Leon. As the returns were very incomplete and did not Granada, the election was concon­ include the area south of Granada, tested as being invalid. The old rivalry between between the Granadans, temporarily temporarily subdued by the truce Leonese and Granadans, imposed by Walker, Walker, now reared its ugly head. imposed As all three committed to the northern center as the candidates were committed capital, the Granadans now called called for a new Nicaraguan capital, candidate. election with Walker as a candidate. The candidates were 256 nevertheless now now opposed to to a new election, for they feared the the mantel mantel would most likely fallon fall on Walker. Walker. Unde~~ Under? these circumstances, Walker Walker exerted his influence as exerted his commander-in-chief commander-in-chief and induced President Rivas to sign a decree ordering a new new election. but only as a stall for time. time. President Rivas yielded, President yielded, As soon as Walker left Leon As with his Rangers for Granada, a rumor was spread that the other.leading President and other. leading Democrats were to be arrested intended to move the capital back to Granada. Granada. and that Walker intended Soon the streets were filled with Leonese shouting, UDeath "Death to the Americans," and the President and his Cabinet fled communication to the to Chinandega from whence they sent a communication governments of San Salvador and Guatemala asking their 58 invaders.58 aid in expelling the invaders. Walker responded news of the revolution revolution by responded to the news appointing Fermin Ferrer Provisional President President and dec1ardeclar­ ing all those those associated with Rivas as traitors to to the associated with republic. republic. A new election was shortly held in which Walker A accredited with an overwhelming overwhelming majority ballots. was accredited majority of the ballots. obviously incredible, as no Although these figures were obviously populated areas in and ballots were cast in the heavily populated 58Montuf~r,· 472-180; 5 % o n t u f a r , Walker en Centro-America, Centro-America« 472-^80; Walker, War in Nicaragua, Nicaragua, 210-24. 210-24. 257 Leon, on July 12 Walker was inaugurated inaugurated as President around Leon, of Nicaragua. Nicaragua. powar As a capstone to his phenomenal rise to pow~r, just five days later Minister John H. H. Wheeler notified notified him authorized the that the President of the United States had authorized recognition Nicaragua. recognition of the existing government in Nicaragua. July 19 was was selected selected as the day for Wheeler's formal reception by the new President and no pains were spared to to make make the ceremonies impressive. A company of A band of music and a company soldiers soldiers escorted escorted Wheeler Wheeler to to the the executive executive headquarters headquarters where where he he delivered delivered a a platitudinous platitudinous oration oration following following his his official official reception. reception. ceeded ceeded his his authority. authority. In had gravely gravely exIn this, this, however, however, he he had ex­ Although had in*in~ Although Secretary Secretary Marcy Marcy had structed structed him to establish diplomatic relations with the NicaNica raguan government, these instructions were issued issued before Walker had assumed the presidency presidency under elections of a most questionable nature. nature. Consequently, when Appleton Appleton Oaksmith, Oaksmith, the newly designated Nicaragua, presented presented his designated minister from Nicaragua, declined to receive credentials in August, the President declined him. him. presumptive Marcy was sorely vexed at Wheeler's presumptive action and on September September 27 ordered him home. h o m e .59 5 9 59El NicaragUense, June 21, La Campana E 1 Nicaraguense, 21, 1856; 1856; Calvo, La Campana Nacional, 41; Manning, Central America, 1851-1860, IV, Nacional, 41; 1851-1860, IV, 544, 566, 566, 85-88; 85-88; El Nicaraguense, 19, 26, 540, 544, NicaragUense, July 19, 26, 1856; 167. Wheeler, "Nicaragua," 167. 5 9 I 258 Before such news reached Walker, he was confronted confronted by a much more serious threat to his administration. In.! In * * the meantime, a meantime, he proceeded proceeded with his plans for creating a Central American empire. empire. Although most of his his faithful followers in Nicaragua and his supporters in the United States thought that they were working to bring about the annexation of Nicaragua to the United States, Walker was States, Walker driven by far greater asp~rations. aspirations. While his real plans adversely were not publicly publicly revealed, for fear they might adversely American colonists, colonists, there is little effect the arrival of American five CenCen­ doubt that Walker dreamed of creating out of the fiv.e American ~epublics republics a strong federated state organized tral American and governed on military principles with himself playing the role of dictator. dictator. After achieving this status, status, there is evidence that he aimed to extend his tropical domain over Cuba and perhaps perhaps even Mexico. Mexico. The capstone of his his system would be be the the completion completion of an interoceanic canal which would secure to his empire the advantages of aa Western Constantinople. But in order to bring all of this this about, about, it was first necessary to extend control over the isthmus by introducing an American American population population and securing securing to it the control of the land. To this end he issued issued a series of words, "were intended intended to place a decrees which, in his own words, 259 259 large proportion of the land of the country in the hands of the white race. race. The military force of the State might,~~ might,*.* for a time, time, secure the Americans in the government government of the republic, but in order that their possession possession of government might be permanent, it was requisite for them to hold the rr60 land. land." 60 At the heart of this plan were decrees which which concon­ fiscated fiscated the the estates estates of of all all those those who who had had assisted assisted the the known known enemies enemies of of the the republic. republic. These estates were These large large estates were then United States then attractively attractively advertised advertised for for sale sale in in the the United States at at prices prices far far below below their their market market value. value. In this way way Walker In this Walker dangled Nicaraguan land dangled rich rich Nicaraguan land as as bait bait to to lure lure American American colonists to Nicaragua and the defense of his government. government. But the mere mere offer of cheap lands could not achieve the desired result. result. It was inconceivable that American American landland­ holders would consider tilling their own soil in a tropical country, so the lands would be worthless unless they could 60Walker, This conclusion lker, War in Nicaragua, 252-54. 252-54. This is fairly evident after a study of Walker's career in NicaNica­ ragua. ragua. It is offered by C. C. W. W. Doubleday, who was one of officers, and is well supported supported by William Walker's closest officers, 0. Scroggs who has written written the most definitive work on O. career. See Doubleday, Reminiscences of the War Walker's career. 166-67; Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, Financiers, in Nicaragua, 166-67; 205-29. 260 secure an adequate labor supply. Walker had evidently given thought to to this this problem problem but had had not been able to hot been bring himself to to adopt the most most obvious solution. While While the introduction of slavery was the the most most logical answer, answer, since his his journalistic journalistic days in New Orleans, Walker had Orleans, Walker taken a conservative position position against its expansion and had written written in favor of its gradual elimination by law elimination by measures. and economic measures. appears, from the indirect It appears, and hesitant way he approached the problem, that his ultimate decision was made against his conscience, under 61^ position. the strain of the allied threat to his position. While Walker Walker was was in the throes throes of determining determining his next move, move, he he came under the the influence of a southerner southerner who had had no no doubts concerning the slavery concerning the slavery question or the proper course to follow. follow. Since his fallout with with the Pierce administration administration over the "Ostend "Ostend Manifesto," Pietre Pierre Soule had had become one one of Walker's most most active supporters States. in the States. Turning his eyes from Cuba to Central advocating its annexation to America, he was now avidly advocating Union. the Union. In hopes of furthering this object, he had 61E1 Nicaraguense, July July 19, E 1 Nicaragiiense, 19, September September ?7, 27, 1856; Albert Z. Z. Carr, World and William Walker (New Carr, The World William Walker (flew York: York: 200-02, cited hereafter as Carr, Carr, & Row, 1963), 200-02, Harper & William Walker. Walker. William 6 1 I •'" 261 spoken to large crowds of Walker sympathizers New Orleans, sympathizers in New Orleans, 20, 1856, 1856, arrived in Nicaragua to talk with'~ with*.* and on August 20, Walker. Walker. From the results of his visit, visit, it appears that From his object was to induce Walker to negotiate for a loan of $500,000 secured by one million acres of public lands. lands. As the wealthy wealthy men of the South would most likely hesitate to invest their money in tropical lands without some assurassur­ ance that an adequate labor force would be available to to cultivate them, Soule evidently convinced Wal~er that he Walter that would have to pay for Southern support by the introduction introduction of some form of slavery. slavery. For after Soule departed with the departed with loan safely negotiated, Walker proceeded proceeded to issue a series 62 of decrees designed to accomplish accomplish this end. end.62 By a decree of September persons adjudged September 5 all persons guilty of vagrancy were to be sentenced sentenced to forced labor on works. public works. declared that all On the next day a decree declared contracts made for labor were binding and any failure on him liable to a sensen­ the part of the laborer would render him labor. tence of forced labor. The ultimate result of these laws 62J. 62j. Preston Moore, Moore, "Pierre Soule: Soule: Southern ExEx­ History. pansionist and Promoter," Journal of Southern History, XXI, No.2 No. 2 (May, (May, 1955), 208-17; 208-17; New Orleans Picayune, Picayune, XXI, 29, 1856; 1856; Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, 210; April 29, 210; Carr, William William Walker, 199-202. 199-202. Carr, 262 would be to place a portion of the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan Indians under a system of peonage. peonage. Then on September 22, 22, 1856, 1856, Walker I~ »/ made the ultimate decision and nullified the Act of 1824 which had had abolished slavery in Central America. While this this decree decree did did not not actually actually legalize legalize slavery slavery in in Nicaragua, Nicaragua, it was definitely aimed to do do so. aimed: at preparing the way to so. Had Walker been able to repulse suc~essfully the allied successfully the army that was at that very moment preparing to march preparing to against him, the question of slavery would have undoubtedly would have emerged as a severe complication to the efforts of the State Department to settle the Central American American question with Department Great Britain. was, Walker was never allowed allowed to As it was, problem of slavery and it never became a vital pursue the problem issue. issue. American republics viewed Although the Central American slavery as a question of future concern, their attention problem of preventing preventing the was focused on the immediate problem Americanization Americanization of the isthmus. isthmus. Until the Americans Americans were successful in obtaining control of the land, slavery success£ul remain~d merely.a' remained merely a: distant threattb threat to their culture.~3 culture.63 J. In the same respect, notwithstanding notwithstanding the activities of a few extreme southern expansionists such as Soule, Soule, both 63Manning, IV, 573-74; 573-74; M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, IV, Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, Financiers, 210-11. 210-11. DJ 263 northern and southern political interest in Walker Walker was primarily concerned concerned with his attempts to Americanize Americanize the ^ primarily I.· isthmus. isthmus. The question of slavery, although it was being heatedly debated in the Kansas-Nebraska question, was not America even discussed in the Senate debates over Central America and Walker. Walker. While southern slave-owners would would undoubtedly have favored Walker's proposals had he been in peaceful possession of the country, few were willing to risk risk their money money and and reputation reputation upon upon the the efforts efforts of of a a few few hundred hundred filibusters attempting attempting to hold a country against the opposition opposition of of five five united united republics. republics. There There is is little little indiindi­ cation cation that that Walker Walker ever ever received received more more than than token token support support from any influential southerners. southerners. Those who came came to to Nicaragua did so primarily primarily for two reasons. reasons. Either they Either were outright adventurers looking for a good fight and spoil, spoil, or they were discontented discontented intellectuals, mechanics, mechanics, farmers, and what have you, you, who hoped they could improve farmers, could improve cause. their circumstances by joining joining Walker's cause. Many Many came without any idea that they would be asked to fight and were influenced by the numerous inducements glowingly solely influenced described in Walker's advertisements. advertisements. described Most of these, how­ these, how- ever, retreated at the first opportunity. ever, After Walker had alienated Vanderbilt, Morgan and Garrison and their associates associates l , 264 were the only men men of influence who materially materially contributed contributed to Walker's Walker's support. In putting putting into into effect their plan ,J •.. to gain control of the the transit route, route, they they had placed placed Vanderbilt and the the Nicaraguans Nicaraguans in hostile opposition to to their future. future. cause, the Nicaragua route Thus wed wed to Walker's cause, star. was hitched hitched to a falling star. Vanderbilt's Revenge and the Closing of the Route While Walker was was busy issuing issuing decrees, decrees, completing completing contracts to insure a continual supply of recruits, recruits, and creating a Central American American empire, forces dreaming of creating gathering on the isthmus which were soon to end these were gathering dreams for all time. time. The movement movement began prior to Costa filibusters. Rica's declaration of war against the filibusters. To­ To- ward the end of December December 1855, 1855, the Costa Rican government government wrote to the republics of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras ^asking ~sKing them them to join in an alliance to expel the foreign invaders from Central America. time, At the time, declared her neutrality Honduras had declared neutrality and El Salvador was engrossed with elections, elections, but Guatemala responded responded with a engrossed proposal that commissioners commissioners from the four countries meet 265 in Guatemala to draw up a formal alliance. alliance. At the same time she declared that she would join join Costa Rica in the defens~! defense/ of the the national integrity integrity of Central America. It was with assembled the Costa these assurances that President President Mora assembled Dr. Nazario Toledo, Toledo, Rican forces to attack Walker and named Dr. Guatemalan resident of Costa Rica, Rica, as "Min"Min­ a respectable Guatemalan republics. ister Plenipotentiary" to the three northern republics. Dr. Toledo left on February February 29 to utilize his influence Dr. toward bringing speedy alliance with with these counbringing about a speedy t r i e s .64 tries. 6 4 While Costa Rica Rica was taking taking these actions, actions, President Estrada, who had had fled Granada on the very day that Walker entered, was was organizing the the Legitimist Legitimist government government in the department his influence in the department of Segovia and exerting his northern republics to encourage an attack on Walker. Walker. The 65 combined efforts was soon manifest. manifest.^5 result of these combined When President Rivas made his break with Walker and called for aid from the north, north, forces for this purpose had motion. already been set in motion. On the very day of Walker's 64obreg6n, 0 b r e g 6 n , La Campana del Transito, 78-80; 78-80; Calvo. Calvo. Campana Nacional, La Campana Nacional, 21. 21. 64 65Marcoleta 7, 1856, Docs., M a r c o l e t a to Marcy, January 7, 1856, U.S. U.S. Docs., S. Doc. Doc. 68, Message on Routes between Atlantic and Pacific, S. 68, Ser. no. 822, 67. Ser. no. 822, 67. 65 266 inaugural, General Ramon Be110so Belloso entered Leon with eight inaugural, El Salvador. Salvador. hundred troops from E1 Guate* Six days later the Guat~~ malan General, General, Mariano Paredes, Paredes, joined him with a force ma1an joined him of five hundred. Honduras now declared that as Nicaragua implored her aid, referring to the call of President had implored Rivas, she would make its cause her own and on July 20, 20, frontier. six hundred Hondurans began their march to the frontier. Two days previous the representative of Honduras had joined El Salvador in a treaty of alliance for the Guatemala and E1 sovereignty and independence. defense of their sovereignty Rivas was recognized as Provisional President of Nicaragua and promised aid in in troops troops to to suppress suppress the the internal internal dissensions dissensions in in his his aid country. country. The motivating motivating factor factor behind behind this this alliance was The alliance was the common common desire desire to prevent the the filibusters filibusters from from AmericanAmerican­ the to prevent izing the the isthmus. isthmus. izing It did did not not matter matter whether whether they they came came It from the the North, North, South, South, or or West; West; the the Central Gentral Americans Americans wanted wanted from to stay stay out out from from under under the the wing wing of of the the great great American American eagle.^' to eag1e. 66 Although thus joined joined in a common cause, the tradi­ tradicause, the tional jealousies that had kept the isthmus in periodic tiona1 I I turmoil since the declaration of independence now appeared 66Gamez, ^ G a m e z , Historia de Nicaragua, 542; 542; Calvo, Calvo, La Nacional, 42; 42; Obreg6n, Obregon, La Campana del Trans Transito, Campana Naciona1, ito, Boletin Oficial, August 227-28; Republica de Nicaragua Bo1et!nOficial, August 21, 21, 1856. 1856. 267 with such force that they almost defeated the cause. cause. When Leon, the presence of so the allied forces gathered at Le~n, , . ,* ... I many troops of different nationalities demanded demanded that somesome­ one take supreme command. to make the selection. fell upon President President Rivas It cell Salvadorian When he named the Salvadorian Ramo'n Be110so, Belloso, the Guatemalans were deeply angered chief, Ramon been given the as they felt General Paredes should have b~en honor. honor. con­ So much ill feeling resulted that there were con- stant street brawls between the three nationalities, and it finally became necessary necessary to confine the men of each command command quarters. to separate quarters. The jealousy jealousy among the chiefs was so intense that they were unable to reach an agreement on the joining joining of forces in an attack against Walker for three months. months. Each one refused to submit to the authority of others. the others. disunited action This discord led to such disunited that although they were far superior in numbers, Walker attacks. was able repeatedly to ward off their attacks. It propro­ campaign into months of death and sickness longed a simple campatgn 67 and almost cost the allies the war. 67 l and almost cost the allies the war. As the allies moved to join forces, outside of CenAs the allies moved to join forces, outside of Cen­ tra1 America Walker's proclamations and his recognition by tral America Walker's proclamations and his recognition by 67 ' , ~ ^ MMontufar, o n t u f a r , Walker en Centro-America, 518; 518; Obregon, Obregon, La Campana del Transito, Transito, 228-29. 228-29. I 268 Wheeler created created a great deal of suspicion and alarm. alarm. America the feeling was intense. intense. Throughout Latin America Chile I' and Peru Peru celebrated celebrated a treaty of alliance which stipulated stipulated a contribution of men and provisions. provisions. Spain and France France announced the sending of sloops-of-war to to watch the shores of of Central Central America. America. Early August an Early in in August an English English squadron squadron consisting war, mounting consisting of of thirteen thirteen ships ships of of war, mounting 268 268 guns, guns, and manned by by 2,500 and manned 2,500 men men arrived arrived in in the the harbor harbor of of San San Juan Juan del Norte Norte to oppose the the blockade blockade of the the Central American American 68 waters decreed by by Walker. Walker.^8 With such manifestations manifestations of moral moral support, the allies finally began their their advance on September September 18, 18, 1856, 1856, to Granada. attack Walker at Granada. As Walker prepared prepared to defend the city, news from Costa Rica forced him to change his plans. pians. While the allies were gathering their forces at , Leon, the Costa Ricans were still recovering from the plague of cholera that had wrought such devastation devastation throughout the country. improving However, by August August conditions condit~ons were improving rapidly, and on November November 1 President Mora issued a decree proclaiming renewing the war against the filibusters and proclaiming 68Gamez, Nicaragua, 547; °°Gamez, Historia de Nicaragua, 547; Wheeler Wheeler to 10, 1856, 1856, Manning, Central America;,: America;, 1851-1860, Marcy, August Augus t 10, IV, 563; 563; El Nicaraguense', Nicaraguense', August 9, 1856. 1856. IV, 269 a blockade of the San Juan River. River. On the next day General General Canas set out with an advance guard to occupy the transit,~ transit,/ road. road. As the invasion of Costa Rica threatened threatened to cut off Walker's Walker's communications communications with with the the United United States, States, he he was was forced forced to to provide provide for for occupation occupation of of the the transit. transit. Deciding Deciding that his. war on on two his. forces were too small to sustain a war fronts, fronts, he determined determined to establish himself at Rivas. Rivas. Before evacuating deevacuating Granada, he provided for its destruction to de­ prive the allies of its position and accommodations. General Henningsen was delegated delegated for the task and was left with about three hundred men to carry out the plan while Walker withwith­ Bay. drew his remaining two companies to Virgin Bay. As soon as the allies learned of Walker's departure, departure, they simultaneously three quarters. simultaneously attacked attacked the city from three quarters. Henningsen, meanwhile, set fire to the buildings buildings in the plaza and captured the Guadalupe Church by storm. began nineteen days of horror and nightmare. Then Nearly four Nearly hundred men, women, and children--wounded, sick, and healthy--were crowded together. together. A A horrible stench drifted in from the putrefying bodies lying in the streets. streets. The unsanitary unsanitary conditions were beyond description and soon they were w~re reduced reduced to a diet of horse and mule meat meat together with a small allowance of flour and coffee. coffee. The allies made 270 continued were able to to continued attacks, attacks, but each time the Americans were off. stave them off. t + While Henningsen was trying to fight his way out of Granada, three hundred recruits arrived arrived from New Orleans and California. California. fight. fight. They were still fresh and anxious for a Walker immediately immediately organized organized a force of 160 under Colonel John Waters and on the night of December December 12 landed them he had had disemthem at at the the same same point point above above Granada Granada where where he disem­ barked just fourteen barked just fourteen months months before. before. During the night During the night they the allies they successfully successfully stormed stormed the the barricades barricades of of the allies and joined Henningsen, a loss and joined Henningsen, not, not, however, however, without without a loss of of over over a a fourth fourth of of their their force. force. Their Their determined determined attack attack convinced by the convinced the enemy that they were being assaulted assaulted by entire force at Walker's W a l k e r s command. command. f They, They> therefore, therefore, withwith­ drew from their position between the church and and the the pier. pier. Under these conditions preparations were made to to embark embark the survivors of the seige on the Virgin. Virgin. By two o'clock o'clock of the morning of December 14 all were aboard the steamer. steamer. Before leaving Henningsen stuck up a lance among the ruins bearing the words "Aqu! "Aqui fue Gran!da." Granfida. 11 The steamer then proceeded ashore. proceeded to San Jorge and everyone was soon ashore. The burning of Granada had cost Walker over half of the the force left to accomplish accomplish the task. task. -. The overwhelming overwhelming force of 271 the allies was slowly showing its effect. effect. With all of his forces now together, Walker moved,~ movedj* into the the city of Rivas on December December 16. 16. He met met no no opposiopposi­ tion as the Costa Rican and Nicaraguan Nicaraguan forces, forces, after learning of Henningsen's relief, relief, had marched marched to join forces with the allies at Masaya. Fortifications Fortifications were immediately thrown up and preparations made to defend the immediately transit. transit. operations. The city was well adapted for defensive operations. To the east lay the village of San Jorge on the shore of Lake Nicaragua, and to the south lay the transit road to fan, which three diverging trails led from Rivas like a fan, giving Walker control over the road. road. With a total force prepared to hold off the allies until of 919 troops, troops, he prepared 69 relief.69 the steamers could bring recruits for his relief. 69Gamez ""Ga'mez says says that that it it seems seems incredible incredible that that 3,000 3,000 men of Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua were Honduras, and Nicaragua not not able able to to stop stop the the burning burning of of Granada. Granada. He He attributed attributed the cause to to the the odious jealousy jealousy among the allied generals, generals, Historia de Nicaragua, Nicaragua, 559. 559. For the the period period from the time the allies began began their For attack to to Henningsen's Henningsen's relief relief at Granada and the filibusfilibus­ ter's occupation occupation of Rivas see: see: Comision Comision de Investigacion, Investigacion, Proclamas y Mensajes, Mensajes, 22-30; 22-30; Gamez, Ga'mez, HistoriadeNicaragua, Historia de Nicaragua, Obregon, La Campana del Transito, 244-47; 244-47; Calvo, Calvo, 554-59; Obregdn, 44-51; Montt1far, Montufar, Walker en CentroLa Campana Nacional, Nacional, 44-51; 614-720; Bolanos, Bolanos, Centenario de la Guerra, 54-83; America, 614-720; 54-83; 281-341, 370; 370; James Carson Walker, War in Nicaragua, 281-341, or, Reminiscences of an Jamison, With Walker in Nicaragua; or, Officer of the American American Phalanx (Columbia, Missouri: Missouri: W. W. W. W. Officer Chap. 9, cited cited hereafter Publishing Co., Co., 1909), Chap. Stephens Publishing 272 Walker's plan plan was was well well laid and would most likely would most have led to to the defeat of the bickering bickering allies if they had been been his only antagonist. I~ However, unknown unknown to Walker, However, Walker, Vanderbilt was was still actively seeking his downfall. downfall. For many months he he had been been in correspondence with the Central American urging them them to unite against American republics republics urging to unite against the the filifili­ busters. busters. As soon had all he moved As soon as as they they had all taken taken the the field, field, he moved to put put into execution his his grand plan plan to to eliminate Walker and Nicaragua at and Morgan Morgan and and Garrison Garrison from from Nicaragua at the the same same time. time. The scheme was simple, yet foolproof if carried carried out effeceffec­ tively. tively. An agent, W. W. R. R. C. An C. Webster, was to go to Costa Rica and offer President Mora $50,000 in cash and a loan of one million dollars if he would agree to two proposals for carrying on the war. war. The first was to change the death, which had been. been political doctrine of a war to the death, proclaimed against the filibusters, filibusters, by issuing a proclamaproclama­ proclaimed tion offering to to pay the passage to to the United States of all those who would would desert Walker--this to be done with the money offered by Vanderbilt. The second was to accept the services of Sylvanus M. Spencer in directing the capture Jamison, With Walker in Nicaragua; Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters Filibusters Chap. XVII; and Financiers, Financiers, Chap. XVII; Official Reports of General Waters, New Orleans Picayune, JanuJanu­ Henningsen and Colonel Waters, 17, 1857. 1857. ary 17, as. a~ 273 of the steamers on the San Juan River and Lake Lake Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Spencer had served as an engineer on one of the river ( I~ * steamers and knew all of the crews and methods of operation. operation. If this plan could be accomplished, Walker would would be cut off arms, and Morgan and GarriGarri­ from his supply of recruits and arms, business. son would be out of business. pre­ The way would then be pre- Vanderbilt to negotiate a new contract contract with the pared for Vander~ilt R i c a .70 ^ grateful republics of Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Supplied Supplied with money and instructions, Webster and ., Spencer arrived in San Jose in late November November 1856. 1856. PresiPresi­ dent Mora listened attentively to Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt s proposition; proposition; f and although his pride revolted revolted a little at placing placing the management of affairs in the hands of an American, he accepted the proposal. proposal. On December of some December 3 a division division of 70Gamez, 630-31; Ga'mez, Historia de Nicaragua, 561, 561, 630-31; Wallenstein Wallenstein to Her Majesty's Secretary of State, December December 1856, FO 21 (Costa Rica), Reel 2, 2, Vol. Vol. 4; 31, 1856, 4; New York 19, 28, 28, 29, 29, 1857. 1857. Times, January 19, Rafael Obreg6n Obregon Loria has written his whole book to support the thesis that all of the historians have totally exaggerated exaggerated the intervention of Vanderbilt Vanderbilt in Rica. He maintains that the idea of taking the Costa Rica. steamers was in the mind of President Mora from the first war. This is undoubtedly true, true, for an effort had of the war. been made to gain control of the river during the first develops, but it is highly' highly invasion, as Obregon fully develops, would have been questionable whether the Costa Ricans would successful without Spencer and Vanderbilt's money money to pay States, La Campana the passage of deserters to the States, Campana del Transito, 243. 243. Transito, 70 274 Jose for the San Juan River, two hundred men left San Jose River, and on the tenth a proclamation offering free passage to deserteri deserters 7l^ was published. published. Under Spencer's direction the plan to gain gain control of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua was swiftly and effectively carried out. out. effectively By floating down the San Carlos River on rafts, rafts, his force managed to take Walker's garrison by complete surprise on December 22 at Hipp's Point, located Greytown. thirty-five miles above Grey town. A detachment detachment was then A proceeded down left to control the point and the rest proceeded Greytown. the river to Grey town. They arrived about two o'clock o'clock in the morning and took possession of the four steamers at Point Arenas while the the crews crews were were still still sleeping. sleeping. Point Arenas while The agent, Joseph N. N. Scott, was notified notified of the seizure. seizure. Spencer and Colonel Fernandez then went aboard Qrion and Spencer notified notified Captain Her Majesty's ship Orion Erskine that they had seized the Transit Company's property under the authority of Vanderbilt. informed him Erskine informed would not allow that he would not interfere but that he would any act of violence toward any person or property shore. property on shore. 7lStatement ^ S t a t e m e n t of Mr. Mr. Webster, New York Times, Times, January 29, Nicaragua, 561; 29, 1857; 1857; Gamez, Gamez, Historia de Nicaragua, 561; Proclamation of President Mora, Mora, dated December December 10, 10, 1856, San Francisco Bulletin, January 30, 30, 1857. 1857. 275 After they retired he sent a force of two armed armed boats to Arenas. preserve life at Point Arenas. Wood returned Captain Wood ~, later and informed him that the transfer had taken place 72 peacefully.72 peacefully.' The next day Spencer and the Costa Rican troops The next day Spencer and the Costa Rican troops proceeded up the river on the captured steamers operated proceeded up the river on the captured steamers operated by their normal crews. Spencer had brought $10,000 to by their normal crews. Spencer had brought $10,000 to purchase their services and most of them accepted, not purchase their services and most of them accepted, not seeing how they could otherwise remain employed. At the seeing how they could otherwise remain employed. At the San Carlos River one of the steamers was dispatched to San Carlos River one of the steamers was dispatched to pick up General Jose Joaquln Mora, brother of the President, pick up General Jose Joaquin Mora, brother of the President, and a force of eight hundred troops who had followed Spencer and a force of eight hundred troops who had followed Spencer to the point of embarkation on the river. With his force to the point of embarkation on the river. With his force thus augumented, Spencer had little trouble in taking the thus augumented, Spencer had little trouble in taking the river steamers Scott and Ogden and the lake steamers river steamers Scott and Ogden and the lake steamers Virgin and San Carlos. He merely pulled alongside with his Virgin and San Carlos. He merely pulled alongside with his forces hidden. As the captains recognized the regular forces hidden. As the captains recognized the regular crew on Spencer's steamer, they never had the least suspicion crew on Spencer's steamer, they never had the least suspicion that anything was wrong until the Costa Rican troops stepped that anything was wrong until the Costa Rican troops stepped on board and took over. In the same manner Fort San Carlos on board and took over. In the same manner Fort San Carlos 72Statement Times, January 72statement of Mr. Mr. Webster, New York Times, 29, 29, 1857; 1857; Statement of Captain John E. E. Erskine, December December 23, 23, 1856, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 15, 15, Vol. Vol. 41. 41. l 276 at the mouth of Lake Nicaragua Nicaragua was taken without a shot 73 being fired. fired.^3 I." With the the river river arid under his control, and lake safely under control, Spencer departed down the the river river on January 2, departed down 2, 1857, 1857, with the passengers from who had been aboard the passengers from California California who had been aboard the the San Carlos. Carlos. As they were landing on the fifth, the ocean fifth, the steamer with 250 recruits for steamer Texas Texas pulled pulled into into the the harbor harbor with 250 recruits for Walker. Walker. An was made by the An effort effort was made by the filibusters filibusters to to retake retake the but when they were the river river steamer; steamer; but when they were notified notified by by the the British that he he would British commander commander that would not not allow allow any any violence, violence, the steamer was allowed to return up the river unmolested. unmolested. Thus Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt's plan plan was executed perfectly. executed perfectly. The Costa Ricans controlled the river river and lake, was shut off from controlled the lake, Walker was communication from the Atlantic, and the transit was any communication 74^ closed to Morgan steamers. closed Morgan and Garrison's line of steamers. 73Letter of Colonel Rudler, New New Orleans Picayune, ^ L e t t e r of Picayune. January 16, New York 16, 1857; 1857; Statement Statement of Captain Kruger, New Herald, January 26, 26, 1857; 1857; Statement of one of the members members force, ibid., January 29, 1857. 1857. of Spencer's force, January 29, 4John E. 77^John E. Erskine to the Secretary Secretary of the Admiralty, Admiralty, 15, Vol. Vol. 41; 41; Letter 5, 1857, 1857, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 15, January 5, of Colonel Rudler, Rudler, one of the passengers aboard the San Carlos, New Orleans Picayune, Picayune, January 16, 16, 1857; 1857; Stat~nt Statement Carlos, E. Bradley, New York 1857. of Major M. E. Yor~ Herald, January 25, 25, 1857. There are numerous accounts of the Costa Rican seizure of the steamers and river, river, see: see: Alta California, California, 31, 1857; 1857; John Erskine to the Secretary of the January 31, December 30, 30, 1856, 1856, plus several other letters, letters, Admiralty, December 277 plan, however, however, had not been put into effect The plan, commander at Port San Juan~~ Juan*/ without the aid of the British commander Notwithstanding Notwithstanding the British protests and their opposition W a l k e r s activities, activities, which they strongly suspected to Walker's suspected was f a back-door method being used by the United States to violate the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, they were obliged obliged in the interest of maintaining maintaining peaceful relations to refrain participation in the struggle. struggle. from taking any active participation Captain Erskine had been so instructed; however, in the forces, he was ordered ordered to prevent absence of United States forces, property to AmeriAmeri­ any violence or destruction of life and property subjects. can as well as British subjects. In order to carry out these instructions, he landed a party of marines on Point Arenas to protect the property of the Transit Agent Agent and the American the bay bay to to American citizens and posted armed boats in the FO 53 (Mosquito) (Mosquito) ReEd Reel 15, 15, Vol. Vol. 41; 41; "Nicaragua," Harper's Weekly, de Nicaragua Weekly. , II (May 16, 16, 1857), 312-13; 312-13; Republica Repiiblica de Bolet!n Boletin Oficial, Oficial, January 9, 1857; 1857; Francisco Montero 1955), Barrantes, Campana Nacional (San Jose, Jose, Costa Rica, Barrantes, Rica, 1955), Gamez, Historia de Nicaragua, 561-66; 561-66; Obregon, Obregon, 37-51; Gamez, 237-79; Calvo, Calvo, La Campana Nacional, La Campana del Transito, 237-79; Campana Naciona1, Walker, War in Nicaragua, 342-48; 342-48; Report of Luis 51-55; Walker, F. Rexford, Office of the Joint ComCom­ Molina and Benjamin F. Washington, mission of "United States and Costa Rica," Washington, November 6, 1862, 1862, in History and Digest of the International International November Party, Arbitrations to which the United States has been a Party, ed. John Bassett Moore (Washington: (Washington: Government Printing ed. II, 1557-63. 1557-63. Office, 1898), II, Office, 278 prevent any filibusters from c~ossing to Grey town. crossing over to Greytown. I' It was these precautions that prohibited prohibited the filibusters »+ on the Texas Texas from capturing capturing the steamer Routh as she was unloading the passengers passengers from the the captured captured San Carlos. Carlos. Under the filibuster Under such such adverse adverse circumstances circumstances the filibuster leader, leader, Colonel Lockridge, determined his force about determined to encamp his two the Transit two miles miles above above the Transit Company's Company's shops shops on on Point Point Arenas repaired for Arenas while while an an old old steamer steamer was was repaired for an an attack attack on on the the Costa Costa Ricans. R i c a n s .75 ^ These were not the the only means means used used by by the the British officers to to frustrate Walker's designs. designs. They sought every opportunity to discourage the the filibusters by representing opportunity to representing the hopelessness of Walker's position. position. On January 16 they went a step further by landing a boat under Captain Cockburn at the filibuster's camp and demanding that all be assembled to hear a proclamation. assembled Then under protest protest from Lockridge that he was allowing allowing Cockburn to do so only harbor, because of the threat of the British fleet in the ~e harbor, claimed the right Captain Cockburn offered to take all who claimed r5?5jJohn hn Erskine to the Secretary Secretary of the Admiralty, Admiralty, December December 30, 30, 1856, 1856, January 5, 5, 12, 12, 1857, 1857, FO 53 (Mosquito), (Mosquito), Reel 15, Vol. 41; 15, Vol. 41; Erskine to Cottrell, Cottrell, December December 23, 23, 1856, 1856, ibid.; Also see Letter of Colonel Rudler, Rudler, New Orleans Picayune, January 16, 25, 16, 1857; 1857; New York Herald, January 25, 1857. 0 279 to British protection and give them free passage to the United States. States. About twenty stepped the rest stepped forward, the , •... were warned of the perils that awaited them if they remained in their present present position. Such activities added added to to the effectiveness of Vanderbilt's plan. plan. Of the some 290 recruits who who had landed since the fourth of January, January, about on-third on-third had deserted. In addition, deserters were continually finding their way down the river, and on JanuJanu­ continually Granada, which had been chartered chartered by ary 21 the steamer Granada, Mora, took about sixty of the deserters to AspinPresident Mora, w a l l .76 wall. 7 6 Nevertheless, continued to Nevertheless, additional filibusters continued arrive on Morgan and Garrison's steamers. steamers. From the the time From they had reopened the transit across Nicaragua, they they shipped, shipped, free of charge, charge, all of the recruits that Walker's agents could muster. muster. This recruiting was being conducted conducted more openly offered very openly than than before, before, but but the the government government had had offered very little interference since their ineffectual efforts at the , beginning beginning of the year. year. In October 1856 the following advertisement advertisement appeared in the St. St. Louis Pilot: Pilot: 76New ^ N e w Orleans Picayune, Picayune, February 13, 13, 1857; 1857; Doubleday, Doubleday, 179-80; John Erskine Reminiscences of the War in Nicaragua, 179-80; to fhe"Secretary.ro"Erthe February 18, 18, €he SecretBrycof the Admiralty, January 5, 5, February 1857, FO 53 (Mosquito), (Mosquito), Reel 15, 15, Vol. Vol. 41. 41. 7 280 We have have received received from S. A. Lockridge, who is S. A. authorized agent of the Nicaragua government government for the authorized enlisting emigrants for that country, the following: following: I~ enlisting II have made arra~gements arrangements with Morgan & & Garrison's Garrison's line of New Orleans steamers to take emigrants to Juan. On Nicaragua from New Orleans direct to San Juan. the 27th of this month emigrants can have a free hundred acres of the passage by transferring one hundred large grant of land offered offered them by the Nicaraguan government to settle in Central America. All exex­ government penses from New Orleans to Granada, Nicaragua, are on. The fine paid for them. This can be relied on. above. II hope number steamer Tennessee sails as above. hope a number will turn turn out out in in St. St. Louis, Louis, as as we want the the same same kind kind will we want of boys that went with Col. Doniphan to M e x i c o of boys that went with Col. Doniphan to Mexico-men who who are are good good citizens, citizens, but know how to fight fight men but who who know how to if necessary, soldiers.. • .• . ..77 if necessary, being being AA No. No.11 soldiers 77 In December, as Walker's situation in Nicaragua became more desperate, desperate, his supporters in the States began to take more active measures for his relief.78 relief. 78 On the twenty-fourth, the Tennessee sailed from New New York with provisions. three hundred recruits and $2,000 worth of provisions. Shortly after she reached reached the open sea, sea, the Tennessee met rough weather and broke broke her shaft. shaft. After some difficulty After difficulty she managed managed to put into Norfolk where the recruits were disbanded. chartered the James Adger as soon as Morgan chartered word arrived and sent her with forty more recruits to pick 77New York York Herald, Herald, October 21, 21, 1856. 1856. 78New N e w Orleans Picayune, April 22, 22, November November 26, 26, 1856; 5, October 31, 31, November 20, 1856; 1856; Alta California, August 5, November 20, New York Herald, October 19, 19, 1856. 1856. 7 8 281 up those who had been left at Norfolk. Norfolk. Nowever, when she arrived they had all left and she was forced to continue ,, • * • 79 on Nicaragua with on to to Nicaragua with her her passengers. passengers.79 Thus the filibusters stranded on Point Areans Areans were left without any reinforcements until February February 4 when Colonel Titus arrived on the Texas from New Orleans with 250 men of Kansas border warfare notoriety. By that time the old river steamer Rescue had been repaired, and it determined to proceed proceed up the river. river. was determined Hipp's Point was taken following a slight skirmish, but due to the failure of Colonel Titus to press the attack on the the fort at Castillo Castillo Viejo, Viejo, reinforcements reinforcements arrived arrived from from Fort Fort San San at Carlos and the filibusters were forced to retreat down the river to San Carlos Island. opportunity With this opportunity lost and Castillo Viejo strongly fortified against any subsequent attack, many of the filibusters began subsequent began to show signs of of discontenet discontenet and and insubordination. insubordination. signs A pro­ A large large pro- portion of of the the men men had had been been recruited. recruited from from the wharves portion the wharves and slums slums of of New New Orleans, Orleans, the the Kansas Kansas troops troops were wholly and were wholly lacking in in discipline, discipline, and and those those who who had had come come with ideas lacking with ideas of colonization colonization were were only only seeking seeking a a way way back back home. home. of 79NNew e w York Herald, December December 25, 25, 1856; 1856; Alta California, fornia, January 31, 31, 1857. 1857. 7 9 282 ,~ \ \ ~ r I, ! ,( ~ . f i .: ' . " 1 ' \ Co " \ ', Fig. Fig. 6~~Castillo 6^-Castillo Viejo and San Carlos 283 Desertions became numerous. numerous. Rafts were constructed constructed by those on night watch, and men and officers floated down the riv~c river to Grey town leaving the camp unguarded. Greytown So demoralized demoralized had become the condition of the men that the officers nearly decided their only chance of joining joining Walker Walker was to to take passage to Panama. 80 take passage to Panama. Their hopes were quickly revived, however, by the Their hopes were quickly revived, however, by the arrival of Captain Marcellus French with a company of 140 arrival of Captain Marcellus French with a company of 140 Texas Rangers on March 18. Texas Rangers on March 18. The entire command at once The entire command at once embarked on the steamers. Near Fort Castillo a landing embarked on the steamers. Near Fort Castillo a landing was effected and a reconnaissance made by way of Nelson's was effected and a reconnaissance made by way of Nelson's Hill. From this point they had a plain Hill. From this point they had a plain view of the fort ~iew of the fort from the land side. Unfortunately a deep ravine inter- from the land side. Unfortunately a deep ravine inter­ fered. Filled with logs and various obstructions, it made fered. Filled with logs and various obstructions, it made a quick assault impossible in the face of heavy artillery a quick assault impossible in the face of heavy artillery and a vigilant garrison on the hill above. and a vigilant garrison on the hill above. The officers unanimously decided that an assault The officers unanimously decided that an assault without artillery was impracticable. As the river was without artillery was impracticable. As the river was equally well guarded, they abandoned the attempt to pass equally well guarded, they abandoned the attempt to pass 80New 21, 1857; 1857; N e w York Herald, February 22, 22, March 21, New Orleans Picayune, Picayune, February 13, 13, March 12, 12, 27, 27, 1857; 1857; Doubleday, Reminiscences of the War in Nicaragua, 181-86; Secretary of the Admiralty, February February 18, John Erskine to the Secretary 18, (Mosquito), Reel 15, 15, Vol. Vol. 41; 41; "Nicaragua," 1857, FO 53 (Mosquito), Weeklyy II (March 28, 28, 1857), 199-200. 199-200. Harper's WeeklYi 8 0 284 up the river to join Walker. Walker. C. C. W. W. Doubleday Doubleday and a few Panama. of the Texans decided to go by way of Panama. Lockridg~ Lockridge Leaving * * I~ t and the now worthless mass of troops to do as fit, they boarded boarded the steamer Scott and started they saw fit, river. down the river. They put in to shore above the mouth of the Serapiqui River and landed a scouting party to check Ricans. for Costa Ricans. started into the No sooner had they started occurred on the steamer. steamer. forest than a tremendous explosion occurred Bruised and mangled bodies flew threw the air with splinsplin­ Bruised wreck. ters and debris from the wreck. Many were plunged plunged into the steam and scalding water while others were unable to crawl from the flames that quickly enveloped enveloped the steamer. steamer. Agonizing wails emitted from the charred and bruised victims of the castastrophe, and many begged to be be shot begged to and put put out of their intense pain. pain. The engineer had pumped pumped cold water into a superheated superheated cylinder and the boiler burst, tearing the entire front of the boat into fragments. fragments. About twenty were killed and some forty forty more were badly injured. Shortly after the explosion Lockridge arrived on the steamer Rescue with the rest of the troops. troops. The wounded were placed on the steamer and started started down launches, the river while the rest made their way down on launches, bungos, and rafts to Grey Greytown, bungos, town, the main body of about 285 320 reaching there on April 6, 1 8 5 7 .81 6, 1857. 