Optical and surface analysis of DNA microarrays to assess printed spot heterogeneity

DNA microarrays have been plagued with analytical problems with quantitation, metrics, figures of merit, and reliability and reproducibility issues, hindering their acceptance in clinical and diagnostic settings. The main deficiency in the printed DNA format is the microspot heterogeneity occurring during array fabrication and further amplified during target hybridization. Work described in this dissertation focuses on assessment of DNA microarray spots generated with conventional pin-type contact printing of fluorescently labeled DNA probes, on industry-standard commercial polymer-coated array slides and their hybridization with complementary oligomer DNA target. Printing of probe DNA microspots shares many features of commonly reported droplet evaporation dynamics that lead to different drying patterns and spot morphologies. This study directly identifies and analyzes different DNA probe chemical and spatial microenvironments within spots, analyzed with high-resolution time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) chemical imaging, confocal epifluorescence, and probe microscopy force imaging methods. Drying of DNA probe spots shows Marangoni flow effects with high densities of probe DNA-Cy3 located in spot centers and nonhomogeneous DNA distributed radially within printed spots with both TOF-SIMS imaging and epifluorescence microscopy. Target hybridization kinetics and duplex formation were assessed using real-time in situ confocal imaging, and confirmed radial hemispherical diffusion-mediated distribution of target capture from spot edge to its interior. Kinetic modeling indicates pseudo-first order kinetics due to transport limitations and local density-dependent probe interactions with diffusing target. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and photobleaching results show that the high- density probe overcrowding in spots facilitates a broad range of target binding interactions regardless of dye orientations. Moreover, lateral probe density heterogeneity observed with high-resolution imaging techniques confirmed with confocal microscopy produces equally iv heterogeneous target capture under normal assay conditions, showing how spot drying produces signal variability. These methods are the first to interrogate single printed array spots providing new support that microspot signal heterogeneity is not purely a result of target hybridization but is initially sourced during immobilization of probes with droplet printing techniques. This will guide new thinking on immobilized density influence on assay performance and how to approach assay endpoints, either kinetically or at equilibrium binding, by modifying spot molecular environments to reliably capture their signal.