8 1 With the departure of the filibusters down the ri~~r river San Juan went went the the last hope hope of Walker to to extricate himself from Rivas. Rivas. Following Following the departure of the San Carlos with the California passengers on January 3, he kept look3, he look­ ing the reappearance reappearance of the lake he was ing for for the of the lake steamers, steamers, as as he was certain they would bringing reinforcements. reinforcements. certain they would be be bringing As As the the days passed neither of the the steamers appeared, the men passed and neither began to feel uneasy, yet yet no no one the enemy began to feel uneasy, one dreamed dreamed that that the enemy could have captured the river. captured the river. Then one day the the long- awaited awaited San Carlos hove into sight, apparently headed for Virgin Bay; but as it drew near, near, it failed to give the usual north. signals and soon departed to the north. Word was sent to Walker at Rivas and a detachment of men was hastily sent to prevent prevent the enemy's landing. week. week. Nothing happened for a Then one morning both of the lake steamers appeared and moored moored off Ometepe Island in full sight of the troops known. at Virgin Bay, and the full truth was known. While a dedicated man would less dedicated would have most likely given up at gray-eyed man of destiny undauntedly that moment, the gray-eyed 8lNew Yor~ Herald, April 17, N e w Yorl£ 17, 1857; 1857; Alta California, California, April 13, 13, May 16, 16, 1857; 1857; Doubleday, Reminiscences of the 187-91; Erskine to Admiralty, April 15, 15, War in Nicaragua, 187-91; 15, Vol. Vol. 41. 1857, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 15, 41. 8 1 1 286 prepared blindly holding to the prepared to hold his position while blindly * belief that Lockridge would soon break through the block-, block-j~ ade and come to his relief. relief. Fortunately Fortunately for the allies, allies, the news of the capture of the San Juan River arrived at a crucial time. time. Disheart­ Disheart- ened by the burning of Granada, the prospect prospect of more re­ recruits arriving to support Walker, inability to Walker, and their inability overcome their intense jealousies, they were almost on the verge of abandoning the campaign. The news, news, however, however, inspired them with new confidence and preparations were immediately position. immediately made for advancing on Walker's position. At the printed proclamations the same same time time printed proclamations were were scattered scattered in in the the outskirts promising protection outskirts of of Rivas Rivas promising protection and and free free passage passage home cause. home to to all all who who would would desert desert the the filibuster filibuster cause. The The effects became an effects appeared appeared overnight overnight and and desertion desertion soon soon became an epidemic. epidemic. Most of the recruits were grievously grievously disappointed at finding conditions not at all as they had been been reprerepre­ sented in the the States and feeling no honor to to sacrifice their lives for a dying cause, cause, they went over to the enemy oo at at the the earliest earliest opportunity.82 opportunity. 82Walker, W a l k e r , War in Nicara&ua, Nicaragua, 370, 370, 382; 382; Alta CaliCali­ 9, 1857; 1857; Obregon, La Campana Campana del Tr~nsito Transito fornia , February 9, fornia, 313-14; Gamez, Gamez, Historia de Nicaragua, 569-71; 569-71; Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, 288-89. 82 287 The pendulum pendulum had finally swung back. back. The story is now merely a series of attacks by the allies with the fill* fil~? advance. busters bravely repulsing every advance. The futility of Walker's position became more evident to all observers as each day brought further depletions to his men and supplies. supplies. Commander Charles H. H. Among those watching the struggle was Commander St. Mary. Davis of the United States sloop-of-war St. Mary. Com­ Com- mander Davis had arrived in the harbor of San Juan del Sur in early February under instructions from Commodore Commodore Mervine at Panama to take such steps as were necessary necessary to I American citizens exex­ protect the lives and property of American posed to to the the struggle. struggle. posed Shortly after after his his arrival arrival the the Shortly allies asked asked him him to to prevent prevent the the further further landing landing of of allies recruits for for Walker; Walker; however, he informed informed them the recruits however, he them that that the United Stated Stated recognized recognized aa condition condition of of civil civil war in NicaNica­ United war in ragua and and as as aa neutral, neutral, he he would would lend lend his his aid aid to neither ragua to neither party but see that that the the rights rights of of American American citizens citizens party but merely merely see were duly duly protected. protected. were In the latter part of April, becoming conApril, after becoming con­ vinced of the futility of Walker's position, he was able to secure the consent of the allies to remove the women Sur. and children at Rivas to San Juan del Sur. On the twenty- fourth, Lieutenant Huston and a corporal of marines went fourth, I 288 escorted them out under the protection to the city and escorted protection of flag. the American American flag. On the thirtieth, Davis visited visited the ( .. ,* proposed to end the allies in the capacity of mediator and proposed conflict by removing the Americans from the country. The proposition was readily consented consented to and an agreement agreement drawn proposition up whereby Walker was to be allowed to retire with his staff. staff. The remainder of the filibuster force was to be sent on to the United States by Costa Rica at the the expense expense of the United United States States and and all all munitions, munitions, as as well well as small the as the the small QO vessels in the harbor, were to go to the allies. 83 vessels in the harbor, were to go to the allies. 3 That evening an aide of General Mora was sent to That evening an aide of General Mora was sent to Walker with a letter from Commander Davis explaining the Walker with a letter from Commander Davis explaining the proposition. Several messages were then exchanged, and proposition. Several messages were then exchanged, and later that night Walker ~ent Henningsen and Waters as en- later that night Walker s;ent Henningsen and Waters as en­ voys to Davis at San Juan del Sur. Davis told them that he voys to Davis at San Juan del Sur. Davis told them that he knew they could hold out for only a few days longer; he knew they could hold out for only a few days longer; he also informed them that Lockridge had abandoned the San also informed them that Lockridge had abandoned the San Juan River campaign and the filibusters had been returned Juan River campaign and the filibusters had been returned to the United States. He then repeated the proposal that to the United States. He then repeated the proposal that had been agreed to by the allies. Henningsen declined the had been agreed to by the allies. Henningsen declined the 83Wallenstein 1857, W a l l e n s t e i n to Foreign Office, Office, May 9, 1857, Fa 2, Vol. Vol. 10; 10; Alta California, California, FO 21 (Costa Rica), Reel 2, June 16, 16, 1857. 1857. 0J 289 offer and stated that he was not yet sure that Lockridge had abandoned the river and that if necessary necessary Walker cou14. could' embark on the Granada, Granada, force his way to San Juan del Sur and embark a schooner still under the control of the filibusters. filibusters. Davis then informed him that he intended on taking pospos­ session of the schooner and would not allow her to leave port. the port. Henningsen and Waters returned to Rivas after promising to return Walker's answer in the morning. morning. The announcement of Davis' Davis' intention of seizing the Granada left Walker little choice as the schooner schooner was escape. the only possible means for his escape. Consequently, Consequently, capitulation were drawn up at Rivas emboyying embodying articles of capitulation containing an addiaddi­ the agreement made with the allies and containing tional provision for the protection of Walker's native allies. allies. At five five o'clock o'clock on on the the afternoon afternoon of of May 1, 1857, 1857, At May 1, Walker and and his his officers officers rode rode out out of of Rivas Rivas and took the road Walker and took the road for the the last last time time to to San San Juan Juan del del Sur. Sur. for were aboard aboard the the St. St. Mary. Mary. were That night they That night they The rest rest of of the the survivors survivors soon soon The followed them them to to Panama. Panama. followed When Walker fortified Rivas for his final stand, stand, his total force amounted to 919. 919. He received rereceived forty re­ cruits from California on the first of February February and seventy more on the seventh March. of March. There were thus a total of 290 1,029 persons under his command command at Rivas. Rivas. As he he reports that only 463 remained at the time of his surrender, the:~ the + ( total number number of deaths and desertions in four months months was force. 556, or 55 per cent of his entire force. his revenge. revenge. Vanderbilt had Walker was out of Nicaragua and the transit route was closed. His threat to "ruin" Morgan and GarriGarri­ carried out but in a manner far different son had been carried utterance.84 ^ than even he had dreamed at the time of its utterance. 8 "weakness Walker charged Morgan and Garrison with "weakness withdrawing their steamers from NicaNica­ and timidity" for withdrawing ragua. 85 85 ragua. This is is hardly hardly aa fair fair accusation. accusation. This Even Walker Walker Even admitted that every effort had been made to should have admitted keep the transit across the isthmus in operation. From the time the new grantees reopened the route in May 1856, 1856, their steamers had made monthly trips to Nicaragua, even though a great percentage of the time the majority of the 84Alta A l t a California, June 16, 16, 1857; 1857; For the period from Walker's occupation occupation of Rivas to his surrender see: see: 367-427; Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters Filibusters Walker, War in Nicaragua, 367-427; 286-301; Gamez, Gamez, Historia de Nicaragua, Nicaragua, and Financiers, 286-301; Calvo, La Campana Campana Nacional, Bolanos, 469-72; Calvo, Nacional, 57-67; Bolanos, Centenario de 1a la Guerra, 85-102; 85-102; Obregon, La Campana del Transito, 313-46. Trans ito , 313-46. 8 4 I 85Walker, War in Nicaragua, 408-09. 291 291 passengers were nonpaying Walker. nonpaying recruits for Walker. The Orizaba maintained maintained the Atlantic trade until August when j~ »* she was sent around Cape Horn, Horn, arriving in San Francisco on October 30 to to join join the Sierra Nevada Nevada on the Pacific. Pacific. The Texas and Tennessee then ran from New York until September when the number number of recruits recruits arriving at New September when Orleans that aa steamer be sent Orleans demanded demanded that steamer be sent to to that that port. port. The this demand until December The Tennessee Tennessee answered answered this demand until December when when she was was replaced by the Texas and returned returned to the New replaced by York run. r u n .86 8 6 When Spencer captured the San Carlos in the first captured the week of January 1857 and escorted her passengers under guard to San Juan del Norte, Norte, the transit route across officially closed. Nicaragua was officially There was no longer pecuniary reason for sending steamers to the shores any pecuniary strife-ridden country. of that strife-ridden Yet, Yet, Morgan and Garrison still held out hope that Walker could be relieved, and continued transporting recruits to his their steamers continued aid. aid. For three months they waited for the growing number number of filibusters on the San Juan River to break through to country. Walker and regain control of the country. But their reported efforts were all in vain, vain, and when the Tennessee Tennesse~ reported 86Appendix ^ A p p e n d i x A. A. 292 on April 16 that the filibusters had abandoned abandoned the attack and retreated retreated in hopeless confusion down the river, river, the »j* I~ futility of the situation was accepted and no more steamers Nicaragua. were scheduled for Nicaragua. The scheme to place all of the profits into their own hands had backfired. Instead of making more money, money, deteriorated to the point that they the profits had slowly deteriorated were paying out of their own pockets to keep the steamers running. running. In 1856 only 8,053 passengers crossed crossed over 87 Nicaragua, whereas 30,335 went by way of Panama. Panama.87 route. But financial reasons had not closed the route. The cause must be attributed attributed to the little man with dreams of empires etched in his gray eyes. eyes. If Walker had not come to Nicaragua, Nicaragua, there there is little doubt that the route route would have continued continued and probably even surpassed surpassed the popularity of Panama. Panama. Of all that Walker is remembered remembered for, for, the most important was the important result of his filibustering activities was closing of interoceanic communication communication across the Isthmus of Nicaragua. Nicaragua. r 87Apendix endix A A and and B. B. CHAPTER VII , ,. UPHOLDING THE MONROE DOCTRINE, DOCTRINE, 1855-1860 The Monroe Doctrine Recalled While Walker's activities were disrupting the NicaNica­ ragua route, route, diplomatic relations between the United States worse. and Great Britain grew worse. Following the stalemate stalemate Following controversy and the that grew out of the Bay Islands controvers¥ bombardment of Grey Greytown 1854, the Central American American bombardment town in July 1854, unsettled condition for over a question remained in an unsettled year. year. With the British engulfed in the Crimean War and administration with the Kansas-Nebraska Kansas-Nebraska struggle, struggle, the Pierce administration both nations chose to evade discussion of the controversy. controversy. As other considerations became less pressing, in the fall of 1855 Secretary Secretary Marcy moved to reopen discusdiscus­ sions. sions. Desirous of placing the question in a a more satissatis­ factory condition before the approaching session of Congress opened, in August he instructed instructed James Buchanan, United 294 States minister in London, to obtain a statement statement from the British government as to its present policy regarding the~~ policy regarding the Islands, the Belize settlements, settlements, and the Mosquito pro­ Bay Islands, Mosquito protectorate. tectorate. transmitted the request to Lord Buchanan transmitted reemphasized the United States.' States' deterrninadetermina­ Clarendon and reemphasized tion not to yield from their former position. Contrary Contrary to hopeful expectations, expectations, the British British refused to budge from the 1854. extreme position they had assumed in the spring of 1854. September Lord Clarendon informed Buchanan In late September Buchanan that "her majesty's majesty's government government adhere adhere to to the the opinion opinion which they "her which they have uniformly uniformly held, held, that that the the convention convention of of April April 19, 19, 1850, 1850, have was merely merely prospective prospective in in its its operation, operation, and and did did not in was not in any way way interfere interfere with with the the state state of of things things existing existing at at the the any time of of its its conclusion."l conclusion. time nl As this adamant stand of the British only complicompli­ cated relations already strained strained by the enlistment enlistment question, question, December 1855 message the President President outlined outlined in in his December detail both problems to the Congress. Congress. While his language was largely temperate and expressed expressed rohope aihope for an amicable determination not to solution, the President expressed a determination lU.S., Sess., •'-U.S., Congress, Congress, House, House, 34th Cong., 1st Sess., 1855-1856, Ex. Ex. Doc. Doc. 1, 1, Sere Ser. no. no. 840, 840, 69~76, 69-76, cited hereafter U.S. Docs., Docs., Ex. Ex. Doc 1, 1, Sere Ser. no. no. 840. 840. as U.S. 295 yield on either the enlistment enlistment difficulty or the dispute over Central America. drew ' In referring to the latter he drew:~ attention to the recent reply of the British that the "merely prospective in its operation" and concon­ treaty was "merely cluded with a hostile note that such an attitude rendered the treaty "practically "practically null" and could not long be mainmain­ tained without seriously seriously endangering endangering the friendly relations governments. 2 of the two governments. The President's message evoked a strong reaction in the Senate which led to lengthy discussions of the Central American American question throughout the spring of 1856. 1856. The importance of isthmian communication communication was emphasized emphasized expressed that if the British were allowed to and a fear expressed control this communication, at some future date the United States might be forced to give up California and the rest of her Pacific possessions. possessions. The relationship of the treaty discussed at length for the to the Monroe Doctrine was was discussed first time. time. John M. Clayton stated, "I would not hesitate at all all as as one one Senator Senator to to assert assert the the Monroe doctrine, and and at Monroe doctrine, maintain it it by my votes," he felt felt that Congress would would maintain by my votes," but but he that Congress not sustain the doctrine and therefore urged that the 2U.S. Docs., Ex. no. 840, U.S. Docs., Ex. Doc. D o c 1, 1, Sere Ser. no. 840, 3-8. 3-8. 296 treaty be upheld, that Great Britain be demanded demanded to comply it, and "if it became necessary in the last resort, with it, to compel her to submit to it.,,3 it." 3 + ~ .• Lewis Cass agreed agreed that Congress had failed to act on the doctrine, but expressed the hope that "this controversy controversy will give us the occasion of laying down the doctrine in such a way as to produce Europe, and that we shall adhere to it, effect in Europe, it, come what may." may.,,4 4 B. Weller of California concurred concurred with the John B. concluded that whether "the MonMon­ President's message and concluded roe doctrine doctrine be be carried carried out out in in your legislation or or not, roe your legislation not, II undertake to to say, say, that that the the American American people people will suffer undertake will never never suffer Great Britain Britain to to control control the the destinies destinies of of Central Central America. America. Great Our destiny destiny is is to to cover cover this this continent, continent, and and although although Our the intrigues intrigues of of foreign foreign Governments Governments and and the of the the action action of our own own may may impede, impede, they they cannot cannot prevent prevent is is ultimate ultimate our accomplishment."^ accomplishment. ,,5 William H. H. Seward Seward of of New agreed William New York York agreed with Clayton Clayton that that we we should should "stand "stand by by the the Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer with treaty, and and insist insist upon upon its its enforcement, enforcement* if that will do." treaty, if that will do." But h~ hp was ready, if if the the British British could could not not be the But was ready, be held held to to the 3U.S., Cong., 1st Sess., ^U.S., Congressional G~obe, Globe, 34th Cong., Sess., 1855-1856, Part I, I, 108. 108. 4Ibid ., 109. Ibid., 109. "'"4 5IIbbid. id. 5 297 treaty, "for the assertion and the maintenance of the Monroe Monroe doctrine.,,6 doctrine." »* I,· As the discussions progressed, it was readily apparent that whereas there had been a distinct division Islands, along party lines in the earlier debates on the Bay Islands, there was now a complete backing backing of the stand taken by the practically unanimous denunciation of President, and a practically Britain. Great Britain. acknowledged that a majority While it was acknowledged of Congress had never been willing to sustain the Monroe Doctrine in the past, it was felt that this was because it was not necessary necessary at the time as the Treaty of 1850 would accomplish the same purpose without the danger of upsetting accomplish peaceful relations. relations. However, the untractable untractable position of Great Britain and the increased increased importance importance of isthmian isthmian communication now demanded demanded that either the treaty o~ or the communication Monroe Doctrine be enforced, even though such insistence resulted in war. war. advocated outright abrogation abrogation While a few advocated enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine, Doctrine, of the treaty and the enforcement attempt should first the Senate as a whole felt that an attempt be made made to Great Britain Britain to fulfill her treaty be to require require Great to fulfill her treaty obligations. obligations. While there there was general willingness willingness to to go go While was aa general U . S .., , Congressional Globe, Globe, 34th Cong., 1st Sess., 6U•S Sess., 1855-1856, Part I, I, 110. 110. b 298 to war if necessary, there was was a strong feeling expressed that there there would be no no war war and that the the British people , •... would they saw that would force their government to yield when they the was standing the United United States States was standing firm~7 firm. 7 In cqnjunction with with these these discussions, discussion~, on February 25, 25, 1856, passed aa resolution 1856, the the Senate Senate passed resolution calling calling for for the the corcor­ respondence the enlistment respondence on on the enlistment dispute. dispute. The The following following day day the President recommended a the President recommended favorable favorable consideration consideration of of a request for a special appropriation of $3 million million to to increase military armaments and fortifications. fortifications. Thus the the enlistment enlistment Brit­ question, the necessity for war preparations, and the BritAmerica became increasingly involved in ish stand on Central America increasingly involved all succeeding succeeding discussions. discussions. In keeping with the hostile hostile spirit already already generated, a general willingness to fight for American position was also manimani­ the righteousness of the American fested, although there was still a decided conviction that fested, 8 hostilities.^ Great Britain Britain would retreat in the face of hostilities. 7U•S U . S .., , Congressional Globe, Globe, 34th Congo Cong. 1st Sess., Sess., 1, 107-11, 107-11, 199, 199, 247, 247, 303, 303, 323, 323, 349, 349, 357,3941855-1856, Part 1, 96, 450, 468-71, 502, 528, 663, 1205-0.7; U.S., U.S., Congressional Congressional 96,450,468-71,502,528,663,1205-0.7; Globe, 34th Cong., Is 1stt Sess., Sess., 1855-1856, Part Z, 2 , 1306-07, 1306-07, Globe, 1419-23; U.S., Globe, 34th Cong., 1st 1347, 1419-23; U.S., Congressional Globe, 109-15, 435-42. Sess., 1855-1856, Appendix, 67-87, 109-15, 435-42. 7 8U. Sess., ^U.S., Globe, 34th Cong., 1st Sess., S ., Congressional Globe, 1, 618-27; 618-27; U.S., U.S., Congressional Globe, Globe, 34th 1855-1856, Part 1, Sess., 1855-1856, Appendix, 234-42, 234-42, 300-06; 300-06; U.S., Cong., 1st Sess., U.S., 299 Walker as a Diplomatic Diplomatic Pawn . ,. With the Senate firmly behind the President's decision to stand by the Monroe Doctrine, outrages Doctrine, British outrages action. were slowly forcing him him to take more drastic action. Up administration had attempted attempted to preclude to this point the administration States' attitude any possibility possibility of allowing the United United States' toward Walker to give the British any pretense for justi­ justienlistment fying their activities in Central America or the enlistment question. question. In keeping with this policy policy the President President had officially attempted attempted to enforce the neutrality officially neutrality laws and had steadily refused to recognize Walker's representatave in Washington. However, recent Congressional debates and newspaper editorials had generated American determinagenerated an American determina­ America. tion to offset British aggressions in Central America. convinced the only way to safeguard safeguard Many people were convinced isthmian transportation was to drive out the British and American hostilities and that the bring an end to Central American accomplishing these ends was most likely means of accomplishing was the Americanization of of the isthmus. Americanization the isthmus. Walker's appeal thus thus had had Walker's appeal Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, 34th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1855-1856, Ex. Ex. Doc. 35, 35, Sere Ser. no. no. 819, 819, 1, 1, cited Docs., Doc. c~ted hereafter as U.S. U.S. Docs., Ex. Doc. 35, Sere Ser. no. 819. Ex. Doc. 35, no. 819. 300 a much broader base than aa sectional bid for aa future slave slave state. state. Americans in New England, the southern States, States, anq and the Pacific coast began to look upon his activities as aa means of introducing democratic institutions into that strife-torn strife-torn area. area. The result result of these these forces was was soon manifest manifest when many influential influential men, men, headed headed by Stephen A. A. Douglas, Douglas, began to exert pressure upon the President to recognize the RivasWalker government. At the same time local authorities showed filibusters a decided inclination to turn their heads when filibusters boarded the steamers for Nicaragua. boarded Nicaragua. The strength of this inopportune movement was deterred, however, by Walker's inopportune decision to annul the Transit Company's charter, for in alienated Vanderbilt doing so he alienated Vanderbilt and powerful New England support. On March 17, 17, 1856, 1856, a few days after the Herald Herald pubpub­ lished notice of the annulment, John M. M. Clayton brought the subject to the attention of the Senate together with the fact that Walker had dismissed the United United States minister in Nicaragua. Nicaragua. He branded Walker a buccaneer, buccaneer, "cold-blooded murderer," and proceeded called him him a "cold-blooded proceeded to point out that his activities were looked upon upon in Europe as a determination on the part of the United States to annex determination l 301 Central America in violation of the Treaty of 1850. 1850. After drawing attention to publications which threatened threatened to forlI)" form filibustering a European Congress to restrain American filibustering suggested that Britain suspected suspected the "propensities," he suggested United States of secretly secretly intending intending to evade the treaty United stipulations while at the same time demanding that Great Britain comply with them. them. In concluding, Clayton pictured Walker as an to a a peaceful ah almost unsurmountable obstacle to settlement of the Central American American controversy controversy and extended extended the thanks of the country to the Executive for upholding the neutrality neutrality laws and refusing to recognize the government of the buccaneer. buccaneer.9 9 Two days later Clayton again brought the the subject up up in in the the Senate. Senate. He which comHe read read Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt s letter letter which com­ f p1ained asked the the governplained of the seizure of the transit and asked govern­ ment for protection. Clayton then argued that the company had not forfeited its·. its. right to United States protection. protection. England colleague, William H. The following week his New England William H. introduced a resolution calling for the President Seward, introduced revolutionary proceedings in to submit information on the revolutionary Nicaragua and the seizure of the property of the Transit ^U.S., Congressional Globe, Globe, 34th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 9U.S., 1855-1856, Appendix, 435-4~; Nichols, Franklin 460. 435-42; Nichols, Franklin Pierce, Pierce, 460. 302 Company. But notwithstanding notwithstanding these efforts, President President company that had Pierce showed no inclination to aid a company ,* I? continually continually embarrassed embarrassed his efforts to enforce the neutralneutral­ ity laws and calmly disregarded disregarded the Senatorial call for papers introduced introduced by Seward. Yet there is evidence that the cogent arguments of Clayton had their effect on Secretary Secretary Marcy, for he used the same arguments against the recognition of the Walker regime when mounting mounting forces finally brought about a change in the attitude of the P r e s i d e n t .10 ^ President. Although Clayton pictured pictured Walker as an irritating American controversy, controversy, thorn stuck deeply into the Central American vanguard of American American democracy his attraction as a vanguard democracy mounted apace with the feelings against the British. In fact, fact, popularity in the United States was almost totally Walker's popularity refusal a product of American tensions over the British refusal enlistment and Central American American questions. questions. to yield on the enlistment As these tensions mounted, the need for Presidential action was magnified magnified by their impact impact upon the approaching approaching Presi~ Presic nominations. dential nominations. President Pierce was actively President actively seeking 10U.S., ~st Sess., lOu.S., Congressional Globe, Globe, 34th Cong., 1st Sess., 440-42; U.S., U.S., Congressional Congressional Globe, Globe, 1855-1856, Appendix, 440-42; Sess., 1855-1856, Part 1, 1, 699; 699; Nichols, Nichols, 34th Cong., 1st Sess., Franklin Pierce, Pierce, 460. 460. be 303 renomination renomination and was keenly aware that continued continued inaction in the convention schedul~ scheduled would weigh heavily against him him in. June. to convene in June. increasingly pointed Indications increasingly pointed to the conclusion conclusion that influential Democratic leaders across the country were in favor of twisting the lion's tail by recognizing the Rivas-Walker government. recognizing Soule, as Pierre Soule, platform committee, was an influential candidate for the platform actively seeking this end. end. The impact of this thinking on the Democratic mind is perhaps best revealed revealed in the party platform finally platform as finally adopted. When the platform platform committee, including including Pierre Soule, finally convened convened in June to draft the principles on which the party's choice of a Presidential nominee would presumably presumably be made, made, the forces that had been at work light. throughout the spring came openly to light. In articles outlining a Central American committee called outlining American policy, the committee sacred "principles involved involved in the for support of the sacred Monroe Doctrine." They urged that every effort be made to ascendency in the Gulf of Mexico, and to "insure our ascendency maintain a permanent permanent protection to to the great outlets of canal, and concluded concluded that "in view of so the proposed proposed cJl,nal, commanding an an interest, interest, the the people people of of the the United States commanding United States sympathize with the efforts which are being cannot but sympathize 304 made by the the people of Central America America to regenerate regenerate that , . across ·* portion of the continent which covers the passage across 1 the the Interoceanic Interoceanic Isthmus."ll Is thmus . " H While the President was was evaluating evaluating the indications of such sentiments, on May 1, Weller of 1, 1856, 1856, John B. B. Weller California arose on the the floor of the the Senate to to submit a resolution calling for all correspondence relating to the Nicaragua situation. In replying to Clayton's attacks he defended Walker's character and represented represented him as "actuated by a high and honorable ambition--a ambition--a patripatri­ being "actuated establishing free institutions in otic desire to aid in establishing Nicaragua, and ultimately ultimately confederate, in a peaceable manner, the Central American American States into one great republic." He argued argued that although it might be against the best interests of the United States to annex Central America at present, yet it was vital to have a fixed and America situa­ stable government on that part part of the continent, a situamaintained until "a large amount tion that could not be maintained American blood" was infused into their veins. veins. of North American t llKirk H. Porter Porter and Donald B. B. Johnson (eds.), •'••''Kirk H. (eds.), National Party Platforms, 1840-1956 (Urbana: University Platforms, (Urbana: University of 26; Nichols, Nichols, Franklin Pierce, Pierce, 446-56; 446-56; Press, 1956), 26; Illinois Press, J. Preston Preston Moore, Moore, "Pierre Soule: Soule: Southern Expansionist Expansionist and Promoter," Journal of Southern History, History, XXI, XXI, No. No.22 (May, (May, 1955), 203-10. 203-10. 305 "The true true policy," he stated, "would have been been to encourage rather than discourage emigration to to Nicaragua." Nicaragua." . While he* 4& violating the neutrality laws, he felt did not advocate violating neutrality laws, illegally enforced enforced to restrict true that they had been illegally emigrating to that country. country. colonists from emigrating Weller then read a proclamation proclamation of the President of Costa Rica Rica which declared the death upon upon the declared a war to the filibusters, filibusters, and asked if "we are to stand still and see our people people denied the the rights of prisoners prisoners of war, war, and shot down by by a brutal brutal soldiery? Is not not this such a violaviola­ tion of the law of nations as to to demand immediate i11ll1lediate redress?" To further support his his argument, he read a letter from Walker dated Granada, April 15, which Walker 15, 1856, 1856, in which asserted that the action of Costa Rica Rica had had been stimuasserted that stimu­ lated by the actions of French and British agents, agents, and he offered proof of this by referring to intercepted intercepted correscorres­ offered England was supplying arms pondence which revealed revealed that England squadron to Costa Rica while the whole British West India squadron was sent to "San Juan del Norte, Norte, in order that the moral J weight of of the English Government Government may thrown into into the the weight the English may be be thrown scale against against our our republic." scale republic." Following these these appeals, appeals, Following Weller concluded concluded by calling calling for a too-long delayed delayed r 306 recognition of the Rivas-Walker regime. regime. 12 William H. H. Seward of New York responded responded with a William t . * I It plea for caution which resembled resembled the earlier address of Clayton, after which Stephen A. A. Douglas took the floor. floor. Douglas reemphasized tonreemphasized his earlier objections to the Clay ClaytonBulwer Treaty and asserted that it was now obvious to construction placed placed upon the treaty everyone that by the construction perversion of its by the British government and their perversion provisions, "all American American interests in Central America provisions, America are sacrificed and destroyed." to be sacrificed He stated that that the administration had had erred erred by by applying applying the the neutrality laws administration neutrality laws beyond the the point point of of good good faith faith required required by by the laws of of beyond the laws nations, and and that that he he could could not not acquiesce acquiesce in the condernnacondemna­ nations, in the tions which which he he had had heard heard upon upon the the existing existing government government in in tions Nicaragua. Nicaragua. He held held that that it it was was as as ligitimate ligitimate as as any any that that He had ever ever existed existed in in Central Central America America and and defended defended Walker's Walker's had presence on on the the right right of of expatiation expatiation by by comparing comparing him presence him to to "Lafayette, Steuben, Steuben, DeKald, DeKald, and and the the host host of of liberty-loving liberty-loving "Lafayette, heroes who who fought fought so so gallantly gallantly for for us us in in the revolutionary heroes the revolutionary war." war." He then then concluded concluded with with aa veiled veiled but but undisguised undisguised He call for for manifest manifest destiny: destiny: call l2U.S., Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., U . S . , Congressional Globe, Globe, 34th Cong., 1855-1856, Part 1, 1, 1069-70. 1069-70. i Z 307 I, I, sir, sir, would not be willing to do any act that would impair our neutral position as a nation nation to aid sustaining the Government Government with which General Walke~. Walker in sustaining is connected. .. .. •. Yet we cannot conceal the fact that we have great interests which should should lead us to sympathize deeply with the movement now going sympathize going on on in involved to a great Central America. Our interests are involved extent in in that that movement, movement, and and would would be be promoted its extent promoted by by its success. II am am not not prepared, prepared, therefore, therefore, to do any any act, act, success. to do or express any opinion, calculated to discourage or or express any opinion, calculated to discourage or weaken the the efforts efforts of of those those who who are are striving striving to con­ weaken to consolidate and and perpetuate perpetuate a a system system of of government government similar similar solidate to our our own, own, in in Central Central America. America. My My sympathies sympathies are are with with to that government government which which has has so so many many Americans Americans connected connected that with it, and administering its functions. I believe with it, and administering its functions. I believe that the cause of progress, of humanity, of civiliza­ that the cause of progress, of humanity, of civilization, will be promoted promoted by by the the extension extension of that American American tion, will be of that influence. Whether it will ever lead to a connection influence. Whether it will ever lead to a connection with this country, let let time time develop. develop. If shall with this country, If the the time time shall ever arrive when they become thoroughly Americanized, ever arrive when they become thoroughly Americanized, when they they come come to to understand the principles principles of of our our when understand the Constitution, and and of of our our system system of of government, government, and and can can Constitution, administer one in conformity with those principles, the administer one in conformity with those principle~, ""the question would arise at that^ time whether their inter­ question would arise at thatt time whether their interests and and our our interests interests required required annexation. annexation. I am ests I am willing to adjourn the decision of that question until willing to adjourn the decision of that question until the period when it it shall shall arrive. a r r i v e .l3 the period when 1 3 Events were now reaching a climax. convention was to open the first of June. June. The Democratic If the President were to secure renomination, he would have to command command most of the South and New England, as well as Douglas' Douglas western 1 followers. followers. It was certain this could not be accomplished accomplished without some decisive action against British indignities. indignities. Then on May 2, of Weller Weller and 2, the day following the speeches of l3U.S., U . S . , Congressional Globe, Globe, 34th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1855-1856, Part 1, 1, 1071-72. 1071-72. 1 3 308 Douglas, Douglas, the Department Department of State received received copies of the captured proved j~ captured British correspondence which definitely definitely proved >* that the British government had agreed to supply the Costa muskets. Rican Army with two thousand muskets. The same letters expressed the conviction that the ill-concealed policy of ill-concealed policy America and introduce the United States was to annex Central America territories. slavery into the violated territories. Minister In addition, Minister Wheeler reported reported that the Costa Rican soldiers had fallen Wheeler upon unarmed unarmed American American citizens and murdered murdered them without without discrimination. Tinklepaugh's In less than a week Captain Tinklepaugh's protest against against the the British British boarding of the the Orizaba Orizaba was was protest boarding of placed before before the the President. President. placed Finally, on on May May 10 10 a a private private Finally, letter from from Minister Minister Dallas Dallas reported reported that that Lord Lord Clarendon Clarendon letter would not not recall recall his his minister minister in in Washington, Washington, despite despite his his would 14 proven complicity complicity in in the the enlistment enlistment question. question.^ proven 4 The situation with Great Britain had had become become intolerintoler­ able. able. Indignity after indignity had been heaped heaped upon upon the States, the President thus decided decided that decisive United States, action was imperative. action J Secretary Marcy had counseled Secretary l4Manning, IV, 509-11, M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, IV, 509-11, Congress, Senate, Senate, President Franklin Pierce, Pierce, 516; U.S., U.S., Congress, Message on Routes Between Between Atlantic and Pacific, 34th Cong., Cong., Sess., S. S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822, 822, 153-54, 153-54, cited herehere­ 1st Sess., U.S. Docs., Docs., S. S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Sere Ser. no. no. 822; 822; Nichols, after as U.S. Nichols, Pierce, 456, 456, 461. 461. Franklin Pierce, 14 I 309 deliberation too long. long. The week before a new minister from government had arrived arrived in Washington. the Rivas-Walker government ,»*,.. H. French, August{n Augustin Vijil Contrary to the notorious Parker H. was a native of Nicaragua, an educated educated and respectable respectable priest, well fitted to represent his country. clear. of action was finally clear. The course Notwithstanding the objecobjec­ Notwithstanding Presi­ tions of Marcy to the first part of his program, the Presidetermined to bid defiance to the British by receiving dent determined Vijil, and after that, summarily John F. T. T. Padre Vijil, that, to dismiss summarily Crampton. On May 15 he transmitted transmitted a message to both Congress. houses of Congress. After reviewing the importance of maintaining isthmian communication communication with the Pacific maintaining American controversy, controversy, coast and the history history of the Central American informed Congress that in keeping with the traditional traditional he informed policy of the United United States to recognize all de facto governments, he had received received the new minister from the governments, Republic of Nicaragua. Nicaragua. He explained explained that the complications complications Company and the interruption interruption of interwith the Transit Company communication had oceanic communication had made it imperative for such action to taken. action to be be taken. At the same time, time, Secretary Marcy wrote wrote Dallas that Secretary Marcy Crampton was to receive his passports, passports, and Commodore Paulding Crampton was dispatched dispatched with a war vessel to San Juan to investigate t 310 the Orizaba's Orizaba s protest. 1 Four days later Lord Lord Clarendon's Clarendon's polite and indirect refusal to recall Crampton was rereCrampton was ceived. •,• Consequently, on May 28, just as the 28, 1856, 1856, just Democratic the British Democratic convention convention was was assembling assembling in in Ohio, Ohio, the British minister was handed minister was handed his his passports. passports. Senator Mason immediSenator Mason immedi­ ately ately telegraphed telegraphed the the news news to to Cincinnati. Cincinnati. Only time time would Only would now far. now tell tell if if the the British British had had been been pushed pushed too too far. For For although they would would yield although there there was was a a strong strong feeling feeling that that they yield peaceably, Dallas had recently reported from London London that he believed believed the British were intent on bringing bringing the isthmus American under their control in order to disjoint the American Union, and that the news of Crampton's dismissal would Union, be followed by notice for his own passports. p a s s p o r t s .15 ^ War Clouds Pass long, however, before it became apparent It was not long, that the United United States Senate's ear was much closer to to the British pulse than their ministers in London. News that l5Manning, U.S., ^ M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 525; 525; U.S., Congressional Globe, Globe, 34th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1855-1856, 1855-1856, Part 2, 2, 1238-39; Nichols, Nichols, Franklin Pierce, 462-63; 462-63; Williams, Williams, Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmain Diplomacy, 212-13. 212-13. I 311 Washington had recognized recognized the Rivas-Walker government government reached London a few days before before the report of Crampton'$~ Crampton*s* dismissal and was immediately immediately greeted greeted by a conciliatory conciliatory tone in the press. press. disapproved, While the act was highly disapproved, consensus that it was no cause for war. war. there was a aonsensus Smarting from the recent outcome of the Crimean War, War, the clearly pointed press clearly pointed out the folly of entering a much more serious contest with America, and astutely predicted that the President's decision was influenced influenced by a desire desire hostilities. for renomination rather than an intent to open hostilities. commenting on the anticipated anticipated dismissal of Crampton, Crampton, In commenting Tele­ there was also a plea for caution, while the News and Tele- graph doubted that it would call for sending Dallas,away.16 Dallas,away.^ In early June, June, Dallas met with with Lord Clarendon to States' position. explain the United United States·' position. Secretary Marcy. letters from Secretary He read to him two In the letter on the enlistment controversy, Marcy explained explained that while the enlistment United accepted the assurance of the British governgovern­ United States accepted authorized no violation of the law, the ment that they had authorized Crampton had been dismissal of Crampton been necessary necessary because of his l6London 4, 1856; London London News, News, •^London Times, Times, June 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 1856; London Telegraph, June 2, 2, 1856; London-Press, London Press, June 4, 4, 1856; 1856; quoted in Littell's Living Age, June 2, 2, 1856; Age, Second 112-22. Series, XIV (July, August, September, 1856), 112-22. I I 312 acts; however, the United personal acts; United States was anxious to continue diplomatic relations with Great Britain. The . , * I • second letter on the Central American American question was also temperate in manner manner and expressed expressed a desire to negotiate negotiate 17 an acceptable settlement. settlement.U The conciliatory the London press press was conciliatory attitude of the reflected in Lord Lord Clarendon's response. response. In reporting the interview to Washington, Dallas informed informed Marcy interview Marcy that after listening to the two letters, letters, Lord Clarendon Clarendon concluded listening emphatically declaring that the United by emphatically United States "did not seem to be aware of the immense immense change which had taken seem place in their public opinion and their policy policy as respects colonial establishments; and that while Great Britain Britain could occu­ not submit to be be pushed pushed out of a place place she actually occuwould not give three coppers to retain any post pied, he would on the Central American American territory or coast from which she could honorably could honorably retire." Dallas then continued continued to say that the impressions impressions made made upon upon his his mind mind by by all all that was said said by by the that was emphasized that "a real disposition exists Lord Clarendon emphasized l7U.S., l^u.S., Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, The Proposed Proposed Interoceanic Interoceanic Ship Canal, Doc. 161, 161, Canal, 56th Cong.,.1stSess., Cong., 1st Sess., 1899-1900, 1899-1900, S. S. Doc. Ser. no. 3853, 2-10, 2-10, cited cited hereafter as U.S. U.S. Docs., Docs., S. S. Doc. Doc. Ser. no. 3853, Ser. rioV. 3853; Williams, Williams, Anglo-American Anglo-American Is Isthmian 161, Ser. no-~. 3-853; thmian 213-16. Diplomacy, 213-16. 313 to close all controversy and Central Central America, controversy about the treaty and America, if it can be done without seeming to be coerced, and .com-, com­ ," patibly with what are esteemed to be the obligations of 18 protectorate."1® honor on the score of the protectorate." Three days after the interview, the same conciliconcili­ atory attitude was revealed in the House of Commons when Lord John Russell moved to preclude any governmental governmental retaliation in consequence of Crampton's dismissal. dismissal. Russell reflected reflected the the interests interests of of the the British British manufacturing manufacturing disdis­ tricts who were decidedly of the opinion that trade trade with the was of the United United States, States, particularly particularly in in cotton, cotton, was of far far greater value than greater value than any any possessions possessions in in Central Central America. America. He He urg~d urged the the desirability desirability of of retaining retaining Dallas Dallas in in order order to to pursue pursue the the discussions discussions opened opened by by him him on on the the Central Central American American question question and and dwelled dwelled strongly strongly upon upon the the misfortunes misfortunes which which would would result result from from war war between between the the two two countries. countries. In keepIn keep­ ing ing with with the the spirit spirit manifested manifested by by Lord Lord Clarendon, Clarendon, Viscount Viscount Palmers ton assured the House of Commons that Dallas Dallas would Palmerston not be dismissed and expressed expressed the govemmeIit"£ government? Is willingness willingness to enter into negotiations with ~im him to settle the Central American question. question. "It would be lamentable in the extreme," l8U.S. 3853, 33-35. U . S . Docs., Docs., S. S. Doc. Doc. 161, 161, Sere Ser. no. no. 3853, 33-35. 1 8 314 he concluded, "if two countries which have so many interests int e r e s t s in common perverseness of any man, bE)•,. common should, through the perverseness D e brought hostility with brought into into a a state state of of hostility with each each other.,,19 other."-'9 Under such conciliatory manifestations the the war conciliatory manifestations war clouds quickly passed, passed, leaving conditions more favorable favorable than before for peaceful settlement the dispute. than ever ever before for a a peaceful settlement of of the dispute. The United States had taken taken aa firm The United States had firm stand stand and and appeared appeared ready ready to enforce the Monroe Doctrine as a last resort. resort. to Under Under the threat threat of having to fight to retain all of her her pospos­ osessions in Central America, the the British decided decided to neg nego­ tiate for a peaceful retention of her settlements in the Belize, in return for an honorable withdrawal from the Bay Islands and the Mosquito protectorate. Although Although called for a comcom­ strong advocates of the Monroe Doctrine called was plete British withdrawal, withdrawal, the majority majority of the Senate ~as British to willing to recognize the limited rights of the British provided their settlements in the Belize under the treaty, provided south. they withdraw withdraw from the establishments to the south. Thus, Thus, although negotiations were painfully extended over the painfully extended honorable next three years while suitable arrangements for an honorable !9T. C. G. Hansard, (ed.), Hansard's Parliamentarj[ Parliamentary 19T. Series, CXLII, CXLII, 1502-09, 1502-09, (London, 1856), Third Series, Debates (London, quoted in Williams, Williams, Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, Diplomacy,, 218-23. 217-18, also see 218-23. 315 British withdrawal were were sought, a peaceful atmosphere prepre­ vailed throughout the remainder of the decade. decade. vai1ed ,,~* I The first effort at settlement was reached on The settlement was 1856, when Dallas and Clarendon signed a treaty August 27, 27, 1856, Webster-Crampton designed to carry forth the purposes of the Webster-Crampton Convention of 1852. 1852. Convention Like that project, it was a set of adjustment to be offered offered to Nicaragua and proposals for adjustment Rica, after ratification American Costa Rica, ratification by the British British and American governments. governments. established restricted It established restricted boundary boundary limits for the Mosquito Indians under the sovereignty sovereignty of Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Greytown re­ Grey town was to be made a free city with a free port in reMosquitos turn for which it was to pay an indemnity to the Mosquitos for a limited period. Costa Rica was given free use of the San Juan harbor and certain rights of navigation on the river, while her boundary river, boundary dispute with Nicaragua was to be arbitrated by the British and American arbitrated American government. The Bay Islands, in consideration consideration of a treaty recently completed completed Islands, Honduras, were recognized as between Britain and Honduras, were to be be recognized Honduras. free territory territory under the the Republic Republic of Honduras. And the limits of of the Belize boundary boundary were be defined defined by by treaty treaty limits the Belize were to to be between Britain Britain and and Guatemala Guatemala as as they existed at at the the signing signing between they existed of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty Treaty on on April April 19, 19, 1850. 1 8 5 0 .20 of the C1aytoI1-Bu1wer 2 0 20U.S. U . S . Docs., Docs., S. S. Doc. Doc. 161, 161, Sere Ser. no. no. 3853~ 3853-, 59-65. 59-65 2 0 r 316 Although President President Pierce approved approved the treaty and mentioned this mentioned it favorably in his last annual message, message, this •,* ,. early indication of a rapid rapid settlement was was soon upset by the Buchanan administration. the Buchanan administration. While Pierce's demands While Pierce's demands on on the British became more modest after his failure at reno~irenomi­ nation, thus thus indicating his earlier actions had had been indicating that his politically President James politically influenced, influenced, President James Buchanan Buchanan and and his his new Secretary were both both strong advoSecretary of State Lewis Cass were advo­ cates of the the Monroe Monroe Doctrine Doctrine and inclined to hold the British to stricter terms of settlement. The Da11asDallas- ratification Clarendon Convention therefore failed of ratification when the two governments were unable to come to terms on Islands. British withdrawal from the Bay Islands. Following the failure of repeated attempts at Following the ratification, the Buchanan administration revealed revealed a strong inclination inclination toward abrogating abrogating the C1ayton-Bu1wer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. Treaty. In an effort to offset this tendency, the the British governgovern­ ment arranged arranged to send a special commissioner commissioner to Central America to negotiate treaties with each of the republics interpretation of the on terms favorable to the American American interpretation treaty. treaty. The commissioner, Sir William William Gore Ouse1ey, Ouseley, was then sent to Washington Washington to inform inform Buchanan Buchanan of his mission in an effort to forestall a proposal to annul the treaty l 317 at the next session of Congress. Congress. Notwithstanding Notwithstanding this . proposal, in his first annual message of December December 8, 8, 1857, 1857,,, proposal, • the President reviewed the opposing views of the treaty Dallas ^-Clarendon and the abortive attempts to ratify the Dallas~Clarendon Convention. Convention. He attributed attributed these failures to the British insistence on leaving the Bay Islands under her influence sovereignty of HonHon­ while only nominally recognizing the sovereignty duras. duras. suggested that the wisest course would He then suggested would be consent. to abrogate the treaty by mutual consent. Although in concluding, he mentioned mentioned that the British had recently made overtures for adjusting the difficulties, difficulties, he was not prepre­ renewed effort pared to express an opinion whether this renewed 2l would result in success. success.^1 Somewhat taken back by the lack of cordiality cordiality shown toward its recent recent overtures and the equivocal nature nature of the President's message, now determessage, the British government government now deter­ mined that it would be inconsistent with its dignity to take any action until the United States gave formal answer arbitration. to a previous proposal of arbitration. When no answer was forthcoming, primarily due to the absorbing nature of the informed that the Kansas question, Secretary Cass was informed 2lRichardson, 2lRi chardson, Messages and Papers of the Presidents, Presidents, 2972-76; Williams, Diplomacy, 227-40. Williams, Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, 227-40 318 British government was willing to-consent to consent to unconditional unconditional abroga tion. abrogation. However, it was tactfully tactfully pointed pointed out that However, I,. ,(* while abrogation of the treaty would throw Central America America open to to the United United States, Britain would retain retain her her terri­ terriStates, Britain torial claims in the Belize and the the Bay Islands. Islands. The The Buchanan Buchanan administration administration was was now now confronted confronted with with three the dispute: three alternatives alternatives for for settling settling the dispute: the the Ouseley Ouseley mission, arbitration, or abrogation of the the treaty. treaty. Serious attention had never been given to arbitration because any arbitrator acceptable to the British British would most likely interests. render a decision against United States interests. While the aim of both Buchanan and Cass was to uphold the Monroe Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and Doctrine by disposing of the Clayton-Bulwer forcing the British out of Central America, neither they nor the country country were inclined inclined to push the question to the point of hostilities. hostilities. It now appeared appeared that the British backed as far as they would had backed would peaceably peaceably go in the face American government. government. of the strong stand taken by the American alternatives. Hence there were really only two alternatives. If the abrogated unconditionally, the British would treaty were abrogated remain in the Belize and the Bay Islands. Islands. In such a situation, tensions would only be increased. The United Doctrine, States would would be honor bound to call upon the Monroe Doctrine, 319 the British would refuse to yield, and hostilities would most likely commence. commence. Faced squarely with the probability that continued probability that demands demands for for all-out all-out enforcement enforcement of of the the Monroe Monroe Doctrine Doctrine would turned to would lead lead to to war, war, the the Buchanan Buchanan administration administration turned to the course of the Ouse1ey Ouseley mission mission as as the the most most acceptable acceptable course of action. action. There that aa special There was was a a distinct distinct possibility possibility that special commissioner commissioner would be able to negotiate treaties providing for an acceptable withdrawal, and though Britain would remain in the Belize, never demanded Belize, the United States had never that she do more than withdraw withdraw from the Mosquito coast and the Bay Islands. Islands. Under these circumstances isthmian commu­ isthmian commu- nication would be safeguarded safeguarded and the C1ayton-Bu1wer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty would be vindicated. While such a situation would would be stopping a step short of the Monroe Doctrine, Congress Congress as aa whole had never indicated indicated that it would go further than holding Britain to her obligations under the C1ayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. Secretary Cass thus notified the British government that the United States favored the Ouse1ey Ouseley mission as the most likely method of settling the dispute. dispute. That this this move That was in keeping with the view of the majority of of Congress substantiated when a joint was substantiated joint resolution calling calling for speedy 320 abrogation May and abrogation of the treaty failed of ratification ratification in May December of 1858. 1858. December Yet the influence of the extreme advo-I .• definitely increasing cates of the Monroe Doctrine was definitely increasing with each delay of the settlement. Whereas the resolution resolution was voted down in the Senate by 110 to 39 in May, there was a margin of 93 to 90 in December. close margin But as the danger of internal disunion came more and more to occupy the minds of the American was left American people, people, the Buchanan administration administration was to conduct the negotiations as it saw fit. fit. Consequently, Consequently, although Cass repeatedly drew the attention attention of the British to the danger of continued relations concontinued delay, cordial relations con­ tinued to exist, and after two frustrating years, years, the the objects 22 of of the the Ouseley Ouseley mission mission were were final~y finally accomplished. accomplished.22 The The slow slow progress progress of of the the Central Central American American negotianegotia­ tions was caused in part by the intense jealousies jealousies of NicaNica­ ragua and Costa Rica together with the intrusions of an obscure Parisian speculator, M. Felix Belly, of which which more chapter. will be heard in the next chapter. Further delay was also ability which neces­ encountered due to Ouse1ey's Ouseley s lack of ability encountered which necesf sitated the appointment appointment of another another agent. agent. sitated However, definite 22U•S., 22u.S., Congressional Globe, Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1857-1858, Globe, 35th 1857-1858, Part 2, 2, 1945; 1945; U.S., U.S., Congressional Congressional Globe, Congu,,. Sess., 1858-1859, Part 1, 1, 9; Williams, Ang1oAngloCong~ ',. 2nd Sess., American Isthmian Diplomacy, 240-59. American Isthmian 240-59. I I 321 progress was made, made, and by by August 1860 satisfactory satisfactory copies Honduras, and Nicaragua of ratified ratified treaties with Guatemala, Honduras, were transmitted transmitted to Washington. Washington. By the the three treaties treaties Britain independently independently adjusted adjusted her position in Central America to accord with the United America to States interpretation the C1ayton-Bu1wer interpretation of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. The boundary between the Belize Belize territories territories and Guatemala was defined as it existed previous to, to, and on the first day of, of, 1850. January 1850. The Bay Islands were recognized recognized as a part Honduras, with the terms of restoration restoration of the Republic of Honduras, simply providing property and freedom freedom simply providing for the protection protection of property inhabitants. of religion for British inhabitants. Terri­ The Mosquito Terri- claimed by Greytown, recog­ tory claimed by Nicaragua, including Grey town , was was recogsovereignty of Nicaragua; the British nized as under the sovereignty agreed to withdraw withdraw their protectorate over the Indians within three months of ratification ratification of the treaty; and 23 Greytown was to to be free port. port.23 Grey town was be aa free corresponded almost The arrangements therefore corresponded exactly to the Dallas-Clarendon Dallas-Clarendon Convention as amended by the United States Senate. Senate. Although the British British were not 23U.S., " U . S . , Congress, Congress, Senate, The C1ayton-Bu1wer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and the Monroe Doctrine, 47th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1881-1882, 1881-1882, Ex. D o c 194, 194, Sere Ser. no. no. 1991, 1991, 146-54, 146-54, cited hereafter as Ex. Doc. U.S. Docs., Docs., Ex. Ex. Doc. Doc. 194, 194, Sere Ser. no. no. 1991. 1991. U.S. 322 completely completely out of Central America, as demanded demanded by extreme American government.~ government,* advocates of the Monroe Doctrine, the American had never formally insisted that Britain do more than than re­ reterri­ strict herself to her limited rights in the Belize territories. tories. 1850, as clariclari­ Under the terms of the Treaty of 1850, exchanged at the time of ratifications, ratifications, fied by the notes exchanged remained in quesques­ British title to these possessions still remained tion. tion. The Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was vindicated, the spect'e.r specter communication was rere­ of British interference with isthmian communication comfortably moved, and the shadow of the Monroe Doctrine lay comfortably over most of the isthmus. isthmus. With Abraham Abraham Lincoln elected and the more awesome specter of civil war drawing closer and closer, in his message of December December 1860 the President laid the ten-year dispute to rest. rest. After noting that that relarela­ char­ tions with Great Britain "are of the most friendly char- acter," he concluded that the "discordant "discordant constructions of between the two Governments, Governments, the Clayton and Bulwer treaty b~tween periods of the discussion bore a which at different pe~iods threatening aspect, have resulted in a final settlement satisfactory to this Government.,,24 Government."24 entirely satisfactory 24Richardson, the Presidents, 2^Richardson, Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 3170; for a detailed treadnent treatment of negotiations following the Dallas-Clarendon Dallas-Clarendon Convention see Williams, Anglo-American Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, 227-69. 227-69. CHAPTER VIII ." STRUGGLING STRUGGLING FOR SURVIVAL, SURVIVAL, 1857 ... 1869 1857-1869 Preparations for War While diplomatic negotiations were slowly moving settlement of the long-standing long-standing dispute toward a peaceful settlement between the United United States and Great Britain, the removal William Walker in May 1857 was followed by an extended of William struggle for control of the Nicaragua route. route. The agents American capitalists, together of three opposing groups of American alternately with an obscure Parisian speculator, descended alternately upon Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Rica. As these two rival claimants claimants annulled charters to the contending contending to the route granted and annulled aspect of a complicompli­ companies, the affair soon took on the the"aspect cated legal maze. maze. Although the tangled relations were Company quieted long enough for the Central American Transit Company to reopen the route with regular sailings in the fall of 1864, continued continued complications complications with Nicaragua over their 324 charter finally brought brought about a permanent closing of the . 1868, route in April 1868. I • At the end of the the war against Walker, Costa Rica was in possession possession of the the river and lake steamers and the fort at Castillo Viejo. Viejo. Determined to take advantage of Determined to ., , ". these gains, gains, she sent General Jose Maria Canas to conso1iconsoli­ date her position position by treaty treaty with Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Still feeling sentiments of gratitude for Cos ta Rica's aid in the late Costa Nicaragua conceded the steamers and fort and agreed war, Nicaragua conceded the war, to a favorable boundary dispute. favorable adjustment adjustment of of the boundary dispute.1 1 Meanwhile, President President Juan R. took further R. Mora took action to obtain a share of the transit. transit. In December December 1856 he had granted provisional transit W. R. he had granted a a provisional transit contract contract to to W. R. C. C. Webster in behalf behalf of Vanderbilt. refused the terms. terms. However, Vanderbilt Vanderbilt had consequently went over to Webster consequently Morgan and Garrison and returned to Costa Rica to secure charter. modifications to his charter. Vanderbilt Vanderbilt in turn secured the services of Webster's former secretary secretary to secure a concon­ tract for the Accessory Accessory Transit Company. After weighing agents' propositions, on July 14, 1857, 1857, President Mora both agents,' July 14, 1Cauty town , August 1, C a u t y to Green, Green, Grey Greytown, 1, 1857, 1857, FO 53 15, Vol. Vol. 41; 41; Letter of George F. Cauty, (Mosquito), Reel 15, F. Cauty, 15, Vol. Vol. 42; 42; Manning, Manning, 18, 1857, 1857, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 15, May 18, 1851-1860, 589. 589. Central America, 1851-1860, 1 325 signed a new contract with Webster and Israel C. C. Harris, Harris, Morgan's son-in-1aw. son-in-law.2 2 .• j* I • At the same time Costa Rica was arranging to to reopen the transit with Webster and Harris, Harris, the Nicaraguan minister in Washington, Antonio Jose negotiating to Jose de Irisarri, Irisarri, was negotiating amend and Pacific amend the the 1849 1849 charter charter of of the the American American Atlantic Atlantic and Pacific Ship Ship Canal Canal Company. Company. On an amended On June June 19, 19, 1857, 1857, he he signed signed an amended contract with President H. H, G. G. Stebbins. Stebbins. The convention was then then sent sent to to Nicaragua Nicaragua and and received received the the approval approval of of the the government on July 27.^ 27. 3 Such divergent activities soon led to preparations republics. for war between the two republics. completing the After completing Harris, President Mora sent convention with Webster and Harris, 2Captain ^Captain Harty to James Green, August 1, 1857, 1857, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 15, 15, Vol. Vol. 41; 41; British and Foreign State Papers, XLVII, 710; James Geddes to Secretary Secretary of State, State, Papers, XLVII, 710; 10, 1857, 1857, FO 21 (Costa Rica), R i c a ) , Reel 3, 3, Vol. 10; Alta July 10, Vol. 10; September 16, 16, 1857; 1857; San Francisco Bullet~ Bulletin, California, September December 17, 17, 1857; 1857; New York Times, Times, July 27, 27, 28, 28, August December August 15, 15, September 4, 4, 1857. 1857. September 3Charter the American ^Charter and Act of Incorporation Incorporation of the American Atlantic & (New York: & Pacific Ship Canal Company,As Company, As Amended Amended (New York: M. M. W. W. Siebert, 1858), passim; "Extracts from Convention and and Pacific and Amended Amended Charter Charter of of the the American American Atlantic Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company, 19 June 1857, and explanatory Ship Canal Company, 19 June 1857, and explanatory articles articles respecting 1857," R. R. N. N. Pim, Pirn, The The Gate Gate respecting the the same, same, 15 15 October October 1857," of the Pacific (London: 428-32; (London: Lovell Reeve & & Co., Co., 1863), 428-32; British and Foreign State Papers, New York York Times, Times, Papers, XLVII, XLVII, 719; 719; New March 27, 27, 1858. 1858. 326 however, General Canas Ca~as to obtain the sanction of Nicaragua; however, discovered that the Stebbins- .~ + upon arriving at Granada he discovered i Irisarri Contract had already been ratified. When Nicaragua refused to yield, Costa Rica gave notice that the late adjustment of the boundary boundary was unacceptable and that she adjustment force 4 would uphold the Webster-Harris Contract by force. To further complicate these strained complicate these strained relations, relations, in keeping with with its strong stand on the the Central American American quesques­ tion, tion, the Buchanan administration administration warned Costa Rica to refrain from turning turning the war into one of territorial concon­ quest and advised to restore the transit to its former advised her to condition 5 condition. Undaunted by such warnings, warnings, in October 1857 Colonel Undaunted by George F. the steamer San Carlos, F, Cauty, commander commander of the Carlos, notinoti­ fied the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan authorities at Fort San Carlos and GreyGrey­ town that because of Nicaragua's inability to defend the transit against another invasion by Walker, Walker, he was ordering the surrender of Fort San Carlos to insure better custody of the river. river. commander of the fort refused When the commander refused to proceeded to surrender, Colonel Cauty proceeded to blockade blockade the the river 4Manning, ^Manning, Central America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, 622-23. 622-23 5Ibid., Ibid., 95-98, 95-98, 624-25. 624-25. 5 327 and lake, Nicaraguan government lake, the fiscal employee of the Nicaraguan government at Castillo Viejo was dismissed, and armed forces were 6 placed at Tortuga. Tortuga.^ Upon receiving news of the blockade, the Nicaraguan government war waged by government decreed that it would accept the w a r waged Costa Rica and would raise the necessary force to to preserve outraged rights. rights. the line of transit and to vindicate her outraged , ;' Martinez was placed The following day General Tomas Mart1nez placed at the head of the army, and he proceeded proceeded to Granada Granada to raise war. troops for the war. Jerez also departed departed for General Maximo Jlrez 7 quarter.? Leon to gather forces in that quarter. When President Mora learned of Nicaragua's Nicaragua's reaction appointed two commissioners commissioners to proceed to the blockade, blockade, he appointed peace. to Rivas to treat _for peace. arrival, Shortly after their arrival, news was received received that Walker had landed at Punta Arenas on November November 24, 24, and that a force of filibusters uras: ~as: moving river. up the river. Under the immediate threat of invasion invasion the war clouds quickly dispersed. The negotiators rapidly 6George G e o r g e F. F. Cauty to James Green, Green, October 13, 13, 1857, 1857, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 14, 14, Vol. Vol. 40; 40; San Francisco Francisco Bulletin, Bulletin, December December 1, December 2, 2, 1857; 1857; New York Times, Times, November November 30, 30, December 1, 1857. 1857. 6 7New ?New York Times, Times, December December 1, 1, 1857; 1857; San Francisco December 2, 2, 1857. 1857. Bulletin, December . i .. ..... 328 arranged their differences. differences. A defensive alliance was was formed A and on December • December 8, 8, 1857, 1857, a Convention of Peace was signed signed,* •• at Rivas. Rivas. Unknown to the negotiators, on that that very day Unknown Walker's force surrendered Paulding at surrendered to Commodore Commodore Hiram Hiram Paulding 8 Punta Arenas. Arenas,® The Finale of Filibustering Filibustering After Walker Walker surrendered to Commander Davis, he he and surrendered to Commander Davis, his staff had been been conveyed the St. Mar~. conveyed to Panama on the St. Mary. They then traveled traveled to the United States, New Orleans States, reaching New on May 27, 27, 1857. 1857. From New Orleans Walker journeyed journeyed to to From New Memphis, Louisville, Cincinnati, Washington, and New York. York. Everywhere he was greeted by curious crowds anxious to take a look at the famous filibuster. filibuster. Walker responded by speaking at several mass meetings where he gave a synopsis cause. of his career in Nicaragua and defended his cause. When he 8Manning, America, 1851-1860, New York b a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 631; 631; New December 1, 1, 1857; 1857; British and Foreign State Papers, Papers. Times, December XLIX, ^1222-23; U.S., Congress,; Senate:'; Senate', President James XLIX, ,1222-23; U:. $. ~ . Co~gress William Walker. Buchanan, Message on the Arrest of William Walker, 35th Sess., 1857-1858, 1857-1858, S. S. Doc. Doc. 13, 13, Sere Ser. no. no. 918, 918, 24, Cong., 1st Sess., 24, U.S. Docs., Docs., S. S. Doc. Doc. 13, 13, Sere Ser. no. no. 918. cited hereafter as U.S. 918 . 329 and General Henningsen attended attended Wallack's Theatre in New York, the orchestra struck up "Hail, "Hail, Columbia," and Walker .. York, I • compelled to address the audience from his bbx before was compelled the performance commenced. The hero worship of the New faded, however, when the Wabash came into Yorkers quickly faded, filibusters, many of whom port with the remaining destitute filibusters, indifference. told tales of their leader's cruelty and indifference. Walker's popularity popularity also suffered suffered greatly when he failed to visit or even take steps to alleviate the distress of those cause. who had suffered for his cause. Instead, he hurried away for Mobile to make preparations for another expedition to Nicaragua. Nicaragua. By August August the the press press was was periodically periodically reporting reporting By the activities activities of of Walker's Walker's agents agents in in New New York, York, Mississippi, Mississippi, the Texas, and and New New Orleans. O r l e a n s .9 Texas, 9 The publication publication of facts and rumors about the the propro­ posed expedition caused the Central American American ministers to States, in appeal to Secretary Lewis Cass for the United States, embarkation of the case it might not be able to prevent the embarkation expedition, to order vessels of war to preclude its landing in Central America. administration Although the Buchanan administration was strongly strongly in favor of abrogating abrogating the Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty 9New N e w York Hera1d,_ Herald, June 17-19, 17-19, December 14, 14, 1857; 1857; Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, Financiers, 316-18. 316-18. 9 330 Doctrine, there was no place in and enforcing the Monroe Doctrine, their plans plans for an ousted filibuster. filibuster. The sentiments ..- expressed the year before in behalf of recognition of the Rivas-Walker government by prominent Democratic leaders were made at the height of the crisis with Great Britain and before __Walker was forced out of Nicaragua. To support an expedition which Walker publicly publicly avowed was for the purpose expedition of forcing his return to power in Nicaragua, an act clearly neutrality law, law, was a completely completely difdif­ in violation of the neutrality question. ferent question. September 18, 18, 1857, Consequently, on September 1857, Secretary Cass addressed a circular letter to all the United attorneys, marshals and collectors of the ports of States attorneys, the Atlantic states notifying them of the intended intended expediexpedi­ tion and urging urging them to use due diligence and and all all legitilegiti­ mate means to prevent any violation of the neutrality neutrality law. law. The The same same instructions instructions were were also also sent sent to to American American military military lO and naval naval officers. officers.10 As a result of these instructions, the the federal authorities at New Orleans looked with suspicion when when the advertised to sail for Greytown steamer Fashion was advertised Grey town as a 10U.S., James Buchanan, l^U.S., Congress, Congress, House, House, President James Buchanan, Message on Seizure of General William William Walker, 35th Cong., Cong., Sess., 1857-1858, 1857-1858, H. H. Doc. Doc. 24, 24, Sere Ser. no. no. 950, 950, 4-6, 9, 9, 1st Sess., U.S. Docs., Docs., H. H. Doc. Doc. 24, 24, Sere Ser. no. cited hereafter as U.S. no. 950. 950. , l ~ 331 regular packet packet of the Mobile and Nicaragua Nicaragua Steamship ComCom­ pany Fashion had had recently been purchased purchased by by J. G. pany.. . The Fashion G. , Humphries, to be Humphries, a a man man suspected suspected to be a a supporter supporter of of Walker. Walker. On . • November 10 Walker was arrested arrested on charges of violating the neutrality the steamer neutrality law law and and the steamer was was searched. searched. When nothing When nothing suspicious board, the was allowed to suspicious was was found found on on board, the steamer steamer was allowed to sail Mobile. sail for for Mobile. The The next next day day Walker Walker was was released released on on bail bail to reappear for nineteenth. to reappear for examination examination on on the the nineteenth. In In spite spite of that he was under under bail, bail, Walker of the the fact fact that he was Walker took took passage passage on on the mail mail boat boat for Mobile and was was joined joined at different points by more more of his followers. followers. At Mobile they boarded the Fashion boarded the which was anchored some distance down the bay. bay. When Walker's Orleans, the district attorney departure became known in New Orleans, sent word word to the authorities at Mobile to watch for the steamer. arrival of the steamer. acted The collector of the,port thelPortacted inspection. on the message and boarded boarded the Fashion for inspection. determined that the cargo was above suspicion However, he determined and that the 270 passengers were apparently apparently lawful emigrants. emigrants. Greytown. The vessel was therefore allowed to depart for Grey town. censured later, later, but the damage The collector was severely censured already been done. had already done. The escape of the Fashion caused government to increase its vigilance in order to prevent the government Walker. reinforcements from reaching Walker. The authorities at 332 Galveston and New New Orleans were were ordered to to keep a sharp looklook­ steam frigate out for the return of the steamer, and the steam , .. Susquehanna was ordered to proceed to Cape Gracios, Gracios, Honduras Susguehanna to skirt the coast to San Juan del Norte and remain there orders .ll ^ for further orders. Walker and his men arrived aboard the the Fashion at Walker San Juan del Norte on November November 24, 24, 1857. 1857. About fifty men disembarked at the mouth under Colonel Frank Anderson were disembarked of the Colorado River with instructions to proceed proceed up the river to capture the the steamers and Castillo Viejo. Viejo. The next morning the Fashion entered San Juan harbor under a full head of steam, passed right by the American American sloop-of-war sloop-of-war Arenas. Saratoga and ran up to the wharf at Punta Arenas. The commander of the Saratoga later explained explained that he thought commander the steamer carried a party sent to open the transit route and expected her to anchor in the harbor. harbor. by, he b~he When she passed immediately sent a boat to examine her, her, but Walker immediately and about one hundred hundred fifty men were already already ashore before the boat arrived. When examination proved When the examination proved the vessel determined that to be be properly cleared from Mobile, Mobile, he determined that his extremity of taking instructions did not not authorize the the extremity llU.S. H. Doc. Doc. 24, no. 950, U . S . Docs., Docs., H. 24, Sere Ser. no. 950, 14, 14, 23-27, 23-27, 56. 35-46, 56. U t 333 333 action on on foreign soil. soil. Feeling much embarrassed embarrassed at the turn of affairs, the commander the horne affairs, he sent for the commander of the home 12 squadron at Aspinwall. Aspinwall.^2 Walker Walkdr made his camp on Punta Arenas and waited for the arrival reinforcements under under General for the arrival of of reinforcements General Henningsen Henningsen and word word from Colonel Anderson Anderson up the river. river. The men men were beginning when aa canoe beginning to to show show signs signs of of discouragement discouragement when canoe finally with news finally arrived arrived late late in in the the afternoon afternoon of of December December 5 5 with news that had taken taken the Viejo as that Anderson Anderson had the fort fort at at Castillo Castillo Viejo as well well as three river steamers and the lake steamer Virgin. Virgin. The merriment that night gave way way to to grave doubts the next steam frigate Wabash, carrying the pennant morning when the stearn Commodore Hiram Hiram Paulding, anchored anchored just har­ of Commodore just outside the harbor, directly opposite the filibuster camp. bor, The next day American as well as two British men-of-war steamed another American into v~ew. view. After arriving at San Juan del Norte Norte Commodore Commodore immediately proceeded Paulding immediately proceeded with arrangements to force Walker's surrender. Boats were were dispatched to blockade the dispatched to river, the Saratoga trained filibuster river, trained her broadside broadside on the filibuster inshore, camp, small boats with howitzers were ranged close inshore, 12U.S. no. 950, U . S . Docs., Docs., H. H. Doc. Doc. 24, 24, Ser. Ser. no. 950, 58-59. 58-59 1 2 L 334 and three hundred marines were landed in the rear of Walker's position. position. Walker* Under the threat of such superior forces, forces, Walker~ surrendered to Paulding on December December 8, 8, 1857. 1857. quietly surrendered On capture, the filibusters abandoned hearing of Walker's capture, Castillo Viejo and by December December 24 the remnants remnants of Walker's 13^ States. force were on their way back to the United States. The reaction in the United States to· to Walker's appeal. arrest was indicative of the shallowness of his appeal. indignation meetmeet­ Although he was dined and feted and many indignation ings were held in the South~ South, these were merely exuberant exuberant vocal manifestations manifestations which which quickly quickly died died away. away. vocal On On January January 7, 7, 1858, President President Buchanan Buchanan answered answered a a Senate Senate resolution resolution 1858, calling for for the the carrespondence correspondence and and instructions instructions connected connected calling with the the arrest arrest of of Walker Walker and and his his associates. associates. with mes­ In In his his mes- sage accompanying accompanying this this correspondence, correspondence, the the President expressed sage President expressed the opinion opinion that that although although Commodore Commodore Paulding Paulding had acted from from the had acted pure and and patriotic motives, he he had had committed committed a error pure patriotic motives, a grave grave error and exceeded exceeded his his instructions instructions in in capturing capturing Walker he and Walker after after he had landed landed on soil. had on Nicaraguan Nicaraguan soil. He maintained maintained that Walker He that if if Walker had been been intercepted intercepted at at any any period period before before the the steamer steamer entered entered had the port of San San Juan, Juan, his his capture capture would would have have been only the port of been not not only l3U.S. 60-75. U . S . Docs., Docs., H. H. Doc. Doc. 24, 24, Sere Ser. no. no. 950, 950, 60-75. 1 3 335 a justifiable but also aa praiseworthy act; act; but under the circir­ cumstances the executive department could not recognize Walker as a prisoner and he had been released. . . ** ~ He reaffirmed his belief that "it is beyond question the destiny of our America, race to spread themselves over the continent of North America, and this at no distant day, permitted to day, should events be permitted take their natural course. course. The tide of emigration emigration will flow to the South, S o u t h l aand n d nothing can eventually eventually arrest its progress. progress. If permitted permitted to go there, there, peacefully, Central America will soon contain an American American population, which will confer blessings and benefits as well upon the natives as their respective Governments." Governments," But, he added, if another expedition such as. as Walker's should "again evade the vigilance of our officers and proceed to Nicaragua, this this would would be fatal, fatal, at least for a season, to the peaceful settlement of these countrJes countries and to the policy of American American progress.,,14 progress." 14 In the congressional debates on the arrest of Walker, Walker, it was soon apparent that interest rested neither in the cause of Walker nor in manifest destiny in Central America. America. Rather, it centered upon those issues which were then Rather, threatening to dissemble the Union--in this instance the l4U.S., ^ U . S . , Congressional Globe, Globe, 35th Cong., Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1857-1858, Part 1, 1, 216-17. 216-17. 1 I 336 legality of our neutrality the extension of executive neutrality laws, laws, the executive authority to expatriate. authority in their enforcement, and the right to expatriate^ I. oneself to engage in a war. war. Jefferson Davis set the tone of the the southern position position by arguing that it was not not within the purpose of the purpose of our our "neutrality "neutrality laws laws to to create create an an espionage espionage system to stop any six, twenty, one hundred, or system in order to six, twenty, two men who who may may choose to leave the United two hundred hundred men choose to leave the United States. States. If they claim to be emigrants, emigrants, what right have we to inquire motives. into their future motives. They are not, not, in the sense in 1818, a military expedition, but which the term term was used in 1818, a mere handful of adventurers upon a transport-boat going down to a landing on the coast of Central America." He attacked the conclusion of the President that the authority attacked nayy in executing executing the neutrality to use the army and navy neutrality law allowed the extension of their use outside the jurisdiction of the United United States and stated, "I cannot consent, even by my silence, to give my approbation to this extension of the power of the Federal Government Government by the use of the Army perform acts the performance of which has not and Navy to perform devolved by law on the President." been devolved Yet he was not interested in Walker's cause and concluded, "What"What­ the least interested ever may may be his character, whatever may be his purpose, purpose, is subject into into which which II do do not not choose choose to to inquire. inquire. aa subject know II know 337 nothing of him. II have no sympathy sympathy with such expeditions.,,15 expeditions."-^ Stephen A. A. Douglas took a similar position against'~ against'* withdrawing the extension of presidential authority and, withdrawing from his earlier comparison comparison of Walker to the "host of ;: liberty~loving liberty-loving heroes who fought so gallantly gallantly for us in the revolutionary revolutionary war," stated, "Sir, "Sir, II have no fancy for this system system of filibustering. filibustering. II believe its tendency is to to defeat the very very object they have in view, to wit: wit: the extension extension of of the the area area of of freedom freedom and and the the American American flag.,,16 flag."-^ Throughout the rest of the debates it became became clearly evident whatever popular had enjoyed evident that that whatever popular appeal appeal Walker Walker had enjoyed was was of the beginning of a a nature nature similar similar to to the the Kossuth Kossuth craze craze at at the beginning of the most most ardent of the the decade decade.. . In In the the last last resort, resort, not not even even the ardent southern the administration southern attack attack on on Paulding Paulding and and the administration could could be be construed construed as an a~gument argument in behalf of Walker. Walker. A rootless A appeal from the first, of the the national first, he was now cast out of 17 mind. mind.17 While Walker never managed to return to Nicaragua, Nicaragua, While.Walker attempting he spent the remaining three years of his life attempting 15 "^U.S., U.S., Congressional Globe, Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1, 216-17. 1857-1858, Part 1, 216-17. l6Ibid., 16lbid., 223. 223. 17Ibid., I b i d . , 217-23, 217-23, 356~63, 356-63, 378, 378, 457-61, 457-61, 1538-41, 1538-41, 2209. 2209. 17 338 to do so. so. Although he lacked any real support even in the South, he continued • continued to attract enough adventurous souls tq ^ • keep the the federal authorities continually continually agitated over the possibility possibility of another expedition slipping off to Central America. The periodic reports reports of a projected The projected invasion also brought continued protests from the the Central American continued protests American minmin­ isters and and kept Nicaragua Nicaragua and and Costa Rica in a continual continual alarm over the possibility reappear­ state of alarm possibility of Walker's reappear- ance. ance. Many prominent leaders in both republics felt that if the transit route were reopened, the filibusters would utilize swarm over the isthmus. isthmus. its steamships to swarm Consequently, Consequently, these fears were projected projected into the negotiations with the United States and Great Britain for treaties of amity and capital­ commerce and were a major factor in thwarting the capita1route. istic struggles to reopen the transit route. As the creation of these fears was the only impact 1857, it will only be necesneces­ of Walker on the transit after 1857, sary to quickly sketch his third and final expedition to Central America. After an unsuccessful attempt attempt to return to San Juan del Norte in December 1858 and again in September September 1859, he gave up the idea of landing a large force at that port and turned to a new plan. plan. Following Following the November November 1859 treaty between Britain and Honduras providing providing for the 339 restoration of the the Bay Islands, representative of aa Islands, a representative group of discontented British subjects on the island of ,# I~ discontented British resump­ Ruatan invited Walker to aid them in resisting the resumpHonduras. tion of authority by Honduras. Walker at once seized upon the idea of expelling the Hondurans from Ruatan and using Nicaragua. this island as a base for launching an attack on Nicaragua. Preparations began at once and in order to escape the vigilant port authorities, authorities, small parties of men took passage to the island on the regular fruit vessels between April and June June of 1860. I860. As soon as the the Honduran and British authorities authorities received word word of the corning the filibusters, coming of the filibusters, they agreed to postpone postpone the the transfer transfer of the islands. islands. When Walker When arrived on the schooner Taylor, he took on board his entire command and set up camp on the small island of Cozumel to command place. wait for the transfer to take place. After a week on the island he reembarked reembarked and cruised cruised about three weeks waiting waiting island came and for the hauling for a supply vessel which never carne down of the British flag which never occurred. 1 Finally, Finally, for­ Walker formulated the desperate plan plan of capturing the forattempt tress of Truxillo on the the mainland mainland of Honduras Honduras in an attempt Ruatan. to force the government to turn over the island of Ruatan. The fort fort was captured on on August August 6, 6, 1860, 1860, but but Walker made The was captured Walker made ...... 340 the mistake mistake of abolishing abolishing the customs duties and making Truxillo port. Truxillo a a free free port. ( J On August August 19 the British sloop-of-war sloop-of-war Icarus under Commander Norvell Salmon entered the port, port, and Walker Walker was Commander Norvell entered the informed that the the port port was mortgaged to to the informed that was mortgaged the British British governgovern­ ment for a debt; hence, was ordered hence, he was ordered to surrender and rere­ turn the funds taken from the customhouse. Walker told the messenger to to return at ten o'clock the next next morning o'clock the for a reply; however, that night he abandoned the fort and proceeded along the coast toward Cape Gracias. Gracias. proceeded Native purpur­ suers were driven back on the twenty-third, but on reaching confronted by the Icarus and a the Rio R{o Negro, Negro, Walker was confronted soldiers. schooner bearing two hundred fifty Honduran soldiers. Once overbearing odds, odds, he surrendered surrendered to again under the face of overbearing the enemy. The entire force was returned returned to Truxillo uncondition­ aboard the Icarus, Icarus, and Walker was turned over unconditionally to the Honduran Honduran authorities. authorities. On September September 12, 12, 1860, 1860, gray-eyed man of destiny were ended for the dreams of the gray-eyed all time by a Honduran firing squad. Though Walker was hadacreated in the minds of the Central dead, the fears he hadL~created continued to live on for many years. y e a r s .18 Americans continued 1 8 18Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, Financiers, 368-97; 368-97; S c r o g g s , Filibusters Conspiracy 24, Conspiracy on Ruatan to invite filibusters, filibusters, February 24, 18 , 341 The Cass-Irisarri Treaty and the Belly Fiasco ~ . . While Walker Walker was was attempting to return to the the isthattempting to isth­ mus, the contention over the transit route moved rapidly complicated relationship. into a most complicated relationship. Costa Rica had 1860, Suspicious men arr1v1ng May 5, arriving Ruatan, May 5, 1860, 1860, Walker's arrival at Ruatan and departure, July 9, 1860, departure, July 1860, Walker and delay of transfer of islands, islands, July 31, 31, 1860, 1860, FO 39 (Honduras), Reel Reel 4, August 10, 10, 4, Vol. Vol. 9; Walker at Truxillo, August 1860, Walker's activities, August 23, 28, I860, Report Report of of Darling Darling on on Walker's activities, August 1860, Report of Captain Salmon on capture of Walker, Walker, September September 11, 11, 1860, 1860, Execution of Walker, October 4, 4, 1860, 1860, FO 39 (Honduras), Reel 4, 4, Vol. Vol. 10. 10. Further information on Walker's activities subseFurther subse­ quent to to May 1857 can be be found in: William K. in: William K. Rogers to General James Carson Jamison, "Reminiscences of William Walker's expedition in Nicaragua, Nicaragua, l855-l860,~' 1855-1860,?' February February 3, 3, 1910, MS in the the Bancroft Library; Manning, Central America, Bancroft Library; America, 1851-1860, 95-184, 95-184, 586-933; 586-933; U.S., U.S., Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, President James James Buchanan, Message on Affairs in Nicaragua, Nicaragua, 35th Cong., 1st Sess., 918; Sess., 1857-1858, 1857-1858, S. S. Doc. Doc. 13, 13, Sere Ser. no. no. 918; U.S., Congress, President James Buchanan, Message Congress, Senate, President on Arrest of William William Walker, Walker, 35th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1857S. Doc. Doc. 63, 63, Sere Ser. no. no. 930; 930; U.S., Congress, Senate, Senate, 1858, S. U.S., Congress, Affairs, 35th Senator J. M. Mason, Report on Nicaragua Affairs, Sess., 1857-1858, 1857-1858, S. S. Report 20, 20, Sere Ser. no. Cong., 1st Sess., no. 938; 938; Congress, House, U.S., Congress, House, President James Buchanan, Message on Seizure of General William William Walker, Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., Walker, 35th Cong., H. Doc. 24, Sere Ser. no. no. 950; 950; U.S., U.S., Congress, Congress, 1857-1858, H. Doc. 24, T. S. S. Bocock, House, Representative Representative T. Bocock, Report of Arrest of William Walker, 35th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1857-1858, 1857-1858, H. H. Report William Ser. no. 964; U.S., Congress, Senate, Senate, Secretary Secretary Isaac 74, Sere no. 964; U.S., Congress, Toucey, Report on Capture of General Walker, Walker, 35th Cong., Cong., Sess., 1858-1859, S. S. Doc. D o c 10, 10, Sere Ser. no. 981; FO 2nd Sess., no. 981; FO 53 (Mosquito), Reels 14 and 15, Vols. 40-42; FO 39 (Honduras), (Mosquito), Reels 14 and 15, Vols. 40-42; FO 39 (Honduras), 3, Vols. Vols. 8-9, Reel 4, Vols. Vols. 9, 10, 10, 13; 13; New Reel 3, Reel 4, New York Times, 1857-1860; New Times, 1857-1860; New New York Herald, 1857-1860; New Orleans 1857-1860. Picayune, 1857-1860. 342 annulled the Webster-Harris Webster-Harris Convention when the first installinstall­ ment was not forthcoming and then then agreed in the Conventio~~ Convention/ Stebbins-Irisarri of Peace with Nicaragua Nicaragua to recognize the Stebbins-Irisarri charter. charter. Irisarri was active in Washington behalf of Washington in behalf American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company. the American He advocated that the most certain way to end filibustering filibustering advocated was for the United States to guarantee the neutrality neutrality and security of the transit by treaty with Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Under the threat of an invasion by by Walker, his his proposal found favor with with Nicaragua. favor Nicaragua. The Buchanan administration administration was was also also The Buchanan anxious to reopen the the route and secure secure it it from from further further anxious to reopen route and interruption. interruption. Negotiations the signing signing of of the the Negotiations led led to to the Cass-Irisarri Treaty Treaty on on November 16, 1857, 1857, one week after after Cass-Irisarri November 16, one week the escape escape of of Walker Walker on on the the Fashion. Fashion. the In addition addition to the In to the usual stipulations stipulations of of a a treaty of amity amity and and commerce, commerce, the the usual treaty of United States States agreed agreed to to guarantee guarantee the the neutrality and secursecur­ United neutrality and ity of of any any route route of of communication communication which existed or or might might ity which existed be constructed. constructed. be The treaty was then sent to to Nicaragua Nicaragua The treaty was then sent with every every expectation expectation of of rapid ratification.19 19 with rapid ratification. 19British B r i t i s h and Foreign State Papers, Papers, XLIX, 1222-23; U.S., Congress, Congress, Senate, The Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and the Monroe Doctrine, 47th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., S. S. Doc. Doc. 194, 194, Sere Ser. no. no. 1991, 1991, 117-25, 117-25, cited hereafter as U.S. U.S. Docs., Docs., S. S. Doc. Doc. Ser. no. 1991. 194, Sere no. 1991. 19 343 treaty, Irisarri The day following the signing of the treaty, Secretary Cass that the American Atlantic and informed Secretary j * » •• ( company acknowledged acknowledged Pacific Ship Canal Company was the only company protection of the United by Nicaragua and entitled to the protection treaty. States under the treaty. With their contract ratified and the guarantee of the United States practically practically assured, assured, Company dispatched dispatched C. C. C. C. Fitzgerald Fitzgerald to make the Canal Company transit.20 ^ preparations for reopening the transit. 2 Irisarri's success in behalf of the Canal Company was not achieved without opposition. Vanderbilt had been Vanderbilt had actively endeavoring and was was still endeavoring to offset his actions and hopeful of securing the transit for the Accessory Accessory Transit Company. Prior to November November he had attempted to prevent attempted to the official recognition of Irisarri as the Nicaraguan minister minister to to the the United United States. States. In he wrote wrote to to In August August he General and lake General Canas, Canas, who who was was in in charge charge of of the the river river and lake steamers to turn turn over steamers for for Costa Costa Rica, Rica, and and encouraged encouraged him him to over the minister from the steamers steamers and and secure secure an an appointment appointment as as minister from both the transit. both countries countries with with full full powers powers to to dispose dispose of of the transit. Vanderbilt also rehired the services of W. R. C. C. Webster Webster to to W. R. accompany a new new mission accompany his son-in-law, Daniel B. B. Allen, on a 2~anning, M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, 630; 630; New York Times, Times, July 1, 1, 1858. 1858. 20 l 344 to Central America. Webster and Allen sailed for Central America toward the end of November 1857 with instructions tQ to prevent the the ratification ratification of the treaty treaty and obtain a new contract signed by both republics. republics. Shortly Shortly thereafter thereafter Domingo de Goicuria wrote wrote in behalf behalf of their mission to , . ' . Nicaragua. . General Maximo Max~mo Jerez ~n in N1caragua. He urged urged that the the treaty be altered with Allen Allen and explained altered in concurrence with explained the necnec­ essity because of essity of of recalling recalling Irisarri Irisarri because of his his connections connections with with the the filibusters. filibusters. He represented Vanderbilt He represented Vanderbilt as as the the only only one one 2l capable of immediately the transit. immediately opening the transit.^1 In early 1858 the transit affair presented presented the following picture. picture. After the removal of Walker, Morgan After evidently felt that their connection connection with the and Garrison evidently filibuster was too great of an obstacle to overcome, overcome, for they came to terms with Vanderbilt Vanderbilt for a disposition of their steamers and withdrew from the competition. Webster and America endeavoring endeavoring to obtain possesposses­ Allen were in Central America Vanderbilt. sion of the steamers and a transit charter for Vanderbilt. Company was attempting attempting to negotiate an extension The Canal Company of their charter on the grounds that the invasion of Walker had prohibited prohibited them from opening the route within the 2lManning, ^ M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, 108, 108, 636-38; 636-38; San Francisco Bulletin, December December 17, 17, 1858. 1858. 345 specified specified time limits. limits. Nicaragua and Costa Rica had had re­ re- surned ratify sumed their boundary controversy controversy after failing to ratify their territorial treaty. treaty. j*•• t j In January 1858 the United B. Lamar as minister to NicaNica­ States appointed Mirabeau B. Rica. ragua and Costa Rica. instructed to oppose Lamar was instructed transit. Costa Rica's efforts to extend control over the transit. contentions While he was advised to take no part in the contentions between rival companies, he was to insist that Nicaragua faithfully abide by her contracts. contracts. His primary mission was to seek favorable action on the Cass-Irisarri Cass-Irisarri Treaty.22 Treaty. 22 When Lamar arrived in Nicaragua, he reported reported that there was was a prevailing prevailing fear that the treaty, instead instead of closing, would would only open the door to filibustering. filibustering. "There is," he said, "" in all this country a a deep-seated is," he deep-seated terror, when the Americans are admitted terror, that, that, when admitted into it, it, the natives will be thrust aside--their nationality nationality lost,-their religion destroyed,--and be condestroyed,--and the common classes be con­ verted into hewers of wood and drawers of water." , He said that he was laboring hard to allay these apprehensions apprehensions and felt confident that the treaty would be ratified ratified in 22Lane, ^ L a n e , Commodore Vandfrbi1t, Vandprbilt, 133; 133; New York Times, Times, March 27, 27, 1858; 1858; Manning, Central America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, 104-07. z 346 23 spite of concerted concerted opposition. opposition. 23 Webster had had also arrived at Managua to obtain I,· i r f approval of a recent contract with Costa Rica for the purchase the river river and purchase of of the and lake lake steamers steamers for for $90,000. $90,000. He He informed informed the the government government that that the the Canal Canal Company Company would would not not be years, if be able able to to start start the the line line in in two two years, if at at all, all, while while Vanderbilt would bind bind himself himself to three months. Vanderbilt would to do do it it in in three months. He therefore urged urged that that the He therefore the Stebbins-Irisarri Stebbins-Irisarri Contract Contract be be annulled annulled in in favor favor of of a a new new one one with with Vanderbilt. Vanderbilt. At the At the same time John same time John E. E. Body Body and and Colonel Colonel Louis Louis Schlessinger Schlessinger were were seeking an extension of the the Stebbins-Irisarri Stebbins-Irisarri charter. charter. They reported that the company company had $2 million in cash and six steamers ready to open the route at one^er, one~, and presented certified by Irisarri that Vanderbilt documents certified Vanderbilt proposed to overth"ow overthrow the Nicaragua Nicaragua interest in the transit in favor R i c a .24 of Costa Rica. 2 4 The result of these various various pressures led the NicaNica­ raguan government to take take a series of acts in March 1858. government to 1858. The American American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company Company was given an extension of time to commence operations under the 23Manning, 660,. M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, 660,. 23 I b i d . ; San Francisco Bulletin, May 12, 12, 1858. 1858. 24Ibid.; 24 347 Stebbins-Irisarri charter until July 28 next. next. A convention A convention was signed with Costa Rica recognizing the sale of the t . •+• transit steamers to Webster in turn for one-third one-third of the money received. received. Webster was also granted a provisional Vanderbilt and transit charter in behalf of Cornelius Vanderbilt F. Clark, Clark, to become effective only if the Canal Horace F. Company forfeited its contract. Company long-contested And after a long-contested struggle, the the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan Congress Congress ratified ratified the Cass-Irisarri struggle, the Cass-Irisarri Treaty without modifications by by a a vote vote of of ten ten to to five, five, a Treaty without modifications a two-thirds vote vote being being necessary necessary for for approval. approval. two-thirds The following following The day Minister Minister Lamar Lamar called called upon upon President President TomBs Tomas Mart!nez Martinez day and expressed expressed the the satisfaction satisfaction with with which which the would and the treaty treaty would be received at Washington. Washington. be received at Lamar stated stated that that President President Lamar Martinez was was very very cheerful cheerful and and gave gave no no indication indication that the Mart{nez that the treaty would not be be sent sent by by the the steamer steamer then then at San Juan Juan treaty would not at San del Sur. Sur. del When Colonel Colonel Schlessinger Schlessinger presented presented himself with When himself with large packet packet as as the the bearer bearer of of the the treaty treaty to to Washington, Washington, aa large Lamar accompanied accompanied him him as as far far as as Granada Granada and and gave Lamar gave him him aa letter notifying notifying the the Department Department of of State State that that the treaty letter the treaty 25 had been ratified.25 had been ratified. 25Manning, Central America, 1851-1860, 663-64, 663-64, 671-72; 12, 1858; 1858; New York 671-72; San Francisco Bulletin, May 12, 27, 1858. 1858. Times, March 27, l 348 Great was the surprise of Lamar and Secretary Secretary Cass when they discovered discovered that the treaty had not been signed or forwarded by President Mart{nez. Martinez. t ,". It appears that the President was was strongly opposed to the treaty treaty and was was conopposed to con­ fident that that his supporters in Congress would would reject it. it. When the opposition party managed managed to secure a two-thirds vote during the absence of several of the the President's supporters, he determined treaty, although supporters, he determined to to hold hold the the treaty, although public was given been signed public indication indication was given that that it it had had been signed and and forwarded to the United States. forwarded to the United States. This was in This action action was in part part motivated by an apparent fear of American American aggression. motivated by aggression. According to the reports of Lamar and other correspondents correspondents in Nicaragua, the country was divided on this issue between Leo'n and the conservative conservative the liberal elements around Leon stronghold about Granada. Granada. stronghold The following analysis of a correspondent is probably a fairly accurate depicdepic­ Granadan correspondent conflicting attitudes present in the country: country: tion of the conflicting As II stated above, above, the inhabitants of Leon and the adjacent pueblos, have always been been enthusiastic pueblos, who have enthusiastic friends to the American American are delighted delighted with the passage of the treaty. treaty. I I have a letter before me from an old American resident of Leon, which states that on the American reception of the news bells were rung, rung, cannons fired and great demonstrations of joy were indulged by all classes. classes. They seem to think it little less than virvir­ tual annexation to the United States and forget the grave questions which would would arise in our country before this consummation consummation could be brought about. about. The 349 Leonese as far back as the year 1849 at the time of American the British invasion raised the question of an American protectorate. On the other hand the Granadans strongly,. strongly opposed the Treaty. that, opposed These foolish people think that, notwithstanding their many futile attempts, they are notwithstanding able to maintain independent of foreign assistance, assistance, a good and stable government. Moreover, they believe that the United States, States, once getting a foothold here, here, Slavery would would be established, and that the lower classes, or Sambo's of the country, if not classes, not reduced to a condition of absolute Slavery, would brought to a condition of absolute Slavery, would be be brought to a a state state little little better, better, and and hence hence their their frantic frantic to opposition to this most excellent treaty. Forgetting opposition to this most excellent treaty. Forgetting too that that with with the the development development of of the the country country by the too by the introduction of rich, energetic and industrious for­ introduction of rich, energetic and industrious foreigners their their own own condition condition would would be be improved improved in every eigners in every sense, they they think think that that foreign foreign emigration emigration would tend sense, would tend to impoverish them, and take from them their present to impoverish them, and take from them their present means of of existence. existence. The The merchants merchants mostly mostly fear fear that that means foreign merchants merchants will will come come here here and and cheapen cheapen goods, goods, foreign forgetting that the consumption will be proportionally forgetting that the consumption will be proportionally increased and and the the agriculturists, agriculturists, with with as as little little reason, reason, increased likewise dread the presence of American farmers and likewise dread the presence of American farmers and laborers, who who will will cheapen cheapen food food and and the the products of the the laborers, products of soil. Added Added to to this, this, the the general general dislike dislike to white soil. to white foreigners and especially Americans, and we have the foreigners and especially Americans, and we have the secret of the arguments which have been used by the secret of the arguments which have been used by the most intelligent intelligent and and influential influential men men here here to create most to create a popular frenzy against the American measure. However, a popular frenzy against the American measure. However, there have been some some honorable honorable exceptions exceptions to oppo­ there have been to this this opposition here in G r a n a d a . 26 sition here in Granada. 26 In explaining the action action of President President Mart1nez Martinez to the Department Department of State, State, Lamar wrote: wrote: This country has long been divided into two factions known as the Leon party, and the Granadan party--the first calling themselves Democrats, Democrats, and the second, second, Legitimists. The government is now entirely entirely in the Legitimists. hands of the latter; latter; who also compose aa decided 26New N e w York Times, Times, April 28, 28, 1858. 1858. 2 6 350 majority of the Assembly. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, by a fortufortu­ itous combination Leonists, or combination of circumstances, the Leonists, democratic party succeeded succeeded in carrying carrying the Treaty ,* t~ 27 through that body by one vote. vote. 2 7 suggested that Nicaragua and Costa Rica, Rica, if not all He suggested Central America, were acting under the hope of foreign interposition in their relations with the United United States. States. Nicaragua, he he added, "still regards the United United States as the great, arch-enemy arch-enemy to be dreaded; and would would gladly unite with any power against our country, even though though the war on our part part might be the vindication of her her territorial rights." He explained explained that Nicaragua believed believed that the Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was celebrated celebrated to prevent the British from attaining more influence than the United·States, United States, and that the United United States was "only restrained from seizing restrained from Collision with upon all Central America, by the dread of a Collision that power." He then concluded that The great trouble with Nicaragua may be easily melancholly results of the explained. She saw in the melancholly War, how near ~he Sfhe was being conquered conquered by a Walker War, Filibusters—and from that day to the handful of Filibusters--and oppressed with a sense of present moment, she has been oppressed insecurity, so long as an American American is allowed allowed to soil. tread her soil. insecurity has b~en been greatly This sense of insecuri!y greatly augmented Irizarri Llrisarri/ /Irisarri/ Treaty; for Nicaragua by the Cass and lrizarri protection of that Treaty, Treaty, believes that under the protection combined with the facilities of the Transit, the combined 27Manning, Manning, Central America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, 682-83. 682-83. 7 351 Americans will pour into her territory in overwhelming numbers, and by their superior energy, knowledge, knowledge, wealth and enterprise will soon possess themselves I~ + of all power and, and 'convert convert the country into an American American Republic. Republic. The dread of being thus denationalized denationalized and her people degraded, is the great, and probably probably sole impediment ^ impediment to a good understanding understanding with her. h e r .28 t 2 President Martinez' Martinez' subsequent actions shed further treaty. light on his refusal to sign the treaty. 10, 1858, 1858, On April 10, proclamation addressed to all the people of he issued a proclamation outlined the dangers of invainva­ Central America in which he outlined action: sion and called for united action: We have reached the moment when it is necessary necessary to think seriously of defending with decision, loyalty constancy the soil and waters that Providence has and constancy gifts, opposing assigned us in the distribution of its gifts, a barrier to the torrent of adventurers who seek to overwhelm us, us, under pain of cowardly cowardly losing this soil overwhelm waters, with our towns, towns, our Religion and our and these waters, liberties. We should march straight forward, forward, public liberties. guided by by a single authority, directed by by aa single idea, II propose to Government. With this idea, to raise raise my feeble voice and to offer the co-operation feeble voice and to offer the co-operation which which II Nicaragua. II should be can lend as President of Nicaragua. be aa traitor to to my my country country and and my my conscience, conscience, did say traitor did II not not say to the Governments and to the people of Central America: to the Governments and to the people of Central America: Let us us unite! unite! Let Let us us form form one one single single State State out out of of the the Let five Republics, as we were of old, and as it is neces­ five Republics, as we were of old, and as it is necessary we we should should become become again; again; that that we we may may appear greater, sary appear greater, stronger and and more more respected!29 respected!29 stronger Simultaneously with this proclamation Simultaneously with proclamation General Gregorio Juarez was sent as minister to Costa Rica. Rica. The following 28Manning, M a n n i n g , Central America. America, 1851-1860, 684-85. 684-85. Z0 29Ibid., l b i d . , 672 672.. 2 9 - -... 352 week President Mart{nez Martinez and a small commission commission left for Rivas, ostensibly ostensibly to settle the territorial dispute with j~ »* Costa Rica. Rica. President Juan Rafael Mora arrived President arrived at Rivas about April 23 with the Costa Rican commission. Accompanying them Accompanying was a Frenchman by by the name of M. Felix Belly. actually the the main reason reason for the meeting. Grey town in March March 1858. Greytown 1858. Belly was He had had arrived at After sending communications to After communications to Presidents his visit to Presidents Mora Mora and and Mart{nez, Martinez, which which declared declared his visit to be connected to connected with vast projects, projects, he proceeded proceeded directly to Costa Rica. Rica. Although merely the agent of a few obscu~e obscure Parisian speculators, he convinced convinced the officials that he had the personal assurance and interest of Louis Napoleon in a canal project. project. While he denied that his mission official, he did it in such a way as to impart the was official, impression that the denial was made for diplomatic diplomatic impression reasons. reasons. proposed that the boundary controversy controversy be He proposed settled on a basis of joint settled joint ownership of the transit and offered a draft for a canal concession to be signed by offered both republics under the protection England, both protection of France, France, England, and Sardinia. Sardinia. Within a week President President Mora was persuaded and 353 to accompany accompany him to Rivas to obtain President President Mart{nez' Martinez 1 aapproval.30 pprova 1 .30 ( ^ I.· Under Belly's influence the two presidents soon signed a new territorial treaty and granted Belly a charter granted Belly canal.. . The territorial treaty to construct an interoceanic canal gave Costa Rica possession of Punta Arenas and the south bank of the San Juan River to three miles below Castillo Viejo. Viejo. From this point Nicaragua retained retained possession From possession of within two miles of the south bank of the river the land within Ocean. and lake to Salinas Bay on the Pacific Ocean. The bay at common. San Juan del Norte and at Salinas was to be held in common. maintained exclusive dominion and soversover­ While Nicaragua maintained river, Costa Rica was granted eignty over the waters of the river, the perpetual right of free navigation to three miles Viejo. below Castillo Viejo. This Th~s ratified later by treaty was ratified 3l governments.31 both governments. The canal charter, dated May 1, bound Nica1, 1858, 1858, bound Nica­ ragua and Costa Rica to an exclusive grant of ninety-nine 30New York Times, Times, May 31, 31, 1858; 1858; Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, Financiers, 359. 359. 3lBritish XLVIII, 1049-52 33-British and Foreign State Papers, Papers, XLVIII, 1049-52 Copy of Treaty of Territorial Limits between between Costa Rica 15, 1858, 1858, FO 53 (Mosquito), Reel 16, and Nicaragua, April 15, Vol. 42; 42; New York Times, Times, June 28, 28, July 28, 28, 1858. 1858. Vol. l l 354 years for the construction construction of an interoceanic interoceanic canal by an international company Belly and ».~ company to be formed by M. Felix Belly •* M. P. P. M. Millaud Millaud of Paris. Paris. M. The two republics were to portions. receive 8 per cent of the gross revenue in equal portions. Two years were given to commence the work and six years for its completion. The grantees were to endeavor to obtain the guarantee of France, France, Britain, and the United obtain States. States. gov­ In the interests of the company, the French gov- ernment was to have the right to keep two ships of war on w o r k s .32 the river and lake for the entire duration of the works. 3 2 significant part of Belly's charter, howhow­ The most significant ever, was an additional convention ap~ended appended at the end. end. ever, A close close examination of this toward A examination of this document document reveals reveals much much toward an understanding understanding of of the the attitudes attitudes in in Central Central America that an America that were hindering hindering the the reopening reopening of of the the transit transit and the signing signing were and the of a a treaty treaty with with the the United United States States for for its its protection. protection. of The sharing sharing of of this this attitude attitude by by a a significan.t significant and and influinflu­ The ential part part of of the the people people was was probably one of of the the major major ential probably one factors behind the problems problems which which continued continued to to the of factors behind the the end end of 32M. Felix Belly, A A Travers L'Amerigue L'Amerique Centrale, Centrale, Le Nicaragua Nicaragua et Ie le Canal Interoceanigue Interoceanique (Paris: (Paris: Librairie II, 166-72, 166-72, cited cited hereafter Cherbuliez, 1870), II, de Joel Cherbuliez, hereafter as A Travers L'Amerique L'Amerique Centrale; New York Times, Belly, A Times, June 18, 18, 1858. 1858. 355 1868. 1868. The convention read as follows: follows; The Supreme Chiefs of the two republics of Nica- » I~* Rica, having met at Rivas, Rivas, after reguregu­ ragua and Costa Rica, lating the questions which divided the two Republics reestablishing between them the most perfect and reestablishing perfect peace and harmony, by common agreement, and in order to insure the independence and safety of the two countries, countries, America, as well as of all the States of Central America, CONSIDERING, That a new invasion of American American filifili­ busters again threatens the independence of Nicaragua and Costa Rica in contempt contempt of all the laws which propro­ tect nations and guaranty the life and property property of civilized countries; countries; the citizens in civilized That this invasion, officially reproved reproved by the Govt, of the U.S., U.S., is in reality preparing preparing itself Govt. under its patronage, patronage, as the means of definitively definitively taking possession of Central America America if Central AmerAmer­ ica refuses to surrender herself to the United United States. States. That hitherto all the official agents of the U.S. U.S. in Nicaragua have made themselves accomplices and . auxiliaries of the invaders, invaders, acting like masters, masters, audaciously hoisting the flag of the U.S. U.S. in every place where, where, as at San Juan of the South, ought only to wave that of Nicaragua, and openly threatening Central America America with an inevitable annexation; annexation; That the Minister at present accredited in Nicaaccredited in Nica­ ragua boasts in public of imperiously imperiously laying down this ultimatum, either the taking legal possession ultimatum, possession of NicaNica­ ragua, by by the ratification of the Cass-Irisarri ragua, Cass-Irisarri treaty, treaty, or new invasion or a a new invasion of of filibusters filibusters organized organized at at Mobile Mobile under under the the American American banner; banner; That, has itself That, moreover, moreover, the the Govt. Govt, at at Washington Washington has itself declared, to declared, according according to to the the official official reports reports sent sent to the the Govt. Govt, of of Costa Costa Rica Rica by by its its Minister Minister Plenipotentiary, Plenipotentiary, that new attempts that it it was was absolutely absolutely powerless powerless to to prevent prevent new attempts of neutrality of of the the filibusters filibusters and and to to protect protect the the neutrality of Central America, thanks Central America, thanks to to the the insufficiency insufficiency of of the the legislation of the U.S. U.S. on this matter; matter; CONSIDERING, That three years of war and devastadevasta­ tion have swept from the two republics the means of resisting a new attack of several thousand thousand bandits; bandits; destroyed in whole that the cities of Nicaragua are destroyed part, that their commerce is annihilated, that or in part, their population is decimated, and that, after an 356 obstinate resistance, which gives evidence of their patriotism, they may succumb to superior numbers if ,* Europe will not deign at last to defend them against I~ unprecendented attempts in the nineteenth century; century; unprecendented SOLEMNLY SOLEMNLY DECLARE: DECLARE: 1st. 1st. That they put the foregoing convention, convention, relative to the canal of Nicaragua, under the patronpatron­ age of civilized to the the justice civilized Europe, Europe, by appealing to and humanity humanity of all Christian nations against the buccaneers, whose victims they attempts of pirates and buccaneers, years; have been for three years; 2d. That they place the independence and the 2d. nationality Nicaragua and Costa nationality of the republics of Nicaragua Rica under the guaranty of the three powers which have caused to be respected the independence and the nationality of the Ottoman Empire--France, England, England, nationality and Sardinia; . .• . ..33 33 While this extreme language was primarily a response primarily a to Walker's Walker's recent recent invasion and his repeated threats to repeated threats return, town had had served to return, a recent occurrence at Grey Greytown served to magnify such fears. fears. At the very time the two two presidents were drafting the above manifesto, word was received received that on April April 16 Colonel Henry L. Kinney arrived with with aa force Henry L. of men at Grey town. Greytown. After hauling hauling down the Mosquito Mosquito flag and hoisting the Nicaragua colors, colors, they forced their way into the the mayor's mayor's house house and took him him prisoner. The citizens immediately immediately took took up up arms arms and and sent sent to to the the British British commander commander of the Jamestown of the Jamestown for for assistance. assistance. The The commander commander sent sent an an 33Manning, M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 692-93. 692-93. 33 I 357 armed crew and Kinney's force soon capitulated capitulated and were taken to Aspinwall. Aspinwall. This was the same Kinney who who had had »I~ ,«* attempted to overthrow the authorities at Grey Greytown attempted town three years previously. He evidently thought that his actions would would induce Nicaragua to recognize his claim coast. to a grant of land on the Mosquito coast. Instead, they already generated only served to intensify the fears already generated by Walker. Walker. Europe, President When Belly left to return to Europe, Martinez requested requested him to report the recent irruption Mart{nez irruption to Louis Napoleon. N a p o l e o n 34 . Louis 34 Belly's mysterious activities in Central America America had aroused fears in the United States that he was actually emperor. a secret emissary of the French emperor. However, by the However, York, the French government had time he arrived in New York, connection with his schemes, schemes, and the officially denied any connection disavowal. New York press was carrying headlines of his disavowal. The rejection of Belly by the French government destroyed all hopes for a European protectorate protectorate for his canal charter 35 practically devoid of influence. influence.35 and he returned to Paris practically 34British XLIII, 661; 661; B r i t i s h and Foreign State Papers, Papers, XLIII, Manning, Central America, 1851-1860, New York 1851-1860, 675-76; 675-76; New Times, May 31, Centrale, 178. 31, 1858; 1858; Belly, A A Travers L'Amerigue L'Amerique Centrale, 178. 34 35Manning, ^ M a n n i n g , Central America. America, 1851-1860, 115, 115, Scroggs, Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers, 362-63. 362-63. L 358 The Rivas manifesto of Presidents Martinez Mart!nez and Mora was received with some indigna tion by the the Department indignation Department ,. of State. State. Secretary Cass called called upon Lamar to determine by a categorical inquiry whether or not the declaration was genuine. genuine. explained that if it should prove to be authenauthen­ He explained tic, the United forbearance, although tic, United States would act with forbearance, established government would such a cause of offense by any established rela­ have at once called for the suspension of diplomatic relations. tions. After carefully refuting all of the accusations aimed American government, Cass instructed instructed Lamar to inform at the American the two governments that "the establishment establishment of a political political Protectorate by any of the Powers of Europe, over over any of . ..•. is the Independent States of this continent, • is aa measure to which which the the United United States States have have long long since since avowed their to avowed their opposition, and and which, which, should should the the attempt attempt be they opposition, be made, made, they will resist resist by by all all the the means means in in their their power." power." will Similar re­ Similar re- sistance would also be be made made to to the the "obnoxious "obnoxious arrangement" arrangement" sistance would also providing for for two ships of of war war to to be be stationed stationed in in the river providing two ships the river and lake lake by the French French government. government. and by the As far far as as Belly's charter As Belly's charter was concerned, concerned, the the work work was was as as open open to to him him as as to any other other was to any enterprising person. person. enterprising The United United States States had had no disposition The no disposition to determine determine the the conflicting conflicting interests interests of of the various to the various claimants to to the the route, route, but but it it would would insist insist that Nicaragua claimants that Nicaragua I 359 should not arbitrarily arbitrarily "act in good faith towards them, and should and wrongfully wrongfully divest them of rights justly justly acquired and ,I~^ acquired and solemnly guaranteed." Nicaragua was to be informed Nicaragua informed that its action in relation to the treaty had given the the President "serious dissatisfaction," and while while it was hoped hoped that Nicaragua and Costa Rica would afford redress for the serious causes of complaint, complaint, they should both distinctly understand that the understand that American people and government have yielded enough American republics, and without to the weakness of those republics, doing them injustice, injustice, they will now take care and do justice to themselves. themselves. Preparatory to such action as may be necessary, naval force will be stationed stationed at Norte, and also at San Juan del Sur, and San Juan del Norte, necessary propro­ at Realejo with orders to afford all necessary tection to the persons and property of American tection to the persons and property of American . . 36 citizens, .. . ..36 c1t1zens, . The strong reaction of the United States, States, together with the French government's disavowal of Belly, Belly, soon brought explanations from the two republics. republics. Nicaragua explained explained that that President President Martinez Martinez had had temporarily temporarily given given up to Rivas. Rivas. up the the executive executive authority authority in in order order to to go go to ConCon­ sequently, the act was not official but merely the wish wish of a private citizen who wished to free his country from the devastation of filibusterism. President Mora wrote wrote perper­ sonally to Lamar that the document was drafted under the 36Manning, 3 Manning, Central America, America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, 116-27. 116-27. 6 I 360 influence of suspicions and mistaken notions which prohibited the exercising of sound judgment. judgment. But as he he was now con-. But con-, ,. * vinced of the groundlessness of those sentiments, he freely 37 and spontaneously spontaneously renounced renounced them. them.37 On 28 at the Nicaragua On June June 28 at the the next next session session of of the Nicaragua Congress, the Cass-Irisarri Treaty was ratified ratified with modiCongress, the modi­ fications, fications, and and a a special special commissioner, commissioner, General General Maximo Maximo Jerez, was dispatched to Washington the treaty. Jerez, was dispatched to Washington with with the treaty. After After giving giving an an explanation explanation and and disavowal disavowal of of the the offensive offensive language language and and imputations imputations contained contained in in the the manifesto manifesto signed signed at Rivas, he was received received as "Envoy Extraordinary" on Rivas, he October 5, 5, 1858. 1858. However, the modifications modifications of the treaty However, were found to be be unacceptable, unacceptable, particularly particularly an additional additional article stating that "the government of the United States States, of shall prevent prevent the preparation, within said States, expeditions and armaments against Nicaragua, even under the assisting any of the parties that may exist in pretext of assisting that country." Secretary Cass explained explained that it contained Secretary American government would an offensive doubt whether the American continue to to exercise exercise in in good good faith faith its its own neutrality laws laws continue own neutrality and was totally inadmissible. In the spirit of compromise compromise 37Manning, America. 1851-1860, M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 128, 128, 704-05, 704-05, 37 709. 709. 361 third article he said the government would assent to the .third pertaining to the employment employment of American American troops to protec~~ protect pertaining route. the transit route. authorized As General Jerez was not authorized , to approve approve any any a1terat~ons, alterations, the the treaty treaty was was returned to to returned to 38 Nicaragua for for approva1. approval.38 Nicaragua controversy between the two By this time the controversy forth, governments was clearly set forth. Nicaragua was desirous of some sort of guarantee against the sailing of more fi1ifili­ busters, and the United States insisted that her her neutrality adequate. law was adequate. Nica­ These complications, together with Nica- ragua's actions regarding the transit route, precluded the route, precluded ratification years. ratification of a treaty for the next ten years. After the time time for ratification of the Cass-Irisarri Treaty ran out, March 1859 with out, Lamar negotiated negotiated a similar treaty in March , Pedro Ze1edon. Zeledon. ; But the Lamar-Ze1edon was also Lamar-Zeledon Treaty was unacceptable. found to be unacceptable. He was ordered to demand his passports, and diplomatic relations were suspended suspended with passports, 1859. Nicaragua and Costa Rica in May 1859. Following this Following action, on July 25 Nicaragua ratified the treaty after omitting the offensive clause. clause. omitting United States responded The United returned it again for by adding two more amendments and returned 38Manning, M a n n i n g , Central Central America. America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, 128-30, 128-30, 136, 688-89, 702-03, 717. 702-03, 717. J0 362 ratification within six months from June 27, 27, 1860. 1860. Nicaragua • claimed that the presence of Walker in Honduras prevented prevente~~ con­ her from calling a special session of the legislature; con25, 1861, 1861, when sequently no action was taken until March 25, three months beyond the time limit, the treaty was ratified with another amendment. While there was no real objection to this form of the treaty, the United States became too preoccupied with the Civil War to act. act. preoccupied Thus it was not until June 20, 20, 1868, 1868, that ratifications were finally 39 Granada. exchanged at Granada. 39 Following the Belly fiasco attention returned to to attention returned 3~anning, 172, M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 153-54, 153-54, 172, 750-51, 917; 917; Seward to Dickinson, April 5, 1862, 740-41, 750-51, 5, 1862, Microfilm Publications, "Diplomatic "Diplomatic National Archives Microfilm Department of State, State, 1801-1906: 1801-1906: The Instructions of the Department American States," Microcopy no. no. 77, 77, Roll 28, Central American 28, Vol. 16, 16, 198-99, 198-99, cited hereafter as National Archives, Archives, Vol. no. 77; 77; Seward to Dickinson, August 15, 15, 1864, Microcopy no. 1864, Microcopy no. no. 77, 77, Roll 28, 16, 454; National Archives, Archives, Microoopy 28, Vol. Vol. 16, 454; 15, 1867, 1867, National Archives Seward to Dickinson, June 15, Microcopy no. no. 77, 77, Roll 29, 29, Vol. Vol. 17, 17, 24-5; 24-5; Dimitry Dimitry to Microcopy Department of State, State, April 1, 1, 1861, 1861, National Archives Department Microfilm Publications, "Dispatches from United United States Microfilm 1824-1906: Nicaragua," Ministers to Central America, 1824-1906: no. 219, 219, Roll 12, 12, Vol. Vol. 6, cited hereafter Microcopy no. hereafter as National Archives, Archives, Microcopy Microcopy no. no. 219; 219; Dickinson Dickinson to Seward, Seward, December 14, 14, 1864, 1864, National Archives, Archives, Microcopy Microcopy no. December no. 219, 219, 14, Vol. Vol. 9; Dickinson Dickinson to Seward, July 20, 20, 1867, 1867, Roll 14, Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 15, 15, Vol. Vol. 10; National Archives, 10; 7, 1868, 1868, National Archives, Archives, Dickinson to Seward, July 7, 219, Roll 15, 15, Vol. Vol. 10: 10: British and Foreign Microcopy no. no. 219, Papers, LVIII, LVIII, 1162-70. 1162-70. State Papers, 39 363 American the route. route. American claimants for the Webster and Allen Allen rere­ .." turned to Nicaragua Nicaragua in early July 1858 with with $100,000 in gold gold to the provisional to seek seek ratification ratification of of the provisional contract contract granted granted to Vanderbilt and Clar~. Clarjc. The Stebbins-Irisarri Stebbins-Irisarri charter was to run out at the end of the month and they were cercer­ tain it it would not not be be fulfilled. fulfilled. While discussions were were goiqg on~ Secretary protest of the Rivas manifesto going on, Secretary Cassis Cass's protest manifesto arrived, together with intelligence that American American shipsordered to both sides of the isthmus. isthmus. of-war had been ordered With With the government's attention diverted to ratifying the CassIrisarri Treaty, Webster and Allen gave up further attempts attempts 40 company with Jerez. Jerez.40 to negotiate and left Granada in company deadline, the Although unable to meet the July deadline, American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company Company went American route, apparently apparently concon­ ahead with preparations to open the route, concession fident that definite action would would bring another concession from Nicaragua. Nicaragua. The steamer Hermann was sent around Cape Horn to operate on the Pacific, and the Washington was advertised to depart New York for San Juan del Norte on advertised November 7, 7, 1858. 1858. November approval Such activities did not meet the approval completing a of General Jerez who was in the the process process of completing a 40New ° N e w York Times, Times, July 31, 31, 1858. 1858 4 - 364 new transit contract with Messrs. Messrs. Van Dyke and Wallace of Philadelphia. warning/ On November November 2 he published published a public warning~ in the press against purchasing Washington, purchasing tickets on the Washington, alleging that the isthmus was not in condition condition for use. use. Notwithstanding Washington sailed Notwithstanding this warning, the Washington sailed on 4l^ schedule with with three three hundred twenty twenty passengers. passengers. On arriving at San Juan del Norte on November November 18, 18, the passengers passengers were advised that that the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan government government refused to allow them to cross over the isthmus as they they were suspected suspected of being filibusters. filibusters. A A trip of the company's company s f agent that not not only were the agent to to Granada Granada further further revealed revealed that only were the people up but that Hermann had had bypassed bypassed San people up in in arms arms but that the the Hermann San Juan Juan del to San del Sur Sur on on its its way way to San Francisco. Francisco. upon sailed to Aspinwall. Aspinwall. The Washington thereThe Washington there­ About ninety of her passengers About did not have fare to continue on the Mail Line and returned on the steamer to New York. York. It was later revealed revealed that the Hermann had arrived at Valparaiso without sufficient sufficient funds HermanR on. to continue on. anticipated funds failed to arrive, arrive, When anticipated the captain made a conditional bill of sale to W. W. L. L. Hobson supplies. for $20,000 to purchase coal and supplies. When When the steamer , I 4lManning, 721-22; M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 1851-1860, 132, 132, 721-22; San Francisco Bulletin, November 27, 29, 29, December December 2, November 27, 2, 1858; 1858; New York Times, Times, December December 13, 13, 1858. 1858. 41 365 a^nd no funds were forthcoming, she was arrived at Panama ~nd debt. sold to Hobson to make good the debt. The new owner I~ ordered her to sail directly for San Francisco without stopping at San Juan del Sur. S u r .42 4 2 The abortive attempt attempt of the American American Atlantic and Company to reopen the Nicaragua route Pacific Ship Canal Company starts. was followed by four years of delays and false starts. September 1859 when the United Hopes were revived in September United States American Transit Company Company advertised advertised that and Central American that the Keystone would would open open the the Nicaragua Nicaragua route route to to California California as as Keystone the sole sole carrier carrier of of the the United United States States mails mails on on October 5. the October 5. This announcement announcement was was the the result result of of an an attempt attempt of of the the This Postmaster General General to to end end the the exorbitant exorbitant compensation compensation paid paid Postmaster to the the United United States States and and Pacific Pacific Mail Mail companies companies at Panama. to at Panama. A proposal for bids contract resulted in A proposal for bids for for aa new new mail mail contract resulted in the awarding awarding of of a a contract contract to to Daniel Daniel H. H. Johnson Johnson to carry the the the to carry mails via via Nicaragua Nicaragua commencing commencing on on October October 1, 1, 1859. 1859. mails Johnson Johnson in turn turn transferred transferred the the contract contract to to the the United United States States and and in Central American American Transit Transit Company Company who who proposed proposed to operate Central to operate under the the Jerez-Van Jerez-Van Dyke Dyke charter charter in in spite spite of of the fact that that under the fact 42New Alta California, N e w York Times, Times, December December 13, 13, 1858; 1858; Alta California, 4, 1858; 1858; San Francisco Bulletin, November 27, 29, 29, December 4, November 27, 1858. 1858. 4 2 366 it had not been ratified by the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan government. government. The decision to use the Nicaragua route was made after •*.• t Secretary Cass had received assurances from General Jerez that his government would cooperate with the enterprise. enterprise. When Vanderbilt learned that the government intended intended to protect the mails, mails, he petitioned petitioned the PostPost­ master General and received a provisional contract to contract to carry the mails either by Panama or Nicaragua. Vanderbilt's agreement was not to be effective unless Johnson forfeited his contract. contract. Despite these superficial arrangements, no real provisions had been made to open the transit through NicaNica­ ragua. ragua. In September and Pacific September the American American Atlantic and Ship Canal Company General that Company notified the Postmaster Postmaster General its steamers on the isthmus would not be available to carry the mails. mails. On October I1 Luis Molina, who had had re­ re- placed General Jerez, Jerez, notified Secretary Cass that the placed United States and Central American American Transit Company Company had no United contract with his government and that the whole enterprise suspected as another filibuster plot. plot. was suspected Under these circumstances Johnson gave up his contract and on October 5 Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt s provisional contract took effect; however, however, ! in view of the threatened expedition of Walker, he was 367 instructed the mails mails by Panama. Panama. instructed to send the Not until 1862 Not was another attempt made to to open open the the route. attempt made r o u t e .43 Itt 4 3 American Transit Company The Central American Company The next three years were characterized characterized by fruitfruit­ less negotiations to reopen the transit. transit. M. Felix Belly representa­ reappeared, as did a rival French firm and a representa- tive of the British House of Croskey with a plan to carry the Royal mails via Nicaragua Nicaragua to Australia. Nicaragua continued to grant and annul charters but nothing came of continued any of them, except that of the American Atlantic and American Atlantic Company which persisted Pacific Ship Canal Company persisted in spite of setbacks. numerous setbacks. After the failure of three different different company succeeded succeeded in contracts, the directors of the company obtaining the ratification ratification of an acceptable charter on obtaining 12, 1861. 1861. July 12, By this charter both parties renounced all rights or interests vested vested in all previous engagements previo,us engagements I! i 43u.S., Congress, Congress, Senate, Postmaster-General Postmaster-General 43U.S., Sess., Joseph Holt, Report on Mail Contracts, 36th Cong., 1st Sess., S. Doc. Doc. 45, 45, Sere Ser. no. no. 1033, 1033, 1-44; Manning, Manning, 1859-1860, S. 144-51, 771-72; 771-72; San Francisco Central America, 1851-1860, 144-51, December 2, 2, 1858. 1858. Bulletin, December 368 dating back to 1849. 1849. Under President John P. P. Yelverton Yelverton the company body politic politic *j*n ~ company was to be recognized recognized as a corporate body Nicaragua under the name of the Central American American Transit Company. Nicaragua granted an exclusive privilege privilege of of transit for fifty years, years, and the company engaged engaged to open the route within six months of the date of the exchange of circumstances ratifications, except certain unforeseen circumstances 44 time. would be cause for an extension of time. 4 4 Because of the difficulties of raising money money and acquiring materials while the United States was engaged in American Transit Company Company was unable civil war, war, the Central American to make preparations for putting the route into operation 1862. until the spring of 1862. months' Consequently, the six months' commencing operation had already already run out time limit for commencing pay­ before the company's agent arrived to make the first pay- ment on the contract. Nevertheless, the Nicaraguan gov­ Nevertheless, Nicaraguan gov- ernment accepted accepted $5,000 $5,000 in in gold gold on on May May 5, 5, 1862, 1862, and and dede­ ernment livered the the transit transit property property with with the the understanding understanding that that livered 44Manning, 742-44, ^ M a n n i n g , Central America, 1851-1860, 742-44, 764, 820, 820, 832, 832, 846-47, 846-47, 896-905; 896-905; Jes6s Jesus Rocha, 756, 764, Rocha, Codigo la Lejis1acion Lejislacion de 1a la Republica de Nicaragua de 1a Nicaragua en CentroAmerica, 1821:..1863 1821-1863 (Managua: (Managua: 1mprenta Imprenta de "E1 "El CentroAmlrica, 134; Dimitry Dimitry to Perez, Perez, April 2, 1861, Americano," 1873), 134; 2, 1861, Archives, Microcopy Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 12, 12, Vol. Vol. 6; 6; National Archives, Papers, L1, LI, 914-24. 914-24. British and Foreign State Papers, l 369 the company company would receive an extension of time because of "unforeseen circumstances." supplies*/ Additional men and supplies' ,. were then sent to repair the transit. transit. As the company company was prepared to operate its own line of ocean steamers, steamers, an not prepared 0. Roberts to carry passenpassen­ arrangement was made with M. O. gers from New York and San Francisco on the steamers America and Moses Taylor. T a y l o r .45 ^ America After five years of protracted protracted complications, the Nicaragua route was finally reopened. On October 21, 21, 1862, the Moses Taylor left San Francisco with five hundred fifty passengers. passengers. Three days later the America America departed New New York York with with a a load load of of 564 564 people people bound bound for for California. California. The arrival of so many passengers had not been been anticipated anticipated by the Transit Company. With only one river steamer and one lake steamer in operation and insufficient insufficient mules and horses on the road, not only was considerable considerable delay experienced but many were forced to walk the twelve miles experienced Sur. from Virgin Bay to San Juan del Sur. Consequently, the eastbound passengers were detained five days and the ^ D i c k i n s o n to Seward, June 9, 1862, 1862, National 45Dickinson Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 13, 13, Vol. Vol. 7; 7; New York Archives, 10, 1862, 1862, San Francisco Bulletin, August 12, Times, August 10, 12, 1862. 1862. 370 westbound ^ westbound passengers eight days at the isthmus. isthmus.46 4 Those who were anticipating anticipating a healthy competition~ competition with the Panama monopoly soon had their hopes shattered. shattered. Two more years were to pass before steamers would would sail regularly for Nicaragua. Nicaragua. In late November M. 0. o. Roberts November M. advised was not not in advised the the public public that that because because the the transit transit was in proper order, on the order, his steamers would temporarily temporarily sail on Panama route. route. On November 28 the general agent of the approached by the acting Transit Company in Nicaragua was approached minister of foreign relations. relations. The minister informed informed him that the the company company had had failed failed to to meet meet the the requirements requirements of of that proposed that they sign a supplementary supplementary its charter and proposed contract. contract. As the the proposals proposals restricted restricted the the original original grant grant As and he he had had no no authority authority to to act, act, the the agent agent asked for time time and asked for to receive receive instructions instructions from from New York. to New York. The following following day day The the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan government government issued issued a a decree decree declaring declaring the the the forfeiture of of the the company's company's charter. charter. forfeiture The decree decree stated stated The that the the company company had had failed failed to to provide provide sufficient sufficient steamers steamers that and land land transportation transportation to to open open the the route route by October 19, 19, and by October ~QDickinson ckinson to Seward, December December 12, 12, 1862, 1862, National Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 13, 13, Vol. Vol. 7; 7; Affidavit Archives, 3, 1863 and George B. Slocum, of J. Denton Fletcher, July 3,1863 B. Slocum, 22, 1863, 1863, National Archives, Archives, Microcopy Microcopy no. June 22, no. 219, 219, 14, Vol. Vol. 8; 8; San Francisco Bulletin, November Roll 14, November 28, 28, 1862; New York Times, Times, November November 21, 21, 1862. 1862. 371 1862--the end of the sixteen months' months' time provided l862--the provided in the charter. charter. It took note of the fact that passengers had had .... ,* crossed shortly after this time but stated stated that the facilifacili­ crossed inadequate. ties for transit were inadequate. maintaining Although maintaining that the contract was invalid, the decree provided provided that company could continue operation for a period the company period of three govern­ months while new arrangements were made with the governm e n t .47 ^ ment. 7 Despite the annulment of its charter, the the Transit Company isthmus. Company continued continued with improvements on the isthmus. Two new steamers were placed on the river and about about fifty carriages were were provided provided for use on the road. In January In the the America America or the "M. "M. O. 0. ROBERTS' ROBERTS' LINE" LINE" advertised advertised that that the or Illinois would would leave for Nicaragua to connect with with the Moses Taylor on March 14, 14, 1863. 1863. Evidently the company company was Evidently the not too concerned allowed the concerned about the decree, decree, for they allowed months' period to elapse without sending sending a commissioner commissioner three months' to make new arrangements for the transit. When When the time commissioner appeared, the limit drew to a close and no commissioner 47 San Francisco ^" New York, York Times, Times, November November 29, 29, 1862; 1862; San Francisco Bulletin, November November 26, 26, 1862; 1862; Affidavit of Isaac C. C. Haradon, Haradon, July 20, no. 219, 20, 1862, 1862, National Archives, Archives, Microcopy Microcopy no. 219, 14, Vol. Vol. 8; 8; Nicaragua Decree, Decree, November Roll 14, November 29, 29, 1862, 1862, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 13, 13, Vol. National Archives, Archives, Microcopy Vol. 7. 7. 7 372 Nicaragua Congress proclaimed February 20, proclaimed on February 20, 1863, 1863, that the the decree decree annulling annulling the the company's company's charter charter was was effective. effective.§I~ * The American was then then notified notified that the governAmerican minister was govern­ ment would would take possession possession of the the transit transit route and propro­ perty March 2. perty on on March 2. On Nicaraguan soldiers, On that that date date Nicaraguan soldiers, under under protest the company's pos­ protest from from the company's agents, agents, proceeded proceeded to to take take possession by force. session of of the the steamers steamers and and other other property property by force. As As passengers were scheduled passengers were scheduled to to arrive arrive on on the the isthmus, isthmus, on on Nicaraguan authorities released the property March 14 the Nicaraguan 48 under bond bond to the company their passage. company to effect their passage.^8 the company responded to the The directors of the company responded seizure of their property property by by sending a commissioner commissioner to Nicaragua and addressing addressing a memorial to the President of the States. United States. claimed that the proceedings proceedings The memorial claimed demanded that of Nicaragua were unjust and illegal and demanded government interfere to secure the restitution of the the government franchise. company's property proper~y and franchise. Department of State The Department American also received notice of the seizure from the American ^ 48San S a n Francisco Bulletin, Bulletin, January 22, 22, April 20, 20, 1863; New York Times, Times, January 31, 1863; Nicaragua Decree, January 31, 1863; Nicaragua Decree, 1863, Zeledon to Clay, February 28, 28, 1863, 1863, February 20, 20, 1863, Archives, Microcopy 219, Roll 13, 13, Vol. Vol. 7; 7; National Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 22, 1863, 1863, Affidavit Affidavit of George B. B. Slocum, June 22, 7, 1863, 1863, National Archives, Archives, of Henry Bainbridge, July 7, Microcopy no. 14, Vol. 8. Microcopy no. 219, 219, Roll 14, Vol. 8. 8 373 H. Clay. Clay. minister, Thomas H. Clay, however, upheld upheld the action irresponsible of Nicaragua as a justifiable justifiable response to the irresponsib~e activities of the company. Secretary William William H. Secretary H. Seward appointed Andrew decided to transfer Clay to Honduras and appointed B. Dickinson as minister to Nicaragua to investigate the B. situation. situation. instructed that the policy Dickinson was instructed policy of the United States was to cultivate relations of of friendship and good will with Nicaragua and that the opening of of an interoceanic transit route was of no less importance importance to America than than it it was was to to Nicaragua. America Nicaragua. He was was told told that while He that while the government government could could not not look look with with indifference indifference upon un­ the upon unlawful proceedings against its its citizens, citizens, the had lawful proceedings against the President President had concluded to to delay delay the the forming forming of of a a decisive decisive judgment upon concluded judgment upon the controversy. controversy. the Dickinson was was to to investigate investigate the the exact exact Dickinson merits of of the the question question and and to to inform inform Nicaragua Nicaragua that that merits although the the President President did did not not disavow, disavow, he he was prepared although was not not prepared to affirm affirm Clay's Clay's expressed expressed assent assent to to the the proceedings. proceedings. to Dickinson was was also also empowered empowered to to use use his his good good offices offices to Dickinson to effect an an adjustment adjustment of of the the dispute, dispute, provided provided he did not not effect he did make any any commitments commitments on on the the part part of of the the United United States. S t a t e s .49 make 49 49S S eeward w a r d to Dickinson, April 18, 18, 1863, 1863, National Archives, Clay to to Archives, Microcopy no. no. 77, 77, Roll 28, 28, Vol. Vol. 16; 16; Clay Seward, March 13, National Archives, 13, 25, 25, 1863, 1863, National Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 13, 13, Vol. Vol. 7. 7. 4 9 374 immediately Dickinson arrived at Leon on May 1 and immediately mission. informed the authorities of his mission. discussions In the discussi@ns he went beyond his instructions and took the decided stand that the company's contract was still in full force and virtue. virtue. 0. Robert's steamers were expected expected to arrive As M. O. with another group of passengers about the tenth, tenth, he made Company employees to utilize arrangements for the Transit Company the transit property property once again and then he personally supervised the passage. passage. supervised Shortly thereafter, Isaac C. C. Haradon arrived as the representative of the Transit Company. Company. In order to to keep keep the the transit transit in in operation operation while while new arrange­ order new arrangements were were being being negotiated, negotiated, on on May May 27 27 Dickinson Dickinson agreed agreed to ments to take charge charge of of the the transit transit property. property. take Under these arrange­ Under these arrange- ments passengers passengers crossed crossed the the isthmus isthmus in in June June and in ments and again again in July. July. However, as the the dispute dispute was was still still unsettled, after However, as unsettled, after the July July sailing sailing M. M. O. 0. Roberts Roberts again again withdrew withdrew his steamers the his steamers 50 and placed placed them them on on the the Panama Panama run. run.50 and After investigating the controversy investigating the causes of the affidavits, Dickinson Dickinson reported and collecting numerous affidavits, satisfied that Nicaragua had acted unjustifiably unjustifiably that he was satisfied 50Dickinson ^ D i c k i n s o n to Seward, May 18, 18, June 4, 4, June 13, 1863, National Archives, Roll 14, Vol. Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 14, Vol. 8; 8; New York Times, Times, June 14, 14, July 24, 24, October 1, 1, 1863; San Francisco Bulletin, June 13, 13, July 24, 24, October 3, 3, 1863. 1863. 375 in proceeding as proproceeding without resorting to arbitration arbitration as pro­ I' vided for in the contract and taking possession of the » force. property by force. He said that the real facts proved conclusively that the transit route was actually actually open on conclusively 19, 1862, 1862, in accordance with the terms of the October 19, charter, and that this fact was proved by the actual passage of over a thousand passengers passengers but a few days afterwards on the same means of conveyance conveyance that existed on that that day. day. existed on He supplied evidence to prove that the Pacific Mail Mail Company and the Panama Railway Company Company had provided provided John E. E. Russell, Russell, the former secretary to Minister Clay, with money money to to purpur­ chase the transit property. He also forwarded a copy copy of aa transit transit contract contract signed signed by by Russell Russell and and Pedro Pedro Ze1edon Zeledon on on February an exclusive February 24, 24, 1863, 1863, granting granting a a New New York York group group an exclusive privilege for twenty-five years. years. Dickinson then requested Dickinson then that the United States send vessels of war to to both both sides of the isthmus in order to protect American property abroad American property 51 open.^l and keep the route open. acknowledged the receipt Secretary Seward acknowledged receipt of Dickinson's reports without comment. He was apparently undisturbed by Dickinson's fears and in November undisturbed November notified 51Dickinson 31, 1863, 5lDickinson to Seward, June 13, 13, July 31, National Archives, Archives, Microcopy no. Vol. 8. no. 219, 219, Roll 14, 14, Vol. 8. ~ 376 him that it was understood understood that the differences between the company Nicaragua had been been adjusted by a new company and Nicaragua adjusted by ( , .. contract and that while this Government feels a lively interest in the success of any enterprises which citizens of the United States may endeavor to carry into effect con­ abroad, it cannot undertake in any way to guaranty congovernments. tracts which they may make with foreign governments. that, in entering into It must be taken for granted that, such engagements, they duly weigh, beforehand, the responsibilities assumed assumed and and the the disposition, disposition, as as well well responsibilities as the the ability of the the foreign government to fulfill 52 bargain.52 its part part of the bargain. Isaac C. Haradon had had brought brought $20,581 and a series C. Haradon of propositions for a basis of settlement settlement with Nicaragua. Nicaragua. His proposal was rejected by by the the authorities who who put forth the following points points for agreement: (1) (1) The company company should have the exclusive privilege privilege of transit only on the the land route, remaining and principal part part of the route, leaving the remaining route open to general competition. (2) (2) The company company should be reorganized reorganized and incorporated incorporated in Nicaragua. (3) (3) The duration of the the contract contract should be reduced to twenty-five twenty-five years. years. (4) was forfeited and the (4) The original grant was company pay an amount to to be be appraised company should pay appraised for the return of the property. property. ?2S eward to ? Seward to Dickinson, Dickinson, November 25, 25, 1863, 1863, National National Archives, Microcopy Microcopy no. 219, Roll 28, 16, 389-90. Archives, no. 219, 28, Vol. Vol. 16, 389-90. 2 377 Haradon in turn declined to agree upon such unfavorunfavor terms. able terms. Finding that they could not agree upon a » * 15, 1863, 1863, the negotiations definite adjustment, on July 15, transferred to Washington under an agreement that were transferred that the transit could could continue continue operation operation under under the the direction direction of of transit Dickinson for for three three months months from from July July 18, 18, 1863. 1863. Dickinson Pending Pending the final final settlement, settlement, Haradon Haradon paid paid to to Nicaragua $20,581 the Nicaragua $20,581 of which $5,000 was was applied applied as as second second payment payment on the of which $5,000 on the $35,000 value value of of the the transit transit property, property, $3,000 $3,000 for for lease of $35,000 lease of the road, road, and and the the remainder remainder for for capitation capitation tax at $1.50 $1.50 the tax at per passenger. passenger.53 53 per It was after the failure of Haradon's mission that Haradon s mission f M. the Nicaragua Nicaragua run. M. O. 0. Roberts withdrew his steamers from the run. More than a year passed before transportation transportation across the isthmus was was resumed. In the interim several changes changes took place within the Transit Company, and a new charter was Nicaragua. signed with Nicaragua. The deadlock in the negotiations was overcome in October when the Central American American Transit Company changed changed its board of directors and elected Company elected Francis Morris president president of the company. The new board board was apparently convinced that either concessions would would have 53Affidavit July 20, 20, 1863, 53Affidavit of Isaac C. C. Haradon, July 1863, National Archives, Vol. 8. Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 14, 14, Vol. 8. 378 to be made to Nicaragua or the route given up. up. President . ,•• j* Morris came to an understanding understanding with Luis Molina on November 10, ratified on 10, 1863, 1863, and the new contract was ratified February 20, 20, 1864. 1864. A of the the new new charter with with the the grant grant of A comparison comparison of Martinez April 1860 indicates that the transit policy of the Mart!nez administration had undergone a substantial change. change. administration Whereas Whereas complicating factor prior to the death of the primary complicating Walker had been the fear of a filibuster invasion, the accompanying depletion of periodic wars with the accompanying of the treasury now now attracted attracted more more attention attention to to the the transit as treasury transit as an immediate immediate source source of of revenue. revenue. an The desire desire for for more money The more money was at at the the heart heart of of the the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan demands, demands, hence the was hence the company was was forced forced to to make make substantial substantial financial financial concesconces­ company sions for for the the new new charter. charter. sions In 1860 the company company had agreed to purchase the old transit property for $35,000 payable $5,000 down and year. $5,000 per year. An annual rent of $3,000 was to be paid road. for the use of the road. For granting the fifty-year capi­ franchise Nicaragua was to receive 200,000 shares of capicompany and $1.50 capitation tax for tal stock in the company passenger. every passenger. company also agreed to expend The company expend $500,000 years. on improvements within twelve years. Now, Now, just just three three years 379 later, property and a later, the company company conceded to pay for the property twenty-five year franchise $100,000 payable $50,000 at »I .•* • the time of ratification ratification and the balance within within six months. months. consideration of the franchise and in lieu of In further consideration tax, it was to pay an annual sum any capitation tax, sum of $20,000 years, $25,000 for the second eight for the first seven years, years, years, and $30,000 for the remaining ten years. years. In addiaddi­ tion, tion, Nicaragua was to receive 2,200 shares of capital stock, just slightly under the value of of the the prestock, an amount just pre­ vious figure. figure. The amount to be expended on improvements improvements remained at $500,000; also agreed agreed to to $500,000; however, the company company also complete a railroad between the lake and the ocean within 54 four years. years.54 When the company raticompany made the first payment payment and rati­ fications were exchanged exchanged in February 1864, 1864, Dickinson relinquished charge of the transit property property to the new agent relinquished repair. who set about putting the route in repair. By August August there macadamized road and about fifty Concord was a good macadamized Concord coaches ready to convey passengers from Virgin Bay to San Juan del 54Dickinson November 6, ^ D i c k i n s o n to Morris, Morris, November 6, 1863, 1863, Cortez 20, 1864, 1864, Copy of Morris-Molina Morris-Molina to Dickinson, February 20, 10, 1863, 1863, National Archives, Microcopy Contract, November November 10, no. 219, 219, Roll 14, 14, Vol. Vol. 8; 8; Copy of Stebbins-Zeledon Stebbins-Zeledon ConCon­ no. 2, 1860, 1860, British and Foreign State Papers, Papers, tract, April 2, 914-26, LI, 9l4-26~ 380 Sur. Sur. Two lake and six river steamers were in commission, commission, and the company company announced announced that their facilities could accommodate passengers with ease. accommodate twelve hundred passengers ease. I~ ,/ In July President Morris announced announced that the Transit Company Company had purchased purchased fromM. from M. O. 0, Roberts the steamships Golden Rule on the Atlantic Atlantic and America America and Moses Taylor on the Pacific. Pacific. Also two additional steamers were were being being built. With the With company company now operating its own line of ocean steamers, steamers, the service. passengers could be assured of regular service. In August installment of $50,000 was paid to Nicaragua the second installment and by the end of the month passengers were again crossing 55 route.55 over the Nicaragua route. August 1864 reopening of the transit placed The August the Nicaragua Nicaragua route on a permanent permanent basis for the the first time since Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt s agents seized the river steamers in f January 1857. 1857. Despite, ter complications Despite la later complications with Nicaragua, Nicaragua, a regular monthly schedule was maintained over the next four years. years. Throughout this period period the company's officials fought an increasingly hopeless battle battle to keep the the route increasingly hopeless 55Certification Woods, February 20, 55certification of I. I. C. C. Woods, February 20, 1864, National National Archives, 219, Roll 14, 14, Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, Vol. Vol. 8; Dickinson to Seward, August 27, 27, 1864, 1864, National Archives, no. 219, Archives, Microcopy Microcopy no, 219, Roll 14, 14, Vol. Vol. 9; San Francisco September 5, 5, August 23, 23, 1864; 1864; New York Times, Times, Bulletin, September 22, August 28, 28, 1864. 1864. July 22, 381 in operation. The large outlay of cash required for the placed new franchise and the purchase of ocean steamers soon p1aoed company in desperate straits. straits. the company In the fall of 1865 a president, new board board of directors and the newly elected president, William H. H. Webb, Webb, urged William urged the stockholders to raise the company from its debts. debts. necessary funds to extricate the company When these efforts proved proved to be unsuccessful, unsuccessful, Webb formed Company to operate the line of the North American American Steamship Company steamers. ocean steamers. sub­ Funds derived from the new stock sub- to purchase the steamers and scriptions were then used t~ Company again in May 1866 the Central American American Transit Company restricted its activities to conveying passengers across restricted isthmus. the isthmus. incorporated as two separate organiorgani­ Although incorporated effec­ zations, Webb served as president president of both and they effec- tively acted as one.-*** one. 56 In addition to financial difficulties, the the direcdirec­ tors had to come to grips with a problem problem that threatened to end all navigation navigation by way of the port at San Juan del Norte. Norte. Prior to 1863 there was about twenty-three feet of harbor, and vessels water on the bar at the entrance to the harbor, of all sizes were able to enter the port. port. During these years 56New York Times, December 14, Times, December 14, 1867; 1867; San Francisco Bulletin, May 15, 15, 1866. 1866. 382 the river steamers had taken and discharged passengers from discharged passengers alongside the ocean steamers just just off Point Arenas. Arenas. Then ~ Then*,* en­ in July of 1863 an earthquake lifted the bar at the en- trance of the harbor and reduced the water depth to less feet. than ten feet. After this occurrence the ocean steamers bar. and large vessels were forced to remain outside the bar. restricted the flow of water In addition, the raised bar restricted River, and sand bars began to pile up out of the San Juan River, river. in the harbor harbor and lower river. deeper, As the silt became became deeper, the water diverted more and more through the Colorado branch flowing through through Costa Costa Rica Rica until until whereas whereas about about 1848 1848 some some flowing nine-tenths of of the the water water flowed flowed out out the the lower lower San San Juan, by nine-tenths Juan, by 1866 eleven-twelfths eleven-twelfths of of the the water water was was flowing flowing through the 1866 through the Colorado branch branch to to the the ocean. ocean. Colorado The combination combination of of silt silt The deposit and and restricted restricted flow flow of of water water made made the San deposit the lower lower San Juan almost almost impossible impossible to to navigate navigate during during the dry season season Juan the dry and was was also also slowly slowly filling filling up up the the harbor. harbor. and The company company The was thus forced with with the the choice choice of of either either finding another was thus forced finding another port port or or dredging dredging out out the the harbor. harbor. Both Both possibilities possibilities were were 57 considered.57 considered. 57Dickinson ^ D i c k i n s o n to Zeledon, August 15, 15, 1863, 1863, National Archives, Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 14, 14, Vol. Vol. 8; Dickinson to Riotte, Riotte, June 16, 16, 1866, 1866, National Archives, Archives, Microcopy no. 219, Roll 14, no. 219, 14, Vol. Vol. 9. 9. 383 In early 1867 President Webb entertained the idea entertained the of solving the problem joining the transit with the problem by joining I~ Commander Bedford interoceanic railway project of Commander Bedford Clapperton Pim. Trevelyan Pim. Pirn was an Englishman who had conceived Pim the idea of joining joining the isthmus at Nicaragua Nicaragua by by aa railway and in 1859 obtained a concession from the Mosquito king of Pim's Pirn's Bay for the Atlantic terminus. terminus. After journeying into the interior and confirming confirming the feasibility of his plan, in 1862 he set it forth in a book entitled entitled The Gate of the Pacific. Pacific. After more surveys and working on cutting a road to the lake, lake, in 1863 he obtained a concession for the railway from Nicaragua. Nicaragua. When he discovered that its discovered that terms were not sufficiently sufficiently favorable to tempt English capitalists, he returned to Nicaragua and on on March March 1, 1865, obtained certain amendments to the grant. grant. In 1866 In he formed the Nicaragua Railway Company, but subscriptions subscriptions only provided provided about one-fourth of the amount required. required. Discouraged with the English capitalists, capitalists, he responded Discouraged responded to overtures from America and sailed on Christmas Eve for York. New York. I I I After failing in his his first contacts, in February 1867 he discussed with President Webb the possibility possibility of joining his his railway with the Transit Company's facilities. joining facilities. 384 The proposal envisioned envisioned the construction construction of a railway from ,* Monkey Point on the Atlantic to Lake Nicaragua where the I~ passengers would board board the Transit Company's steamers to complete the crossing. c~ossing. Pim was was to to cut a road over the Pirn proposed Webb was was to send an American proposed route after which Webb American engineer, upon whose report report would depend further prosecuprosecu­ tion of the enterprise. enterprise. Under this this agreement Pim Pirn propro­ ceeded to Nicaragua and cut a road from the lake to the Atlantic--over a distance of 101 miles. Atlantic--over miles. However, upon his 1867, Webb had changed his mind return to New York in May 1867, and declined even to send an engineer to inspect the newly opened road. road. England thoroughly discour­ Pim returned to England thoroughly discour- aged and and within within the the year year transferred his concession concession to to aged transferred his American Francis Morris, Morris, late president president of the Central American Transit Company, who formed the New Jersey and Pacific Transportation and Nicaragua Railway Company. Transportation corpora­ This corpora- 58 project.^8 tion also failed to complete the project. Pirn's activities had been closely followed by Pim's Minister Dickinson. After Pim received After received his new contract 58Bedford ^ B e d f o r d Pim and Berthold Berthold Seemann, Dottings on the Roadside, in Panama, Nicaragua, and Mosquito (London: (London: Hall, 1869), 359-68, 359-68, 439-46; 439-46; Dickinson to Chapman and Hall, December 20, 20, 1866, 1866, Dickinson to Seward, March 21, Webb, December 21, Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 15, 15, 1868, National Archives, Vol. 10. Vol. 10. 385 in March 1865, 1865, Dickinson notified the Department Department of State that the project would cause serious rivalry rivalry between American and British interests in the country. American I~ He protested to Nicaragua against the contract and charged protested granted to that it was a direct violation of the charter granted the Accessory Accessory Transit Company Company and an infringement infringement on the rights of the Central American American Transit Company. Despite Secretary Seward his calls for United United States interference, Secretary interested in Pim's Pirn's activities and was not the the least bit bit interested 59 correspondence.-^ did not even answer Dickinson's correspondence. 9 After deciding against Pim's project, the Pirn's railway project, directors they would directors of of the the Transit Transit Company Company decided decided that that they would attempt the sand attempt to to deepen deepen the the channel channel by by dredging dredging the sand bars bars out of the river and harbor. harbor. But as this would a would involve a considerable expenditure, and as they had already already become heavily indebted to meet the terms of their grant, grant, they proposed to approach Nicaragua for certain concessions proposed company to continue operating. which would enable the company As 59Dickinson April 22, 22, D i c k i n s o n to Seward, March 9, 9, 21, 21, April Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 14, 1865, National Archives, 14, Vol. 9; Dickinson to Silva, March 14, 14, 1865, 1865, Silva to Vol. 18, 1865, 1865, National Archives, Archives, Microcopy Dickinson, March 18, no. 219, 219, Roll 14, 14, Vol. Vol. 9; Dickinson to Webb, December December no. 1866, National Archives, Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 15, 20, 1866, 15, Vol. 10. Vol. 10. 59 386 the desirability desirability of keeping the transit open was deemed to be as important they important to Nicaragua as to themselves, themselves, they . * ..J* I appointed Isaac C. C. Haradon to negotiate for amendments amendments charter. to the charter. In May 1867 Haradon proposed a set of amendments amendments to the government on the grounds that they were essential company to procure sufficient sufficient capital to to enable the company route. restore the harbor and make a profit from the route. The amendments amendments proposed: proposed: The (1) An An extension extension of of the con­ (1) the con- tract from from twenty-five twenty-five to to ninety ninety years. years. tract (2) An increase (2) An increase of the the capital capital stock stock of of the the company company to to secure secure new funds. of new funds. (3) privilege of transit. (3) A A restoration of the exclusive privilege transit. (4) (4) A A remittance of the yearly stipend of $20,000. $20,000. The government officially but in officially rejected the proposal, but improvements, June Antonio Silva, the minister of public improvements, Haradon. resumed the subject in private discussions with Haradon. The result of these discussions was a verbal agreement would grant on the part of Silva that the government would company would the amendments on the condition that the company obligate itself to restore the harbor and river and keep them in a navigable state during the term of the contract. contract. On the the faith faith of of this this agreement agreement the the company company immediately immediately On 387 60 commenced the work of dredging. dredging.60 commenced In August while the the work was going on Minister ,~ York, and after two months of negonego­ Silva proceeded proceeded to New York, tiation with President Webb they signed an agreement on amendments. the basis of the amendments. Webb then journeyed journeyed to contract, Nicaragua to secure the ratification of the new contract, but upon upon arriving at Managua, Managua, the government repudiated repudiated the authorized entire document and denied that Silva had been authorized act. to act. Along discovered that on Along with this rejection, Webb discovered granted the exclusive priviprivi­ August 30 the government had granted lege of constructing constructing a canal along the line of the transit 6l Sonnenstern.61 to a German by the name of Maximilian Maximilian Sonnenstern. In addition to to these difficulties, difficulties, in January 1868 the commerical commerical court at Granada ordered ordered the embargo of the lake steamer Tipitapa in consequence of a decree in the favor of Ran Runnels against the Transit Company. Runnels acquired an 1857 claim claim of C. C. K. K. Garrison for money had acquired loaned to to the Atlantic and and Pacific Pacific Ship Ship Canal Canal loaned the American American Atlantic 60Dickinson to Minister Minister of Foreign Relations, Relations, 1, 1867,; 1 8 6 7 Dickinson to Seward, June 7, 7, 1867, 1867, Dickinson May 1, 21, 1867, 1867, Dickinson to Guzman, May 21, Dickinson to Seward, October 22, 22, 1867, January 22, National Archives, Archives, Microcopy 22, 1868, 1868, National Microcopy no. no. 219, Roll 15, 10. 15, Vol. Vol. 10. r 61 61lbid. I bid. 388 Company. Despite the proof offered by the Transit Transit Company Company disassociated them from to show that their charters had disassociated , ,~* any connection connection with the former Canal Company, the court compelled them to appear as a defendant and ruled in favor compelled Runnels. of Runnels. Company thereupon protested The Transit Company protested the jurisdiction appealed to the jurisdiction of the Granada court and appealed Court. Supreme Court. The consequence of a decision against the company was far more than the loss of the amount of the company claim. By the terms of their 1863 charter, the execution automatically cause their of the court decision would automatically franchise to be forfeited, and all of their property property would 62 government.^2 pass to the Nicaraguan government. The directors of the company were rapidly rapidly approachapproach­ resources. ing the end of their resources. appeared that the It appeared Nicaraguan government was intent upon forcing the forfeiture of their charter so that it might obtain more money from grant. a new grant. President Webb had made preparations for withdrawing the ocean steamers from the Nicaragua route the previous November by adding a monthly line of steamers 62 March 7, 7, 1868, ^ DDickinson i c k i n s o n to Seward, January 22, 22, March February 11, no. 219, 11, 1869, 1869, National Archives, Archives, Microcopy Microcopy no. 219, Roll 15, Vol. 10; 15, Vol. 10; Protest of Central American American Transit 18, 1868, 1868, Runnels to Dickinson, October 5, 5, Company, January 18, Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 15, 15, 1868, National Archives, Vol. 10. 10. Vol. 389 under the North American compete on American Steamship Company to compete the Panama run. run. Thus, received that*."* that.! Thus, when word was finally received authorized the President President to the Nicaraguan Nicaraguan Congress had authorized declare the Transit Company's charter forfeited after April 1868, due to noncompletion noncompletion of the railroad railroad from the 18, 1868, lake to the Pacific Ocean in the stipulated stipulated time, time, Webb ordered the steamers to be diverted diverted to Panama following ordered 63 Nicaragua.^3 their April call at Nicaragua. While the directors still retained hopes hopes that Nicaragua would be forced to concede and continued continued their efforts to obtain redress for their grievances, the April 1868 sailing of the steamers was the last of passenger transportation across the Nicaragua route. route. transportation In October ruled in favor of Runnels the Supreme Court of Nicaragua r~led and ordered the lake steamer Tipitapa and the river steamers debt. Cora and Managua sold to pay the debt. The following month American Steamship Company Company sent its last steamers the North American to Panama Panama and and the the Central Central American American Transit Transit Company was to Company was 64 officially through. through.64 officially 63San March 24, 24, 63san Francisco Bulletin, November November 13, 13, March 1868; New New York Times, Times, December 14, 14, 1867. 1867. 64Runnels 5, 1868, 1868, National 64R nnels to Dickinson, October 5, Archives, Archives, Microcopy Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 15, 15, Vol. Vol. 10, 10, San FranFran­ cisco Bulletin, October 8, 8, 1868. 1868. U 390 Throughout this struggle for survival, survival, Minister Dickinson had kept the Department of State informed informed on the/ the~ events. progress of events. emphasized the imperaimpera­ He repeatedly emphasized interfering to save States interfering tive necessity of the United States' 1 company and asked for instrucinstruc­ the very existence of the company company from being tions by which he could prevent the company h a r a s s e d .65 ^ unjustly and illegally harassed. Following his appeal Following in January 1868 Secretary Seward finally responded on March 26 with instructions that breathed breathed of indifference indifference affair: to the whole affair: You ask for such instructions as may prevent that illegally harassed Company from being unjustly and illegally obstructed in the prosecution of its enterprise enterprise.. and obstructed however, without a full and •. .. .• It is difficult however, understanding of the reason which may be clear understanding assigned by that government for its course in the matter, to give such instructions as those you ask for, even supposing that their expediency expediency should for, however, if that government be acknowledged. Even however, should have willfully disregarded the contract it is questionable whether remonstrance from us would would induce is, however, essential it to change its policy. It is, subject, before a mature opinion can be formed upon the subject, that we should know what their explanations may be for refer. Those you will the proceedings to which you refer. 66 report.66 endeavor to obtain and report. 65Dickinson January 22, 22, D i c k i n s o n to Seward, October 22, 22, 1867, 1867, January 1868, March 7, 7, 1868, 1868, February 11, 11, 1869, 1869, National Archives, Archives, Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 15, 15, Vol. Vol. 10. 10. 65 66S S eeward w a r d to Dickinson, March 26, 26, 1868, 1868, National Archives, 36-37. Archives, Microcopy Microcopy no. no. 77, 77, Roll 29, 29, Vol. Vol. 17, 17, 36-37. 66 391 Dickinson replied on May 21 that he had had been been unable .. to obtain any specific explanations not previously previously reporte~ reported but offered offered his personal evaluation of the government's actions: actions: The only explanation which can be truthfully made, is, is, that the successive Administrations Administrations of the regarded the trantran­ Government of Nicaragua have always regarded trade. Not for the future sit as their main stock in trade. immediate benefit welfare of the country, but for the immediate of the existing Administration. The President of Nicaragua, whose term of office is four years, years, being prohibited by the Constitution Constitution from serving for prohibited for two successive terms, looks only to the success of own successive terms, looks only to the success of his his own Administration, and and feels feels no no interest interest in in contributing contributing Administration, to that of his successor. On the contrary, there is to that of his successor. On the contrary, there is too much evidence of a disposition to so shape affairs too much evidence of a disposition to so shape affairs as to to embarrass embarrass and and prevent prevent the the success success of of the the succeedsucceed­ as ing Administration. The consequence is that the ing Administration. The consequence is that the President always always commences commences his his term term of of office office with an President with an empty treasury, and with insufficient means to supply empty treasury, and with insufficient means to supply the necessities necessities of of the the Government. Government. The The Government Government is the is therefore compelled compelled to to resort resort to to some some extraordinary extraordinary therefore measures beyond beyond the the meagre meagre resources resources of of the the country country measures to supply its empty treasury, and it does not scruple to supply its empty treasury, and it does not scruple to employ employ any any available available means means to to accomplish accomplish the the de­ to desired result. The transit route is generally looked sired result. The transit route is generally looked to as as the the readiest readiest and and most most available available means means to supply to to supply deficiences, and and the the company company operating operating it therefore deficiences, it is is therefore almost continually subjected to various forms of spoilaspoila almost continually subjected to various forms of tion, as as the the records records of of the the Department Department of of State State will will tion, abundantly show.67 abundantly show. 67 essentially ended the affair This correspondence essentially as far as the Department Department of State was concerned. Although Dickinson had had been specifically in 1863 to to specifically commissioned commissioned in 67Dickinson 'Dickinson to Seward, May 21, 21, 1868, 1868, National Archives, 10. Archives, Microcopy Microcopy no. no. 219, 219, Roll 15, 15, Vol. Vol. 10. b 392 investigate the transit difficulties, difficulties, Secretary Secretary Seward had consistently refused to involve the United United States in the ,~ i* consistently proceedings. proceedings. Although this indifference might be partially explained by the administration's administration's preoccupation explained preoccupation with the battle to maintain Union, the attitude was consistent consistent maintain the Union, maintained from the first. first. with the policy that had been maintained con­ Even prior to the settlement of the Central American American con1860, the government had troversy with Great Britain in 1860, capitalistic struggle for refused to interfere in the capitalistic control of the route, route, except, except, as in the case of Belly, when it had overtones that threatened threatened European violation violation of the Doctrine. Monroe Doctrine. By the time the Civil War was ended, American American necessity of maintainmaintain­ interest had been diverted from the necessity ing isthmian transportation. The transcontinental railroad approaching reality and when completed completed it was by then an approaching would become the great link with the Pacific coast. coast. As the railroad railroad drew drew nearer nearer to to completion, completion, the the need for the the the need for away. Nicaragua route faded slowly away_ While Nicaragua's actions 1868, it is were responsible for closing the route in 1868, is almost certain certain that that it it never never would would have have survived survived the coming almost the coming year. year. When the the golden golden spike spike connecting connecting the the transcontinental transcontinental When railroad was was driven driven on on May May 10, 10, 1869, 1869, the the first first great era of of railroad great era 393 isthmian transportation was past. past. Created Created out of the demands of thousands of passengers seeking transportation,~ transportation,* westward, its reason for existence was now passed. passed. The second era would not be ushered in for almost half half aa century. century. During that time the Isthmus of Nicaragua Nicaragua would again come into the national interest as the most most feasible canal. route for an interoceanic canal. -- I .," CHAPTER IX CHAPTER • CONCLUSION The idea of completing to India completing a westward passage to by constructing the narrow constructing an interoceanic canal across the isthmus dividing the Atlantic and Pacific oceans occupied many European minds throughout the Spanish colonial period. period. Although the poet Goethe and Napoleon foresaw the the imporimpor­ tance of an isthmian passage to the United States, the idea States, the attracted little attention from American American statesmen statesmen until compelling an immediate compelling interests interests in in the the west west generated generated an immediate need need for for communication communication with with the the Pacific Pacific coast. coast. Following Following the of thousands the discovery discovery of of gold gold in in 1848 1848 and and the the demands demands of thousands of westward, both of gold gold seekers seekers clamoring clamoring for for transportation transportation westward, both the Department Department of State and profit-hungry profit-hungry capitalists capitalists awakened to the importance of the Nicaragua route. route. Prior to the acquisition of Oregon and the the Mexican Cession, and the discovery of gold in California, interest com­ in an isthmian passage was centered in the idea of completing an interoceanic canal and was restricted restricted to a few p1eting foresight. men of foresight. recognition of the Despite Monroe's recognition , 395 European threat, in 1826 the declaration was interpreted interpreted as having no application to the republics of the isthmus. isthmus. The, Democrats even succeeded passing a House resolution succeeded in passing instructed to enter calling for the Panama delegates to be instructed entangling alliance--either alliance--either for commerical commerical purposes or no entangling for the prevention prevention of European colonization colonization on the American American continent. Consequently, British encroachments southward Mos­ settlement at Belize into Honduras and the Mosfrom their settlement quito coast went unheeded unheeded as did the calls of the Central American republics for enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine. Doctrine. American respond to in­ Although the United States failed to respond to the the increasing importance importance of of transportation transportation across across the Isthmus creasing the Isthmus of Nicaragua, Nicaragua, the the British British slowly slowly awakened awakened to threat of to the the threat of the rapidly expanding expanding United United States States and and sought sought to offset of the rapidly to offset its eventual eventual monopoly monopoly of of the the Nicaragua route. its Nicaragua route. While there was no widespread in widespread American American interest in the isthmus during the first half of the nineteenth century, century, a few statesmen recognized its future importance and formu­ through their efforts an isthmian policy was slowly formu- lated. mentioned in Secretary Secretary Clay's instructions instructions First mentioned 1826, its principles were clearly to the Panama delegates in 1826, set forth in the resolutions of the Senate in 1835 and the 1839. House in 1839. A product of New England commerical commerical desires, desires, A 396 the policy was characterized nature. characterized by its defensive nature. While great importance importance of construct constructits advocates recognized the great· • •• canal, they were extremely extremely fearful that ing an interoceanic canal, bloody a monopoly of the undertaking would only lead to bloody wars similar to the long struggles for control of Gibralter. Gibralter. Consequently, although they called for the United United States to enter suitable treaty arrangements to protect those who might undertake the work, they insisted that all nations should enjoy equal rights of free and open transit transit and that the canal should be be neutralized by joint joint proneutralized and guaranteed guaranteed by pro­ tection. tection. As a result of these pressures, pressures, the the Department of State instructed data on on the instructed its ministers to collect data various canal projects in order to determine the the most feasible route for the undertaking. undertaking. This cautious activity characterized American action characterized American until the discovery of gold cast an entirely new light light on entirely new the importance of immediate action on the isthmus. isthmus. The Bidlack Treaty first result was the ratification of the Bidlack 1848. with New Granada in March 1848. Yet even in this action President Polk adhered to the defensive policy theretofore established. In explaining the "peculiar circumstances" entangling which called for setting aside the avoidance of entangling alliances, he argued that the treaty was not for political alliances, , 397 but for a purely purely commercial commercial purpose and that similar . enjoy , ^ guarantees would be given by other nations who would would enjoy. passage. equal rights of passage. While Polk showed foresight in this regard, he America. failed to respond to the British threat in Central America. After the occupation of San Juan del Norte on January January 1, questioned that the United States could 1848, he questioned could move independently to resist such aggression and informed informed Hise independently determined on a course of action. action. that he had not yet determined He act, but he officially officially ignored the not only chose not to act, appeals of of the the Central Central American American republics republics for for aid. aid. appeals This This failure to to respond leads me me to to conclude conclude that that Polk's calls failure respond leads Polk's calls for the the enforcement enforcement of of the the Monroe Monroe Doctrine Doctrine in in Oregon Oregon and and for Yucatan were were merely merely political political maneuvers. maneuvers. Yucatan It is is not diffi­ It not diffi- cult to to ascertain ascertain that that he he never never followed followed through through in in either either cult regard and and that that the the Congress Congress was was by by in in large large opposed opposed to regard to such action. action. such therefore suggest suggest that that those those historians who II therefore historians who attribute the the resurrection resurrection of of the the Monroe Monroe Doctrine Doctrine to to Polk Polk attribute are greatly greatly in in error. error. are Almost a a decade decade passed passed before the Almost before the subject came came under under serious serious consideration consideration in in the the Congress. Congress. subject The first first real real call call upon upon the the Monroe Monroe Doctrine Doctrine grew grew out out of of The the British British refusal refusal to to adhere adhere to to the the American American interpretainterpreta­ the tion of of the the Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. Treaty. tion Thus the the honor for Thus honor for 398 President Pierce recalling the doctrine should be given to President 1848. in 1856 and not to Polk in 1848. * I~ The first response to the British protectorate protectorate over occurred under the Whig administration administration the Mosquito coast occurred Taylor. of President Taylor. Under the direction of Secretary immediately initiated. Clayton definite action was immediately This action, however, however, was motivated occupation of motivated by the British occupation the Nicaragua route and was not a response to their their colonicoloni­ zation activities in Central America. Clayton represented the New England commercial been the the chief commercial interests and had been spokesman spokesman behind behind the the formulation formulation of of the the defensive defensive isthmian isthmian policy embodied embodied in the Senate resolution of 1835. 1835. All of All his to its his actions actions were were governed governed by by an an adherence adherence to its principles. principles. He He recognized recognized the the necessity necessity of of the the United United States States enjoying enjoying equal access to the route, that aa route, but he was convinced convinced that monopoly of the transit would eventually the nation nation to to eventually lead the war. war. His controlling the Clay toncontrolling interest in negotiating negotiating the Clayton- Bulwer Treaty was to induce the British to withdraw withdraw from agreement for the Mosquito protectorate and to enter an agreement joint route. joint development and protection of the route. He was convinced that the treaty had successfully successfully accomplished accomplished convinced these objects. objects. At no time did he he manifest any any interest in forcing the British out of their settlements in the l 399 Belize, which explains his willingness to adopt the declaradeclara tions exchanged at the time of ratification. ratification. I." It appears that in 1850 the Congress was still not interested in events on the isthmus. isthmus. really interested The Clay Claytonton- Bulwer Treaty was passed after a short debate in the Senate, Senate, and even though many senators later claimed claimed that understanding that the treaty would they voted with the understanding force the British out of Central America, their failure to respond to the publication of the declarations indicates interested in the treaty. that they were not seriously interested the treaty. Even when when the the declarations declarations came came into into discussion discussion in in the the Even debates on on the the establishment establishment of of the the Colony Colony of of the Bay debates the Bay Islands in in 1852, 1852, the the Congress Congress was was divided divided as to whether whether Islands as to British Honduras Honduras (Belize) (Belize) was was meant meant to to be be included in the the British included in term "Central "Central America" America" as as used used in in the the treaty. treaty. term Cornelius Cornelius Vanderbilt had had safely safely opened opened transportation transportation across the Vanderbilt across the Nicaragua route route the the year year before, before, despite despite the the British British Nicaragua refusal to to withdraw withdraw from from the the Mosquito Mosquito protectorate, protectorate, thus thus refusal the Whigs Whigs were were not not prone prone to to do do more more than than defend defend the the treaty treaty the against the the cries cries of of betrayal betrayal by by the the Democrats. Democrats. against Clayton Clayton insisted that that the the treaty treaty required required the the British British to withdraw insisted to withdraw from the the Mosquito Mosquito protectorate protectorate and and the the Bay Bay Islands but from Islands but he maintained maintained that that it it did did not not apply apply to to British British Honduras. Honduras. he 400 On the other side the extreme Democrats insisted that the insisted that obligated to withdraw from all of Central British were obligated America. As the debates progressed, it became evident promised a new era for the that the new Democratic reign promised Doctrine. Monroe Doctrine. This prospect became a reality when Secretary Marcy instructed that the instructed Buchanan to inform the British that United States would contest their claim to sovereignty sovereignty in Belize and would "regard the assertion of it it as an inin­ fringement of the Monroe Doctrine--a doctrine which it is the policy of the President to maintain." This strong stand maintained throughout over the stand was was maintained throughout the the negotiations negotiations over the next next two two years. years. By had settled By April April 1854 1854 the the two two nations nations had settled on on opposing opposing views. views. While While the the American American government government took took the the position that the treaty was retrospective as well well as propro­ spective, spective, and insisted on British withdrawal from Central America, the British stood on the ground that it was was only prohibited further expansion in that prospective and merely prohibited region. region. It was these strained relations which led to the bombardment of unfortunate instructions leading to the bombardment Greytown 1854. Grey town in July 1854. While ostensibly aimed ostensibly aimed at the Greytown obstinate actions of the Grey town authorities, this action was in reality a reaction to the British stand on the 401 treaty. treaty. continued to insist that the When the British continued treaty was prospective, and relations became further com- plica ted by the enlistment question, the affair again came plicated to the attention of Congress and occupied extended extended disdis­ cussion cussion throughout throughout the the spring spring of of 1856. 1856. The The discussions discussions of of 1856 1856 indicated indicated that that the the imporimpor­ tance of the the United tance of of the the isthmus isthmus to to the the future future relations relations of United States with their States with their Pacific Pacific possessions possessions had had finally finally settled settled into a national national interest. interest. Whereas Congress had had been divided in the debates over the Bay Islands in 1852, 1852, there was now a complete backing of the stand taken by by the the PresiPresi­ practically unanimous denunciation of Great dent and a practically Britain. ClaytonFor the first time the relationship of the Clay ton- Bulwer Treaty and the Monroe Doctrine was discussed discussed at length. length. While it was acknowledged majority of acknowledged that the majority Congress had never been willing to sustain the the doctrine in in the past, it was now felt that the untractable position position of Britain threatened threatened the isthmian link and that at some future to give future date date the the United United States States might might be be forced forced to give up up her her Pacific Pacific possessions. possessions. In the face of this threat, time in threat, for the first time I ~ l ,~ the history of the Congress, Congress, there was a united call for the enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine. Doctrine. The prevailing 402 sentiment was was that that either the treaty or the Monroe Doctrine . must be upheld, even if such insistence should lead to war. war .• , # nec­ While there was a general willingness to go to war if necgenerally agreed that the British people essary, it was generally government to yield would force their government yield before a firm stand States. on the part of the United States. enforce­ While the call for enforce- reservations, ment of the Monroe Doctrine was thus made with reservations, it was the first time in the history of the country that it had ever had a chance of being enforced. If the British budge, there is strong indication that the had refused refused to budge, treaty would would have been abrogated abrogated and a stand taken upon the doctrine. doctrine. Thus President President Pierce rather than than Polk adopt­ should have his name linked with the honor of first adoptpolicy. ing the doctrine as a principle of national policy_ With the Congress strongly behind him, President inclined to yield Pierce was even more inclined yield to the demands of expansionists. the extreme expansionists. When When many prominent prominent Democrats began advocating advocating that British British influence in Central America America be offset by the Americanization isthmus, he began Americanization of the isthmus, Rivas-Walker to entertain the proposals to recognize the Rivas-Walker government. Then as demands for action mounted and the com­ British refused refused to recall Crampton despite his proven comenlistment question, and as the Democratic plicity in the enlistment 403 nomination convention moved closer and closer, the Presiconvention moved Presi­ dent decided that decisive action was imperative. In i ,.. May 1856 he notified the Congress that he had received the Nicaraguan minister and Crampton was subsequently Crampton was subsequently handed his passports. passports. Many felt that that war would surely follow. follow, Fortunately, the Senate had correctly judged judged the British response. response. Conciliatory Conciliatory expressions appeared in government the London press and Parliament, and the British government expressed the desire to negotiate on American American terms. terms. expressed Faced with the threat of having to fight to retain all of her possessions in Central America, the British decided to negotiate for a peaceful retention of British Honduras in return for an honorable withdrawal from the Bay Islands and the Mosquito protectorate. protectorate. off, The strong stand had paid paid off, and peaceful relations were soon restored. restored. Although negonego­ tiations were painfully painfully extended over the next three years while suitable arrangements for an honorable withdrawal were prevailed throughout the re­ sought, a cordial atmosphere prevailed remainder of the decade. decade. mainder independently By 1860 Britain had independently adjusted her position adjusted position in Central America America in accordance with the American terms. the American terms. Although she she remained remained in in British British Although Honduras, she she withdrew withdrew from from the Bay Islands Islands and and the the Mosquito Mosquito Honduras, the Bay protectorate. protectorate. The Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty Treaty was thus vindicated, vindicated, The was thus J 404 the specter of British interference with isthmian communicommuni­ cation was removed, and the shadow of the Monroe Doctrine • •• comfortably over most of the isthmus. isthmus. lay comfortably With the Civil December 1860 message the PresiPresi­ War close at hand, in his December settlement was entirely entirely satisfacsatisfac­ dent noted that the final settlement rest. tory and the ten-year dispute was laid to rest. While the increasing importance of isthmian communicommuni­ cation had had generated generated diplomatic interest in Central America, America, this interest was not carried over into the capitalistic capitalistic struggle for control of the Nicaragua Nicaragua route. route. Throughout the the governthe decade decade of of dispute dispute and and on on into into the the 1860's, 1860's, the govern­ ment ment continually continually refused refused to to take take sides sides with with any any of of the the contending contending companies. companies. The the transit The only only activities activities on on the transit that received any serious attention from the government were those which which threatened to complicate the dispute with complicate the Great Britain. The United States insisted that no no other insisted that route, but it was not really interinter­ nation monopolize the route, operated it, it, as long as it was open to all ested in who operated basis. nations on an equal basis. Hence, while American American ministers Hence, were instructed instructed to use their good offices to aid American American citizens, the most that the government ever did was to citizens, insist that the Central American justly uphold American republics justly contracts. their contracts. Yet even this insistence was by in large 405 for the record. Despite the the repeated annulment of various charters on extremely extremely questionable grounds, grounds, no action bey09d beyond an official protest protest was was ever taken except in the the case of the Rivas manifesto. the Rivas manifesto. And was directed And then then this this action action was directed at the threat threat of a European European protectorate, not not at the the acquisiacquisi­ tion of a charter by by Belly. The capitalistic capitalistic struggle for control of the isthmian route actually proceeded proceeded largely on an entirely entirely independent independent course. course. Cornelius Vanderbilt Vanderbilt was first attracted attracted to the Nicaragua route when it became apparent that the Mail Companies had had succeeded succeeded in obtaining a monopoly monopoly of the Panama. Isthmus of Panama. Motivated Motivated by the prospect prospect of sharing in the tremendous profits to be gained from the thousands of gold seekers who who were clamoring for transportation transportation across conceived the idea of establishing establishing an the isthmus, isthmus, he conceived immediate land and water transit while going ahead with constructing an interoceanic canal. canal. plans for constructing Confident completion of the canal would would throw the entire that the completion lap, he went ahead with California and India trade into his lap, summer of 1851 opened opened the Nicaragua his plans and in the summer transportation. route for overland transportation. Hopes for the canal soared in 1852 when Child's American and British survey was pronounced pronounced practicable practicable by American 406 engineers; however, the project was rapidly abandoned abandoned when engineers; London capitalists declined declined to participate participate in the proposed I~ venture. venture. consideration of the project, the After serious consideration unprofitable English firms decided that it would be an unprofitable interests. undertaking for all except American interests. deci­ The deci- sion of Vanderbilt and his associates not to move ahead on their own is also explained explained by financial considerations. considerations. While Vanderbilt had visions of gaining international recogrecog­ nition for such an achievement, he was driven more more by practical practical than than idealistic idealistic motives. motives. As As he he was was already already acquiring a sizeable fortune by merely utilizing the water utilizing the and justify finanand land land facilities facilities at at hand, hand, he he could could not not justify finan­ cially with the cially the the unnecessary unnecessary risk risk of of going going ahead ahead alone alone with the canal. canal. This real chance This lack lack of of vision vision restricted restricted any any real chance for for a canal until the end of the century and completely completely altered altered later developments on the isthmus. isthmus. With all hopes hopes for for aa communi­ canal abandoned, the first great era of isthmian communitransportation of cation was restricted to the overland transportation isthmus. passengers across the isthmus. Because of the problems pro­ of transshipment and the additional time involved, the projected jected transcontinental railroad forewarned the early abandonment of the Nicaragua Nicaragua route. route. I 407 Following his canal project, VanderFollowing the failure of his Vander­ bi1t his steamships to to the Accessory bilt sold his Accessory Transit Company Company and sailed for Europe in the North North Star. Star, ~ ,II> Upon his his return Upon in the the fall of 1853, that Morgan and Garrison 1853, he discovered discovered that had had obtained obtained control control of of the the company. company. Completely Completely enraged, enraged, he note threatening threatening to he dashed dashed off off a a note to "ruin" "ruin" them them and and then then set the task. set about about the task. In In early early 1854 1854 he he established established an an IndeInde­ pendent pendent Opposition Opposition Line Line on on the the Panama Panama route route and and proceeded proceeded to cut rates alarmingly. By September By September the Transit Company and the Mail Lines were faced with with the the choice of settling continuing to operate at ruinous rates. rates. or continuing They chose to meet Vanderbilt's painful claims and jointly jointly purchased purchased his price. steamers at an outrageous price. Despite this this competition competition the Transit Company Company concon­ tinued to make improvements on the Nicaragua Nicaragua route, route, not merely to satisfy the whims of the passengers, passengers, but to make the transit transit more comfortable and faster in order to to compete compete completion at Panama. Panama. with the railway nearing nearing completion By the spring of 1855 the Nicaragua route was effectively effectively competcompet­ ing with Panama and gave every indication of passing passing it in popularity. schedule, Steamers arrived and departed on schedule, passengers were were swiftly transported transported from the dock at San carried in comfortable carriages to Juan del Sur and were carried 408 Virgin Bay. Bay. They enjoyed a good meal and a night's rest on the lake steamers and were then loaded directly from ( * I~ the river steamers onto the Atlantic steamships waiting waiting in harbor. the harbor. control, Since Morgan and Garrison had gained control, the line had cleared cleared half a million dollars for each six operation. months of operation. prospects, 1855 proved Despite such hopeful prospects, proved to be the apex of the route. route. The entrance of William William Walker brought disastrous consequences for its future. future. If it had been allowed to continue without the filibuster complicacomplica­ tions, tions, there is little doubt that it would have become even more popular than Panama. Panama. Shorter by more than than 500 miles and healthful, its would have and more more healthful, its successful successful operation operation would have poured poured money money into into the the Nicaragua Nicaragua treasury treasury and and assured assured the the continuance of the company's charter. charter. Improvements on the Improvements on river and the completion would have completion of railroad facilities would brought great changes to the Central American American economy. economy. Perhaps such a change that the increased interest in comcom­ pleting a canal in the 1880's would have seen it done at Nicaragua. activities But this is speculation, and the activities future. of Walker soon ruined all hopes for the future. The decision of Walker to side with Morgan Morgan and Garrison and annul the Accessory Transit Company's charter 409 in February 1856 resulted in ending the successful operation route. of the Nicaragua route. 1868, • From that day to the end in 1868, I • control. it never managed to rise above the struggle for its control. Walker, Already greatly hindered by the allied war against Walker, Vanderbilt s agent in the seizure of the river steamers by Vanderbilt's f January 1857 brought an end to transportation transportation across the isthmus. isthmus. intervened before the Seven years of contention intervened route was again placed in permanent permanent operation; by then it success. was too late to really even hope for success. Walker's filibustering activities did not merely 1857, they also engendered engendered such a close the route in early 1857, American minds that fears of deep hatred hatred in the Central American another invasion totally frustrated all attempts to revive the transit. transit. While it might be argued argued that these fears were largely largely imaginary imaginary and and magnified magnified by by contending contending agents agents were and the Conservative party in Nicaragua, the fact remains widespread even among the more enlightened that they were widespread leaders and remained remained as the primary obstacle to to the the transit even after after the the death death of of Walker Walker before before the the Honduran Honduran firing firing even squad in in 1860. 1860. squad In addition to bringing an end to the successful operation of the Nicaragua route, route, Walker's activities operation States. attracted considerable attention in the United States. I I 410 will not attempt to review all of the complications complications with neutrality laws and the problems of diplomatic recogthe neutrality .. ~ nition, except to again point out that Walker never enjoyed nition, popularity in the American American mind. mind. any real popularity His activities did not even fall in line with the manner in which which the advocates of manifest destiny foresaw Central America eventually falling under the wing of the great American American eagle. eagle. Walker's temporary of prominent temporary favor in the eyes of Democrats occurred before his ascension to the the presidency and at the height of the controversy controversy with Great Britain--a Britain—a time when the Americanization Americanization of the isthmus appeared appeared as the most positive way of offsetting offsetting British influence over the transit route. route. As soon as the war clouds passed, passed, not one prominent prominent leader in either party came to to the support support of Walker. Walker. The attack upon Paulding's seizure of the filifili­ busters was aimed at the extension of presidential authority Walker. and was in no way made in behalf of Walker. At the same time they attacked attacked the President, leaders such as Douglas, Douglas, who had previously previously spoken in Walker's behalf, made it sympathize with his plans for milimili­ clear that they did not sympathize isthmus. tary conquest of the isthmus. Nor is there any indication that there was ever any real movement in the South to extend 411 slavery into Central America. activities While Walker's activities commanded was aided aided by commanded much superficial interest and he was I.· extremists such as Pierre Soule, Soule, no prominent southern leader came openly to his support. support. If Walker had had been able the story able to to maintain maintain his his position position peacefully, peacefully, the story might might have have been been different. different. But But under under the the circumstances circumstances which which existed, no southern planter was risk his existed, no southern planter was willing willing to to risk his reputation Walker offered. reputation and and money money upon upon the the uncertainties uncertainties Walker offered. All in all Walker's popularity to the popularity was very similar to Kossuth craze at the beginning of the decade. decade. When the down, all interest vanished vanished in the air. air. chips were down, The closing of the Nicaragua route in early 1857 was followed by seven years of frustrating negotiations. negotiations. Charters were assigned and annulled. The efforts of the United States to secure a treaty to protect the the transit ended ended in in the the ridiculous ridiculous circumstances circumstances of of the the Belly Belly fiasco fiasco and was not straightened straightened out until 1868. 1868. The American The American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company unsuccessfully unsuccessfully attempted was in attempted to to open open the the route route in in 1858 1858 and and interest interest was in turn the mails turn renewed renewed by by the the abortive abortive prospect prospect of of sending sending the mails via via Nicaragua Nicaragua in in 1859. 1859. In Atlantic and In 1861 1861 the the American American Atlantic and Pacific in spite Pacific Ship Ship Canal Canal Company, Company, which which persisted persisted in spite of of its numerous setbacks, a charter setbacks, succeeded succeeded in obtaining obtaining a l 412 American Transit Company Company and under the name of the Central American route. in October 1862 actually reopened the route. After a few , After ( .. sailings it became apparent that the Walker bogy had been replaced by a new complication. replaced The various offers of the contending companies had not failed to register on the contending Nicaraguan officials. officials. Confronted Confronted with a perpetually perpetually empty treasury, they seized upon the transit as their their most most availavail­ able source of immediate revenue. revenue. Between 1863 and and 1868 they operated operated on the assumption assumption that the most profitable policy would be to annul the Transit Company's charter, charter, seize to another seize all all of of its its property, property, and and then then sell sell it it to another company company for for a a cash cash payment payment together together with with large large demands demands for for aa franchise franchise of of the the route. route. Consequently, Consequently, when when demands demands for for more more money money were were refused refused by by the the Central Central American American Transit Transit Company, they they declared its charter forfeited and in in March took possession possession of the transit property. 1863 took property. In 1864 the Central American American Transit Company Company acceded to the new financial demands of Nicaragua and after a large outlay of cash resumed operation of the route in August charter. under a new charter. company managed main­ Although the company managed to main- tain monthly sailings throughout the next four years, years, they enter­ never managed to turn the transit into a profitable profitable enter- prise. prise. In addition to the large debts incurred in reopening incurred in 413 the route, that the harbor harbor and river route, the company company discovered discovered that were slowly filling up with with sand bars. bars. After disgarding disgarding , .. the idea of joining joining the transit with Pim's project for an Pirn's project interoceanic railway, they they approached Nicaraguan governapproached the Nicaraguan govern­ ment with proposals to amend their charter in order to enable them them to raise enough money to to dredge the the river and port. port. When these negotiations finally ended in legal action designed to take possession designed possession of their property property on the isthmus declared their charter forfeited after April April and Nicaragua Nicaragua declared noncompletion of a railroad to connect the 1868 because of noncompletion lake with the Pacific Ocean, the company company finally bowed bowed to withdrew its steamers. steamers. the inevitable and withdrew The April April 1868 sailing ended the first era of transportation Nicaragua route. transportation across the Nicaragua route. Throughout the extended extended struggle struggle of of the the company company for for survival, survival, Minister Minister Dickinson had repeatedly repeatedly appealed to the the United States to appealed to come to its aid. aid. But the American American government government had never manifested manifested any interest in such affairs. affairs. After the settlesettle­ ment of the controversy with Great Britain in 1860, controversy with 1860, the affairs on the the isthmus faded from the the national national mind. With the end of the the Civil War attention was was attracted to the attracted to transcontinental railroad. As it drew nearer and nearer to consumed in crossing the continent completion, and the time consumed 414 isthmian trans­ became shorter and shorter, the need for isthmian transaway. portation faded slowly away. g o l d e n spike was When the golden ••• 1869, the first great era of isthmian isthmian transportranspor­ driven in 1869, tation had passed. With iron rails linking linking the Pacific a n y immediate immediate need coast to the Union, there was no longer any overland transportation transportation via the isthmus. isthmus. for overland Thus once contemplating again foresighted statesmen returned to contemplating age-old dream plans for an interoceanic canal and the age-old dream of India. Within the next half century, the aa passage to India. a g a i n attract Isthmus of Nicaragua Nicaragua was destined to again attract the f o r the national interest as a prime contender for the projected canal. canal. APPENDIX A A f . .. STEAMSHIP SCHEDULES SCHEDULES STEAMSHIP The following schedules have been compiled compiled from contemporary contemporary newspaper reports of departures and arrivals as printed printed in San Francisco, New York, York, and New Orleans. Orleans. Since completely reported, the total number every voyage was not completely number of passengers should be taken as only approximate. Even when the number of passengers on a particular steamer or a list of passengers was published, there are instances in which it seems clear that only first and second cabin passengers were considered, with the large number of steerage passengers omitted. There are also many instances when no no list or number of passengers was given. of passengers was given. Part 11 Passenger Steamers Sailing Between San Francisco and Nicaragua Departing S.F. for Nicaragua Departed Departed 1851 Jul 14 Aug 1 Sep 6 Oct 4 Oct 14 Nov 1 Nov 16 Dec 2 Dec 15 Ship Pacific Independence Pacific Independence America North America Pacific Gold Hunter Independence America North America Pass Pass. 425 209 200 377 207 450 228 102 180 Arriving S.F. from Nicaragua Arrived Aug Sep Oct Ship 30 .. Pacific Independence 17 Independence 16 Pacific Nov 16 Nov 28 Dec 9 Independence Independence America North America Pacific Pass. Pass 110 55 250 200 365 300 416 Departing S.F. for Nicaragua S.F. for Departing Departed Departed Oct Oct Nov Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec Dec Dec Pacific Pacific Independence Independence North America North Pacific Pacific Independence Independence Monumental Monumental City City Pacific Pacific Independence Independence New Orleans New Pacific Pacific Pacific Pacific Independence Independence Pacific Pacific S.S. S.S. Lewis Independence Independence Pacific Pacific S.S. S.S. Lewis Pass. Pass. Apr 10 Apr Independence Independence 400 May May May May May May Jun Jun Ju1 Jul 13 17 26 26 27 27 12 Pacific City Monumental Ci·ty Independence Independence Pacific Pacific Independence Independence 450 350 365 365 225 Aug Sep Sep Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Dec 2 2 5 15 5 5 30 11 16 3 Pacific S. S. Lewis. Lewis. S.S. Independence Pacific Brother Jonathan S.S. Lewis S.S. Independence Pacific Jonathan Brother Jonathan 200 Jan Jan Jan Feb 4 7 17 2 S.S. Lewis Lewis S.S. Independence Pacific Jonathan Brother Jonathan 493 212 332 450 Mar 7 Mar 20 20 Apr 21 Pacific Jonathan Brother Jonathan Pacific 337 460 500 May May Jun Jun Nevada Sierra Nevada Jonathan Brother Jonathan Pacific Nevada Sierra Nevada 555 461 317 400 215 215 400 400 374 374 185 185 170 Independence Pacific Pacific Brother Jonathan Jonathan S.S. S.S. Lewis Lewis Independence Independence Pacific Pacific 300 300 150 298 202 313 313 1853 1853 Jan Jan 1 Jan Jan 15 15 Brother Jonathan Jonathan Independence Independence 72 1 15 15 11 15 15 1 17 17 1 16 11 Pacific Brother Jonathan Jonathan S. S. Lewis S.S. Pacific Sierra Nevada Brother Jonathan Jonathan Pacific Sierra Nevada Brother Jonathan Jonathan 307 717 886 716 500 424 502 500 ]?a»ss ]i>{itS s . 250 400 400 350 400 Jan Jan Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Mar 200 200 432 Ship Independence Independence North North America Pacific Pacific Independence Independence Pacific Pacific 270 270 90 90 380 380 287 287 11 15 15 11 15 15 11 15 15 Feb Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr Apr May May Jun Arrived Arrived 8 18 18 5 5 CO 1852 Jan 11 Jan Jan 17 Jan 17 Feb 11 Feb Feb 14 Feb 14 Mar 11 Mar Mar 24 24 Mar Apr 11 Apr Apr 15 Apr 15 May 5 MayMay 14 May 14 May 18 May 18 Jun 11 Jun Ju1 33 Jul Ju1 15 Jul 15 Ju1 31 31 Jul Aug Aug 14 14 Sep Sep 15 15 Ship Arriving Arriving S.F. from from Nicaragua ~24 -24 26 26 6 21 13 16 200 150 288 296 300 414 450 417 417 Departing S.F. Nicaragua for Nicaragua Departing S.F. for Departed Departed Ship Ship Pass. Pass. Ju1 11 Jul Ju1 16 Jul 16 Sierra Nevada Brother Jonathan Brother 700 700 290 290 Aug Aug Aug Aug Sep Sep Sep Sep Oct Oct Oct Oct 1 1 16 16 1 1 16 16 11 16 16 Cortes Cortes Sierra Nevada Sierra Brother Jonathan Brother Jonathan Cortes Cortes Pacific Pacific Sierra Nevada 315 315 613 613 260+ 260+ Nov Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec 11 16 16 11 16 16 31 31 Cortes Cortes Pacific Pacific Sierra Nevada Cortes Brother Brother Jonathan 545 545 442 640 640 235 235 132 1854 1854 Jan Jan 16 16 Feb Feb 1 1 Feb Feb 16 16 Mar Mar 1 1 Mar Mar 16 16 Apr 1 Apr 1 Apr Apr 15 15 May 1 May 1 May May 16 16 Jun 1 Jun 16 16 Ju1 Jul 1 Ju1 Jul 15 15 Sierra Sierra Nevada Nevada Cortes Cortes Brother Brother Jonathan Jonathan Sierra Sierra Nevada Nevada Cortes Cortes Pacific Pacific Sierra Sierra Nevada Nevada Cortes Cortes Brother Jonathan Jonathan Sierra Nevada Cortes Pacific Sierra Nevada Aug Aug Aug Aug Sep Sep Sep Sep Sep Sep Oct Oct Brother Jonathan Jonathan Cortes Pacific Sierra Nevada Cortes Cortes Sierra Nevada Nevada 1 16 1 16 16 30 30 24 24 Nov Nov 9 9 Cortes 500 650 650 170 300 300 380 600 340 350 Arriving S.F. from Nicaragua Arriving S.F. from Arrived Arrived Ship ?a»ss. f.-ss. Ju1 Jul Ju1 Jul Ju1 Jul Aug Aug Aug Aug Sep Sep 2 2 16 31 31 16 29 29 15 Brother Brother Jonathan Cortes Cortes Sierra Nevada Brother Brother Jonathan Cortes Cortes Sierra Sierra Nevada 409 409 216 216 400 175 215 215 345 345 Oct Oct Oct Oct Nov Nov 2 15 31 31 16 Brother Jonathan Brother Cortes Pacific Pacific Sierra Nevada 348 510 554 554 600 Dec 2 Dec 17 Dec 31 Dec 31 Cortes Pacific Sierra Nevada 665 630 500 Jan Feb Feb Feb Mar Mar Mar Mar Apr Apr Apr May May Jun Jun Jul Ju1 Ju1 Jul Ju1 Jul Aug Aug Sep 15 2 17 17 4 26 2 2 16 4 19 19 3 17 2 18 31 13 30 14 Cortes Brother Jonathan Jonathan Sierra Nevada Cortes Brother Jonathan Sierra Nevada Cortes Pacific Sierra Nevada Cortes Brother Jonathan Jonathan Sierra Nevada Cortes Pacific Sierra Nevada Brother Jonathan Jonathan Cortes 517 600 927 851 696 955 804 665 800 544 534 700 371 381 355 400 375 Oct Oct Oct Oct Nov 2 12 15 31 20 Pacific Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Sierra Nevada 533 50 400 365 400 418 Departing S.F. for Nicaragua Departed Departed Ship 24 9 23 Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes 1855 Jan 9 Jan 24 Feb 9 Feb 26 Mar 9 Mar 24 Apr 9 Apr 24 May- 9 May May 16 Jun 1 Jun 16 Jun 30 Ju1 Jul 16 Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Uncle Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Pacific Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec Pacific Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Nov Dec Dec 1 18 5 20 5 20 5 20 5 20 1856 Jan 5 Jan 21 Feb 5 Feb 20 Mar 5 Mar 20 Apr 5 May 5 Jun 20 Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Jonathan Brother Jonathan Cortes Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Sierra Nevada Arriving S.F. S.F, from Nicaragua Pass. Pass. Arrived 250 Dec 7 Dec 21 Sierra Nevada Uncle Sam 400 505 400 450 482 420 Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr May May Jun Jun 6 20 4 22 9 23 9 22 7 26 7 12 Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam 250 167 470 340 201 486 500 413 630 847 433 589 250 Jul Ju1 Ju1 Jul Jul Ju1 Aug 2 14 30 11 Pacific Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam 487 425 436 750 Sep Sep. Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec 4 14 9 21 3 16 4 18 Pacific Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam 500 650 862 712 680 335 229 229 435 Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Mar Apr 3 19 2 19 Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Sierra Nevada Cortes Uncle Sam Brother Jonathan 315 317 310 296 600 654 300 Sierra Nevada 350 170 250 570 600 278 250 350 300 350 250 400 500 298 7 21 10 Jun 6 Ship P~ss Pass :...&.- . 419 Departing Departing S.F. S.F, for Nicaragua Departed Departed Ship Pass. Pass. Aug 5 Sep 20 Oct 20 Sierra Nevada Sierra Nevada Sierra Nevada 370 562 567 700 Nov 20 20 Dec 20 Orizaba Sierra Nevada 800 447 1857 Jan 20 Feb 20 Orizaba Orizaba Sierra Nevada 408 Mar 5 Mar 5 Orizaba 1862 Oct 21 Moses Taylor 1863 1863 Mar 11 Apr 30 Jun 13 Jul 23 Moses Moses Moses Moses 1864 Aug 23 Sep 21 Oct 19 Nov 14 Dec 12 Moses Taylor America America Moses Taylor America America Moses Taylor 1865 Jan 11 Feb 13 Mar 13 Apr 13 America America Moses Taylor America Moses Taylor Jun 13 Ju1 Jul 20 Moses Taylor America Taylor Taylor Taylor Taylor Arriving S.F. from Nicaragua Arrived Ship -Pa£s. Pass. Ju1 Jul 20 Sierra Nevada 210 Sep Oct Oct Nov Dec 4 19 30 20 19 19 Sierra Nevada Sierra Nevada Orizaba Sierra Nevada Orizaba 310 540 513 577 Feb Feb Mar Apr 9 26 28 20 Sierra Nevada Orizaba Sierra Nevada Orizaba none 403 610 430 Nov 27 27 Moses Taylor 562 Apr Jun Ju1 Jul Aug Moses Moses Moses Moses 831 831 500 719 430 500 20 7 12 21 Taylor Taylor Taylor Taylor 240 730 620 670 794 720 Oct 30 Nov 20 Dec 14 Jan Feb Mar Apr May America America Moses Taylor America 14 Moses Taylor 16 America 23 23 Moses Taylor 25 America 23 Moses Taylor Jul 1 Ju1 America America 295 490 621 544 449 381 420 420 Departing Departing S„F. for Nicaragua Nicaragua S.F. for Departed )eparted Ship Ship 12 12 12 12 13 13 15 15 America America Moses Taylor Moses Taylor America America Moses Taylor Moses Taylor 1866 1866 Jan 15 15 Jan Feb 14 Feb 14 Mar 15 Mar 15 Apr 14 14 Apr May 15 May 15 Jun 15 Jun 15 Jul 14 Jul 14 Aug 15 Aug 15 Sep 25 Sep 25 Oct Oct 25 25 Nov Nov 15 15 America America Moses Taylor Moses Taylor America America Moses Taylor Moses Taylor America America Moses Taylor Moses Taylor America America Moses Taylor Moses Taylor Moses Moses Taylor Taylor America America Moses Moses Taylor Taylor Dec 15 15 Dec America America 1867 1867 Jan Jan 5 5 Jan 25 Jan 25 Feb Feb 15 15 Moses Moses Taylor Taylor America America Moses Moses Taylor Taylor Mar Mar Mar Mar Apr Apr 55 25 25 27 27 America America Moses Moses Taylor Taylor America America May May Jun Jun Jun Jun Jul Jul 15 Moses Taylor Taylor 15 Moses America 55 America 25 Moses Taylor Taylor 25 Moses 15 America 15 America Sep Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec Moses Aug Moses Taylor Taylor Aug 5 5 Aug America Aug 24 24 America Sep Moses Taylor Taylor Sep 13 13 Moses Oct Oct 55 America America Pass. Pass. 480 480 652 Arriving S.F. from from Nicaragua Nicaragua Arriving Arrived Arrived Ship Ship Pass, Pass. - Jul Jul Aug Aug Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec 21 20 20 17 17 21 22 17 17 Moses Moses Taylor America America Moses Moses Taylor America America Moses Moses Taylor America America 248 435 399 Jan Jan Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr May May Jun Jul Aug Aug Sep 15 15 17 17 22 18 16 18 16 18 Moses Taylor America America Moses Taylor America America Moses Taylor America America Moses Taylor America America Moses Taylor 228 423 476 411 Nov 7 Nov Nov 28 Nov Dec 21 Dec Moses Taylor America America Moses Taylor 503 461 Jan 16 America Feb 4 Feb 28 Mar 17 Taylor Moses Taylor America Taylor Moses Taylor 528 702 408 1,060 455 455 Apr Apr May Jun 10 America Taylor 26 Moses Taylor 31 America Taylor 17 Moses Taylor 195 351 397 452 403 Jul 5 America Taylor Ju1 Jul 26 Moses Taylor Aug 16 16 America 392 Taylor Sep 5 Moses Taylor Sep Sep 25 25 America Moses Taylor Taylor 16 Moses Oct 16 607 401 401 411 474 421 Nicaragua Departing S.F. for Nicaragua Departing Departed Departed Ship Oct 25 25 Oct Nov 15 15 Nov Taylor Moses Taylor Moses America America Dec 55 Dec Moses Taylor Taylor Moses 1868 1868 Jan 15 15 Jan Feb Feb 25 Taylor Moses Taylor Moses Moses Taylor Moses Taylor Apr 4 Apr Moses Taylor Moses Pass. Pass. Arriving S.F. from from Nicaragua Arriving Arrived Arrived Ship Eq:ss. £a«s_. Nov 6 Nov Nov 27 27 Nov Dec 11 Dec America America Moses Taylor Moses America America.. 516 503 503 Jan 1 Feb 15 Feb Mar 25 Moses Taylor Moses Moses Taylor Moses Taylor Moses 240 240 530 402 May May 8 Moses Taylor 541 Part 22 Passenger Steamers Sailing Between York and Nicaragua New York Departing New York for Nicaragua Departed Departed Ship 1850 1850 Dec 27 Prometheus Dec 27 Prometheus Pass. Pass. Arriving New York York from from Nicaragua Arrived Arrived Ship Pass. Pass. 1851 1851 Jun Jun Jul Jul Aug Aug Sep Oct Oct Oct Oct Nov Nov Nov Nov l ~ 14 14 14 14 14 12 12 7 22 22 8 22 22 Dec Dec 2 Dec Dec 6 6 Dec Dec 222 2 Prometheus Prometheus Prometheus Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster 60 221 213 213 390 305 218 Brother Jonathan Jonathan Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster 258 266 Jan 21 Feb 22 Prometheus Prometheus Aug Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec Dec Prometheus Prometheus Prometheus Brother Jonathan Jonathan Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster Brother Jonathan Jonathan Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus 13 4 4 29 6 16 28 1 19 29 360 270 465 500 509 400 510 302 285 422 Departing N.Y. for Nicaragua N.Y. for Departing Departed Departed Ship Ship Pass. Pass 476 476 360 360 656 656 538 538 463 463 558 558 540 540 370 May May May Jun Jun Jun Ju1 Jul Ju1 Jul Ju1 Jul Aug Aug Aug Aug Sep Sep Sep Sep Oct Oct Oct Oct Nov Nov Nov Nov Northern Light Northern Prometheus Northern Light Northern Daniel Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus Prometheus Northern Light Northern Daniel Webster Daniel Webster Prometheus Northern Northern Light Light Prometheus Prometheus Star Star of of the the West West Prometheus Prometheus Star the West Star of of the West Prometheus Prometheus Star Star of of the the West 950 405 405 268 268 280 280 327 327 350 350 317 317 244 285 285 328 500 500 382 563 563 Dec Dec 5 5 Dec 20 Dec 20 Prometheus Prometheus Northern Light 382 524 524 1853 1853 Jan Jan 5 5 Jan Jan 20 20 Feb 5 Feb 19 19 Mar Mar 5 Mar Mar 19 19 Star Star of of the the West West Northern Northern Light Light Star Star of of the the West West Prometheus Prometheus Star Star of of the the West West Prometheus Prometheus 548 531 531 416 Apr Apr Apr Apr May May May May Star Star of of the the West West Prometheus Prometheus Prometheus Prometheus 311 311 396 250 250 200 5 20 20 5 21 21 6 6 20 20 23 23 5 5 20 20 44 20 20 66 20 20 5 20 20 55 20 20 .5.5 20 20 473 Pass. Pass. "i'T i ? Ship Ship Jan Jan Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Mar 12 30 13 28 28 15 Daniel Webster Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Webster Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Webster Daniel 255 355 121 336 325 Apr Apr Apr Apr Apr Apr May 3 12 27 16 Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Webster Daniel Northern Light Daniel Webster 238 125 307 305 Jun Jun Jun Ju1 Jul Ju1 Jul Ju1 Jul Aug Aug Aug Sep 2 21 2 18 29 29 15 30 7 Northern Light Prometheus Northern Northern Light Daniel Webster Daniel Prometheus Northern Light Prometheus Northern Light 300 447 300 160 135 300 200 563 Oct Oct Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec 3 15 2 8 27 19 29 Prometheus Star of the West Prometheus Star of the West Prometheus Star of the West Prometheus 150 202 300 206 34 280 Jan Jan Feb 9 28 13 Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light 247 300 300 Mar Mar Mar Apr Apr May May 2 15 31 10 25 12 25 Star of the Prometheus Star of the Prometheus Star of the Prometheus Star of the 298 430 400 221 550 400 437 CM Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Webster Daniel Webster Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Webs ter Daniel Webster Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Webster Northern Light Northern Daniel Webster Daniel Arrived Arrived CM 1852 Jan 55 Jan Jan 21 21 Jan Feb 55 Feb Feb 20 20 Feb Mar 55 Mar Mar 20 20 Mar Arp 55 Arp Apr 20 Apr 20 from Nicaragua Arriving Arriving N.Y. N.Y. from West West West West West 423 Departing N.Y. N.Y. for Nicaragua Departed Departed Jun Jun Ju1 Jul Ju1 Jul Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec Ship 4 20 5 20 5 20 5 20 5 20 5 19 5 20 Northern Light Prometheus Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Prometheus Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West 1854 Jan 5 Jan 21 Feb 4 Feb 20 Mar 4 Mar,. Mar; 20 Apr 5 Apr 20 May 5 May 20 Jun 5 Jun 20 Ju1 Jul 5 Jul 19 Ju1 Aug 4 Aug 19 Sep 4 Sep 19 Oct 4 Oct 27 Nov 13 Nov 27 Dec 12 Dec 27 Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Prometheus Star of the West Prometheus Star of the West Prometheus Prometheus Star of the West Prometheus Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Pass. Pass. 251 200 180 265 330 525 586 675 635 553 600 623 623 700 400 400 361 400 300 250 564 320 381 288 464 350 240 255 275 240 246 245 255 Arriving N.Y. N.Y. from Nicaragua Arrived Ship Pass. Pass. Jun 9 Jun 24 Ju1 Jul 25 Prometheus Northern Light Northern Light 423 402 500 Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec 9 23 9 24 9 27 27 9 29 13 24 Star of of the the West Northern Light Star of the the West Northern Light Star of of the the West Northern Light Star of the the West Prometheus Star of the the West Northern Light 453 520 560 655 509 718 600 650 406 566 Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr May May Jun Jun Ju1 Jul Jul Ju1 Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct Oct Nov 8 24 9 23 13 25 9 25 8 25 8 13 24 7 24 8 25 8 27 14 Star of of the the West Northern Light Star of of the the West Northern Light Star of the the West Northern Light Star of the the West Northern Light Star of the the West Northern Light Star of the West Prometheus Star of the West Prometheus Star of the West Prometheus Star of of the the West Prometheus Northern Light Star of the the West Northern Light 443 443 313 407 400 410 382 469 552 618 820 501 750 463 383 435 254 450 361 494 550 446 Dec 2 Dec 15 Star of of the the West Northern Light 260 300 424 Departing Departing N.Y. N.Y. for Nicaragua Ship Pass. Pass. 1855 Jan 12 Jan 27 Star of the West Northern Light 250 Feb Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr May May Jun Jun 12 27 12 27 12 27 12 21 5 20 Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light 230 Ju1 Jul Ju1 Jul Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov 5 20 6 20 5 20 5 24 9 24 Star of the West Northern Light Daniel Webster Webster Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light 544 726 671 664 450 445 415 250 420 300 Dec 10 Dec 24 Star of the West Northern Light 1856 Jan 9 Jan 24 Feb 9 Feb 25 Mar 8 Apr 8 Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Orizaba May 10 Jun 24 Orizaba Orizaba Aug 9 Cahawba 250 387 370 471 300 480 495 435 644 500 Arrived Ship gauss. iBIS s . ~ Jan Jan Jan Feb 2 15 30 14 Star of the West Northern Light Star of the the West Northern Light 296 227 213 160 Mar Mar Apr Apr May May Jun Jun Jun Jul Ju1 Jul Ju1 Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct 4 19 3 15 2 16 1 6 24. 248 25 6 27 8 30 13 Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Daniel Webster Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light 173 262 183 150 517 351 500 415 600 457 363 413 356 447 551 436 Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec Star of the the West 1 L Northern Light 11· the West 28 Star of the 11 Northern Light 29 Star of the the West 320 Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Apr Apr 12 29 13 13 28 13 2 29 CO Departed Arriving N.Y. N.Y. from Nicaragua 3 Jun 1 Ju1 Jul 14 Aug 30 300 260 Northern Light Northern Star of the West Northern Light Star of the West Northern Light Star of the the West Orizaba 313 350 289 289 245 Orizaba Orizaba Cahawba 456 436 374 425 425 for Nicaragua Departing N.Y. Nicaragua N.Y. for Departing Departed Departed Ship Ship 24 24 6 6 25 25 22 22 24 24 Texas Texas Tennessee Tennessee Texas Texas Texas Texas Tennessee Tennessee 1857 1857 Jan 29 29 Jan Feb 25 Feb 25 Mar 23 23 Mar Tennessee Tennessee Tennessee Tennessee Tennessee Tennessee 1858 1858 Nov 7 Nov Dec 24 24 Dec Washington Washington Washington Washington Sep Sep Oct Oct Oct Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec Pass. Pass. 656 656 510 510 300 300 360 360 1863 1863 Mar 14 May Jun Jun Ju1 Jul 22 13 23 1864 1864 Aug Aug 27 27 Sep 24 Sep 24 Oct Oct 24 24 Nov Nov 19 19 Dec Dec 19 19 Arrived Arrived Ship Ship Oct Oct Oct Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec 2 18 16 15 Tennessee Tennessee Texas Texas Texas Tennessee Tennessee Jan Jan Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr Apr Apr 18 21 20 3 16 Tennessee Tennessee Tennessee Tennessee Tennessee Tennessee Texas Tennessee Tennessee Dec 11 1859-1861 1859-1861 None None 1862 1862 Oct 25 Arriving from Nicaragua Nicaragua Arriving N.Y. N.Y. from Pass gq"ss. 742 415 500 350 262 Washington Washington None America 564 Nov 20 America 538 Apr 8 May 28 America America 576 415 Jul 16 Ju1 17 Aug 17 America America America 468 America America Ame'fica America America America America America Golden Golden Golden Golden Golden Golden Golden Golden Golden Golden Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule 1865 1865 Jan Golden Rule Rule Jan 20 20 Golden Sep Sep Oct Nov Dec Dec 15 Golden 15 15 Golden 12 Golden 12 10 Golden 10 Jan Jan 7 Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Golden Rule 300 300 845 845 426 Departing N.Y. N.Y. for Nicaragua Departed Feb Mar Apr May Ju1 Jul Aug Sep 20 21 22 22 20 19 20 Pass. Pass. Ship Metropolis Golden Rule Golden Rule Rule1L Golden Rule Ericsson Ericsson Ericsson ] Nov 20 Dec 20 Santiago de Cuba Santiago de Cuba 1866 Jan 20 Feb 19 Mar 20 Apr 20 May 20 Jun 20 Jul 20 Ju1 Aug 20 Sep 29 Oct 9 Oct 30 Nov 20 Nov 26 Dec 20 Santiago de Cuba Santiago de Cuba Santiago de Cuba Santiago de Cuba Santiago de Cuba Santiago de Cuba Santiago de Cuba Santiago de Cuba Cuba2 2 Santiago de Cuba San Francisco Santiago de Cuba San Francisco Santiago de Cuba San Francisco 1867 Jan 10 Jan 30 Feb 20 Mar 9 Mar 30 Santiago de Cuba San Francisco Santiago de Cuba San, San Francisco Santiago de Cuba May 1 Santiago de Cuba 600 535 Arriving N.Y. N.Y. from Nicaragua Arrived ?a»ss. iass. Ship Feb 10 Mar 18 Api? 14 Aplt Golden Rule Metropolis Golden Rule 528 706 Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 15 14 19 22 10 Ericsson Ericsson Ericsson Ericsson Santiago de Cuba 220 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Ju1 Jul Aug Sep 11 9 11 12 10 Santiago Santiago Santiago Santiago Santiago Santiago Santiago Santiago Sant iago Santiago 8 7 8 de de de de de de de de de Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Nov 3 Nov 18 Dec Dec 23 San Francisco Santiago de Cuba San Francisco Santiago de Cuba Jan Jan Feb Mar Mar Apr San Francisco Santiago de Cuba San Francisco Santiago de Cuba San Francisco Santiago de Cuba 12 27 21 10 28 18 1Los 30. Lostt on on May May 30. 2Damaged New York Oct. Oct. 7. Damaged in gale and returned to New 7. 849 781 518 406 550 654 407 487 487 610 645 460 300 100 427 y.' for Nicaragua N.Y. Departing N. from Nicaragua Arriving N.Y. N.Y. from , Departed May 20 Jun 10 Jul Jul Aug Aug Sep Oct Nov Nov Dec 1 20 10 30 20 10 1 15 4 Ship Nevada San Francisco Francisco Nevada San Francisco Francisco Nevada San Francisco Francisco Santiago de Cuba San Francisco Francisco San Francisco Santiago de Cuba San Francisco 1868 Jan 15 Feb 25 Francisco San Francisco Francisco San Francisco Apr 7 Apr 15 Guiding Star Santiago de Cuba Pass. Pass. Arrived Ship Jun Jun Jun Jul 6 "Nevada ~. Nevada Santiago de Cuba 7 . Santi-ago 29 San Francisco 17 Nevada Aug Aug Sep Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec 9 26 19 30 20 9 30 .~ Pass. Pass. 340 274 San Francisco Nevada San Francisco San Francisco Santiago de Cuba San Francisco Santiago de Cuba 420 San Francisco Francisco Feb 15 . San' San Francisco Mar 24 San Francisco Apr 30 Guiding Star 130 184 170 428 Part 33 ••. Passenger Steamers Sailing Between New Orleans and Nicaragua Departing N.O for Nicaragua Departed Ship 1852 Jul 1 Jul 15 Aug 5 Aug 22 Sep 6 Sep 22 Oct 9 Oct 22 Nov 21 Dec 6 Dec 21 Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Daniel Webster Daniel Webster Webster Pampero Webster Daniel Webster 1853 1853 Jan 6 Jan 22 Feb 6 Feb 22 Mar 6 Mar 22 Apr 6 Apr 22 Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Daniel Webster Webster Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Daniel Webster Webster May May Jun Jun Jul Jul Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec Pampero Daniel Webster Webster Pampero Daniel Webster Webster Pampero Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster Pampero Daniel Webster Webster Pampero Webster Daniel Webster 7 22 7 22 7 22 22 6 22 7 22 Pass. Pass. Arriving N.O. N.O. from Nicaragua Arrived Ship Pass. Pass. Jul 28 Pampero Aug 12 Daniel Webster .31 . 31 Sep 5 Daniel Webster 16 55 Oct Oct Nov Dec 6 11 11 18 Pampero Danie ter Daniel1 Webs Webster Daniel Webster Daniel Webster 11 24 148 138 Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar 7 28 11 28 13 Daniel Webs ter Webster Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Daniel Webster 120 220 314 330 195+ 1 244 105 174 235 175 170 145 179 179 Apr Apr Apr May May Jun Jun Jul Jul 26 10 26 7 25 13 25 Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Prometheus Pampero Nov Nov Dec Dec 6 27 7 25 Daniel Webs ter Webster Pampero Daniel Daniel Webster Webster Pampero 7 132 174+ 201 201 429 429 for Nicaragua Departing N.O. Departing Nicaragua N.O. for Departed Departed Ship Ship 1854 Jan 77 Jan 22 Jan 22 Jan Feb 77 Feb 22 Feb 22 Feb Mar 66 Mar 22 Mar 22 Mar Apr 6 Apr 22 Apr 22 Apr May 66 May May 22 Jun Jun 7 22 Jun 22 Jun Pampero Pampero Daniel Webster Daniel Pampero Pampero Daniel Webster Daniel Pampero Pampero Daniel Webster Daniel Pampero Pampero Daniel Webster Daniel Webster Pampero Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Pampero Daniel Webster Daniel Nov 29 Nov 29 Dec 14 14 Dec Dec Dec 29 29 Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Webster Prometheus 1855 1855 Jan Jan 14 14 Jan Jan 29 29 Feb Feb 14 14 Feb Feb 29 29 Mar 14 Mar 14 Mar Mar 29 29 Apr Apr 14 14 Apr 29 Apr 29 May 14 14 May 22 Jun Jun 8 8 Jun 22 22 Nov 11 Nov 11 Nov Nov 26 26 Dec Dec 11 Dec Dec 26 26 1856 1856 Jan 11 Jan 11 Jan 26 Jan 26 Feb 12 Feb 12 Feb 27 27 Pass. Pass. Arriving .O. Arriving NN.O',. Arrived Arrived from Nicaragua from Ship . ,~ss Pass. Daniel Webster Daniel Pampero Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Pampero Daniel Webster Pampero Daniel Webster 214 152 124+ 124+ 115+ 115+ 163+ 155 120+ 196 131+ 232 64+ 205 205 60 Dec 14 Dec 30 Prometheus Webster Daniel Webster 65+ 56 Daniel Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus Daniel Webster Daniel Webster Prometheus Daniel Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus· Prometheus> Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Mar Apr 13 2:7 27 12 29 17 30 13 Prometheus Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Webster Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus 43 May May Jun Jun Ju1 Jul Nov Dec Dec 13 13 31 4 23 23 8 24 9 25 Prometheus Webster Daniel Webster Prometheus Webster Daniel Webster Prometheus Webster Daniel Webster Prometheus Webster Daniel Webster 50 111 Daniel Webs ter Webster Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus Jan 11 Jan 24 Feb 11 Prometheus Daniel Webster Webster Prometheus 27 72 70 400 290 290 164 204 204 194 Jan Jan Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Mar Mar Mar Apr Apr Apr Apr May May May May Jun Jun Jul Ju1 CO 6 6 26 26 7 7 26 26 11 25 25 7 7 26 26 7 7 25 6 24 24 11 194 194 52 32 65+ 46+ 58+ 100 54 97 65+ 430 Departing N.O. N.O. for for Nicaragua Departing Departed Departed Ship Mar 11 Mar 11 Daniel Webster Daniel Webster Apr Apr May May Jun Jun Jun Jun Jul Jul Ju1 Jul Aug Aug 10 10 23 23 7 7 22 22 7 7 22 22 7 7 Charles Morgan Charles Daniel Webster Daniel Webster Granada Granada Daniel Webster Daniel Granada Granada Daniel Webster Daniel Webster Granada Granada Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec 77 27 27 27 27 28 28 Granada Granada Tennessee Tennessee Tennessee Tennessee Texas Texas 1857 1857 Jan 28 Jan 28 Mar Mar 12 Pass. Pass. 230 230 170 367 502 400 Texas Texas 130 Arriving Arriving N.O. N.O. from from Nicaragua Arrived Arrived Ship Bass. Mar 11 11 Mar Mar 29 29 Mar Apr 22 Apr Prometheus Prometheus Daniel Webster Daniel Charles Morgan Charles 90 100 2 Jun Jun Jun Jul Jul Ju1 Jul Aug Aug Aug Aug Daniel Webster Daniel Granada Granada Daniel Webster Daniel Granada Granada Daniel Webster Granada Granada 9 11 11 26 26 13 25 25 13 13 27 27 Oct 23 23 Nov 11 Nov Dec 10 Dec Tennessee Tennessee Texas 13 183 330 Jan 15 Feb 17 17 Texas Texas 363 300 . APPENDIX BB ,• PASSENGERS BY THE ISTHMIAN ROUTES, ROUTES, 1848-1869 The figures listed in this appendix should be taken approximate, as every voyage was not completely completely re­ as only approximate, re1 incomplete.1 ported and the lists of passengers were often incomp1ete. New York-San Francisco Francisco Francisco-New York San Francisco-New Passengers Number of Passengers Number of Passengers Year Via Panama 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1863 1864 1865 335 4 ,624 4,624 11,229 11 ,229 15,464 15 ,464 21 21,263 ,263 17,014 17 ,014 18,445 18 ,445 15,412 15 • 412 18 090 18,090 13,343 13 ,343 20 ,596 20,596 23,567 23 ,567 16,257 16 257 17,765 17 ,765 17,328 17 ,328 15,237 15 ,237 20 ,643 20,643 13,150 13 ,150 Via Nicaragua • • « • • « • • • 1,931 10,563 9,687 13,063 11,237 4,523 4,523 250 • • « • • • • • « • • a 562 831 295 3,265 Total Via Panama 335 4,624 4 ,624 11,229 11 ,229 17 ,395 17,395 31,826 31 ,826 26,701 26 ,701 31,508 31 ,508 26,649 26 ,649 22,613 22 ,613 13,593 13 ,593 20 ,596 20,596 23,567 23 ,567 16,257 16 ,257 17,765 17 ,765 17,890 17 ,890 16,068 16 ,068 20 ,938 20,938 16,415 16 ,415 1,629 1 ,629 7 ,770 7,770 14,189 14 ,189 11,845 11 ,845 10,232 10 ,232 10 ,808 10,808 10 ,397 10,397 12 245 12,245 11,627 11 ,627 8 ,030 8,030 17,682 17 ,682 11,213 11 ,213 6 ,671 6,671 5 ,959 5,959 8 ,470 8,470 12 ,671 12,671 16,506 16 ,506 ... • « Via Nicaragua Nicaragua • • • • • « • • • 3,171 5,921 10,396 9,248 7,750 3,530 408 • • • • • • • • • • • • 500 1,649 1,649 1,625 1,625 3,369 Total • • • 1,629 1.,629 7,770 7 ,770 17,360 17 ,360 17,766 17 ,766 20,628 20 ,628 20,056 20 ,056 18 ,147 18,147 15,775 15 775 12 ,035 12,035 8 ,030 8,030 17,682 17 ,682 11 ,213 11,213 6,671 6 ,671 6 ,459 6,459 10,119 10 ,119 14,296 14 ,296 19,875 19 ,875 1The taken from John John H. iThe figures for this appendix were taken H Route, l848-1869 1848-1869 ("University of CaliCali­ Kemble's The Panama Route. Vol. XXIX; Berkeley fornia Publications in History." Vol. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University Press, 1943), 253-54. Angeles: University of California Press, 253-54. author. This appendix was reproduced by permission permission of the author. 432 San Francisco-New York New York-San Francisco Number of Passengers Number of Passengers I,. + t Total Via Panama Via Nicaragua . . . 12,450 10,355 18,243 4,724 4,757 1,434 1,434 3,975 • 26,501 26,702 40,395 12,744 ... • 17,207 11,789 22,218 4,724 4.724 67,694 442,311 442,311 233,716 57,118 366,658 Year Via Panama Via Nicaragua 1866 1867 1868 1869 22,889 22,889 20,540 38,680 12,744 12.744 3,612 6,162 1,715 TOTAL 372,615 • • • • Total BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY . ,• The following materials constitute aa content bibliography. With the exception of the section on guides and a few other works, works, they all appear in the footnotes. footnotes. Guides The Americas: Americas: A A Quarterly Review of Inter-American Inter-American Cultural History. History. Washington: Academy Academy of American American FranFran­ ciscan History, 1944. 1944. A good source for current writings. A good writings. Bancroft Notes on Interoceanic Communication--Nicaragua, Communication--Nicaragua, 1851-1859. University 1851-1859. MS in the Bancroft Library. California. of California. Berkeley, California. These notes were taken by Bancroft's historians and are an invaluable guide to the material in the Bancroft Library. Library. Bancroft, Hubert Howe. Howe Bancroft, Howe. The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, Vol. XXIII: Vol. XXIII: History of California, 1848-1859, 1848-1859, Vol. VI. VI. 39 vols. vols. San Francisco: Francisco: History Co., Vol. History Co., 1882-1890. 1882-1890. The best source for the discovery of gold and the early period of the gold rush to California, California, with bibliographical notes. notes. . The The Works Works of of Hubert Hubert Howe Howe Bancroft, Bancroft, Vol. Vol. VIII: VIII: History of Central America, 1801-1887, Vol. III. History of Central America, 1801-1887, Vol. III. 39 vo1s. vols. San Francisco: Francisco: History Co., Co., 1882-1890. 1882-1890. An excellent survey of Central American American politics with bibliographical notes. notes. Bosch Garc!a, Garcia, Carlos. Carlos. Gu!a Guia de instituciones que cultivan la historia de America. M~xico, Mexico, D. D. F., 1949. 1949. Lists alphabetically alphabetically the institutions in Canada, Canada, United States, States, Central and South America, and Europe which cultivate the history of the Americas. Americas. Gives address, officials, officials, publications, publications, and data on colleccollec address, tions. tions. 434 Butler, Ruth Lapham. Guide to the Hispanic American American HistoriHistori­ 1918-1945. Durham, North Carolina: Carolina: cal Review, 1918-1945. Duke University Press, ,,• * Press, 1950. 1950. . Checklist of United States Public Documents, 1789-1909. 1789-1909. 3rd Lists of 3rd ed. ed. revised revised and and enlarged. enlarged. Vol. Vol. I: I: Lists of Congressional and Departmental Publications. Publications. WashWash­ ington: ington: Government Printing Office, 1911, 1911, reprinted by Kraus Reprint Corp., New York, Corp., New York, 1962. 1962. Valuable research tool. Valuable tool. Childs, Childs, James B. B. "Hispanic American American Government Government Documents in the Library of Congress," Hispanic American American Historical Review, VI (February-August, 1926), 134-41. 134-41. The practice of exchanging government government documents did not begin until 1874. 1874. Cline, Howard F. F. "Latin America," The American American Historical Cline, Literature. Association's Guide to Historical Literature. F. Howe, Howe, et a1. al. New York: Edited by George F. York: Macmillan Co., 1961. 1961. Co., Excellent guide to the major works. A good works. A point. starting point. The Cumulative Book Index. Index. Minneapolis, 1898-1913; New York: H. H. W. W. Wilson Co., Co., 1917York: Entries under author, title. Aims author, subject and title. to be a complete bibliography in print bibliography of works in in English exclusive of government documents, documents, pampam­ phlets, volumes are phlets, cheap editions, editions, etc. etc. Annual volumes published. A A helpful guide. guide. Davis, Davis, Rear-Admiral Charles Henry. on Interoceanic Henry. Report on Canals and Railroads between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Government Printing Oceans. Washington: Printing Office, Office, U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, 39th Cong., 1st 1867. In U.S. Sess., 1865-1866, S. S. Doc. Doc. 62, 62, Serial no. 1238. Sess., no. 1238. Includes a bibliography bibliography of publications respecting a Nicaragua canal prior to 1866. 1866. Deutsch, Hermann B. B. Annotated Annotated Bibliography Bibliography of William Nicaragua. New Orleans, Orleans, Louisiana, 1933. 1933. Walker in Nicaragua. A useful guide to to publications publications prior prior to to 1933. A useful 1933. 435 Ewing, William William S. S. Guide to the Manuscript Collections in the William ed. Ann Arbor: William L. L. Clements Library. 2d ed. Arbor: 1953. + Clements Library, 1953. I~ Found nothing pertaining pertaining to the Nicaragua route. route. t General Index to the Published Published Volumes of the Diplomatic Correspondence and Foreign Relations of the United 1861-1899. Washington: Government Printing States, 1861-1899. Government Office, 1902. 1902. Office, Valuable research tool. tool. Gibson, Charles and Niemeyer, E. E. V. V. Guide to the Hispanic American Historical Review, 1946-1955. 1946-1955. Durham, Durham, American North Carolina: Carolina: Duke University Press, Press, 1958. 1958. Griffith, William "The Historiography William J. Historiography of Central America America Since 1830," Hispanic American American Historical Review, Review, XL (November, 1960), 548-69. 548-69. An excellent summary for this summary but too general for subject. subject. Grismer, Raymond L. A New Bibliography Bibliography of the L. (ed.). A Literatures of Spain and Spanish America, including Many Studies on Anthropology, Archaeology, Art, Art, Economics, Economics, Education, Geography, History, Law, Law, Music, Philosophy, and other Subjects. 6 vo1s. Subjects. 6 vols. Minneapolis, St. St. Louis, Louis, and Dubuque, 1941. 1941. A vast vast collection of works works but but almost prohibitive A for use. merely list use. There is no organization, merely after list of reproduced bibliographies entered alphabetically by author. author. alphabetically Handbook of Latin American prepared in American Studies. Studies. Recently Recently prepared Library of Congress the Hispanic Foundation in The Library Scholars. 26 vo1s. vols. Gainesville: Gainesville: by a Number of Scholars. University University of Florida Press, Press, 1951-1964. 1951-1964. A selective and annotated annotated Guide to recent publi­ A publiArt, Economics, Economics, Education, Education, cations on Anthropology, Art, International Geography, Government, History, International Relations, Language, Law, Law, Literature, Music, PhiloPhilo­ Relations, Travel. An excellent excellent source sophy, Sociology, and Travel. publications. The first publication for Spanish publications. 1936. The University University of Florida Press has was in 1936. republished the complete series. republished series. 436 Hasse, Index to United States Documents Hasse, Adelaide R. R. (ed.). Relating to Foreign Affairs, Affairs, 1828-1861. 1828-1861. 3 vols. vols. Publication, Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication, ,• 185. Washington: Institution of No. 185. Carnegie Institution 1914-21. Washington, 1914-21. The index lists topics under the general heading of Central America such as Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, Treaty, etc. References to government Filibustering, etc. documents under each topic are broken down in outline. An exhaustive and extremely chronological outline. guide. useable guide. . Hilton, Ronald. Handbook of Hispanic Source Materials and States. Research Organizations in the United States. Stanford University University Press, Press, 1956. 1956. Stanford: Stanford An excellent tool for the researcher. researcher. The Hispanic American American Historical Review, Vol. Vol. II (February, (February, 1966). 1918)-Vol. XLVI (February, 1966). 19l8)-Vol. Excellent source for current writings. writings. Hispanic Society of America. Library. Catalogue of the Library America. 10 Library of of the the Hispanic Hispanic Society Society of of America. 10 vols. vols Boston: Boston: G. G. K. K. Hall Hall & & Co., Co., 1962. 1962. Entry Holds some Entry by by author, author, subject, subject, title. title. Holds some of of the the important important nineteenth nineteenth century century works. works. Hoskins, Hoskins, Halford L. L. Guide to Latin-American Latin-American History. History. Boston: Boston: D. D. C. C. Heath & & Co., Co., 1922. 1922. A very limited guide to secondary books in in A very limited guide secondary books English. this subject. English. Very little pertaining to this subject. R. A. A. Latin American American History: Humphreys, R. a Guide to the English. London, New York, Toronto: Literature in English. York, Toronto: Oxford University Press, Press, 1958. 1958. A good treatment of guides and general general surveys A good English. A A good starting point. Has a section in English. America since 1830. 1830, on Central America Index to Latin American Periodical Literature, 1929-1960. 1929-1960, Compiled Compiled in the Columbus Memorial Library Library of the Union, Boston: Boston: G. G, K. K, Hall & & Co., Co., 1962. 1962. Pan American American Union. Excellent source. country and source. Organized Organized by country subject. subj ect. 437 Inter-American Review of Bibliography. Revista interameriInter-American bibliografla. Washington: Pan American American cana de bibliograf!a. Union, 1951Union, ,^'" Articles, and recent Articles, reviews, reviews, listings of current and books and pamphlets, notes and news, news, and lists of O.A.S. and affiliated affiliated organs' organs' publications. publications. A A O.A.S. review. Excellent source for current quarterly review. publications. publications. ( K. A A Bibliography Bibliography of Latin-American Latin-American BibliBibli­ Jones, Cecil K. ographies . 2d ed. ed. United States Library of ographies. Congress. Latin-American Latin-American Serie Series 2. WashingWashing­ Congress. s,, No. No.2. ton: Government Printing Office, Office, 1942. 1942. ton: A good starting starting point. point. A Kantor, Harry. Harry. A A Bibliography Bibliography of Unpublished Unpublished Doctoral Kantor, Dissertations and Masters Theses Dealing Dealing with the Government, Politics, Politics, and International Relations of Latin America. Gainesville: Gainesville: University University of Florida Press, Press, 1953. 1953. Useful but not a complete list. list. Kemble, Kemble, John Haskell. Haskell. The Panama Route, Route, 1848-1869. 1848-1869. ("University of California Publications in History," Vol. University of Vol. XXIX) XXIX) Berkeley Berkeley and Los Angeles: Angeles: University California Press, Press, 1943. 1943. The most authoritative and complete complete work availavail­ able on the Panama route. valuable for route. Extremely Extremely valuable the competition competition between the Nicaragua and Panama routes, routes, bibliographical notes. notes. Keniston, Hayward. List of Works for the Study of LatinAmerican New York: American History. York: The Hispanic Society 1920. of America, 1920. Lists some guides and a few general works in English and Spanish. Spanish. Larned, Josephus N. The Literature of American American N. (ed.). Bibliographical Guide in Which History: a Bibliographical Which the Comparative Worth Scope, Character, and Comparative Worth of Books Selected Lists are Set Forth in Brief Notes by in Selected Critics of Authority. Boston: Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Mifflin & 1902. Supplements, Supplements, 1902-06. 1902-06. Co., 1902. Contains signed evaluations or reviews of over 4,000 books, books, classified classified by region, region, period, and topic, dealing with all parts of America, although emphasis emphasis topic, States. Lists a few general works. works. is on the United States. 438 Luquiens, Spanish American Luquiens, Frederick Frederick B. B. (ed.). American Literature Literature in the Yale University University Library: a Bibliography. Bibliography. New Haven: Haven: Yale University Press, 1939. 1939. »j* University Press, ,~ Nothing of value value listed. listed. "Manuscripts Concerning Mexico and Central America America in the Concerning Mexico Library of Congress, Congress, Washington, D. D. C.," C , " Translated Translated by Mathias C. C. Kiemen from "Catalogue des manumanu­ .. .• . "" included included in the Acts of the InterInter­ scripts . national Congress of Americanists Americanists published published in 1962), 1900, The Americas, XVIII (January, 1962), Paris in 1900, 255-96. 255-96. Lists MS MS of John John H. which includes two H. Wheeler which diaries, 1854-56, three volumes of volumes of diaries, clippings, 1855-56, and a 287 page MS on newspaper clippings, America ... .. . "" "Nicaragua, The Centre of Central America McAlister, Lyle Lyle N. N. "The Americas: The American Americas: General," The American Historical Association's Guide to to Historical LiteraLitera­ ture. by George F. Howe, Howe, et a1. New York: ture. Edited Edited by al. New York: Macmillan Macmillan Co., Co., 1961. 1961. Excellent guide to the the major works. works. A A good starting point. point. Morrison, Hugh A., Jr. Jr. List of Books and of Articles in Periodicals relating relating to Interoceanic Interoceanic Canal and Railway Routes. Government Routes. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. 1900. In U.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, 56th Cong., Cong., 1st Sess., Doc. 59, Sess., 1899-1900, 1899-1900, S. S. Doc. 59, Serial no. no. 3848. 3848. The list comprises upward upward of 863 books and Library of Congress) and 1,176 1,176 pamphlets (482 in Library Congress) articles in periodicals (980 in Library of Congress). separately It lists the works on the Nicaragua route separately particularly valuable for contemporary contemporary and is particularly material. material. Peter. Manual of Collections of Treaties and Myers, Denys Peter. Treaties. Cambridge: Cambridge: of Collections relating to Treaties. Harvard University Press, 1922. Harvard University Press, 1922. guide. Useful guide. 439 Newberry Library. A A Check List of Manuscripts in the E. Ayer Collection. Compiled by Ruth L. L. Edward E. Compiled Butler. Chicago: Chicago: The Newberry Library, 1937. 1937. Butler. Lists a 203 page MS by Jean Guillaume Antoine and Charles de Villery on the history of Central Greytown, America with particular reference to Grey town, 1858. dated 1858. • •• New York Public Library. Reference Department. Dictionary Collection. Catalog of the History of the Americas Collection. vols. Boston: Boston: G. G. K. K. Hall & & Co., Co., 1961. 1961. 28 vols. author, subject, title, title, Holds many Entry by author, important works on the subject. subject. important New York Times Index. Index. Period 1851-1858 and 1860-1876 is on microfilm. microfilm. The index is organized headings. An organized under subject headings. guide. indispensable guide. Antonio. Manual del Librero HispanoPalau y Dulcet, Antonio. Americano: bibliograf[a bibliografia general espanola e hispanohispano* americano desde la invenci6n imprenta hasta invencion de la imprenta nuestros nuestros tiempos. tiempos. 2ded. 2d ed. 16 16 vols. vols. Barcelona: Barcelona: A. A. Palau, Palau, 1948-64. 1948-64. An is An alphabetical alphabetical listing listing by by author. author. This This is unfortunate unfortunate as as otherwise otherwise it it could could be be an an extremely extremely valuable valuable guide. guide. Palmer's Index to the Times Newspaper (London), 1821-1905. 1821-1905. 59 vols. vols. Vaduz: Vaduz: Kraus Reprint Ltd., 1965. 1965. A index. Each A reprint of Palmer's quarterly quarterly index. quarterly publication publication is organized by subject. subject. Poore, Poore, Ben: Ben: Perley. Perley. A A Descriptive Catalogue of the Government Publications of the United United States, States, 1774Printing Office, Office, 1881. Washington: Government Printing 1885. 1885. Useful guide. guide. Revista de historia de America. Instituto Panamericano Panamericano de Geografia e Historia. Historia. Mexico, 1938Geograf!a A to current current writings writings on on A comprehensive comprehensive guide to general American history. history. r 440 Joseph. Bibliotheca Bibliotheca Americana: a Dictionary Dictionary of Sabin, Joseph. Books Relating to America; from Its Discovery to the Present Time; Time; begun by Joseph Sabin. Sabin, Continueq~ Continue4 J by Wilberforce Completed by R. R. W. W. G. G. Wilberforce Eames and Completed Vail for the Bibliographical America. Bibliographical Society of America. 1868-1936. 29 vols. vols. New York, York, 1868-1936. Lists a few works pertaining pertaining to the subject. subject. San Francisco Bulletin, Index, 1855-1870. 1855-1870. MS in the Bancroft Library. Library. University University of California. California. California. Berkeley, California. Index consists of four boxes of card files. files. organized by subject. subject. A A useful guide but It is organized complete. not nearly complete. Schmeckebier, Laurence F. and Eastin, Roy B. B. Government Government Publications Use. Revised Publications and and Their Their Use. Revised ed. ed. Washington: Washington: The Brookings Institution, The Brookings Institution, 1961. 1961. Describes basic guides Describes the the basic guides to to government government publipubli­ cations. cations . Spell, Lota M. Research Materials for the Study of Latin America America at the University University of Texas. Texas. Austin: Austin: University University of Texas Press, Press, 1954. 1954. Indicates that the Latin American American Collection has 600 volumes on Central America and Panama. Panama. Union List of Serials in the Libraries of the United States and Canada. Ed. by Edna Brown Titus. Canada. Ed. Titus. 3rd ed. ed. 5 vols. New York: H. H. H. Wilson Co., Co., 1965. 1965. vols. York: H. This new new edition greatly simplifies the the use of this excellent guide. guide. University The Bancroft Library. University of California, Berkeley. Library. Catalog of Printed Books. 22 vols. Printed Books. vols. Boston: Boston: G. G. K. K. Hall & & Co., Co., 1964. 1964. A welcome sight to all of us who have used A most welcome the Bancroft Bancroft Library. It is useful not only for preliminary but also for those those of us who preliminary research but forgot to to take take full citations while while at the library. library. 441 U.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, Bibliography Bibliography of United States Public Documents relating to Interoceanic Communication Communication ^ across Nicaragua, Isthmus of Panama, Isthmus of Tehuantepec, etc., etc., 56th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1899-1900, 1899-1900, S. S. Doc. Doc. 59, 59, Serial no. no. 3848. 3848. An excellent guide to the government documents documents relating to interoceanic communication communication published prior to 1900. 1900. ( j •• U.S. U.S. Library of Congress. Congress. A A Catalog of Books Represented Represented by Library of Congress Printed Cards Issued to July 31, 31, 1942. 1942. 167 vols. vols. New York: York: Pageant Books, Books, Inc., 1958-60. 1958-60. Inc., Supplements under various titles bring the work up up to to the the present. present. As As the the entries entries are are alphabetical alphabetical by author, author, the catalog is only useful for deterdeter­ mining if books already identified are held by the Library Library of of Congress. Congress. ..." Col­ The National Union Catalog of Manuscript Collections, lections, Index, Index, 1959-1962. 1959-1962. Hamden, Connecticut: Connecticut: Shoe String Press, Press, Inc., Inc., 1964. 1964. . The The National National Union Union Catalog Catalog of of Manuscript Manuscript ColCol­ lections, lections, 1959-1961. 1959-1961. Ann Arbor, Arbor, 1962. 1962. . The The National National Union Union Catalog Catalog of of Manuscript Manuscript ColCol­ lections, Shoe String lections, 1962. 1962. Hamden, Connecticut: Press, Inc., Inc., 1964. 1964. Most universities and institutions contributed contributed to this catalog. It is a most helpful guide for locating manuscripts in the the United States. States. . Library Library of of Congress Congress Catalog. Catalog. Books: Books: Subjects, Subjects, A Cumulative A Cumulative List of Works Represented Represented by Library of Cards, 1955-1959. 22 vols. vols. Congress Printed Cards 1955-1959. 4 Jersey: Pageant Books, Books, Inc., Inc., 1960. 1960. Paterson, New Jersey: The entries are those for publications with imprint dates of 1945 or later which have been cataloged or recataloged recataloged during the period 1955-59. 1955-59. cataloged date. A A very Supplements bring the work up to date. guide. useful guide. 442 U.S. U.S. Superintendent Superintendent of Documents. Documents. Bibliography Bibliography of United Interoceanic States Public Documents Relating to Interoceanic Communication Isthmus Panama, Communica tion across Nicaragua, Is thmus of Panama",. Isthmus of Tehuantepec, etc. etc. Washington: Government 1899. Printing Office, 1899. A valuable guide. guide. A Van Tyne, Tyne, Claude H. H. and Leland, Waldo G. G. Guide to the Archives of the Government Archives Government of the United States in Washington. Washington. 2d 2d ed., ed., Carnegie Carnegie Institution Institution of of WashWash­ ington, No. 92. ington, Publication Publication No. 92. Washington: Washington: Government Government Printing Office, Office, 1907. 1907. Wilgus, A. A. Curtis. Histories and Historians of Hispanic Curtis. Histories America. New York: York: H. H. W. Publishing Co., Co., W. Wilson Publishing 1942. The works works are listed by by the century in which which they were published. published. A A few general histories are listed that are useful useful but but nothing nothing that specifically specifically relates to the subject. subject. Williams, Wilhelmine. Anglo-American Williams, Mary Wilhelmine. Anglo-American Isthmian DiploDiplo­ macy, 1815-1915. 1815-1915. Washington: American American Historical Historical Association; London: Humphrey Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, Press, 1916. 1916. The most authoritative and complete work availavail­ able on the subject, with bibliographical bibliographical notes. notes. Winther, Oscar Osburn. Osburn. A A Classified Classified Bibliography Bibliography of the Periodical Literature of the Trans-Mississippi Periodical Trans-Mississippi (1811-1957). Indiana University University Social Science West (1811-1957). Series, No. 19. Bloomington: Indiana University University No. 19. 1964. Press, 1964. Useful for California. Does not include Central America. Writings on American Published as parts of the American History. Published Annual Reports of the the American American Historical Association; Association; 1902-03, 1906-40, U.S. 1906-40, 1948-53. 1948-53. Washington: U.S. GovernGovern­ ment Printing Printing Office, 1902An excellent source. work cites every book source. The work and article published published during each year that has value States. In for study of the history of the United States. limited and writings on Latin 1936 the scope was limited America were omitted omitted thereafter. thereafter. America 443 Manuscript Materials Allen, Joseph N. N. Diaries, Diaries, 1850-1851. 1850-1851. MS in the Bancroft Library, University University of California. Berkeley, Library. Berkeley, California. Description Prometheus' maiden maiden voyage voyage to to Description of Prometheus 1850, and the trip to the Nicaragua in December, 1850, interior by way of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua. Nicaragua. I •• 1 Bancroft Notes on Interoceanic Communication--Nicaragua, Communication--Nicaragua, 1851-1859. the Bancroft Library. University 1851-1859. MS in the University of California. Berkeley, California. California. These notes were taken taken by by Bancroft's historians historians and are an invaluable guide to the material in the Library. Bancroft Library. Bigler, Henry William. AA Diary Diary of a Mormon in California. California. 1872. MS in the Bancroft Library. Library. Salt Lake City, 1872. University Berkeley, California. University of California. California. On the discovery of gold. gold. Clarke, J. A. A. Clarke, A. Journal of J. A. Clarke, 1852. 1852. MS in the Henry E. E. Huntington Huntington Library. San Marino, California. California. Description trip to Description of of a a trip to California California via via the the Panama Panama Route Route in in March-April, March-April, 1852. 1852. Deutsch, Hermann B. William B. William Walker Chronology, 1933. 1933. MS in the Middle American American Research Library. Library. Tulane University. University. New New Orleans, Orleans, Louisiana. Louisiana. Presents a concise survey of Walker's activities. activities. Eccleston, Robert. Robert. Trip from San Francisco to New Orleans via Nicaragua, 1853, 1853, Vol. Vol. VII of Diaries, Diaries, 1849-1856. 1849-1856. MS in the the Bancroft Library. University Bancroft Library. University of California. California. California. Berkeley, California. Fayssoux Collection Collection of William William Walker Papers. Papers. MS in the Middle American American Research Library. Tulane University. University. New Orleans, Orleans, Louisiana. Louisiana. Fayssoux was was captain of the filibuster steamer Granada. material is on the Granada's Granada. Most of the material Granada's activities at San Juan del Sur. Sur. 444 A. Diary of an Overland Overland Journey from St. St. Gorgas, Solomon A. Joseph, Mo., Mo., to to Placerville, Placerville, California, by by Way Way of Ft. Laramie, also the Return Voyage to New York v~a. via Ft. Isthmus 28, 1850 to April 8, 8, < the Is thmus of Panama, April 28, 1851. MS in the Henry E. E. Huntington Library. San Marino, California. California. Marino, Grover, James James Madison. 1854 Diary of Voyage to to California via Nicaragua Nicaragua on Steamers "Prometheus" and "Pacific, ''pacific,''" Papers, 1854-1905. 1854-1905. in Diary and Papers, MS in the Bancroft Berkeley, Library. University University of California. Berkeley, California. William W. W. Hulbert, Eri B., B., and Walker, Walker, William Land of Gold; an Ill-fated Journey Ill-fated Journey to California via Nicaragua made W. Walker in 1852. 1852. by Eri B. B. Hulbert and William William W. Cali­ MS in the Bancroft Bancroft Library. Library. University of California. Berkeley, California. California. fornia. Leaf A Journey to California, January 17L e a f llets e t s of Memory of A March 31, 31, 1853, 1853, in Fish Family Papers, 1835-1913. Papers, 1835-1913. MS on microfilm microfilm in the Bancroft Library. University California.•. Berkeley, California. California. of California Nicaragua. Description of a trip via Nicaragua. Parke, Journal of a trip trip across the plains plains from Parke, Charles R. R. Illinois to California by by way of Ft. Ft. Lara-Mil & & Donner Pass; the Feather River; and aa Pass; mining on the voyage from San Francisco to New New Orleans via NicaNica­ ragua. MS in the Henry E. ragua. MS E. Huntington Library. Library. California. San Marino, Marino, California. Prindle, Prindle, Samuel Linus. Linus. Diary, March 11, 11, l849-April, 1849-April, 1850. 1850. Record of trip across Nicaragua as a member of Record of trip across Nicaragua as a member of the the George which sailed George Gordon Gordon Association Association which sailed from from New New York February 21, York on on the the brig, brig, Mary, Mary, February 21, 1849. 1849. MS MS in in the Bancroft Library. Library. University University of California. California. Berkeley, California. California. Rogers, Rogers, William William K. K. to General James Carson Jamison. Jamison. RemiRemi­ Expedition in Nicaragua, niscences of William William Walker's Expedition Nicaragua, 3, 1910. 1910. MS in the B~ncroft Bancroft 1855-1860, February 3, University of California. Berkeley, Library. University Califo~nia. Berkeley, California. A valuable source of of information information on the the battles A valuable fought by Walker. Walker. 445 San Francisco Bulletin, Index, Index, 1855-1870. 1855-1870. MS in the Bancroft Library. University of California. Berkeley, Berkeley, California. . * California. i •.. Upton, Upton, George Bruce, Bruce, Jr. Jr. to Mr. Mr. & & Mrs. Mrs. George B. B. Upton, Upton, January 15, 15, 1854. 1854. Letter in the Henry E. E. HuntingHunting­ Library. San Marino, Marino, California. California. ton Library. Description of a trip from San Juan del Sur to San Francisco aboard the Sierra Nevada. Nevada. Vanderbilt Family. MS in the Bancroft Library. Library. University University of California. Berkeley, California. California. Contains excellent biographical data on the life of Cornelius Vanderbilt. Vanderbilt. Wheeler, John H. H. Nicaragua; the Centre of Central America: America: Its Past History, Present Position and Future Prospects. Congress. WashWash­ Prospects. MS in The Library of Congress. ington, D. D. C. C. ington, An excellent source for information pertaining pertaining Nicaragua. Wheeler was to Walker's activities in Nicaragua. the United United States Minister in Nicaragua during most country. of Walker's stay in that country. Scrapbooks, . Scrapbooks, Vols. Vols. II-V. II-V. MS MS in in the the Library Library of of Congress. Congress. Washington, D. D. C. C. An An excellent excellent collection collection of of information, information, mostly mostly newspaper articles pertaining pertaining to Walker's activiactivi­ ties in Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Williams, Notebook of a Voyage. (1849). (1849). MS in Williams, Albert. Notebook Voyage. the Henry E. San Marino, E. Huntington Library. Marino, California. California. Description of a trip to California via Panama Description 1849, made by a Minister for the in February, 1849, Presbyterian Church. Church. Presbyterian 446 Government Publications, Publications, Compilations of Documents, Reports, Reports, Treaties, Treaties, Etc. Etc. I·. ».* Aspinwall, H. Statement Aspinwall, William William H. Statement of 28th June, June, 1855, 1855, from Mr. William Aspinwall, President of the the Pacific Mr. William H. H. Aspinwall, Mail Steamship Company, in answer to the Reports from Appointed by Stockholders, 24th May, May, Two Committees Appointed 1855. New York: Hall, Clayton & & Co., Co., 1855. 1855. In the 1855. York: Hall, E. Huntington Library, San Marino, California. California. Henry E. Pertinent Pertinent to agreements made with the Nicaragua Line. Line. Atlantic and Pacific International Ship-Canal Company, Ltd. Ltd. The Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal. Canal. New York; York; Holborn, Kell Brothers, Brothers, 1863. 1863. Information on 1862 grant from Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Rica. British and Foreign State Papers. by the the Librarian Papers. Compiled Compiled by Librarian Papers, Foreign Office. Office. Vols. Vols. and Keeper of the Papers, 1862-1864. XLI-XLIX. London: London: William William Ridgway, 1862-1864. A most valuable valuable source source for affairs concerning A most the Mosquito Mosquito Coast and San Juan del Norte. Norte. Charter and Act of Incorporation Incorporation of the American American Atlantic & Pacific Ship Canal Company, as & Ship Canal Company, as Amended. Amended. New New York: M. W. Siebert, 1858. York: 1858. In the Henry E. E. Huntington San Marino, Marino, California. Huntington Library. California. Esti­ Childs, Orville Whitmore. Report of the Survey and Estimates of the the Cost of Constructing the Inter-oceanic mates Constructing the Inter-oceanic Canal, from the Harbor of San Juan del Norte, Norte, Ship Canal, on the the Atlantic, Atlantic, to the Harbor Harbor of Brito, Brito, on the Pacific, in the State of Nicaragua, Central America, America, made for the American, Atlantic and Pacific Ship Co., in the years 1850-51. 1850-51. New York: York: W. W. C. C. Canal Co., Bryant & & Co., Co., 1852. 1852. in the Library of Congress. Congress. C. Washington, D. D. C. Investigacion Historica de la Campana de 1856Comision de Investigacion comentarios. Ano centenario, centenario, 1857. Cronicas y comentarios. Jose, Costa Rica, Rica, 1956. 1956. 1856-1857. San Jose, 447 . Documentos Documentos Relativos Relativos aa la la Guerra Guerra contra contra los los Fi1ibusteros. Filibusteros. San Jose, Jose, Costa Rica, Rica, 1956. 1956. A source. A very valuable source. ,. ( +. I" . Proc1amas Proclamas yy Mensajes, Mensajes, No.3. No. 3. San San Jose, Jose, Costa Costa Rica, 1954. Rica, 1954. Contains a few valuable proclamations proclamations and mesmes­ sages. sages . la historia nacional, ultimos aconteci"Documentos para 1a naciona1, u1timos mientos en 1a la vida del aventurero William William Walker," Revista de 1a la Sociedad Sociedad de Geograf!a Geografia yy historia de Honduras, 45-52. Honduras, XXXV XXXV (Julio-Sept., (Julio-Sept., 1957), 45-52. Located the Middle American American Research Library, Located in the Library, Tulane University, New New Or1enas, Louisiana. ReproOrlenas, Louisiana. Repro­ duces a few useful decrees. decrees. Great Britain. Parliamentary Parliamentary Papers. Papers. "Correspondence "Correspondence with the United States respecting Central America." Vol. Vol. LX, Corns., Corns., 1856. 1856. . Parliamentary Parliamentary Papers. Papers. "Correspondence "Correspondence with with the the Territory." United States respecting respecting the Mosquito Territory~" Vol. LXV, Corns., Corns., 1847-1848. 1847-1848. . Public Public Record Record Office Office London, London, Foreign Foreign Office. Office. Consular correspondence with the British Foreign Office and reports from British Naval Commanders to 1850-1860. Manuscript Manuscript on microfilm microfilm the Admiralty, 1850-1860. Bancroft Library, University University of California. California. at the Bancroft California: Berkeley, California: vols. 7-14 (reels 22-5). -5). FO 21 (Costa Rica), vo1s. FO 15 (Guatemala), vo1s. vols. 85-87 (reels 32-33, 32-33, 34-37). 34-37). FO 39 (Honduras), vo1s. vols. 1-3 (reels 22-5). -5). FO 53 (Mosquito), vo1s. vols. 35-43 (reels 13-16, 13-16, 19-21). 19-21). vols. 1-7 (reels 1-3). FO 56 (Nicaragua), vols. 1-3). FO 66 (Salvador), vo1s. vols. 1-2 (reel 11). ). This collection is an invaluable source and concon­ tains much correspondence that that was not published published in the Parliamentary Papers or British and Foreign State Parliamentary Papers Papers. Papers. FO signifies Foreign Office. Office. (ed.). Hansard's Hansard s Parliamencary Parliamentary Debates. Debates. T. C. C. (ed.). Hansard, T. Third series, Vol. CXLII. series, Vol. CXLII. London, 1856. 1856. Reflects reaction reaction to to Pierce's Pierce's recognition recognition of the Rivas-Walker government and the dismissal of Crampton. Crampton. f 448 Manning, William Diplomatic Correspondence of the William R. R. (ed.). United States, Inter-American Inter-American Affairs, Affairs, 1831-1860, 1831-1860, United States, Ill: Central America, 1831-1850. 1831-1850. Washington~ Washington*^ Vol. III: Endowment for International Peace, Peace, 1933. 1933. Carnegie Endowment (ed.). Diplomatic Diplomatic Correspondence Correspondence of of the the United United . (ed.). States, Inter-American Inter-American Affairs, Affairs, 1831-1860, 1831-1860, Vol. Vol. IV: IV: 1851-1860. Washington: Central America, 1851-1860. Carnegie Endowment International Peace, Endowment for International Peace, 1934. 1934. Reproduces all correspondence between the DepartDepart­ ment of State and United States ministers in Central study. America. Absolutely Absolutely essential for this study. . (ed.). (ed.). Diplomatic Diplomatic Correspondence Correspondence of of the the United United States: States: Inter-American Inter-American Affairs, Affairs, 1831-1860. 1831-1860. Vol. Vol. V: V: Chile Chile and and Colombia. Colombia. Washington: Washington: Carnegie Carnegie EndowEndow­ ment ment for for International International Peace, Peace, 1935. 1935. Instructions to Benjamin Instructions of of Secretary Secretary Buchanan Buchanan to Benjamin A. A. Bidlack in 1845. Bidlack in 1845. Miller, Hunter (ed.). Treaties and other International Acts of the United United States of America. 8 vols. vols. WashingWashing­ ton: Government Printing Office, Office, 1948. 1948. ton: Covers period period 1776-1863. history of the 1776-1863. A, A. short history negotiation of each treaty is given with bibliobiblio­ notes. graphical notes. Moore, John Bassett Bassett (ed.). History History and Digest of the InterInter­ national Arbitrations to Which the United States Party. Vol. Vol. II. II. 6 vols. vols. Washington: Washington: has been a Party. Office, 1898. 1898. Government Printing Office, Contains the report of Luis Molina and Benjamin Accessory Transit F. Rexford on the case of the Accessory Commission of "United Company, Office of the Joint Commission November 6, 6, States and Costa Rica," Washington, November 1862. 1862. National Archives Microfilm Diplomatic Microfilm Publications. Publications. Diplomatic Instructions of the Department Department of State, State, 1801-1906: 1801-1906: States, 1858-1873. 1858-1873. Rolls 28-29. 28-29. The Central American American States, Includes microfilmed reproduction of all of the microfilmed reproduction instructions issued by the Department Department of State to United States ministers in Central America America for the United period. the period. 449 Dispatches . Dispatches from from United United States States Ministers Ministers to to Central America, 1824-1906: Nicaragua, 1859-1869, Central America, 1824-1906: Nicaragua, 1859-1869, Rolls Rolls 12-15. 12-15. > + Includes reproduction of Includes microfilmed microfilmed reproduction of all all of of the the correspondence correspondence received received by by the the Department Department of of State State from United States ministers in from United States ministers in Central Central America America for the period. period. It in for the It is is the the most most complete complete and and in many the only many cases cases the only source source of of material material available. available. j . • Nicaragua, Ministerio de relaciones relaciones y Gobernacion. Contrato de cana1izacion, canalizacidn, celebrado entre e1 el gobierno de Nicaragua yy una una compafifa Nicaragua compania de ciudadanos de los Leon, Nicaragua, Nicaragua, Estados-Unidos de Norte-America. Le6n, Cali­ 1849. In Bancroft Library. University University of California. Berkeley, California. California. fornia. Nicaragua, Treaties, Treaties, ekc. etc. Covenio ce1ebrado celebrado en la ciudad de el d{a dia 19 Agosto de 1851, 1851, entre e1 el gobierno Granada e1 de' Nicaragua y 1a la compafi!a compania americana del Canal de estableciendo una "Compafi.!a "Compania Accesoria Accesoria Maritimo, estab1eciendo Transito." Granada: Granada: Imprenta del Orden, 1852. 1852. del Trcfnsito." California. In the Bancroft Library. University University of California. Berkeley, California. California. Nicaragua, Ministerio de relaciones re1aciones Exteriores. Exteriores. Documentos relativos Nica­ re1ativos a las ultimas ne^ociaciones ne 0ciaciones entre Nica9 ragua y Costa-Rica sobre l1mites limites territoria1es territoriales y Managua: Imprenta naciona1, nacional, canal interoceanico. Managua: Bancroft Library. University of 1872. In the Bancroft Library. University California. California. Berkeley, California. Reports from Two Committees Committees of Stockholders, appointed appointed at the Annual Meeting, May, 1855, 1855, of Pacific Mail Co.'s Ad­ Steamship Co. 's Stockholders, and made to an Adjourned Meeting, held 20th June, 1855. New York: journed June, 1855. York: Baker, & Co., Co., 1855. 1855. In the Henry E. E. HuntingHunting­ Baker, Godwin & California. ton Library. San Marino, California. Pertinent to to agreements made with the Nicaragua Line. Richardson, James D. A Compilation D. (ed.). A Compilation of the Messages Messages and Papers of the Presidents, Presidents, Vol. VII. 20 vols.; Vol. VII. vols.; York: Bureau of National Literature, 1917 .. New York: 450 The Statutes at Large, Large, Treaties, Treaties, and Proclamations of the United States of America. Ed. Ed. by George P. P. Sanger. Sanger. Vol. XIII, XIII, 1863-65; 1863-65; Vol. Vol. XIV, 1865-67; 1865-67; Vol. Vol. XV, ^ Vol. I~ 1867-69. Boston: Boston: Little, Little, Brown & & Co., Co., 1866-70. 1866-70. 1867-69. U.S. U.S. Annals of Congress. Congress. 42 vo1s. vols. Comprising Comprising the period 1789-1824. Gales and Seaton, 1789-1824. Washington: Seaton, 1834-56. 1834-56. Indispensable source for United States policy. policy. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, Secretary James Buchanan, Report Submitting Correspondence of Ministers Abroad Abroad Panama, Relative to a Ship Canal across Isthmus of Panama, Sess., 1845-1846, S. S. Report 339, 339, 29th Cong., 1st Sess., no. 476. 476. Serial no. Contains an interesting interesting report of Henry Wheaton Wheaton on "Water Communication Communication between Europe and the East." U.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, House, House, John A. A. Rockwell, Rockwell, Report on Canal or Railroad between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, Oceans, Sess., 1848-1849, 1848-1849, H. H. Report 145, 145, 30th Cong., 2nd Sess., no. 546. 546. Serial no. Contains 678 pages of documents and maps relating to isthmian communication communication from the earliest interinter­ Spanish. ests of the Spanish. U.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, House, House, President Zachary Taylor, Taylor, Message on Tigre Island and Central America, 31st Cong., Cong., 1st Sess., 1849-1850, 1849-1850, H. H. Doc. Doc. 75, 75, Serial no. no. 579. 579. U.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, President Millard Fillmore, Message Message Prometheus, 32nd Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., on Seizure of Prometheus, S. Doc. Doc. 6, 6, Serial no. no. 614. 614. 1851-1852, S. Transmitting Transmitting information in relation to the firing into and seizure of the American American steamship steamship Prometheus by a British vessel of war. war. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, President Fillmore, Fillmore, Message on U.S. Prometheus, 32nd Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1851Attack on Prometheus, S. Doc. Doc. 30, 30, Serial no. no. 618. 618. 1852, S. Transmitting Transmitting correspondence with the British Government concerning the attack by its brig-of-war brig-of-war Express on the American steamer Prometheus. Prometheus. 451 u.s. Message on U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, President President M. Fillmore, Message British Colony in Central America, America, 32nd Cong., 2nd S. Doc. 12, Serial no. no. 660. 660. , * Sess., 1852-1853, S. Doc. 12, ,~ Transmitting the report of the Secretary Secretary of State Transmitting regarding the establishment establishment of a new British colony in Central America. America. u.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, Report of the Committee Committee on Foreign Relations on the the President's Message of January 4 and the Senate Resolution Resolution of January 27, 27, 1853, 1853, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess., 407, Sess., 1852-1853, 1852-1853, S. S. Doc. Doc. 407, Serial no. 67l. no. 671. Report on the Bay Islands Colony. That it concon­ stituted part of "Central America" America" as used in the stituted a part Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. Defense of Clayton's action in exchanging exchanging declarations at the time of ratifications. ratifications. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, President Franklin Pierce, Message Message u.S. Affairs, 33rd Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1853on Nicaraguan Nicaraguan Affairs, S. Doc. Doc. 8, 8, Serial no. 1854, S. no. 694. 694. Transmitting regarding trans­ transTransmitting certain documents regarding actions between Captain Hollins of the Cyane and the authorities at San Juan de Nicaragua. Nicaragua. u.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, President President Franklin Pierce, Message Message Respecting the Bombardment Bombardment of San Juan de Nicaragua, Nicaragua, 33rd Cong., 1st Sess., 85, Sess., 1853-1854, 1853-1854, S. S. Doc. D o c 85, Serial no. no. 702. 702. Transmitting reports from the Secretaries of Transmitting reports accom­ State and of the Navy with documents which accomthem. panied them. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, President Franklin Pierce, Pierce, Message Message u.S. Cong., on Routes Between Atlantic and Pacific, 34th Cong., Sess., S. S. Doc. Doc. 68, 68, Serial no. no. 822. 822. 1st Sess., Correspondence Correspondence and documents regarding a transit oceans, affairs between the Atlantic Atlantic and Pacific oceans, recogni­ with the government government of Nicaragua and the recogniminister. tion of its new minister. u.S. the President U.S. Congress, Congress, House, House, Message of the President with AccomAccom­ panying Sess., 1855-1856, 1855-1856, panying Documents, Documents, 34th Cong., 1st Sess., H. Doc. no. 840. H. Doc. 1, Serial no. 840. Message of President Franklin Franklin Pierce on December 31, December 31, 452 1855, which reviews Central American controversy controversy and enlistment enlistment question. question. U.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, President James Buchanan, Message on Bombardment town , 35th Cong., 1st Sess., Bombardment of Grey Greytown, Sess., 1857-1858,S. 1857-1858, S. Doc. Doc. 9, 9, Serial no. no. 918. 918. Communicating Communicating correspondence--January correspondence--January 13 and March 1, 1, l857--between 1857--between the Department of State and the ministers of Great Britain by citizens of those countries at the bombardment town. bombardment of Grey Greytown. U.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, President James Buchanan, Message on Affairs in Nicaragua, 35th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1857S. Doc. Doc. 13, 13, Serial no. no. 918. 918. 1858, S. Communicating Communicating correspondence, instructions, instructions, and orders to the United States naval forces connected connected with the arrest of William William Walker. Walker. U.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, House, House, Message of the President of the United States to the Two Houses of Congress, Congress, DecemDecem­ ber 8, 8, 1857, 1857, 35th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1857-1858, 1857-1858, H. H. Doc. 942. Doc. 2, 2, Serial no. no. 942. U.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, President James Buchanan, Message on Arrest of William William Walker, 35th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1857-1858, S. S. Doc. Doc. 63, 63, Serial no. no. 930. 930. Communicating Communicating the correspondence, instructions, instructions, and orders of the Navy Department Department in relation to the arrest of William William Walker by the naval forces command of Commodore Paulding. Paulding. under the command U.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, Senator J. M. M, Mason, Report on Nicaragua Affairs, 35th Cong., Nicaragua Affairs, 35th Cong., 1st 1st Sess., Sess., 1857-1858, 1857-1858, S. S. Rept. Rept. 20, 20, Serial no. no. 938. 938. Communicating Communicating correspondence connected with the arrest of William William Walker, Walker, measures adopted by the President. U.S. Congress, Congress, House, House, President James Buchanan, Message on U.S. William Walker, 35th Cong., 1st Seizure of General William 1857-1858, H. H. Doc. Doc. 24, 24, Serial no. no. 950. 950. Sess., 1857-1858, Transmitting Transmitting the reports of the Secretaries of State, of the Treasury, of the Navy, and the AttorneyWilliam General relative to the seizure of General William Walker and his followers in Nicaragua. Nicaragua. 453 u.s. U.S. Congress, Congress, House, House, President President James Buchanan, Message on Sess., 1857Affairs in Nicaragua, 35th Cong., 1st Sess., H. D o c 26, 26, Serial no. 950. , 1858, H. Doc. no. 950. Communicating Communicating a letter of the Secretary Secretary of State to the effect that the Government of Nicaragua had complaint against the Government of the made no complaint United States on account of the arrest of William followers. Walker and his followers. I . • U.S. Congress, Congress, House, House, Representative T. T. S. S. Bocock, Report U.S. of Arrest Arrest of William William Walker, 35th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1857-1858, H. H. Rept. 964. Rept. 74, 74, Serial no. no. 964. Relative to to the the arrest of William William Walker by Commodore Commodore Paulding. Paulding. u.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Secretary Secretary Isaac Toucey, Report on Capture of General Walker, 35th Cong., 2nd Sess., Sess., S. Doc. Doc. 10, 10, Serial no. no. 981. 981. 1858-1859, S. Correspondence between the President of NicaNica­ ragua and Commodore Commodore Paulding in relation to the capture of Walker Walker and his command December 1857. command in December 1857. U.S. Joseph Holt, U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Postmaster-General Postmaster-General Joseph Holt, Report on Report on Mail Mail Contracts, Contracts, 36th 36th Cong., Cong., 1st 1st Sess., Sess., 1859-1860, Doc. 45, 1859-1860, S. S. Doc. 45, Serial Serial no. no. 1033. 1033. Communicating Communicating copies copies of of contracts contracts of of Daniel Daniel H. H. Johnson Vanderbilt together together with with the Johnson and and Cornelius Cornelius Vanderbilt the correspondence thereto. correspondence thereto. U.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and Monroe Doctrine, 47th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 1881-1882, 1881-1882, S. S. Doc. 194, 194, Serial no. 1991. Doc. no. 1991. Diplomatic correspondence, treaties, treaties, and other to. papers relating to. u.S. House, John T. U.S. Congress, Congress, House, T. Sullivan, Historical and Technical Information Relating to Problem Problem of InterInter­ oceanic Communication Communication by Way of American American Isthmus, Isthmus, Sess., 1882-1883, H. H. Doc. Doc. 1883, 47th Cong., 2nd Sess., no. 2112. 107, Serial no. 2112. Gives good summary various canal projects summary of various from the earliest times. times. Also has valuable statistical information on the Nicaragua route. route. 454 U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Senate, The Proposed Proposed Interoceanic Ship Canal, Canal, u.s. Sess., 1899-1900, 1899-1900, S. S. Doc. Doc. 161, 161, 56th Cong., 1st Sess., , * no. 3853. 3853. Serial no. Instructions of Secretary Marcy to Dallas during Secretary Marcy the negotiation of the Dallas-Clarendon Dallas-Clarendon Convention Convention in 1856. 1856. j u.S. U.S. Congress, Congress, Senate, Report of the Isthmian Canal ComCom­ mission, 1899-1901, 1899-1901, 57th Cong., 1st Sess., Sess., 19011902, S. S. Doc. Doc. 54, 54, part Part I, I, Serial no. no. 4225. 4225. Vols. X72-X165. U.S. Congressional Globe, Globe, Vols. X72-X165. Comprising Comprising the u.S. Washington: Office of the period 1833-1870. period 1833-1870. Washington: 1835-70. Globe, 1835-70. Indispensable source for United States policy. policy. u.S. U.S. Register of Debates in Congress, Congress, 12 vols. vols. Comprising Comprising the period Gales and period 1824-1836. 1824-1836. Washington: 1825-36. Seaton, 1825-36. Indispensable source for United States policy_ policy. Van Alstyne, Richard W. W. "Anglo-American "Anglo-American Relations, Relations, 18531857," American XLII (April, American Historical Review, XLII (April, 1937), 491-500. 491-500. Documents. two memoranda Documents. Eight letters and two from the the private private papers papers of the Earl of Clarendon, Clarendon, British secretary of state for foreign affairs, affairs, 1853-1858. Writings indicate that that the British 1853-1858. Writings were willing to make make an an adjustment of the Central American were willing to to withdraw American question and were Mosquito protectorate from the Mosq~i~o protectorate if it could be with honor. done wi th honor. Legal Cases Legal Briggs v. Vanderbilt and Drew, 19 Barbour (New York), 222 Briggs v. Vanderbilt (1855). (1855). Pertinent the relationship relationship between the Pertinent to the Company. Nicaragua Line and Accessory Transit Company. ," 455 Campbell et al. al. v. v. The Uncle Sam, 4 Federal Cases, Cases, 1198, 1198, Case No. (1856). No. 2,371 (1856). Contains information on the efforts of Garrison ^ , ," to keep the Accessory Transit Company's steamers operating and Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt's actions to withdraw charter. them after Walker annulled the charter. Hamilton v. v. Accessory Transit Company, Cornelius Vanderbilt Vanderbilt and others, others, 26 Barbour (New York), Y o r k ) , 46 (1857). (1857). Pertinent to t"() the affairs of the company after its charter was annulled by Walker in February, 1856. 1856. Murray v. v. Vanderbilt, 39 Barbour (New York), 140 (1863). (1863). Contains a summary summary of all the litigation pertainpertain­ ing to the Accessory Accessory Transit Company Company from 1856 to 1863. Quimby v. v. Vanderbilt, 17 Smith (New York), 306 (1858). (1858). Pertinent Pertinent to to the the relationship relationship between between the the Nicaragua Line and the Accessory Transit Company. Nicaragua Line and the Accessory Transit Company. Vanderbilt v. Vanderbilt v. The Accessory Transit Co., Co., 9 Howard (New (1854). York), 352 (1854). Pertinent to Vanderbilt's sale of his steamships steamships to the Accessory Transit Company. Company. Vanderbilt v. (1856). v. Garrison, 12 Duer (New York), 689 (1856). Gives the decision of the Superior Court that complaint did not state facts sufficient to the complaint action. constitute a cause of action. Newspapers Library. Central American American Newspaper Miscellany. Bancroft Library. University of California. Berkeley, California. California. A collection of various newspapers A collection of dates dates of of various newspapers scattered s. Many scattered from from 1848 1848 into into 1860' 1860's. Many it.ems items of of value, value, particularly particularly relating relating to to governmental governmental actions. actions Granada, Nicaragua, El Nicaraguense, October 20, 20, 1855September 27, 27, 1856. 1856. September published by Walker. Walker. Valuable source. source. Paper published 456 456 Leon, Leon, Nicaragua, Nicaragua, Correo del Istmo de Nicaragua, Nicaragua, 1849: 1849: May I-December 1-December 16; 16; 1850: 1850: January I-July 1-July 11, 11, August 8December 26; 26; 1851: 1851: January 2-February 2-February 20, 20, March 6~ 6* 3, May 4, 4, 22-29. 22-29. April 3, Particularly valuable for proclamations. proclamations. In the Bancroft Library. Library. University of California. California. Berkeley, California. California. Republica Republica de de Nicaragua Nicaragua Boletln Boletin Oficial, Oficial, 1856-1857. 1856-1857. Particularly valuable for proclamations and treaties. treaties. In the Bancroft Library. Library. University of California. Berkeley, California. California. California. . Times, 1849-1860. 1849-1860. London Times, New Orleans Picayune, Picayune, 1849-1857. 1849-1857. New York Herald, 1849-1869. 1849-1869. New York Times, Times, 1854-1869. 1854-1869. New York York Tribune, Tribune, June 5, 5, 1877. 1877. Panama Herald, October 17, 17, 1853. 1853. In the Bancroft Library. Library. University University of CaliCali­ fornia, fornia, Berkeley, California. California. Panama Star, October 3, Panama 3, 1851. 1851. In the Bancroft University of CaliBancroft Library. University Cali­ fornia, Berkeley, California. fornia, Berkeley, California. Sacramento Union, Union,1855: Mar. 23, 23, May May 9, June 13; 1858: 1855: Mar. 13; 1858: July 31, 31, Nov. Nov. 10. 10. San Francisco Francisco Alta California, 1849-1869. 1849-1869. San Francisco Francisco Bulletin, 1856-1869 Bulletin, 1856-1869... San Francisco Francisco California California Courier, August August 26, 26, 1850. 1850. Francisco Herald, January January 9, 1851. 1851. San Francisco San Francisco Francisco Prices Current Current and and Shipping Shipping List, February February 9, 1853. 457 newspapers are a vv ee rr yy valuable source of The newspapers subject:. During the period information for this subjecc. Orleans, and New •• * covered, the San Francisco, New Orleans, York papers papers all obtained their foreign news from . obtained their s o u r c e — t h e steamships. steamships. Consequently, Consequently, the same source--the paper, the news varied varied very little from paper to paper, interpre­ and this only according to the editor's interpretation of what was important. Therefore, Therefore, II relied California, on the the major major paper paper in each city, the Alta California, New Orleans Picayune, and New York Herald respec­ New Orleans Picayune, and New York Herald respectively, and and only only turned turned to other papers for tively, to the the other papers for information peculiar alone. information peculiar to to them them alone. ( Books and Periodicals Cyril, • "Felix Belly: Allen, Cyril, Belly: Nicaraguan Nicaraguan Canal Promoter," Hispanic American American Historical Historical Review, XXXVII (Feb(Feb­ ruary, 46-59. ruary, 1957), 46-59. A brief summary summary of of Belly's Belly's activities activities and A brief interests in the last half of the nineteenth century. century. His chief obstacle was was failure to gain support for his ideas. ideas. Allen, Merritt Parmelee. New Parmelee. William William Walker, Filibuster. York: Harpers & Brothers, 1932. York: & Brothers, 1932. A brief and and general general account account of of Walker's Walker's life. A brief life. Baldwin, Roger S., Jr. Jr. "Tarrying Nicaragua," The "Tarrying in Nicaragua," Century, XLII, New New Series, XX (October, 1891), Century, XLII, Series, XX (October, 1891), 911-31. 911-31. A description of of one one of of the the earliest earliest trips trips made A description made via Nicaragua to the gold fie1ds--February-October, via Nicaragua to the gold fields--February-October, 1849. 1849. Bancroft, Hubert Howe. Howe. Chronicles of the Builders of the Commonwealth. Vol. Vol. V. V. 7 vo1s. vols. San Francisco: Francisco: Co., 1891-1892. 1891-1892. History Co., Contains a good chapter on Vanderbilt and his activities in Nicaragua. Nicaragua. . The The Works Works of of Hubert Hubert Howe Howe Bancroft. Bancroft. Vol. Vol. VI: VI: His tory of Central America, 1501-1530, History 1501-1530, Vol. Vol. I. I. 458 Francisco: History Co., Co., 1882-90. 1882-90. 39 vols. vols. San Francisco: Indicates Indicates early early Spanish Spanish interest interest in in a a Nicaragua Nicaragua route. route. * * Hubert Howe Bancroft. Vol. VIII: _. The Works of Hubert Vol. VIII: History of Central America, 1801-1887, Vol. History 1801-1887, Vol. III. III. Francisco: History Co., Co., 1882-1890. 1882-1890. 39 vols. vols. San Francisco: An excellent excellent survey of Central American American polipoli­ notes. tics with bibliographical notes. . The The Works Works of of Hubert Hubert Howe Howe Bancroft, Bancroft, Vol. Vol. XXIII: XXIII: History of California, 1848-1859, Vol. Vol. VI. VI. 39 vols. San Francisco: History Co., Co., 1882-1890. 1882-1890. vols. The best source for the discovery of gold and California, the early period period of the gold rush to California, with bibliographical notes. bibliographical notes. Belly, Felix. A Travers L'Amerique Felix. A L'Amerique Centrale, Le Nicaragua Nicaragua Ie Canal Interoceanique. 22 vols. le Canal Interoceanique. vols. Paris: Paris: Librairie Librairie de de Joel Joel Cherbuliez, Cherbuliez, 1870. 1870. Covers Covers Belly's Belly's activities activities in in Nicaragua Nicaragua and and Costa Costa Rica from his his point point of view. view, Bemis, Samuel Flagg. Flagg. The Latin-American Latin-American Policy of the United States: an Historical Interpretation. Interpretation. United States: New York: Co., 1943. 1943. York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., information. Useful for backgound backgound information. Bidwell, Charles Toll. Toll. The Isthmus of Panama. Panama. London: London: Chapman and Hall, Hall, 1865. rare book in the 1865. A A rare E. Huntington Huntington Library. San Marino, CaliHenry E. Cali­ fornia. fornia . Contains an excellent description of the route at the opening of the the railroad in 1855. 1855. Bolanos, Gustavo Aleman. Centenario de la Guerra Nacional de Nicaragua contra Walker. Walker. Guatemala, Costa Rica, 1956. Rica, 1956. Contains some good descriptions of the various battles. battles. Bonaparte, Napoleon Napoleon Louis. Louis. Canal of Nicaragua, or a ProPro­ ject ject to Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by Canal. London, 1846. 1846. Means of a Canal. Contains Bonaparte's Bonaparte's prophetic prophetic observations on 459 the importance importance of the Nicaragua Nicaragua route to to future British-American British-American relations. relations. , ," Brooks, Sarah Merriam. Merriam, Across the Isthmus to California in '52. A. Murdock & '52. San Francisco: Francisco: C. C. A. & Co., Co., 1894. 1894. An excellent An excellent description of a trip across the Route. Panama Route. Buchanan, James. James. The Works of James Buchanan, Comprising Comprising his Speeches, his Speeches, State Papers, Papers, and Private CorrespondCorrespond­ ence. X. 10 vols. ence. Vol. Vol. IX and X. vols. New York: York: AntiAnti­ quarian Press Ltd., Ltd., 1960. 1960. Very useful source. Very source. By An An Officer in the the Service of Walker. Walker. The Destiny of Nicaragua: Central America as It Was, Was, Is, Is, and Be. Boston: S. A. & Co., Co., 1856. 1856. May Be. Boston: S. A. Bent & Valuable for information concerning Valuable concerning Walker's early battles battles with the the Legitimists. Legitimists. Age, "By Sea and Land to California," Littell's Living Age, 163-64. (April, 1849), 163-64. XXI (April, Description Description of a trip from Panama to San Francisco aboard the the California in February, 1849. 1849. Joaqu!n Bernardo. La Campana Nacional contra los Calvo, Joaquin Campafia Nacional Calvo, Filibusteros en 1856 yy 1857. Filibusteros 1857. San Jos~, Jose, Costa Rica: Tipografia Nacional, 1909. Rica: Tipograf!a Nacional, 1909. A good general general survey survey of of the the battles. A good battles. Capron, E. E. S. S. History of California, from Its Discovery Discovery to the Present Time; Comprising the Present Time; Comprising also also a a Full Full Description Description of Its Climate, Surface, Soil, Rivers, Towns, of Its Climate, Surface, Soil, Rivers, Towns, Beasts, Birds, Fishes, Beasts, Birds, Fishes, State State of of Its Its Society, Society, AgriAgri­ culture, Commerce, Mines, Mining, &c., with a culture, Commerce, Mines, Mining, & c , with a Journal of New York, Journal of the the Voyage Voyage from from New York, via via Nicaragua, Nicaragua, to to San San Francisco, Francisco, and and Back, Back, via via Panama. Panama. Boston: Boston: John Jewett & John P. P. Jewett & Co., Co., 1854. 1854. Capron good description Capron gives gives a a good description of of life life aboard aboard the the Prometheus Prometheus and and accommodations accommodations available available on on the the Isthmus Nicaragua in Isthmus of of Nicaragua in 1853. 1853. Carr, Z. The World World and William New York: Carr, Albert Z. William Walker. Walker. New York: Harper & Pub., 1963. & Row, Pub., 1963. The work is almost but not quite a scholarly scholarly 460 treatment. It is written written for public consumption. consumption. Carr attempts to analyze Walker's activities in the affair. He has •,~ light of his frustrated love affair. uncovered new material on Walker's attitudes as uncovered an editor toward slavery. He maintains that Walker was against the expansion of slavery and fought the civil war in his own conscience prior to decree. issuing the slavery decree. Choules, John Overton. The Cruise of the Steam Yacht North Steam Yacht Star. New York: Star. Boston: Boston: Gould and Lincoln; New York: Evans and Dickerson, Dickerson, 1854. 1854. The best best source for Vanderbilt's Vanderbilt's trip trip to Europe. Europe. Contains an excellent excellent description of the Steam Yacht North Star. Star. Investigacion Historica Comision de Investigacion Historica de la Compana de 1856Rivas. No. 5. San Jose, Jose, Costa 1857. Batalla de Rivas. No.5. Rica, 1956. 1956. Rica, A good description description of of the the activities of of the A good Costa Rican army. army. . Batalla Batalla de de Santa Santa Rosa, Rosa, 20 20 de de Marzo Marzo de de 1856. 1856. No.4 No. 4 Jose, Costa Rica, 1954. San Jose, Rica, 1954. Valuable for the the Costa Rican viewpoint on the battle. battle. . Hero{smo Heroismo de de Juan Juan Santamaria. Santamaria. No.2. No. 2. San San Jose, Jose, Rica, 1954 Costa Rica, A good description description of of the the Battle Battle of of Rivas, A good Rivas, April 11, 11, 1856. 1856. Craven, Avery O. 0. The Growth of Southern Nationalism, Nationalism, 1848-1861. Vol. VI: Stephenson, Wendell Holmes Vol. VI: and Coulter, E. E. Merton, (eds.) (eds.) A A History of the South. Louisiana State University University Press, Press, 1953. 1953. South. Useful for background background information. information. Croffut, W. W. A. A. The Vanderbilts and The Story of Their Fortune.. New York: Fortune. Chicago and New York: Belford, Clarke & 1886. co., 1886. Contains a general account of the life of Vanderbilt and his activities in NicaNica­ Cornelius Vanderbilt ragua . ragua. 461 Doubleday, C. W. Reminiscences of the "Filibuster" War War in C. W. Nicaragua. New York and London: Nicaragua. London: G. G. P. P. Putnam's 1886. • * Sons, 1886. +~ Invaluable for the filibuster activities on the San Juan November, 1856, April, 1857. Juan River from November, 1856, to April, 1857. Duchow, John Charles. Voyage from Charles. The Duchow Journal; Journal; a Voyage Boston to to California, 1852. 1852. Mallette Dean, Dean, 1959. 1959. Rare book in the Henry E. E. Huntington Library. Library. San Marino, California. California. Describes crowded crowded conditions at the wharf and aboard ship. ship. Froebe1, Froebel, Julius. Julius. Seven Years Travel in Central America, America, Northern Mexico, and the Far West of the United States. London: London: Richard Richard Bentley, 1859. 1859. States. Froebe1 gives a comparative Froebel comparative description of the Nicaragua Route in 1850 and 1855 and tells of polipoli­ tical conditions in Nicaragua Nicaragua as he he found them in 1854. , Nicaragua. Obra premiada en e1 Jose D. D. Historia de Nicaragua. el Gamez, Jose Concurso Historico de 1888 y declarada de texto Nicaragua, para los establecimientos nacionales naciona1es de Nicaragua, 1880. por acuerdo gubernativo de 1 de marzo de 1880. 1955. Segunda Edicion. (Nicaragua), 1955. An excellent survey of Nicaraguan Nicaraguan politics politics and wars. wars. Goethe, Wolfgang Von. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang Von. Conversations with Eckermann. Eckermann. "Universal Classics Library." New York: York: M. Walter Dunne, 1901. 1901. Quotes Goethe's prophetic observations on the future .importance importance of the Pacific coast and isthisth­ communication to the United States. States. mian communication Grahame, Leopold. "The Canal Diplomacy: Justification Justification for the the British Protest," North North American American Review, Review, 31-39. CXCVII (January, 1913), 31-39. Pertinent to the American viewpoint on a NicaAmerican viewpoint Nica­ ragua canal and British British encroachments encroach~ents on the Mosquito Coast. Coast. Green, Laurence. Laurence. The Filibuster: The Career of William Walker. New York: Co., 1937. 1937. Walker. York: The Bobbs-Merrill Co., 462 An interesting interesting account; however, however, it adds nothing to what has been said by William William o. 0. Scroggs. Scroggs. » •."* Gregory, Gregory, Joseph Joseph W. W. Gregory's Gregory's Guide Guide for for California California Travelers; Travelers; via New York: via The The Isthmus Isthmus of of Panama. Panama. New York: Nafis Nafis & & Cornish, 1850. 1850. Gregory Gregory gives gives aa good good description description of of the the accomaccom­ modations modations on on the the Panama Panama Route Route in in 1849. 1849. . Heyl, Erik. Erik. Early American American Steamers. Steamers. Buffalo: Buffalo: Published Published Privately, 1953. 1953. A valuable source for sketches of the the Nicaragua A valuable steamers. steamers. Hill, Charles E. E. Leading American American Treaties. Treaties. New York: York: Macmillan Co., Co., 1931. 1931. Sets the historical setting and the chief propro­ visions of the leading American American treaties. treaties. It concon­ tains the Panama Canal treaties from 1850 to 1902 with bibliographical notes, notes, including the Bidlack Treaty. Hill, Roscoe R. R. "The Nicaraguan Canal Idea to 1913," Hispanic American Historical Review, Hispanic Review. XXVIII (May, (May, 1948), 197 -2ll. 197-211. Maintains Maintains thesis thesis that that "for "for nearly nearly a a hundred hundred years years the the idea idea of of a a Nicaragua Nicaragua canal canal has has been been the the chief interest and motivating force behind the relations of the United States not only with Nicaragua but also with all of Central America." America." 1884. Only briefly mentions activity prior to 1884. Holinski, Alexandre. Alexandre. La Californie et les Routes InterHolinski, oceaniques. oceaniques. Bruxelles: Bruxelles: A A Labroue et Compagnie, Compagnie, 1853. 1853. Contains a very good description of the NicaNica­ ragua Route in early 1852. 1852. Hort, Alfred, Mrs. Mrs. Via Nicaragua. Nicaragua. London: London: Remington and Co., 1887. 1887. A good description description of of the the river river and lake A very good steamers on the Nicaragua Route. Route. Alexander. Personal Narratave Humboldt, Friedrich Henrich Alexander. of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the New 463 1799-1804. Translated Translated Continent during the Years 1799-1804. into English by by Helen Maria Maria Williams. Williams. 7 vo1s. vols. 1818-29. London, 1818-29. .~ Vol. practicability of Vol. 6, Part 1, 1, 239-314, 239-314, "The practicability of' a water communication communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans." Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander. Political essay on the Kingdom Kingdom of New Spain. Spain. Translated Translated from the Black. 4 vo1s. vols. London, 1811-12. 1811-12. French by John Black. Vol. Vol. I, I, Chapter II, II, on Interoceanic communicacommunica­ tion. tion . Jamison, James Carson. Nicaragua; or, Carson. With Walker in Nicaragua; or. Reminiscences of an Officer of the the American American Phalanx. Phalanx. Missouri: E. E. W. W. Stephens Publishing Publishing Co., Co., Columbia, Missouri: 1909. 1909. Jamison gives an interesting valuable account interesting and valuable of the battles fought in Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Jefferson, Thomas. Thomas. The Writings of Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson. Library Edition, Edition, Vol. The Vol. VII. VII. Washington: Memorial Association, 1903. Thomas Jefferson Memorial 1903. Indicates Indicates Jefferson's Jefferson's interest interest in in surveys surveys at at Panama for a canal. canal. Karnes, Thomas L. Union: Central America, L. The Failure of Union: America, 1824-1960. Chapel Hill: Hill: University University of North 1824-1960. Press, 1961. 1961. Carolina Press, An excellent survey but but as with all surveys he fails to come to grips with the effects of the poli­ internal struggles of the republics on their policies. He portrays Chatfield Chatfield and the British as cies. actually being in favor of union. union. The work is information. valuable only for background background information. Keasbey, Lindley Lindley Miller. The Nicaragua Nicaragua Canal and the Monroe Miller. The Doctrine. New New York and London: Doctrine. London: G. G. P. P. Putnam's Sons, 1896. 1896. A good treatment treatment of of the the Mosquito Mosquito Kingdom Kingdom ques­ quesA good tion and the C1ayton-Bu1wer Treaty. tion and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. Kemble, John Haskell. Haskell. The Panama Route, Route, 1848-1869. 1848-1869. ("University of California Publications in History," History," Vol. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Angeles: University Vol. XXIX) XXIX) Berkeley 464 of California Press, Press, 1943. 1943. The most most authoritative and complete work availavail­ able on on the Panama Route. Route. Extremely valuable for~~ f o r i * the competition between the the Nicaragua and Panama competition between Routes, bibliographical notes. Routes, with bibliographical notes. . "The "The Panama Panama Route Route to to California, California, 1848-1869." 1848-1869." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University Unpublished Ph.D. University of 1938. California at Berkeley, 1938. Contains schedules of passenger steamers not work. included in the published published work. Klein, Philip Shriver. President James Buchanan: Buchanan: aa Klein, Philip Shriver. President University Park: Biography. University Park: The Pennsylvania Pennsylvania University Press, Press, 1962. 1962. State University Useful for background background information. information. Lagerstedt, Albert. Albert. "The Political Career of William Walker." Unpublished Unpublished Master's thesis, thesis, University 1913. of California at Berkeley, 1913. A A valuable guide to the early bibliographical bibliographical Walker. material on Walker. Lane, Wheaton J. Commodore Vanderbilt, an Epic of the Commodore Vanderbilt, Steam York: Alfred Alfred A. A. Knopf, Steam Age. Age. New York: Knopf, 1942. 1942. The best best work available on Cornelius Vanderbilt. Vanderbilt. Extremely valuable for his his activities in Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Langworthy, Franklin. Scenery Scenery of the Plains, Plains, Mountains and Mines: or a Diary kept upon the Overland Overland Route to Lake: Travels California, by Way of the Great Salt Lake: in the Cities, Cities, Mines, Mines, and Agricultural Districts-Embracing the Return by the Pacific Ocean and Central Embracing America, in the Years 1850, 1850, '52 and '53. '53. Ogdensburgh: & Tillotson, 1855. 1855. burgh: Hitchcock & Langworthy Langworthy describes life aboard the Brother Jonathan and the trip trip across Nicaragua in April, April, 1853. 1853. Letts, John M. M. California Illustrated: Including a De­ Description of the Panama Nicaragua Routes. Routes. New York: William William Holdredge, 1852. York: 1852. 465 the Migration Oscar. Sea Routes to the Gold Fields, Fields, the Migration Lewis, Oscar. by Water Water to to California in 1849-1852. New York: by 1849-1852. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1949. , * Alfred A. A. Knopf, 1949. ," An excellent source for the the experiences of the early travelers travelers to to the gold fields. fields. I Living Age, Age, Second Series, Littell's Living Series, XIV (July, (July, August, August, 112-22. September, 1856), 112-22. Contains excerpts from several London news­ newspapers on the reaction to Pierce's recognition of the Rivas-Walker government and the dismissal of the Crampton. Gerstle. The Land Divided: A A History of the Panama Mack, Gerstle. Canal and other Isthmian Isthmian Canal Projects. Projects. New York: Alfred A. A. Knopf, York: Alfred Knopf, 1944. 1944. Includes a general survey of activities in Nicaragua. McAlister, Lyle N. N. "The Discovery Discovery and Exploration of the Nicaraguan Transisthmian Transisthmian Route, Route, 1519-1545," The Americas, XX (January, 1954), 259-76. 259-76. A detailed detailed survey survey of this important important discovery. A discovery. Merk, Frederick. Manifest Destiny and Mission in American American History. New New York: York: Alfred A. Knopf, History. Knopf, 1963. 1963. Excellent for background background information on manifest destiny and the the "All IIAII of Mexico" Mexico" movement, also for Tehuantepec the relationship relationship between interest in the Tehuantepec route and the Bidlack Treaty. Treaty. Felipe. Bosquejo Rica. Molina, Felipe. Bosguejo de la Republica de Costa Rica. Nueva York: York: Imprenta Imprenta de S. S. W. W. Benedict, 1851. 1851. Contains some valuable valuable information on the the Costa Rica and Nicaragua Nicaragua territorial territorial dispute. dispute. Montero Barrantes, Barrantes, Francisco. Francisco. Campana Nacional. Nacional. San Jose, Jose, Costa Rica, Rica, 1955. 1955. A general account account centered centered on on the the battles A general fought fought against against Walker. Walker. Montufar y River Maestre, Maestre, Lorenzo. Lorenzo. Walker en CentroTipografia "La Union," 1887. 1887. America. Guatemala: Tipograf:!a The most most complete work work by a Central American The American author on Walker's activities in Nicaragua. Nicaragua. 466 Moore, J. Preston. Preston. "Pierre Soule: Soule: Southern Expansionist Expansionist and Promoter," Journal of Southern History, XXI, XXI, No. 2 (May, (May, 1955), 208-17. 208-17. ,* No.2 .~ Pertinent to to Soule's relations relations with Walker Walker as an agent for recruiting recruiting filibusters. filibusters. Naylor, Robert A. A. "The British Role in Central America America Prior to the Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850," (August, Hispanic American American Historical Review, XL (August, 1960), 361-82. 361-82. Author asserts that historians have failed to satisfactorily the nature of British analyze satisfactorily activities. He attacks motive of political intrigue activities. imperialism and concludes that British policy and imperialism determined by commercial commercial interests. interests. He fails was determined expan­ to account for the effect of United States expancommuni­ sion and the rising importance of isthmian communication . cation. "Nicaragua," Harper's Weekly, II (March 28, 28, 1857), 199-200. 199-200. An account of the the filibuster activities on the San Juan River. River. "Nicaragua," Harper's Weekly, Weekly, II (May 16, 312-13. 16, 1857), 312-13. An account of the the Costa Rican seizure of the steamers and the river San Juan. Juan. "Nicaragua," Harper's Harper's Weekly, III (February 19, 19, 1859), 1859), 114. Pertinent to Vanderbilt's receiving receiving a monthly subsidy of $56,000 from the the Pacific Mail Steamship Steamship Company. "Nicaragua and the Filibusters," Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, LXXIX, American American Edition XLII (JanuaryJune, 1856), 314-16. 314-16. June, Contains good description of early difficulties difficulties in crossing the transit transit road. road. Nichols, Roy Roy Franklin. The The Disruption Disruption of American American Democracy. New New York: York: The Macmillan Macmillan Co., Co., 1948. 1948. Useful for for background background information. information. 467 . Franklin Franklin Pierce: Pierce: Young Young Hickory Hickory of of the the Granite Granite Hills. University of Pennsylvania Hills. Philadelphia: University Pennsylvania Press, 1931. •* 1931. ,It A good treatment treatment of Pierce's attitude toward A good the recognition recognition of the Rivas-Walker government and Crampton. the dismissal of Crampton. t Obregon Loria, Rafael. Rafael. La Campana Campana del Transito, 1856-1857. 1856-1857. San Jose, Jose, Costa Rica: Rica: Antonio Lehmann, 1956. 1956. The most complete work available by a Central American American author on the efforts made by Costa Rica to gain control of the steamers and the San Juan River. River. Obregon Obrego'n has written the book to support the thesis that all of the historians have totally exaggerated the intervention intervention of Vanderbilt exaggerated Vanderbilt in Costa Rica. Rica. Contains bibliographical notes. bibliographical notes. Carl. "By Sea to California," The TransParish, John Carl. Mississippi West. Papers read at a conference held West. Papers at the University 21, University of Colorado, June l8-June 18-June 21, 1929. by James F. F. Willard 1929. Edited Edited by Willard and Colin B. B. Goddykoontz. University Goddykoontz. Boulder: University of Colorado, Colorado, 1930. 1930. An excellent voyages to to excellent account of some early voyages California made at the beginning beginning of the gold rush. rush. Parton, James. James. Famous Americans of Recent Times. Times. Boston: Boston: Ticknow and Fields, Fields, 1868. 1868. Contains a biographical sketch of the life of Cornelius Vanderbilt up to the time of publication. publication. Perez, Jeronimo. Jeronimo. Memorias para la Historia de la Campana Campana Naciona1 contra 1a Nacional la Filibusterismo, 1856-1857. 1856-1857. Masaya: Masaya: Imprenta del Orden, 1873. 1873. A A very good survey of the war. war. . Memorias Memorias pata papa la la Historia Historia de de 1a la Revolucion Revolucion de de Nicaragua en 1854. Nicaragua 1854. Managua: Managua: Imprenta Imprenta del Gobierno, Gobierno, 1865. An excellent account of the revolution. revolution. Perkins, Dexter. History of the Monroe Doctrine. Dexter. A A History Doctrine. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., Boston: Little, Co., 1955. 1955. Good summary summary of British encroachments prior to 1848 and the stony response response of the Department Department of State. State 468 Pierson, William William Whatley, Jr. Jr. "The Political Influences Influences Interoceanic Canal, Canal, 1826-1926," Hispanic of an Interoceanic American American Historical Review, VI (November, 1926), ,. 205-31. · 205-31. Recognizes the defensive policy of the United States prior to 1860 and later--equal l a t e r — e q u a l rights for nations, free and open transit, neutralizaneutraliza­ all nations, canal. tion and joint joint protection protection of a canal. ( d Pirn, Bedford C. T. Pacific. London: London: Pim, Bedford C. T. The Gate of the Pacific. Lovell Reeve & & Co., Co., 1863. 1863. Contains some specific data of value. value. ____________ ., Dottings on the Road., and Seemann, Berthold. Road­ side, in Panama, Nicaragua, and Mosquito. Mosquito. London: London: Hall, 1869. 1869. Chapman and Hall, A good summary of Pirn's Pim's interoceanic interoceanic railway A good summary of project. Tells of his relations with the Central American American Transit Company. Company. Porter, Kirk H. H. and Johnson, Donald Donald Bruce. Bruce. National Party Platforms, 1840-1956. 1840-1956. Urbana: University of Platforms, Urbana: University Press, 1956. 1956. Illinois Press, Contains the Democratic party's party's platform platform for 1856. Pratt, Julius H. H. "To California by Panama in '49," '49," The Century, XLI, XLI, New Series, Series, XIX (November, l89o-to 1890 to April, 1891), 901-17. 901-17. Contains an excellent description of the crowded conditions on the eastern wharves, wharves, of a trip from Chagres to to Panama, Panama, and of the securement securement of a storeship for coal to make the voyage to San Francisco. Ramsdell, Ramsdell, Charles W. W. "The Natural Limits of Slavery Expansion." in Rozwenc, Rozwenc, Edwin C. C. (ed.) (ed.) The Causes of the American American Civil War. War. Boston: Boston: D. D. C. C. Heath Co., 1961. 1961. and Co., Ramsdell maintains that Walker's enterprise enterprise was entirely his own. own. Until he broke with VanderVander­ bilt, he had more powerful connections in New York than in the South. South. Walker had no intention of turning States, over his private conquests to the United States, thus if he had succeeded succeeded those pro-slavery expansionists pro-slavery expansionists 469 who had applauded him would would have been sorely disapplauded him dis­ appointed. Concludes that there is little fear for , ,+ that Nicaragua would would ever have become a field for • slavery expansion. expansion. ( Roche, The Story of the Filibusters. Roche, James Jeffrey. Filibusters. London: Unwin; New London: T. T. Fisher Fisher Unwin; New York: York: Macmillan Macmillan & & Co., Co., 1891. 1891. Valuable Valuable for for a a general general account account of of the the battles battles fought by the the filibusters in Nicaragua. fought by filibusters in Nicaragua. Rodr1guez, Rodriguez, Mario. Mario. Central America. Englewood Englewood Cliffs, Cliffs, New Jersey: Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Inc., 1965. 1965. Although merely a short 178-page summary summary of Rodriguez includes a Central American American history, Rodr{guez good review of his larger work on Frederick Chatfield. He traces Chatfield's change from a collaborator with the unionists to their chief antagonist after 1839 because he feared unionism holdings. He would endanger British territorial holdings. determina­ outlines Chatfield's and the British determination to offset a United States monopoly of any interoceanic passageway passageway and the friction with Squier. He maintains that after the Prometheus Squier. Chatfield that affair in 1851 and the recall of Chatfield the Foreign Office sought to liquidate all traces of its former aggressive policy and sought to protectorate extricate itself from the Mosquito protectorate with honor. honor. "San Juan de Nicaragua," Harpers New Monthly Monthly Magazine, X X (December, 1854 to May, May, 1855), 50-61. 50-61. An excellent excellent description of San Juan del Norte and a trip up the San Juan River. River. Scherzer, Carl. Carl. Travels in the Free States of Central America: Nicaragua, Honduras, Honduras, and San Salvador. Salvador. 2 vo1s. vols. London: London: Longman, Longman, Brown, Brown, Green, Green, Longmans, Longmans, & Roberts, Roberts, 1857. 1857. & Volume II contains a good description of the transit route in 1854. 1854. Scroggs, William William O. 0. Filibusters and Financiers: Financiers: The Story of William William Walker and His Associates. Associates. New York: Macmillan Co., York: Co., 1916. 1916. 470 This is the most authoritative and complete complete work available on the activities of William William Walker. Walker. ," Seymour, (Captain). (Captain). The Isthmian Routes. Routes, a Brief Descrip-' Descrip­ tion of each Projected Projected Route. Route, and of Those now Existing. Showing the Capacity of Their Harbors, Existing, Harbors, the Comparative Dis­ Comparative Advantages of Each. Each, and the Distance by by Each from New New York York to San Francisco; from the Best Best Sources of Information. Information, and from Personal Observation and Survey over Each. Each, in the Years from 1856 to 1861. 1861. New York: York: Hall, Hall, Clayton & & Medole, 1863. 1863. William T. T. Memoirs of General William William T. T. Sherman. Sherman. Sherman, William York: D. Appleton and Co., Co., 1875. 1875. New York: D. Appleton General Sherman has left a good description of S.S. Lewis in April, April, 1853. 1853. the wreck of the S.S. Shuck, Oscar T. T. Representative and Leading Men of the Pacific. Pacific. San Francisco: Bacon and Co., Co., 1870. 1870. Contains a biographical sketch of the life of Cornelius K. K. Garrison. Garrison. Squier, E. E. G. G. Nicaragua; Its People. People, Scenery. Scenery, Monuments, Monuments, and the Proposed Proposed Interoceanic Canal. Canal. 2 vols. vols. York: D. D. Appleton & Co., Co., 1852. 1852. New York: Appleton & Volume II is the the best best available source for aa description of the San Juan River and the harbor 1850-1851. of San Juan del Norte in 1850-1851. . The The States States of of Central Central America; America; Their Their Geography, Geography, Topography. Topography, Climate. Climate, Population, Resources. Resources, ProducProduc­ tions. tions, Commerce. Commerce, Political Political Organization. Organization, Aborigines, Aborigines, Etc. New New York: Etc. York: Harper & & Brothers, Brothers, 1858. 1858. ---Pertinent the March, March, 1852, Pertinent to to the 1852, report report of of o. 0. W. W. Childs on the proposed proposed Nicaragua canal and the efforts to to secure European European backing. backing. Stansifer, Charles L. L. "E. "E. George Squier and the Honduras Interoceanic Railroad Railroad Project," Hispanic American American 1966), 1-27. 1-27. Historical Review, XLVI (February, 1966). Reviews Squier's efforts to promote the Honduras Interoceanic Railroad project between 1853 and 1859 after leaving Nicaragua. It had no particular 471 influence on the Nicaragua route, route, although events in Nicaragua Nicaragua did influence the the railroad project. project. .. Stanton, Lewis E. E. An Account of the Dedication Dedication of Morgan" Morgan School Building. New York: York: F. Hart and Co., Co., 1873. 1873. Contains biographical data Contains biographical data on on the the life life of of Charles Charles Morgan. Morgan. Stephens, John L. L. Incidents of Travel in Central America, America, Stephens, Chiapas, and Yucatan. Yucatan. 2 vo1s. New York: vols. 12th ed. ed. New York: Harpers & Brothers, 1871. & Brothers, 1871. Excellent Excellent descriptions of the country. country. Stout, Peter F. Nicaragua: Past, Present and Future; aa F. Nicaragua: Description of Its Inhabitants, Inhabitants, Customs, Customs, Mines, Mines, Minerals, Minerals, Early History, Modern Fi1ibusterism, Filibusterism, Proposed Proposed In,ter-Oceanic Inter-Oceanic Canal and Manifest Destiny. Destiny. E. Potter, 1859. Philadelphia: John E. Potter, 1859. Stout gives an excellent description of the River, Lake Nicaragua, and the transit San Juan River, 1852. road as found in 1852. T. Report of Historical and Technical Technical Sullivan, John T. Information Information Relating to the Problem Problem of Interoceanic Interoceanic Communication Communication by Way of the American American Isthmus. Isthmus. Washington: Government Printing Office, Office, 1883. 1883. Good review review of isthmian activities from earliest times. Contains statistical data on the route. times. route. Thrall, Homer S. S. A A Pictorial History of Texas, Texas, from the .D. Earliest Visits of European Adventurers, to AA.D. St. Louis, Louis, Mo.: Mo.: N. N. D. D. Thompson & & Co., Co., 1879. 1879. 1879. St. --COntains biographical sketch of the life of Contains a biographical Henry L. L. Kinney. Kinney. Tucker, J. C. C. To the Golden Goal and Other Sketches. Sketches. San Francisco: William book in William Doxey, 1895. 1895. Rare book the California State Library. Sacramento, CaliCali­ fornia. fornia . Tucker describes the the suffering on the lake steamer when when it took the passengers to Granada to Legitimist forces in 1855. 1855. He was the escape the Legitimist board. only doctor on board. 472 Van Aken, Mark J. "British Policy Considerations in Central America America Before 1850," Hispanic American American 54-59. Historical Review, XLII (February, 1962), 54-59. Attacks Robert A. A. Naylor's Naylor's thesis in article . on "The British British Role in Central America America Prior to the Clayton-Bulwer Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850." Says this commercial thesis tends to obscure the fundafunda­ mental inseparability inseparability of economic, political, and strategic matters. matters. He quotes some documents to show that functionaries of the British Foreign Office did heed non-commercial non-commercial factors. factors. A A valid criticism. ~ . Walker, William. The War War in Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Mobile: Mobile: S. S. H. H. Goetze1 Goetzel & & Co., Co., 1860. 1860. An account which is almost free of bias, bias, invaluable for all of Walker's Walker's activities. activities. Watson, Douglas S. the Gold Rush--Sam S. "Herald "Herald of the Rush--Sam Brannan," Quarterly of the California Historical Society, X, X, Quarterly No. 298-301. No.33 (September, 1931), 298-301. A very good A good article on the publicity publicity of the discovery of gold in California. California. Wells, William William V. V. Explorations and Adventures in Honduras. Honduras. New York: York: Harper & & Brothers, Brothers, 1857. 1857. Describes the transit road and political condicondi­ tions in Nicaragua in early 1854. 1854. . Walker's Walker's Expedition Expedition to to Nicaragua; Nicaragua; A A History History of of the Central American War and the Sonora and Kinney the American War Expeditions. Expeditions. New York: York: Stringer and Townsend, Townsend, 1856. Wells accompanied Nicaragua when accompanied Byron Cole to Nicaragua colonization grant that Walker later he made the colonization A general account of Walker's actiacti­ acted upon. upon. A vities . vities. Whitman, Walt. Walt. The Complete Poetry and Prose of Walt Whitman. New New York: York: Pellegrini and Cudahy, 1948. 1948. Includes poem poem on "Passage to India." India." Williams, Anglo-American Isthmian Williams, Mary Wilhelmine. Wilhelmine. Anglo-American Diplomacy, 1815-1915. Washington: American 1815-1915. Washington: American Historical Association; London: London: Humphrey Humphrey Milford, Milford, 473 Oxford University Press, Press, 1916. 1916. The most authoritative and complete work available on the subject, with bibliographical bibliographical notes. notes. Wi1tsee, Wiltsee, Ernest A. A. Gold Rush Steamers of the Pacific. Pacific. San Francisco: Francisco: Grabhorn Press, Press, 1938. 1938. Wi1tsee Wiltsee has extracted most of his information information from the Alta California and reproduces the pertiperti­ nent articles in full. full. A A valuable source. source. Wright, Benjamin C. C. San Francisco's Ocean Trade, Trade, Past and Future. Future. San Francisco: Francisco: A. A. Carlisle & & Co., Co., 1911. 1911. Contains some specific data of value. value. WESTWARD VIA NICARAGUA: NICARAGUA: WESTWARD THE UNITED UNITED STATES AND THE NICARAGUA NICARAGUA ROUTE 1826-1869 by David Izatt Folkman, Jr. Jr. submitted to the faculty, faculty, Future research proposals submitted University of Utah, Utah, in partial fulfillment of the University requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Approved by the the faculty committee Approved by committee in Department Department of History May 1966 C. Gregory Crampton Chairman, Supervisory Supervisory Committee Committee Department Department of History University University of Utah 10, 1966 June 10, j . • FUTURE RESEARCH RESEARCH PROPOSALS 1. 1. , .. To investigate the reaction against President President Lincoln's 1862 proposal to colonize free negroes in Central America. America. The correspondence ministers in Central America America to correspondence of the ministers the Department a Department of State contains numerous references to a violent reaction to the project, particularly particularly in Nicaragua and Honduras. Honduras, 2. 2. To evaluate the extent of southern interest in creating a slave state in Central America during the middle half of the nineteenth nineteenth century. The accusations of Republican party fact. leaders appear to have little foundation in fact. The study acti­ would necessarily necessarily include an appraisal of confederate actiWar. vities on the the isthmus during the Civil War. 3. 3. To examine the the influence of the isthmian transit upon the political development development of Nicaragua and Costa Rica and their attitude toward a Central American American Confederation. Confederation. 4. 4. To evaluate the contribution of the transit operation to the economic development development of Nicaragua between 1852 and 1868. A A local journal reported reported great agricultural growth in the Department Department of Rivas during this period. period. s. 5. To write a booklength booklength summary summary of the development development of United States isthmian policy policy from 1826 to the present. present. I~ adequately treated in all of its This subject has never been adequately manifestations under one cover. cover. 6. 6. To set forth the contributions of President Pierce development of the Monroe Doctrine. Doctrine. toward the development My study indicates that Dexter Perkins overemphasizes the part properly indentify played by President President Polk and fails to properly A History of the contributions of the fifties in his work A the Monroe Monroe Doctrine. Doctrine. the 7. 7. Fayssoux Collection To use the Fayssoux Collection in the Middle American American Research Library for the the basis basis of an article on Nicaragua's first navy. navy. Fayssoux was the the captain of the filibuster Fayssoux filibuster ship Granada which endeavored endeavored to guard the port of San Juan Sur. del Sur. interesting phase of the His activities form an interesting filibuster war. war.